ELECTRONICS

An applied branch of physics which deals with the emission of electrons and development of electrical
circuits using thermionic valves and semi-conductors and other devices in which motion of electrons is
controlled or regulated is said to be electronics.
SEMI-CONDUCTORS
The substances which are non-conductors at 0 K and become conductors as the temperature is increased
are said to be semi-conductors.
Examples Ge(Germanium), Si (Silicon), GaAs (Gallium Arsenide), GaP (Gallium Phosphide),
GaAsP (Gallium Arsenide Phosphide), InP (Indium Phosphide).
PROPERTIES OF SEMI-CONDUCTOR
1. The substances having resistivity7 between conductors and insulators say of the order of 10
-1
to
10
7
Ohm x metre.
2. The value of temperature coefficient of resistance is negative which means resistance decreases
with the increase of temperature.
3. If we add impurities in s.c. then their conductivity increases or they are converted to the
conductors.
4. The forbidden energy gap is of the order of 1 e v
ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF SEMI-CONDUCTORS
As we know that there are molecules and atom in any substance. In the atom central part of it is said to
be Nucleus. The nucleus is having total mass of the atom concentrated in it. The second part of the atom
is orbital electrons. The orbital electrons revolve around the nucleus in different orbits. The orbital
electrons are divided in two parts
1. Bound electrons They are bound with the nucleus, cannot leave the nucleus easily.
2. The free electrons or valence electrons The electrons of outer most orbit are said to be free
electrons, they are free to move in the atom as well as in the inter atomic, space. Conductivity of any
substance is due to free electrons.
CORE The nucleus and bound electrons of atom do not co-operate in the electric conduction
through the metals, so for this purpose we separate them by giving them name core separately.
Core = Nucleus + bound electrons
Hence, Atom = Core + Valence electrons
For example In Ge- Atomic number is 32 so 2+8+18=28 are bound electrons and four are free
electrons and thats why Ge atom is represented as
Ge
EXPLANATION OF BEHAVIOR OF SEMI-CONDUCTOR
At low temperature the semi-conductors are non-conductors and at high temperature they become
conductors. This particular behavior of s.c. is explained as
At low temperature atoms of s.c. are having covalent bonds in between them thats why free electrons of
them are made into bound electrons by bonding, hence in this condition of low temperature no
conductivity in s.c.
As the temperature of s.c. is increased which means that heat energy is given to the s.c. The heat energy
is received by atoms and then by its electrons. If any electron

which is made bounded by covalent bond
gets a particular amount of energy, it will be capable to break the covalent bond and will become free;
thus free electrons are produced in the s.c. by increasing the temperature. These free electrons will be
having random motion in the s.c. crystal and will be having collision with the other bound electrons.
Due to this random motion covalent bonds are broken by these electrons and other more free electrons
are produced. There will be an empty space left behind in covalent bond from where electron

