CHAPTER - 8

T6 SYSTEM DESIGN
There are several problems that must be solved before the design of a microwave radio relay system is finalized. As discussed in the previous chapter, one problem is to determine the amount of path clearance available as a safeguard against attenuation fading. Another problem is to determine the amount of received signal strength to provide a margin against fading. When the path clearance has been established, final site selection can be made. The requirements for antenna heights and towers can also be established. In the next step it is necessary to ascertain, on the basis of the radio equipment selected, the fade margin, taking into consideration the median received signal, total path loss and necessary antenna system gains. The overall system reliability is a function of important factors like electronic reliability, power reliability and the propagation reliability. The reliability of a system is defined in terms of the time, within a specified period (normally between a month and a year) during which short-term outage rate is below the maximum acceptable value. This short-term outage is the percentage of the short time (say 10 to 15 minutes) during which the received signal level falls below specified acceptable value). If F1, F2 andF3 (say .02% each) are the outage rates of the electronic equipment, power equipment and propagation respectively, then if there is no correlation between them, the total outage rate is (F1 + F2 + F3). The overall system reliability will then be 1 - (0.06) or 99.4%. A well designed system will have the same values for F1, F2 and F3 as the overall system reliability will be affected by the largest of the three rates. The electronic equipment reliability is sufficiently good for majority of radio systems provided that adequate standby is available and good preventive maintenance is carried out and that spares and personnel are available at site power reliability is improved by utilizing emergency standby power equipment of the short break or no-break type. The propagation reliability is highly variable and, therefore, this is required to be determined and brought within the acceptable limits. The signal from the microwave radio transmitter is greatly attenuated before it reaches the input of the receiver. The free space loss, loss in feeders, duplexer filters, isolators and connectors all contribute measurable shares to the loss of the system. Only the antennas increase the signal by concentrating energy. The values attributable to the various causes can be readily calculated. The only exception to this is fading. This is an abnormal loss of signal primarily due to variations in atmospheric conditions. In making system calculations, therefore, allowance has to be made for this additional brief and infrequent loss. Most of the fading that occurs over a path, with adequate clearance, is of the interference type. The interference fading is relatively free of path clearance at Microwave frequencies and in the extreme condition, approaches the Rayleigh distribution. Over shorter paths the fading is not severe. Over longer paths, the number of fades will increase, but the duration will be less, so that the total fade time will be the same as indicated by the Rayleigh distribution. Reliability against interference fading is obtained by providing an adequate fade margin. The amount of fade margin required for a given reliability assuming Rayleigh distribution etc., is as shown in Fig. 9.1.

FIGURE
Interference fading usually varies with the operating frequency and physical path characteristics. Even closely spaced frequencies or nearly identical paths will not fade to the maximum depth simultaneously. On the same path while one-frequency fades, the other

