3.

1 Force
Force is a push or pull which tries to change* or changes the state o f rest or o f uniform motion o f a body, i.e., force is the cause o f translatory motion. It arises from the interaction o f bodies either due to contact (e.g., reaction or friction) or from a distance (e.g., gravitational or electric force between two charged particles). =L p dt i.e., F = (m v) dt v - m-------h d y ^ V dm r dt dt Now for a body as m = constant, (dm/dt) = 0
Zd v = 0 If body remains at rest, force is trying to change the state of rest. u=0 If body moves, force is changing the state of rest.

....(a) [as i> = mv]

i.e.,

....(i)

Body at Rest
so or

F = m(d v/dt) F = maT** [asa=d\/dt ] ....(b)

Body in Motion
(a) When force is parallel or antiparallel to motion, it changes the magnitude and not the direction of motion. F

In physics we also have situations (such as rocket motion) in which mass o f the body changes but velocity o f escape o f mass is constant. In such situations as v = constant (d\ldt) = 0, so Eqn. (i) reduces to

Magnitude increases (b) When force is always perpendicular to motion.

Magnitude decreases (c) When force acts at an angle to the motion.

F= v ^ dt

....(c)

-v

Further, in case o f conservative fields, force is defined as, ^ F = -gradt/ If potential energy U is assumed to be a function o f position r only, the above result can be written as F dr = -(slope oiUtr curve) ....(d)

Direction of motion only changes and not the magnitude and motion is uniform circular.

Both magnitude and direction of motion change and motion is non-uniform circular, elliptic, parabolic or hyperbolic.

So, depending on the situation any o f the formulae (a), (b), (c) or (d) can be used to compute force. Regarding force it is worthy to note that: 1. 2. It is a polar vector as it has a point o f application. It has dimensions, in = d p _ dt [^ ] = MLT-1 T

Fig. 3.1 Action of force on a body

When force changes the state o f rest or motion o f a body, by Newtons II law,

* When force is trying to change the state o f rest o f a body and cannot, then it may produce deformation in the body. ** This formula is valid only if force is changing the state of rest or o f motion and mass o f the body is constant and finite.

P h y s ic s [F ] = [ma] [F ]J v ^ dt [F]dU dr ] CGS System g cm/s2 dyne FPS System lb-ft/s2 poundal [F ] = [MLT~2 ] [F] = LT" 1 ML2T " 2

fo r

C o m p e t it io n s V ol. I

in an atom), we neglect gravitational force in comparison to electric force,/.e., F =Fe +Fg - F

e

[F] =

7. All the forces according to their dependence on position or motion can be divided into the following four types: (a) Constant force: If the direction and magnitude o f a force is constant, it is said to be a constant force. Mechanical forces o f constant magnitude are produced by machines. Tension in a string can be a constant force. (b) Time dependent force: If a force depends on time, it is said to be time dependent, e.g., in case o f impulse or motion o f a charged particle in an alternating electric field force is time dependent. (c) Position dependent force: If a force acting on a body depends on the position o f body, it is said to be position dependent force. Gravitational force between two bodies (= Gmym^r1') or force between two charged particles [=?i < 72/^rcsor2)] are examples o f position dependent forces. (d) Velocity dependent force: If a force acting on a body depends on the velocity o f the body, it is said to be velocity dependent. In whole physics, in the opinion o f author, only two forces, viz.,viscous force (= 6nr\n>) and force on a charged particle in a magnetic field (guifsinG) are velocity dependent. 8. A position dependentforce is always directed towards or away from a fixed point and said to be central otherwise non-central. The motion o f earth around the sun, motion o f an electron in an atom or scattering o f a-particles from a nucleus are few examples o f central forces. (See Fig. 3.3.)
ra-particle

or [F ] = [MLT 3. It has units: MKS System kg m/s2 newton with

1 newton = 105 dyne

Improper unit o f force is kg-wt or g-wt, i.e., 1kg-wt = g newton = 9.8 N 1 g-wt = 1 g dyne = 980 dyne 4. When force is written without direction then positive force means repulsive while negative force means attractive, e.g., for two similarly charged particles (both positive or Attractive negative) electric force is positive Fig. 3.2 meaning repulsive while between dissimilar charged particles is negative meaning attractive (See Fig. 3.2) 5. Force can be applied by muscle (man or horse); machine (crane or tractor) or nature (gravitational or friction). When force is applied by muscle or machine, there is an upper limit to it. This limit is different for different muscles or machines. 6. Out o f so many natural forces, for distance -1 0 - 15m, nuclear force is strongest while gravitational force weakest, i.e.,
^nuclear ^ -^electromagnetic ^ ^gravitational

Nucleus,

For two electrons at any separation r, F e _ ( g 2/4TO0r 2 ) _ (Gm2/r2 ) 9 x l0 9 x(1.6xlQ ~19) 2 6.67 x 10-11 x (9.1 x 10-31) 2 (c)
Fig. 3.3