has
become free. This empty space is said to HOLE OR COTTER.
HOLE When e
-
escapes from covalent bond the empty space left behind in the bond is said to be
hole or cotter.
Hole is an imaginary particle having charge equal to proton and thus we give the relation as
Bound electron Hole + free electron
Due to stealing action of atoms holes created will be having random motion. If we apply P.D. across the
semi-conductor crystal, free holes and free electrons will move towards the opposite electrodes hence
s.c. crystal becomes conductor.
SECOND METHOD TO EXPLAIN THE BEHAVIOUR OF S.C.
Energy Levels and Energy Bands in solids
1. When any two atoms are at a distance of 50 A they are treated as isolated atoms and no
interaction or no force of interaction in between them.
2. The maximum number of electrons in any level are determined by 2n
2
or say Paulis exclusion
principle.
Bound
3. Electrons in any atom are
Free / Valence
4. Most of solids including metals are in crystal form.
Crystal
The regular periodic arrangement of atoms separated by a very small distance in between is said
to be crystal.
Lattice Constant
The distance in between the atoms of any crystal is said to be Lattice Constant. It is different in
different crystals / solids and is of the order of A.
5. When atoms are so closed to each other will be having an interaction between the atoms (force
between nucleus nucleus, electron electron and electron nucleus) which results / causes
bonding between various atoms. The bonding leads the formation of crystal.
6. When atoms are close to each other their electrons are subjected to combined Electric Field of
two atoms. Due to this interaction each energy level splits in to two levels, one higher and one
lower to the level of isolated atom. This splitting is also according to Paulis exclusion principle.
7. The number of levels produced due to splitting is proportional to the number of atoms having
splitting. In this way there will be a group of closely spaced levels of any energy level of the
individual atom. There closely spaced levels are said to energy bands.
8. In any crystal number of atoms present are very large 10
22
to 10
23
per Cm
3
so each energy band
contains as many levels as the number of atoms present. Hence spacing between the levels with
in a band is very small of the order of 10
-22
e.v. therefore energy levels in a band can be assumed
to vary continuously.
9. In the process of interaction between the atoms because of coming closer, the electrons of outer
most orbits of all atoms will be affected first and the band corresponding to these orbits will be
having maximum width. The electrons of inner orbits of all atoms will be affected later and less
also, so the band corresponding to these orbits will be having small width. The details of splitting
and widths of various bands etc. are not same in all solids.
10. Valence energy band
Valence energy band formed due to valence energy level. As in the isolated atom the electrons
are filled from lower to higher energy levels similarly this process of filling electrons will take
place in energy bands also.
11. In the crystal also the electrons can be excited as -
(A) Change of level in a band (Intra band transition)
(B) Change of level from one band to other band (Inter band transition)
(C) The above changes are possible if higher energy level is empty, and the energy required
for the change between levels in same band is very small but the energy required for the
change one band to other band is equal to difference of energies of the bands or width of
the forbidden energy gap.
Conduction Band
1. The band is either empty or partially filled with electrons. The electrons are rarely found
in this band.
2. The electrons in this band contribute to electric current.
3. The electrons in this band are those electrons which are obtained due to breaking of
covalent bonds.
4. This is the band of minimum energy which is empty.
Forbidden Energy Band
This band is completely empty, no electron is found in this band.
(a) Energy levels of single isolated atom,
(b) Spliting of energy levels due to interaction of 2 atoms,
(c) N atoms (band formation in crystal structure)
On the basis of forbidden energy gap we classify conductors, s.c. and insulators as
Properties of Conductors, Semi-conductors and Insulators
S.No. Property Conductors Semi-conductors Insulators
1 Electrical conductivity and its
value
Very high
10
6
mho / meter to
10
8
mho / meter
Between
conductors and
insulators
10
1
mho/meter to
10
-7
mho / meter
Negligible
10
-12
mho / meter
to
10
-18
mho / meter
2 Resistivity and its value Negligible 10
-
6
Ohm X meter
Between
conductors and
insulators
10
-1
Ohm X meter
to
10
7
Ohm X meter
Very high
10
12
mho / meter
to
10
18
mho / meter
3 Band structure
4 Energy gap and its value Zero or very less Between
conductors and
insulators or
1.1 e.v. to .7 e.v.
In Ge 0.72 e.v.
Si 1.1 e.v.
Ga As 1.3 e.v.
Very large or
more than 5 e.v.
In diamond 7 e.v.
5 Current carriers and current
flow
Due to free
electrons and very
high
Due to free
electorons and
holes more than
that in insulators
Due to free
electrons but
negligible
6 Number of current carriers
(electrons or holes) at ordinary
temperature
Very high Very low Negligible
7 Condition of valence band and
conduction band at ordinary
temperature
The valence and
conduction bands
are completely
filled or
conduction band is
some what empty
(e.g. in Na)
Valence band in
somewhat empty
and conduction
band is somewhat
filled
Valence band is
completely filled
and conduction
band is completely
empty.
8 Behaviour at OK Behaves like a
superconductor.
Behaves like an
insulator
Behaves like an
insulator
9 Temperature coefficient of
resistance ()
Positive Negative Negative
10 Effects of temperature on
conductivity
Conductivity
decreases
Conductivity
increases
Conductivity
increases
11 On increasing temperature the
number of current carriers
Decreases Increases Increases
12 On mixing impurities their
resistance
Increases Decreases Remains
unchanged
13 Current flow in these takes
place
Easily Very slow Does not take
place
14 Examples Cu, Ag, Au, Na,
Pt, Hg, etc.
Ge, Si, GaAs, etc. Wood, plastic,
mica, diamond,
glass etc.
1. CONDUCTOR In the conductors forbidden energy gap is less and approaches to zero or less
than 0.75e v. In Cu, Ag forbidden energy gap is zero. In few cases where valence energy band is not
completely filled so that valence band works as conduction band. In conductors overlapping of
conduction band and valence band also takes place. As the free electrons are available in conduction
band so they are good conductor.
b. Forbidden energy gap is very less, so valence and conduction bands are very close.
c. In general conductors of heat are conductors of current.
d. Their conductivity at normal temperature is 10
6
to 10
8
mho / metre.
Their specific resistance is 10
-8
to 10
-6
ohm x metre.
e. Value of is positive because by increasing the temperature. The number of free electrons is
constant but their random motion increases, frequency of collision increases, so resistivity
increases.
e. The conduction in them is done by free electrons.
Example of conductors - Au, Ag, Cu, Al
2. INSULATORS Value of forbidden energy gap is higher in comparison to mean thermal energy.
0.25e v and the forbidden energy gap is more than 5e v.
1. Conduction bands are completely empty so electric conduction is negligible at normal
temperature.
2. Their conductivity is less (10
-7
to 10
-18
mho/m) and specific resistance is 10
7
to 10
18
ohmxm.
3. Non conductors of heat are generally non conductors of electricity.
4. is negative because by increasing the temperature to higher degree the electrons will go to
the conduction band and resistivity decreases, this state is known as break down state of
insulator.
Example of insulators Diamond, Wood, Plastic etc.
3. SEMI-CONDUCTORS Substances having specific resistance between 10
-1
to 10
7
ohm x m.
1. Forbidden energy gap is of the order of 1 eV.
2. is negative.
3. Ge, Si, GaAs, GaP, GaAsP, InP
TYPES OF SEMI-CONDUCTORS
1. INTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTORS OR PURE SEMI-CONDUCTORS The s.c. which are
converted to the conductors by increasing the temperature; at a particular temperature their will
be free electrons and holes in them. The increase in the number of electrons and holes is in the
exponential form of temperature. Electrons and holes both are carrier here.
Density of intrinsic charge carriers at any temperature T is given by
N
i
= A T
3/2
e
) 2 / ( KT E
g

Where, A = a constant
K = Boltz manns constant
Eg = Forbidden energy gap
If the number of free electrons and holes per unit volume are given by n
i
and p
i
then
n
i
=

p
i
n
i
x

p
i
= n
i
2
If we apply potential difference across the intrinsic s.c. at the higher temperature then the motion of
electrons and holes takes place. The velocity at the time is said to be drift velocity. This motion is
said to be drift motion. The drift velocity of electrons and holes is directly proportional to electric
field developed or drift velocity of electron

n
E

n
=
n
x E

similarly for holes
p

p
E

p
=
p
x E
Where
n
and
p
are said to be mobility of electrons and holes respectively. It is measured in
m
2
/Volt x Sec.
As the electrons and holes drift in opposite direction and current is made by both of them in a
direction. If J
n
is the current due to drift of electrons and J
p
is the current due to drift of holes then
total current in intrissic s.c. will be
J = J
n
+ J
p
CURRENT DENSITY = Current passing per unit area
= Number of charge carriers per unit area x charge x drift velocity
J
n
= n x e x (-
n
)
= n x e x
n
= n x e x
n
x E
Similarly for holes

J
p
= p x ex
p
= px e x
p
x E
so J = n e
n
x E + n e
p
x E
= n x E x e (
n
+
p
)
ELECTRIC CONDUCTIVITY OF THE SEMICONDUCTOR
) P e(n
E
J
p n
+