usually maintains a good signal. If a suitable combiner is utilized for selecting the stronger signal, the noise from the receiver on the faded path is eliminated. The above method is known as frequency diversity and for maximum improvement the frequency separation should be approximately 5 per cent of the lower frequency. In practice it may not be feasible to have more than 2 or 3 per cent separation on account of band allocation. In such cases and also where the path is highly reflective space diversity, though expensive, can be justified. In space diversity, the principle that the same signal does not fade simultaneously at two points, with path difference of about half a wavelength is utilized. So that, if suitably spaced antennas with corresponding receivers, coupled to a combiner are used the signal will be satisfactory most of the time. In the case of microwave receivers it is the equipment noise, which limits the minimum signal strength that can be received satisfactorily. The total noise in any derived channel of a microwave system is composed of noise contributions of several types including, intermodulation, path distortion intrinsic and thermal noise from the multiplex equipment. Inter-modulation noise is caused by amplitude or phase distortions in the radio equipment that occur when the system is modulated. It increases with the level of the modulating signal. An increase in the modulating level will reduce the effect of intrinsic and thermal noise, but it will cause more inter-modulation noise. Therefore, a compromise must be made to balance the two effects for optimum performance. The path distortion noise appears in the system as inter-modulation noise and results when the reflected waves distort the direct lever. The reflections may take place from hills, buildings, water surfaces or atmospheric layers. Reflections serious enough to cause path distortion may also occur in long wave guide that have large voltage standing wave ratios due to improper impedance matching. With proper system layout and equipment design, the path distortion noise can be made insignificant. The noise contributed by atmosphere and man-made noise are very small at microwave frequencies and can be neglected. Intrinsic noise is caused by random current variations in the radio equipment and is present whether or not a modulating signal is applied. The amount of intrinsic noise generated is a characteristic of the radio equipment. In this context, receiver thermal noise is important and the received signal strength should be high enough to over power any appreciable thermal noise. Receiver thermal noise includes noise generated by the resistance that the antenna system presents to the receiver input plus the thermal noise generated in the 'front end' of the receiver. The noise given by the above formula represents the theoretical maximum input noise power which would be present in a perfect receiver. For the purpose of propagation reliability, circuit performance is normally measured in terms of the time when the ratio of signal power to noise power exceeds the specified limit. For multiplex systems the channel signal to noise ratio is important. Since, in the various hops of a given radio relay equipment the overall path attenuation may vary widely but the other factors, which are characteristics of the equipment and system adopted remain more or less constant. System Value therefore, indicates a measure of the channel signal-to-noise ratio. The "overall path loss" consists of the following:(a) Propagation Loss: The basic concept in estimating propagation loss, i.e., the loss of power between the transmitting and receiving antennas, is the loss expected in free space. (Free space is a region free of all objects that might reflect or obstruct the microwave beam). The free space attenuation in dB, between two isotropic antennas, is given by:-

A = 36.6 + 20 log f + 20 log d where A = free space attenuation in dB f = frequency in MHz h = path distance in miles. (b) Transmission line or wave guide loss: If the total length of wave guide used per hop is say 100N feet and the loss for the type of wave guide used is R dB per 100 ft., then this loss will be NR dB. (c) Miscellaneous losses in filters, isolators, transitions, cable connections etc. These can be taken as a total of M dB per hop. (d) Antenna gains: The transmitting and receiving antennas gains will have to be considered because free space propagation loss as computed at (a) is between two isotropic resistors. If GT and GR are the transmitting and receiving antenna gains, over isotropic radiator, the net antenna gain will be (GT + GR) dB. The overall path attenuation L will be given by LdB = A + NR + M - (GT + GR) If the transmitter power output is T dBm, the received signal will therefore, be (T-L) dBm. The maximum receiver input thermal noise is that contributed by the equivalent resistance the antenna system presents to the receiver. This noise PN is given by (-1744 + 10 log B) dBm where B is the IF bandwidth in Hz. The receiver itself contributes a certain amount of noise. The merit of a receiver is given in terms of noise figure (NF). This is the ratio of the signal to noise ratio at the output to the signal to noise ratio at the input, expressed in dB. On the basis of this, the net receiver noise power is given by (PN + NF) dBm. The carrier power to noise power ratio will, therefore, be C/N = (T - L) - (PN + NF) dB The signal to noise ratio in any derived channel will be different from C/N. The noise characteristics of an individual voice channel are different from C/N due to two effects. Firstly, there is reduction in noise due to the fact that an individual channel occupies only a small portion of the bandwidth and correspondingly shares only a portion of the total noise. The noise in individual channels is computed by applying a reduction factor x, given by x = 10 log B/3100, where B is the IF bandwidth and 3100 is the speech channel width (usually from 300 to 3400 Hz). Secondly, the channel signal to noise ratio depends upon the location of the channel in the base band due to use of FM (triangular noise). Higher the channel modulating frequency, the noise is higher. This effect is taken into account by applying another factor given by Y = 20 log F/ FB, where F = RMS deviation per channel (corresponding to channel test tone) FB = Center base band frequency of the channel (slot) under consideration.