= 4 .1 7 x l0 42 -1 0 43 i.e.,FE ^>FG This is why, in the situation where both electric and gravitational forces are collinear (e.g., on an electron

In case o f central force as force passes through a fixed point, torque about the fixed point is always zero and so angular momentum is conserved, i.e., in case o f central force, Torque = 0 and Angular momentum = constant

Fo r c e 9.

and

Torque

55 (c) Thrust: It always acts opposite to the weight and is equal to the weight o f fluid displaced by the body. (It is also known as buoyancy force). So, if V volume o f a body is inside a fluid o f density a, Thrust = V'ag From this, it is clear that thrust is independent o f all factors o f the body such as its shape, density, etc., except its volume inside the medium. (d) Electric force: If a charged particle having > charge q is in a uniform electric field E, the electric force on it is given by: -> > F=qE while if there are two charges separated by a distance r in free space, the electric force between them is given by: F= -L -M l? 4 to 0 r 3 [Coulombs law]

Force can also be classified as conservative or non-conservative. If under the action o f a force, work done in a round trip is zero or work is path independent, the force is said to be conservative otherwise not. Gravitational, electric and elastic forces are conservative while frictional and viscous forces are non-conservative. In presence o f non conservative force there is loss o f mechanical energy which is usually converted into heat. Force can also be classified as internal and external. Internal forces are those which arise from the interactions with other particles that are parts o f the system while external forces are those which originate beyond the system under consideration. Same force can be external or internal depending on the system. If we consider a body as the system the force o f gravity o f earth is external while, if we consider body and earth as the system the force becomes internal. Total internal force acting on a system is always zero as these are parts o f action-reaction pairs and cancel. Force can also be classified according to its origin such as reaction, thrust, tension, elastic, frictional, gravitational, electric, magnetic and nuclear. Though these forces are dealt in detail at appropriate places in the book, here to solve problems related to force we describe some o f these forces in brief. (a) Weight W: The weight o f a body is the force by which it is pulled by th gravity o f a nearby astronomical body (usually earth). If a body o f mass lm is located at a point where acceleration due to gravity is > > W = mg
j j, the weight

10.

11.

12. If there act number o f forces on a body we find the resultant force using law o f parallelogram o f addition, i.e., y ^ ^ F = Fj + F2+.... [as force is a vector] and then calculate acceleration o f the body using Newton s II law, i.e., a = (F lm) If acceleration a* is constant, equations o f motion, viz., 1 2 2 2 v = u + at: s = ut + - a t and v = u +2as 2 * can be applied to deal the motion. However, if acceleration is not constant, then integration o f acceleration will give velocity v and integration o f velocity will give displacement s, i.e., we use the most fundamental definitions -> d\ a ~~dt ds_ v =dt

or

W = mg

(b) Reaction R: When a body is pressed against a

rigid surface, the body experiences a force which is perpendicular to the surfaces in contact. This force is called normal force or reaction . Free body diagram* for force o f reaction in some situations is shown in Fig. 3.4.

Problem 1. A block o f metal weighing 2 kg is resting on a frictionless plane. It is struck by ajet releasing water at a rate o f 1 kg/s and at a speed o f 5 mis. Calculate the initial acceleration o f the block. Solution: The water jet striking the block at the rate o f 1 kg/s at a speed o f 5 m/s will exert a force on the block, Here, it is worthy to note that if the pressing force vanishes (or the body loses contact with the surface), reaction will not exist.
* A diagram showing all external forces acting on an object is called free body diagram'

F = v - ^ = 5 x l = 5N dt

56 Block

P h y s ic s

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C o m p e t it io n s V ol. I

3.2 Translatory Equilibrium

When several forces act on a body simultaneously in such a way that the resultant force on the body is zero, i.e., > y F =0 with F=2F;

Fig. 3.5

the body is said to be in translatory equilibrium. Here, it is worthy to note that: 1. As if a vector is zero all its components must vanish, i.e., in equilibrium as
f

Under the action o f this force o f 5 N, the block o f mass 2 kg will move with an acceleration given by F=m a, i.e., a = F/m = 5/2 = 2.5 m/s2 Ans. Problem 2. Calculate the volume o f the balloon filled with hydrogen gas, which will be sufficient to lift a load o f 25 kg in air. Given that the densities o f air and hydrogen are 0.00129 g/cc and 0.00009 g/cc respectively. Solution: The weight o f hydrogen in the balloon and load 25 kg will act vertically downwards while thrust o f air vertically up. So the balloon will lift the weight if, Th > weight o f hydrogen + load or Vp<mg = VpHg + Mg

= sfJ=o XFy = 0 and SFZ = 0

1^ = 0 ;

so in equilibrium forces along x-axis must balance each other and same is true for other directions. 2. As for a body F = 0 means ma = 0 [as F = ma ] or or (d \/dt)= 0 [as m is finite and a = dx/dt\ or zero

or
or or

V (p^-pH )= M
25 x 10 g . 25 x IQ7 V=12 (0.00129-0.00009) V =2.083 x l 0 7cc = 20.83 m 3 Ans.