m
mho
(Resistivity)
) p (
1 1
p
+

n
n e
e
ohm-m
Operation temperature of Ge is 85
0
C, For silicon is 180
0
C
n

for Ge is 0.39 and p

for Ge is 0.19
at 300 K n = p = n
i
=

2.4 x 10
19
Resistivity of Ge at 300 K is 0.6 ohm m
For Si -
13 . 0
n

,
048 . 0
p

,
At 300K n = p = n
i
= 1.5 x 10
16
Resistivity of Si is 1.5 X 10
3
ohm m
2. EXTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTOR OR IMPURITY SEMI-CONDUCTOR
As the conductivity of insintric s.c. is less so s.c. are converted into conductors by adding impurity in
them, then the crystal forms is said to be impurity s.c. or extrinsic s.c. The impurity is added in a very
poor ratio the ratio of impurity atoms and insintric s.c. atoms is 1:10
6
to 1:10
10
.
The s.c. can be converted into conductor by adding impurities in any two ways
N-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR
If the impurity added in s.c. is having valency more by 1 to the valency of s.c. then the crystal formed is
said to be N-type s.c. crystal. For example If we add pentavalent impurity (P, AS, Sb)in the very poor
ratio in Ge them the crystal formed is said to be N-type Ge crystal.
In this way each atom of impurity added will be having four covalent bonds with four electrons of four
Ge atoms or four valence electrons out of five valence electrons of an impurity atom will be having four
covalent bonds with four electrons of four Ge atoms. Thus one electron of an impurity atom will become
free. Thus their will be free electrons in crystal due to impurity added.
If we apply electric potential difference across this crystal it will be conductor and carriers will be
negatively charged particle electrons thats why it is said to be N-type s.c. crystal. The impurity added is
said to be Donar impurity and this process is said to be dopping.
These free electrons produced in the crystal due to impurity added will produce electrons and holes in
the crystal and electrons will be the major charge carriers in it. The Valence energy level of the impurity
will be in the forbidden energy gap of s.c. but close to the conduction band.
P-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTOR
If we add impurity in s.c. so that valency of the impurity is less by one to the valency of s.c. then the
crystal formed is so to be P-type s.c. crystal.
For example If we add trivalent (Al, In, TL) in very poor ratio in Ge, the crystal formed is said to be P-
type Ge crystal.
Explanation All the three valence electrons of an impurity atom will form three covalent bonds with 3
electrons of 3 Ge atoms and there will be a deficiency of one electron with an impurity atom to form the
4
th
covalent bond, the deficiency of one electron with one impurity atom will give one free hole so there
will be free holes in this crystal due to impurity added. Due to the stealing action of atoms these free
holes will be having random motion.
If we apply potential difference across this crystal it will be conductor and carriers are positively
charged particles thats why it is said to be P-type s.c. crystal. The impurity is said to be acceptor
impurity. The valence energy level of the impurity added is in the forbidden energy gap of s.c. but close
to the valence energy bands.
Note :- Number of electron in the N-type will be equal to number of Donar atoms or impurity atoms per
unit volume. So electric conductivity .
= J/E = e x N
D
x
n
Where N
D
= number of Donar atoms per unit volume.
As holes are very less in the N-type.
Similarly conductivity in the P-type s.c. = e x N
A
x
p
Where N
A
is the number of acceptor impurity atom per unit volume.
As electrons are very less in P-type s.c.
P-N-JUNCTION If a P type s.c. crystal and N-type s.c. crystal are fused together to form a
junction then device formed is said to be P-N Junction.
METHOD OF FORMATION OF P-N-JUNCTION
For the formation of P-N-Junction diffusion method is used. We take a N-type s.c. crystal or wafer
and on which a layer of element of the 3
rd
group like Al, In, B is made similarly in the P-type wafer or
crystal, a layer of element of 5
th
group pentavalent impurity like (P, AS, Sb) is made. If we heat the
crystal then the impurity will be diffused in the crystal the diffusion will be on the upper level of the
wafer and its density will be less towards the depth, so lower part of the wafer remains as it was but the
upper part becomes other type of impurity s.c. Thus P-N or N-P s.c. crystal is formed.
WORKING OF THE P-N FUNCTION
1. As we know that there is excess of free holes in P type and excess of electrons in N-type which
creates a difference of density of charged particles in crystal. To have the uniform density of
charged particles in the crystal the holes of P type and the electrons of N type will pass through
function wall and will go to N and P type crystal respectively.
2. The particles which have passed through junction wall will get nearly neutralized in the crystal in
which they have reached. But the ionized atom attached to them cannot pass through junction
wall because of their larger size. Hence they will be collected at the junction wall.
3. The electrons and holes, which have come to the P type and N type crystals after passing the
junction wall, will get neutralized close to the junction wall. The part of the P-N junction close
to the junction wall, will be affected by this process of diffusion and the number of charge
carriers in this part will reduce to minimum. This part is said to be depletion region or layer.
DEPLETION REGION A part of P type and N type crystals close to the junction wall in which
number of charge carriers reduces to zero is said to be depletion region.
4. As there is a collection of positively charged atoms in N type close to the junction wall similarly
there is collection of negatively charged atoms in the P type crystal close to the wall. That gives
a potential difference across the junction. This potential difference is said to be contact potential
difference and shown by equivalent battery.
5. This contact potential difference will check the flow of electrons and holes because of the
polarity as the force applied on electron holes due to density gradient is balanced by this electric
field then flow will be checked completely; thus depletion region produces a potential barrier.
This potential barrier will depend on the thickness of the depletion region and concentration of
impurity. If contact potential difference developed is V
B
and d is thickness of depletion region
then the electric field developed E
B
.
E
B
= V
B
/d
This is of the order of .5 Volt when d is of the order 10
-6
m.
We can show the variation of electric potential with the distance as
In this way we conclude that as the P-N junction is formed there is flow of electrons and holes through
the wall of junction for a time but afterwards contact potential difference is developed and the junction
becomes non-conductor again.
APPLICATION OF EXTERNAL POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE TO THE P-N
JUNCTION OR BAISING TO THE P-N JUNCTION We can apply the potential
difference to P-N Junction in following two ways
1. FORWARD BAISING When P type of the junction is connected to positive of the
battery and N type is connected to negative of the battery it is said to be forward biasing.
2. REVERSE BIASING When P type of the junction connected to negative of the battery
and N type is connected to positive of the battery. It is said to be reverse biasing.
EXPLANATION OF BIASING TO THE P-N JUNCTION
1. As we apply the forward biasing to the P-N junction - The charge carriers present in
the P type and N type crystals will feel a force of repulsion and they will move toward the junction
wall. If the potential difference applied is particular, the electrons and holes will overcome the
potential barrier of the junction and electrons and holes will pass through the junction wall. Current
will be formed, more the potential difference applied more the current in the circuit and junction
behaves like a good conductor. Its resistance is less, of the order of 100 . The following relation
gives the value of current in the function
I = I
0
(e
qV/KT