The highest channel is the noisiest. For considering worst conditions we must take this channel into consideration. The channel (speech) signal to noise ratio is thus given by:

S = (T-L) - (PN + NF) + X + Y = (T + x + Y - PN - NF) - L The value within the flower brackets is a characteristic of the equipment and system adopted and is called the system value (S). This is better demonstrated by taking an example. For a typical equipment Transmitter = 1W =30 dBm @ 7275 MHz F = RMS deviation per channel = 100 KHz RMS/Ch FB = Highest channel center frequency = 550 KHz NF = Receiver noise figure = 10 dB B = IF bandwidth = 8 MHz N = Wave guide length in 66.6 m (200 ft.) per hop = 2 100 R = Wave guide loss per hundred feet = 1 dB/33.3m (100 ft.) M = Miscellaneous losses per hop = 4 dB GT = GR Antenna gain (dB) = 17.8 + 20 log ft + 20 log D where ft = freq. in GHz D = Antenna diameter in meters For a 3m parboloid at 7275 MHz, GT = GR = 44 dB at 7275 MHz. X = 10 log B/3100 = 10 log [ 8 x 106 ]/3100 = 34 dB Y = 20 log F/FB = 20 log [ 100 x 103 ]/550 x 103 = -15 dB -174 + log B = -174 + 10 log[ 8 x 106 ] = -114 dBm Hence, S = (T + x + Y - PN - NF) - L = 30 + 34 - 15 - (-114)-10 - L = 153 - L If we assume a path length of (48.2 Km) the path attenuation at 7275 MHz is given by A = 92.4 + 20 log 7.275 + 20 log 48.2 = 144 dB. Overall path attenuation is, therefore, A + NR + Y - (GT + GR) = 144 + 2 x 1 + 4 - (44 + 44) = 62 dB. Ch. S/N = S - L = 153 - 62 = 91 dB The remainder after subtraction of the overall path attenuation from the transmitter power gives the non-fading signal level. However, when a signal fades, the received signal falls much below this value and for satisfactory reception, it should always be a certain level above the noise level. This is known as the "Threshold level". The receiver threshold level is defined as the level at which the incoming signal is 10 dB greater than the receiver noise power referred to its

input, so as to obtain the FM advantage. The threshold is, therefore, equal to (P N + NF + 10) dBm. The difference between the "threshold level" and the 'non-fading level' gives the fade margin. It should, however, be remembered that it is inescapable that during a certain portion of the time, the fading may be so severe that the signal strength goes much below the threshold level and thus communication is not possible. The reliability of the system, therefore, is measured in terms of the fraction of the time during which the signal strength is above the 'threshold level'. As a result of this the fade margin is a function of reliability. With Rayleigh distribution of 99 per cent reliability the fade margin should be 18 dB whereas for 99.9 and 99.99 per cent reliabilities the fade margins should be 28 dB and 38 dB respectively. The above discussion related to the performance of single hop. However, in actual practice we have to consider the total noise contribution in a radio relay link consisting of a number of hops. In order to afford guidance to the designers of equipments and systems, CCIR has considered a hypothetic reference line of sight circuit 2500 Km long which should include 3 sets of channel modulators (set of modulator comprises a modulator and demodulator), 6 sets of group modulators and 6 (or 9 in case channel capacity exceeds 60) super group modulators. Thus we have six (or nine) sets of radio modulators & demodulators for each direction of transmission, which divide the circuit into six (or nine) homogenous sections of equal lengths of 417 Km (or 278 Km). In such a hypothetical system, the noise power at a point of zero relative level in any telephone channel should not exceed the following values:(a) 7,500 PW psophometrically weighted mean power in any hour. (b) 7,500 PW psophometrically weighted one-minute mean power for more than 20% of any month. (c) 47,500 PW psophometrically weighted one-minute mean power for more than 0.1% of any month. (d) 1,000,000 PW unweighted (with an integrating time of 5 mS) for more than 0.01% of any month). In parts of hypothetical circuits, noise powers for (a) and (b) and the percentages of (c) and (d) shall be regarded as proportional to the number of homogeneous sections involved. In the above, the noise in the frequency division multiplex (channeling) equipment is excluded. On 2500 Km hypothetic circuit CCITT allows 2500 PW mean value for this in any hour. The 2500 Km link will be normally made of 50 hops of 50 Km each. As per recommendation (b) for 80% of the time the signal to noise ratio should not be worse than 51.25 dB. The total noise consists of i) thermal noise ,2) Intermodulation noise, and 3)interference noise. Usual practice is to allow 3750PW to thermal noise 3550 for intermodulation noise and 200PW for interference noise. Thermal noise is essentially due to receiver input noise. The thermal noise of 3750 PW corresponds to signal noise ratio of 54.25 dB per 50 hops or 71.25 dB per hop. This is to be achieved with 20% of the hops subjected to Rayleigh type fading. This is equivalent to a mean value of noise power greater by 5dB than the noise in the absence of fading. Thus the thermal noise per hop must not be greater than 76.25 dB below the signal. The signal to thermal noise ratio in FM is given by Ch.Signal/Thermal noise = Pr - (PN+NF) + X + Y + P + Q dB Pr = Received signal level (in dBm say)