- 1)
Where q = Charge of electron
V = Potential Difference across the junction
K = Boltzs mans constant
T = Absolute temperature of the junction
The above relation is also known as Voltage ampere relation on P-N junction biasing then value of
e
qV/KT
will be much higher than one; so value of current in forward biasing is giving by
I = I
0
e
qV/KT
2. Thus current in the biasing is exponential form of voltage applied.
3. Value of depletion region will reduce in forward biasing.
4. As we apply the reverse biasing to the P-N junction - The electrons and holes of the crystals will
be attracted toward the opposite end of junction wall in their crystals. So major charge carries will not be
passing through junction wall and the minor charge carriers will be passing through the junction wall so
value of current will be very less. Due to the thermal energy there will be some holes in the N-type and
some electrons in the P-type crystal, which are said to be minority charge carriers. These charge carriers
will be carrying current in the reverse biasing but value of current will be very less. Thus junction will
be like a non-conductor its resistance will be 10
6
the depletion region will increase.
5. Thus P-N junction behaves like a conductor in forward biasing and it works like a non-conductor in
reverse biasing. Value of current in reverse biasing will be given as
As the potential applied in negative so value of
e

qV/KT
will be very less in comparison to one. Hence I
= -I
0,
the current remains nearly constant.
6. We can show a graph between the current and potential applied to P-N junction. This curve is known
as characteristic curve of P-N junction.
By the curve we can conclude as
1. P-N junction is a non-linear and unidirectional device does not obey ohms law completely.
2. The resistance of junction in forward biasing is said to be Dynamic Forward Resistance (R
f
) or
Dynamic Resistance.
R
f
= Change in the forward biased potential applied / Change in the forward current
R
f
= V
f
/ I
f
Its value is less.
3. The Value of resistance in reverse biasing the junction is said to be Dynamic Reverse Resistance
(R
r
) or Dynamic Resistance.
R
r
= V
r
/ I
r
Its value is higher.
4. Static Resistance of the Junction
R = V/I
DENOTATION / REPRESENTATION OF P-N JUNCTION
As P-N junction is a one dimensional device so it is also known as P-N Diode.
DIODE
A device having two electrodes and working in a direction is said to be Diode. Basically there was a
device working on the principle of thermionic emission and working in a direction was known as a
diode. The P-N junction is the replacement of the Diode.
USES OF THE P-N JUNCTION DIODE
1. As a rectifier
2. As a detector
3. As a Switch
RECTIFICATION
To change or convert A.C. into D.C. is said to be rectification and the device used is said to be rectifier.
USE FO P-N JUNCTION AS AN RECTIFIER
HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION
1. There is an A.C. source S connected to the primary coil PQ of the transformer. Secondary coil
of transformer P
1
Q
1
is connected to a P-N junction diode D and a load resistance R
L
as shown
in the circuit diagram.
2. As current passes in primary coil there will be an induced e.m.f. in secondary coil due to mutual
induction.
3. At any time when P
1
end of secondary coil is positive and Q
1
end of the secondary coil is
negative then P-N junction connected to secondary coil will be forward biased and will be
working. We will be getting current in resistance R
L
and direction of current will be X to Y.
4. After half of the cycle or say after T/2 time the P
1
end of secondary coil will become negative
and Q
1
end will be positive. So diode connected to secondary coil will be reversed biased and
will not be working so, no current in the resistance R
L
.
5. Again after a time of T/2, P
1
end will be positive and diode will be forward biased hence will be
working there will be a current in resistance R
L
.
Thus we get current for half of the cycle and do not get current for remaining of half of the cycle;
as shown in the graph.
The phenomenon is said to be Half Wave Rectification.
GRAPH BETWEEN CURRENT AND THE TIME
In this way current received is not regular and its value also changes with the time. This output of
current or voltage may be treated as mix of A.C. and D.C. and value is said to be pulsating.
NOTE :- The frequency of output voltage or output current is equal to frequency of input voltage or
current.
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
1. Consider any A.C. source S connected to Primary coil PQ of the transformer. The secondary
coil of transformer P
1
Q
1
is connected to two P-N junctions D
1
and D
2
and a load resistance R
L
as
shown in figure.
2. As A.C. passes in Primary coil there will be an induced current in secondary coil due to mutual
induction when P
1
end of secondary coil is positive and Q
1
end is negative, the diode D
1
will be
forward biased and will be working but at the same time D
2
diode is reverse biased and will not
be working. There will be current in load resistance from X to Y due to D
1
diode.
3. After half of the cycle P
1
end will be negative and Q
1
end will be positive so D
1
will be R.B. and
D
2
will be F.B., so current will be due to D
2
and it will be again X to Y.
Thus we will be getting current in load resistance for half of the cycle due to D
1
and remaining
half of the cycle due to D
2
. This process is said to be Full Wave Rectifier.
The value of current changes from 0 to maximum and maximum to 0. So neither A.C. nor D.C.,
a superimposition effect of A.C. and D.C. is there.
We can show the graph of the full wave rectifier as
NOTE :- In this case the frequency of output current is double to the frequency of input current or
voltage.
Bridge Rectifier
1. Due to the mutual induction their will be an induced e.m.f. in secondary coil of transformer. When P
1
end of the secondary coil of the transformer is positive or say Q
1
is negative D1 and D3 junctions will
be F.B. and will work their will be current in the resistance R from X to Y.
2. After half of the cycle when Q
1
end of the secondary coil is positive and P
1
end is negative then D
2

and D
4
junctions will be F.B. and will work so current in the resistance are will be again from X to Y.
3. Thus current passing in resistance R will be always from X to Y say current will be direct current
hence rectification is made by bridge rectifier.
FILTER CIRCUIT - As the output of the current received in full wave rectifier is not having
constant value., it changes with the time. The part which has changed is current has become
unidirectional. If we want to have unidirectional current with the constant value or say D.C. we have to
use filter circuit. A smoothing filter circuit is given below
REVERSE BREAK DOWN
When P N junction is applied reverse biased voltage the value of current is very less but as the reverse
biased voltage is made high then current through junction increase a lot very rapidly. This voltage at
which this happens is said to be break down voltage or Zener voltage. There are two mechanism which
causes this break down; one is known as zener break down and other is known Avalanche break down.
ZENER BREAK DOWN
When the reverse biased voltage is increased electric field at the junction increase at a particular stage
the electric field become so high that it breaks the covalent bonds of the atom and produces electrons
and holes. Thus a large number of charge carriers are generated due to particular reversed biased
voltage. This large number of charge carriers causes large current to flow and the mechanism is known
as Zener Break Down.
AVALANCHE BREAK DOWN
As the reverse biased voltage applied to the junction increases it develops a high electric field in the
junction. The minority charge carriers will be getting very high velocity when they passes through the
junction. As those charge carriers will be having collision with the atom present and will break the
covalent bonds of them, thus free electrons and holes are produced. A chain reaction is established
which will give rise to a high current. This mechanism is called Avalanche Break Down.
There are several types of P N diodes maine
1. Signal diode
2. Power diode
3. Zener diode
4. Photo diode
5. Solar diode or solar cells
6. Light emitting diode [L.E.D.]
DIFFERENT TYPES OF P-N DIODES
1. PHOTO DIODE
a. The conductivity of semi conductor is increased by electromagnetic radiations, this
property is said to be photo conductivity.
b. A photo diode is a P-N junction made from photosensitive semi conductor materials and
a layer of P type or N type of P-N diode is made very thin and transparent.
c. The diode is R.B. and voltage applied is less than break down voltage. When light of
suitable frequency is allowed to come on diode then more electrons from valence bands
move to conduction bands. The electrons will go to conduction bands when energy of
incident photon is more than forbidden energy gap.
d. If the intensity of incident light is increased the current will increase and will be
maximum say saturated current.
USES -
i light detection
ii. light operated switches
iii. sound films
iv. computers and in reading computer cards
v. Tapes

2. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE ( L E D)
1. The diode works on the principle of production of light from electric current.
2 The diode is made Ga As, Ga P, Ga As P semi conductor when voltage applied to the
diode is F.B. The major charge carriers of crystals say electrons and holes will pass
through the junction wall and will be having combination with each other. The energy
with them is released at the junction which is emitted in the form of light.
3 When the light emitted is having wave length in visible range(4000 A - 7000 A) then we
observe this light, so diode is said to semi conductor Light Emitting Diode.
SYMBOLICAL REPRESENTATION
USES
1. Digital watch
2. Burglar Alarm
3. Calculator
4. Pilot lamp
5. Telephone
6. Switch boards
2. ZENER DIODE
1. The diode works in R.B. of P-N junctions at break down voltage. The value of potential
difference across P-N junction remains constant but value of current increases.
2. The value of break down voltage of P-N junction depends on the amount of impurity added. So
value of break down voltage may be changed to any particular value due to impurity added and
the junction will work at any specific potential difference.
3. Thus zener diode is a diode which will work at any particular break down voltage without any
damage of P-N junction.
4. This diode is used for voltage stabilization or voltage regulation because potential difference
applied remains constant and current increases.
5. The diode is connected to a fluctuating direct current through a particular resistance R and out
put is taken across a load resistance parallel to zener diode.
6. When the value of fluctuating direct current increases beyond a limit, the current in the diode
rises sharply and their will be an increase in voltage dropped across R and voltage across diode
or say voltage across load resistance R
L
will be normal. Thus we get a stabilized voltage due to
zener diode.
7. Uses
4. SOLAR CELL
a. When photo diode is used to change the light energy in to electrical energy then the
device is said to be photo voltaic cell.
b. Solar cell are based on the principle to change solar energy into electrical energy or
say on the process of photo electric effect.
c. The solar cells are made by silicon generally. One region of diode is made very thin
so that light coming is absorbed by the crystal and light reaches to junction. The thin
region is called emitter and other region is called base.
d. Potential difference is not applied to solar cell and 0.6 volt is developed across a cell
and we can receive the required potential difference by combining the cells.
e. Uses
i. In charging storage batteries in day time and used in night.
ii. In satellites
iii. Generating electrical energy in cooking food.
TRANSISTORS
If two P N junction are combined back to back the device formed is said to be transistor. Transistors
are of two types
1. N-P-N TRANSISTOR
When a thin P type crystal is sandwiched between two N type crystals then junction formed is N-
P-N transistor.
2. P-N-P TRANSISTOR -
When a thin N type crystal is sandwiched between two P type crystals then junction formed is P-
N-P transistor. Transistor is the name given on the basis of fundamental process - Transfer Resistor.
This is also known as bi-polar junction transistor.
The junction between emitter & base is said to be Emitter Bass junction and the junction between
base and collector is said to be Base Collector Junction. There are three connecting leads in the
transistor. The middle one is said to be base and there is a dot of red colour with collector and third
one is Emitter. The gap between collector base leads is more than the gap between base emitter
leads.
OPERATION OF N-P-N TRANSISTOR
1. To use the transistor emitter-base junction must be F.B. and base-collector junction must be R.B.
2. Due to potential applied to emitter major charge carrier of its say electron will feel a repulsive
force and will more toward the emitter-base junction wall. Similarly major charge carrier of base
will move toward emitter.
3. As the major charge carriers of emitter say electron will reach to the B crystal and holes base
crystal will move toward to the emitter, there will be a current in the emitter. The electron which
has reached to the B junction from the emitter will neutralized there 2-5% part of them with the
holes present in the B region.
4. The remaining part of the electrons after neutralization will feel a force of attraction because of
the R.B. applied.
Thus the electrons started from emitter will reach to the C. Thus there will be a current in the
N-P-N transistor from collector to emitter.
CONCLUSIONS ABOUT THE N-P-N TRANSISTOR
1. EMITTER-BASE junction must be F.B. and base-collector junction must be R.B.
2. Major charge carriers in N-P-N transistor are electrons and direction of current is collector to
emitter.
3. If I
E
is the current of emitter, I
B
is the current in base and I
C
is current in collector then
I
E
= I
B
+ I
C
Because, the electrons started from emitter will neutralize their 2% - 5% part in base and
remaining will be reaching to the collector.
4. Collector current is a part of emitter current so any change in the emitter current I
E
will cause the
corresponding charge in collector current I
C
. I
C
< I
E
5. Current in the base crystal is less.
6. Potential applied to emitter-base junction is low whereas potential applied to BASE-collector
junction is higher.
7. The ratio of collector current and emitter current is said to be current gain.
Gain = I
C
/ I
E

OPERATION OF P-N-P TRANSISTOR
1. EMITTER-BASE junction must be F.B. and base-collector junction must be R.B.
2. Due to potential applied to the emitter the major charge carrier of emitter say holes will feel a
repulsive force and will go towards the emitter-base junction.
3. Similarly major charge carriers of the base say electrons will also move towards the emitter. As
the major charge carriers of emitter say holes will reach to the base then 2% -5% of them will be
neutralized there and remaining will be attracted toward collector due to potential applied to
collector.
Thus the charge carriers which has come to the base from emitter will reach to the collector
junction and there will be a current from emitter to collector.
CONCLUSIONS OF OPERATION OF P-N-P TRANSISTOR
1. Emitter-base junction must be F.B. and base-collector junction must be reversed biased.
2. In P-N-P transistor the major charge carrier are holes and direction of current is from emitter to
collector.
3. Collector current is a part of emitter current, so any change in the emitter current will cause the
corresponding change in collector current.
4. Current in base crystal is less.
5. Potential applied to emitter-base junction is very low and potential applied to base-collector
junction is relatively higher.
6. Sum of collector current I
C
& base current I
B
will be equal to emitter current I
E
or
I
E
= I
C
+ I
B
7. The current gain is equal to the ratio of change in collector current to the change in emitter
current. Current gain =
E
C
I
I