PN = Thermal Noise at the received input (in dBm) NF = Noise figure of the receiver X = Reduction factor for noise in individual channel Y = FM improvement factor (Triangular Noise) P = Psophometric weighting advantage (2.5 dB) Q = Advantage due to pre-emphasis (4 dB) Using values given and assuming no pre-emphasis, 76.25 = Ch. Signal/Thermal Noise Pr = -114-10 + 34-15+2.5 dB Hence, Pr = -49.25 dBm The overall path loss for 50 Km (30 miles) as calculated in 20.12.26 is 62 dB. For such a path loss, the minimum transmitter power output for satisfactory performance is, therefore, -70.25 dBm + -8.25 dBm i.e., about 150 mW which can be derived from reflex Klystrons or with fully solid-state devices. Modulation Methods: In the case of reflex Klystron by applying baseband signal to repeller of reflex Klystron frequency modulation is obtained directly. This lends to simplicity. This technique is popular for short haul medium capacity system as obtaining on Railways. In the heterodyne technique, the modulator center frequency is 70 Mc/s. The modulated wave is then shifted to the desired microwave frequency by mixing with a source microwave. For low capacity systems, the source can be a VHF (say 100 ms/s) crystal oscillator followed by high power multiplier states. This technique provides flexibility at terminal and repeaters and is adopted for wideband long haul systems. In the phase-cum-frequency modulation system, at crystal oscillator (20 to 50 Mc/s) is phasemodulated by the multiplex signal and then frequency multiplied to the required range. This technique is utilized for small channel capacities (of the order of 60). Repeaters: Every repeater has to perform two essential functions namely, provide a gain of 55 to 100 dB (corresponding to the difference between transmitted and received level) and perform a frequency shift to ensure proper isolation for minimum interference. The amplification can be achieved at any convenient frequency. One way would be to provide necessary amplification at microwave frequency. As seen in chapter 6 this requires a minimum of 3 traveling wave hits for each direction and tends to be costly. This has the advantage of introducing least amount of noise and is called a through repeater. In the heterodyning technique all the amplification is provided at the intermediate frequency. Another method is to provide amplification at the baseband level, so that in effect it is equivalent to connecting two terminals back to back. This is called a base and repeater. The choice between the heterodyne and baseband repeater depends upon the circumstances Heterodyne systems lends to flexibility and has improved noise performance, but the baseband signal is available only at the terminal end. The demodulating type or baseband repeater is poorer in noise performance, since modulating and demodulating equipment introduce intermodulation noise, but its advantage is that the baseband is available at each repeater thus making it popular for short haul system requiring dropping and reinsertion of message channels at many points along the route. In microwave point-to-point communication the usual system of transmitting the various channels is to transpose them by using frequency division by multiplexing and use the baseband so formed to frequency modulate the ratio bearer. The frequency deviation of the radio bearer then depends upon the instantaneous amplitude of the multiplex signal. The multiplex signal-covering whole of the frequency band corresponding to the various transposed