SYMBOLICAL REPRESENTATION OF TRANSISTOR

USE OF TRANSISTOR
1. To connect a device in the input and output, we need four terminals but as transistor is having
three terminals so one terminal is to be taken as common. So transistor can be connected in the
circuits in three following ways
(a) COMMON EMITTER
(b) COMMON BASE
(c) COMMON COLLECTOR
In every case emitter-base junction - F.B. and base-collector junction - R.B.
CHARACTERISTICS CURVE OF TRANSISTOR
If we plot the curves in input current and output current and potential applied then we can see the
importance of use of particular type of combination. These curves are said to be characteristics curves.
These curves are received in all three above conditions. But common base, common emitter are
important.
The characteristics curve can be divided in two parts
1. INPUT CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
This is the graph between input voltage and input current when output potential is made constant.
2. OUTPUT CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
This is the graph between output voltage and output current when input current is constant.
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE FOR COMMON BASE
To study the characteristic curve of N-P-N transistor when it is connected to circuit as common base.
The potential applied to emitter and potential applied to collector is measured relative to base. If we
assume that potential applied to emitter-base junction is V
EB
and potential applied base-collector
junction are V
BC
. Let the current in the emitter& collector are I
E
and I
C
respectively.
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTIC CURVE FOR COMMON BASE
This is the graph between collector current I
C
and potential applied to base collector junction V
BC
when
I
E
is constant.
Collector current is a function of emitter current I
E
and potential applied to base collector junction v
BC
.
I
C
= f (V
BC
, I
E
)
1. At any constant emitter current if the potential difference across base-collector junction is
increased, the value of collector current I
C
increases rapidly in the beginning and afterwards I
C
becomes nearly constant. The constant collector current is said to be saturated collector current.
2. The value of saturated collector current will be nearly equal to emitter current but cannot be
greater than emitter current in any case.
3. If the value of emitter current increases then the value of collector current increases.
4. The current gained or current amplification factor is calculated by the graph as
Static current amputation factor or D.C. current gained
D.C.

D.C.
= I
C
/ I
E
When V
BC
is constant.
Dynamic current amplification factor or A.C. current gain
A.C.

A.C.
= I
C
/ I
E
When V
BC
is constant.
Value of
A.C.
and
D.C.
less than one but very close to one say between 0.95 to 0.99.
5. As the value of is not greater than one so we cannot increase or amplify the current by
common base transistor.
6. Output resistance will be calculated as Dynamic output resistance R
0
R
0
= V
BC
/ I
C
When I
E
is constant. Value of R
0
is very high of the order of mega ohm.
Conductance Reciprocal of Resistance
G
m
= 1 / R
0
= I
C
/ V
BC
Value of conductance will be less.
INPUT CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF COMMON BASE
This is the curve between emitter current and emitter base potential when base collector junctions
potential is made constant; we get the graph as
By the graph we can find following points
1. At any constant V
BC
as the value of emitter-base potential is increased then value of I
E
increase.
2. The value of emitter-base voltage when value of emitter current is very less and called as cut in
voltage or threshold voltage.
It is nearly .1V for Ge transistor and .5 V for Si transistor.
3. Value of I
E
does not depend on base collector voltage.
4. Input resistance is calculated as - R
I

R
I
= V
EB
/ I
E
When V
BC
is constant.
Value of R
I
is of the order of 100 ohm.
COMMON EMITTER CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
To have the common emitter characteristic curve the N-P-N transistor is connected in circuit as
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
This is the graph between I
C
& V
EC
and I
B
is constant.
We can conclude following points by the graph
1. When I
B
is constant the value of I
C
increase with the increase of V
EC
.
2. Value of I
C
increase with the increase of I
B
at any constant V
EC
.
3. Mutual current amplification factor will be calculated as
Static current amplification factor or D.C. current gain or B
DC

B
DC
= I
C
/ I
B
When V
EC
is constant
Dynamic current amplification factor or A.C. current gain or B
AC
.
B
AC
= I
C
/ I
B
When V
EC
is constant
4. Value of B will be always greater than one, thats why this method of connecting transistor in a
circuit can be used as an current amplifier.
5. The output resistance will be calculated as
R
0
= V
EC
/ I
C
When I
B
is constant.
INPUT CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF COMMON EMITTER
This is the graph between I
B
& V
EB
when V
EC
is constant.
We can conclude following points by graph as
1. Value of I
B
increase by increasing V
EB
.
2. Value of I
B
does not depend of V
EC
.
3. Value of input resistance or dynamic input resistance is calculated as -
R
I
= V
EB
/ I
B
When V
EC
is constant.
RELATION BETWEEN AND
For the transistor, we can write

C B E
I I I +
Equation is divided by Ic

1 +
C
B
C
E
I
I
I
I

1
1 1
+
DC DC

...................................(1)
=
C D
C D
.
. .
1

+

C D
C D
DC
.
. .
1

From (1)
1
1 1
. .

C D C D

=
C D
C D
.
. .
1

. .
. .
.
1
C D
C D
C D

As the value of
DC
is nearly on and the value of
DC
is higher.
For example
DC
0.98 &
DC
= 49

FOR DYNAMIC RELATION
I
E
= I
B
+

I
C
Divided by

I
C

1
I
I
I
I
C
B
C
E
+

1
1 1
. .
+
C A C A


. . .
. .
. .
1
C A
C A
C A

Similarly
AC
AC
C A

1
. .
For general value

1
1. Value of & does not depend upon current.
2. Value of is more than .
AMPLIFICATION
To increase the amplitude of signals applied is said to be amplifications. In the transistors we can
increase the amplitude of the electrical signal, current signals, voltage signal and power signals.
The amplification factor is calculated by the ratio of amplitude of the output and amplitude of input
signals.
USE OF TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER
As we know that transistor when, connected to the circuit as common base or common emitter can be
used as an amplifier.
Here we take the case of common emitter transistor as an amplifier. The transistor is N-P-N transistor.
To use the N-P-N transistor as an amplifier when connected as common emitter in the circuit. The
signals to be amplified are applied across emitter-base junction and emitter-base junction is made F.B.
with the help of source. We connect a load resistance in the E-C junction across which output signals are
received. In this circuit the collector current is effected by base current but emitter current is having no
influence on it.
As the value of emitter base F.B. voltage applied changes due to the input signals the corresponding
change will occur in collector current. So the potential difference received across the load resistance
changes and phase difference in input and output will be .
If we consider that resistance of input circuit is R
I
and resistance of output circuit say resistance of load
is R
L
then we can calculate different gain as
1. VOLTAGE GAIN
Voltage Gain (A
V
) = Output voltage / Input voltage
=
I
O
V
V
Now ; V
O
= I
C
x R
L
= I

C
x R
L
VI = I
B
x R
I
= I

B
x R
I
A
V
=
I
B
'
L
C
'
xR I
xR I

I
L
R
R
Bx
I
L
R
R
is also known as Resistance Gain.
So voltage gain = Current gain x Resistance gain.
2. POWER GAIN
A
P
= Output power / Input power
=
I
O
P
P
As P = V x I
So; P
O
= V
O
x I
C
= I
C
x R
L
x I
C
= I
C
2
R
L

Similarly P
I
= V
I
x V
B
= R
I
x I
B
x I
B
= I
B
2
R
I

I
2
B
L
2
C
P
R I
R I
A
I
L 2
P
R
R
x B A
B I
C O
P
xI V
xI V
A
A
P
= A
V
x B
In the common emitter current voltage and power all the three are largely magnified.
COMMON BASE AMPLIFIER
We can use the transistor as an amplifier when used in the circuit as common base. In signals are applied
across emitter-base junction and output signals are received across the load resistance connected
between base-collector junction.
Due to the input signals the emitter-base junction voltage changes and corresponding change is collector
current. In input resistance is less and load resistance applied as higher. As the C- current passed through
load resistance we get voltage amplified signals. Here input voltage and output voltage are in a phase.
VOLTAGE GAIN
I
o
v
V
V
A

I E
L C
xR I
xR I

=
I
L
R
R
x
Voltage Gain = Current gain x Resistance gain
Similarly power gain
A
P
=
2
x
I
L
R
R
A
P
= A
V
x
In the common base the value of A
V
and A
P
are less because is less then .
USE OF TRANSISTOR AS AN OSCILLATOR
1. The circuit which can produce alternating current signals or voltage signals of adjustable
frequency without any input signals is said to be Oscillator. Oscillator is a source of
alternating signal which is used as an important tool in radio, T.V., and communication
system.
2. Mainly Oscillators are of two types
(i) Audio frequency Oscillator (5 Hz to 20 K.Hz.)
(ii) Radio frequency Oscillator (10 K.Hz to 10 M.Hz.)
3. The frequency of signals produced by oscillator depends on the components used in the
circuit say (R-C), (L-C), (L-R) etc.
4. Simplest form of oscillatory circuit is L-C circuit in which an induction coil and a
capacitor are connected in parallel. This circuit is also known as Tank Circuit.
5. (A) There will be a current in the circuit due to charged capacitor. As the current passes
in the induction coil, there will be a magnetic field around coil. Thus electric energy of
capacitor charges to magnetic energy of coil and capacitor discharges, completely.
(B) As the magnetic flux linked with the coil changes then induced e.m.f. is produced
across it and the capacitor connected will be charged oppositely. As the capacitor is
charged completely the value of electric current will be zero for a instant. Thus magnetic
energy changes in to electric energy.
(C) There will be current again in the circuit due to capacitor, having direction opposite
to the previous direction. The capacitor will be discharged again and electric energy is
changed to the magnetic energy.
(D) Due to induced e.m.f. across the coil, will the capacitor will be charged opposite in
direction. As the capacitor in charged completely the value of current will be zero for a
instant. The magnetic energy is changed to electric energy.
6. There is a current in the circuit due to capacitor and there will be change of electric
energy in to magnetic energy.
Thus electric energy is changed to magnetic energy and magnetic energy is changed to
electric energy and there will be alternating oscillatory current. The frequency of current
will be
LC 2
1
n
.
7. In the circuit the connecting wires are having resistance. So a part of energy is changed in
to heat, thus amplitude of current will be reducing.
8. In practical use we need oscillating current having constant value / amplitude so we have
to compensate the loss of energy due to resistance. To compensate the loss we use
amplifier and this process is said to be feed back process.
Working
1. As key K is closed then there will be current in L
1
and M.F. is produced so there will be a flux
linked with L. As there is a charge in flux linked with L there will be an induced e.m.f. across it.
The e.m.f. will favour Veb and I
c
will increase so M.F. by L
1
will increase. So
dt
d
in L will
increase and induced e.m.f. will increase. Thus I
c
will be maximum and upper plate of C will be
positively charged.
2. As the value of I
c
becomes maximum the M.F. produced by L
1
will be constant so
dt
d
in L
will be zero so support (favour) to Veb will reduce to zero.
3. Now the capacitor will discharge through L and there will be current in it and induced e.m.f.
across it will be opposite to Veb so I
c
will reduce. As I
c
will reduce M.F. by L
1
will be reducing
and
dt
d
in L will be increasing and induced e.m.f. will increase. Due to the induced e.m.f.
opposition of Veb will increase and I
c
will reduce and lastly it will be zero. The capacitor will be
charged having lower plate positively charged.
4. Now again capacitor will discharge through L and induced e.m.f. across L will be there which
will support Veb so I
c
will increase and will be maximum. Capacitor will be charged having
upper plate positive. Thus value of I
c
will be maximum to minimum and minimum to maximum.
MATHEMATICAL TREATMENT OF HALF WAVE RECLY
N

Let the resistance of P-N diode in forward biasing is R
f
and resistance of the secondary coil of
transformer is R
s
then the total resistance inside will be R
R = R
f
+ R
s
Let the load resistance is R
L
than total resistance of the circuit R
T

R
T
= R +

R
L
Let the A.C. Voltage applied to the primary coil of the transformer say input voltage applied is V
I
V
I
= E
p
Sin wt
Let the induced e.m.f.across the s.c. is given by V
s
where
V
s
= n x E
p
Sin wt
Where
p
s
N
N
n
Here n x E
p
= E
m
V
s
= E
m
Sin wt
Now current in the load resistance

T
S
R
V
I
E
m
Sin wt
I =
R
L
+ R

R R
E
I
L
m
m
+

I = I
m
Sin wt
When time t is between 0 and T/2 say in 1
st
hay of the cycle the value of current I
I = I
m
Sin wt
But when t is between T/2 and T
I = 0
Mean value of pulsating current will be I
DC

I
DC
=
T
dt Sinwt
T

2 /
0
I
DC
=
T
Im
dt SinWt
T

2 /
0
I
DC
=
2 /
0
Im
T
w
COSwt
T
1
]
1

I
DC
=
2 /
0
2 Im
T
t
T
COS
Tw
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
]
1