channels has a shape far from sinusoidal. It shows many peaks. The overall signal, if the number of channels is high, is however, very little different in shape from that which would be obtained by adding a large number of sinusoidal signals at the mean frequency of each channel. If Pm dBm is the mean power for channel, then the total mean power is the multiplex signal will be given by Pm total = 10 log n + pm + X dBm where n = No. of active channels x = correction factor for pilot, VFT, etc. The number of active channels differs from the number of nominal channels of a system because all the channels of a system are not occupied simultaneously. The number of active channels is a function of the number of nominal channels and the relationship is as shown below:No. of Chls. Nominal (N) 12 24 60 120 240 600 960 Active (n) 7 11 23 41 77 180 288 0.58 0.47 o.38 0.34 o.32 0.3 0.3 Activity co-efficient K = n/N

In terms of nominal channels, and activity co-efficient the total mean power is, therefore, equal to (10 log N + 10 log k + Pm + x) dBm. In microwave links with large number of channels (not less than 240) CCIR has recommended to use -15 dBm for (10 log K + P m + x). For channels less than 240, CCIR has recommended that the total mean power be taken as (4 log N-1) dBm. We can find out the mean total power. But because of the presence of short peaks, we can define the extreme value of voltages, only as statistical quantities. The figure 9.2(a) shows the shape of a multiplex signal, the sinusoidal signal corresponding to the same mean power, the RMS level and the peak level, which is exceeded for only X%(say 1% or 0.1%) of the time. The Fig. 9.2(b) shows ratio of peak voltage/RMS voltage in dB plotted against the number of active channels and according to the time percentage of excess adopted.

Fig. 9.2(a) Shape of multiplex signal Fig. 9.2(b) Multiplex signal distribution
The multiplex signal appears as a modulation voltage in the frequency modulated radio equipment. CCIR has proposed standardization regarding the resultant depth of modulation (without pre-emphasis) as follows:Max. No. of channels. 12 RMS deviation per channel in KHz. 35

24 60 120 300 600

35 50 or 100 or 200 50 or 100 or 200 200 200

(The RMS deviation corresponds to that obtained by applying a zero dBm test tone on a channel at a point of zero relative level). The frequency deviation capability of the microwave equipment should be greater than the deviation due to the multiplex signal on the basis of the above. An example, which clarify this point. In a 120 channel system let us assume an RMS frequency deviation of 100 Kc/s with 0 dBm channel test tone. The total mean power for 120 channels is 4 log N - 1 dBm = 4 log n 120 - 1 dBm = 7.32 dBm This corresponds to a voltage ratio of 2.3 (with respect to 0 dBm level). The corresponding RMS deviation is, therefore, 2.3 x 100 = 230 Kc/s RMS. The peak value of the multiplex voltage, which exceeds the RMS value for only 1% of the time as taken from figure 9.2(b) is 8.3 dB above RMS value. Since this corresponds to a voltage ratio of 2.75 the peak deviation will be given by 2.75 x 230 Kc/s = 622.5Kc/s. The deviation capability of the transmitter should be larger than this value. The IF bandwidth for the 120 Ch. systems considered in Chapter 9 can also be calculated from above. IF bandwidth = 2 (Deviation + Higher Modulating Freq.) Kc/s = 2 (622.5 + 552) Kc/s = 2 (1174,5) Kc/s = 23490 Kc/s or 2.35 Mc/s.