) 0 (
2
2 Im
I
D.C.
COS
T
T
COS
Tw

I
DC
=
[ ] 0
Im
COS COS
Tw
+
I
Tw
DC
Im
2
I

Im
2
Im 2

T
T
DC
I

Im

DC
Mean value of output voltage E
DC

E
L DC DC
R I

L
R

Im

=
L
L
m
R
R R
E
) ( +
) (
L
L m
DC
R R
R E
E
+

R.M.S. Value of Current:-

I=Im sin wt
wt Sin I I
2 2
m
2

2
I

T
dt wt Sin I
T
m

2 /
0
2 2

2
I
= dt wt Sin
T
T

2 /
0
2
2
Im

2
I
= dt wt Sin
T
T

2 /
0
2
2
2
2
Im
2
I
= dt wt
T
T

2 /
0
2
) 2 cos 1 (
2
Im
2
I
=
1
1
]
1

1
]
1

2 /
0
2 /
0
2
2
2
] [
2
Im
T
T
w
wt Sin
t
T
2
I
=
1
]
1

1
]
1

0
2
2 . 2
2
1
2 2
Im
2
Sin
T
T
Sin
w
T
T

2
I
=
( )
1
]
1

0 0
2
1
2 2
Im
2
w
T
T
2
I
=
4
Im
2
2
Im
2
I
2
Im

rms
I
) ( 2
L
rms
R R
Em
I
+

Similarly E
rms
=I
rms

R
L

E
rms =
( )
L
L
R R
R Em
+

2
Efficiency of Half Wave Rectifier
100
Power Input
Power Output

=
100
P
P
AC
DC

L
2
DC DC
R I P
=
L
2
2
m
R

) R (R I P
L
2
rms AC
+
= ) R (R
4
I
L
2
m
+
100
) (
4
2

+

L
L
R R
R

L
R
R
+

1
6 . 40
%

) 1 (
6 . 40
L
f S
R
R R +
+

%
The maximum value of will be when R
L
= and
maximum
=
) 0 1 (
6 . 40
+
= 40.6 %
Thus value of n increase with increase of R
L

As the value of output received changes with the time though its direction remains same, this pulsating
in voltage or current is said to be Ripple.
Ripple factor
DC
AC
I
I
r

) 1 (
2
2

DC
ms
I
Ir
1 ) 2 / (
2
r
= 1.21
% of Ripple = 1.21
Ripple frequency = w
Form factor = / 2
= 1.57
MATHEMATICAL TREATMENT OF THE FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
Let the A.C. voltage applied to the P.C. of the transformer is given by
V
I
= E
P
Sin wt
Let the resistance of P N junction in forward biased is R
f
and resistance of s.c. of transformer is R
s
. Let
the ratio of turns of s.c. and P.C. is

P
S
N
N
n
The voltage induced in the s.c. of transformer due to mutual induction in V
s
V
s
= n x E
P
Sin wt
As in the A.C. voltage we consider the zero voltage at the middle of cycle and that is said to be
reference Pt. With respect to P
11
, P
1
will be positive at a time and Q
1
will be negative and reverse of it
also after a time. Thus the voltage applied to each of the diode will be hay of the voltage induced in s.c.
Thus the voltage applied to each diode will be V
2
Sinwt nxE
2
Vs
V
p

Sinwt
2
nxE
V
p

Sinwt E V
m

For the time when t is between zero and T/2 .

D
1
is working and value of current in the circuit will be I
i


L
s
i
R R
2
V
I
+

L
m
R R
Sinwt E
+

Where R = R
f
+ R
s
R
L
= Load resistance

Im
R R
Em
If
L

+

I
1
= I
m
Sin wt
At this time I
2
= 0 (I
2
is the constant D
2
)
Similarly when t
2 T
and T

L
s
2
R R
2
V
I
+

L
m
R R
Sinwt E
+

m 2
I I Sin wt
0 I
1

Mean Value of Current will be I
DC
I
DC =

m
I 2
Mean value of Voltage E
DC =
I
DC
L
R

=
L
m
R
I

,
_

2
=
( )
L
L m
R R
R E
+
2
R.M.S. Value of Current - I
rms
I
rms
=
2
m
I
=
) ( 2
L
m
R R
E
+
Similary E
rms =
E
rms
= I
rms
x R
L
=
) R 2(R
R E
L
L m
+

Efficiency of Full wave rectifier

100
InputPower
r OutputPowe

=
AC
DC
P
P
100
=
100
) R (R I
R I
L
2
rms
L
2
DC

=
) R (R
2
I
R

4I
L
2
m
L 2
2
M
+

=
100
) R (R
8R
L
2
L

=
100
)
R
(1
81.2
L

+
R
If R
L =

= 81.2 %
Ripple factor (r)
DC
AC
I
I
r
48 . 0 1
8
2


% of Ripple = 48%
Ripple frequency = 2w
Form factor =
11 . 1
2 2

DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM There are 10 digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, each digt represents a

descrete state. Every digit in a given number has a place value.
647 = 6 X 10
2
+ 4 X 10
1
+ 7 X 10
0
6 is in hundreds place
= 600 + 40 + 7 4 is in tens place
= 647 7 is in unit place
832 = 8 X 10
2
+ 3 X 10
1
+ 2 X 10
0
= 800 + 30 + 2
= 832
BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM This system uses only two digits 0 and 1, each digit is called bit. In
Binary system base of number is 2 in place of 10, in decimal number system.
Change of decimal number system in to binary number system
1 Go on dividing the number by 2 until the quotient is zero.
2 Write the remainders in reverse order.
Analogue Circuit The circuit in which signal, the voltage or current changes with time continuously.
Digital Circuit The circuit in which signals of voltage or current has only two levels either 0 or some
constant value.
Logic Gates A digital circuit which either allows a signal to pass through or stops it is called a gate.
Such gate allows the signals to pass through only when some logical conditions are satisfied, hence it is
called logic gate. Logic gates are building blocks of digital circuits. There are three basic logic gates (I)
OR gate (II) AND gate (III) NOT gate. Each basic logic gate is indicated by a symbol and its function is
described by a truth table or by a Boolean expression.
Truth Table A table that shows all possible input combinations and the corresponding output
combination for logic gate.
Boolean Expression The expression showing the combination of two Boolean variables that result in
to a new Boolean variable is known as Boolean expression.
(I) Addition sign (+) is called OR operation
A + B = Y is read as A OR B equals Y. The OR gate combines inputs A and B to give out
put Y.
(II) The multiplication sign (.) is called AND operation. A.B = Y is reads as A AND B equals Y. This
combines inputs A and B to give Y.

.
.