i.e., if a body is in translatory equilibrium it will be either at rest or in uniform motion. If it is at rest, the equilibrium is called static, otherwise dynamic. 3. If the forces are conservative, then as for conservative force (F = - dU/dr) and for equilibrium (F = 0) so i.e., F = -(dU/dr) = 0 dU/dr = 0

Problem 3. Two blocks o f mass m = 1 kg and M = 2 kg are in contact on africtionless table. A horizontal force F ( = 3 N) is applied to m. Find the force o f contact between the blocks. Will theforce o f contact remain same if F is applied to M ? Solution: All the forces Fig. 3.6 acting on the two blocks are shown in Fig. 3.6. As the blocks are rigid under the action o f a force F, both will move together with same acceleration, a= m+ M 1+ 2 = 1m/s2

i.e., in conservative fields at equilibrium potential energy is optimum, i.e., in equilibrium potential energy is maximum or minimum or constant. 4. Static equilibrium can be divided into the following three types: (a) Stable Equilibrium: If on slight displacement from equilibrium position a body has tendency to regain its original position, it is said to be in stable equilibrium. In case o f stable equilibrium potential energy is minimum (d Uldr =+ve) and so centre o f gravity is lowest. Fig. 3.7 depicts some examples o f stable equilibrium. M

Now as the mass o f larger block is M and its acceleration a, so force o f contact, i.e., action on it,
1M

Ma

MF M +m mF M +m

2 x3 2 N 2+1 1x3 = 1N 2+1

If the force is applied to M, its action on m will be Am = ma Ans.

Note: From this problem it is clear that acceleration does not depend on
the fact that whether the force is applied to m or M but force o f contact does.

Fig. 3.7

Fo r c e

and

Torque

57

(b) Unstable Equilibrium: If on slight displacement from equilibrium position a body moves in the direction o f displacement, the equilibrium is said to be unstable. In this situation potential energy o f the body is maximum (d2U/dr2 = -v e ) and so centre o f gravity is highest. Fig. 3.8 depicts some examples o f unstable equilibrium.
Fig. 3.11

1 1 U = max., i.e., (d U/dr ) = negative, equilibrium is unstable and U = constant, i.e.,(d2U/dr2) = zero, equilibrium is neutral This all is shown in Fig. 3.11. Problem 4. The potential energy fo r a conservative system is given by: 2 U -a x -b x where a and b are positive constants. Work out (a) the law of force (b) equilibrium position and (c ) potential energy at equilibrium position. Discuss also whether the equilibrium is stable or unstable. Solution: (a) In a conservative field as F = - (dU/dr) F = (ax2- b x ) = b -2 a x dx (b) For equilibrium, F = 0 i.e., b -2 a x = 0 or x = (b/2a)=x0(say) ....(b) ....(a)

(c)
Fig. 3.8

(c) Neutral Equilibrium: If on slight displacement from equilibrium position a body has no tendency to come back to its original position or to move in the direction o f displacement, it is said to be in neutral equilibrium. In this situation, potential energy o f the body is constant (d2U Idr1 = 0) and so centre o f gravity remains at constant height. Fig. 3.9 depicts some examples o f neutral equilibrium.
Body

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 3.9

5. In case o f stable equilibrium lesser the potential energy or lower the centre o f gravity, i.e., greater the base area more stable is the equilibrium. (Fig. 3.10)

(c) Substituting x = blla in the given expression for potential energy, 2 b2 ~b~ ~ b~ -b (U)x *b= a =~ ' --(c ) 2a 2a 4a Further as from Eqn. (a), (dU/dx) -2 a x - b so d2U dx2 i. e., f/is minimum and so equilibrium is stable. Ans. = 2a -> Positive

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 3.10

3.3 Strings
While dealing with force problems where strings are involved, always remember that: 1. String is assumed to be inextensible (perfectly elastic) unless stated. This is why the magnitude o f accelerations o f any number o f masses connected through string is always same. (Fig. 3.12)

6. If we plot graphs F vs r and U vs r, at equilibrium F will be zero while U will be max. or min. or constant. If: U = min., i.e.,(d JJIdr ) = positive, equilibrium is stable
9 9

58

P h y s ic s

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C o m p e t it io n s V ol. I

the middle may break if the length o f the string is shortened. (b) As T= (W/2 cos0) so tension in the string will be greater, equal or lesser than load W, as cos0 is lesser, equal or greater than ( 1/2), i.e., as 0 is greater, equal or lesser than 60 or (ti/3) radian. So, the tension in the string can be lesser, equal or greater than load depending on 0.
(a)

Fig. 3.12

(c) Tension in the string will be minimum when, cosG = max = 1 i.e 0 = 0 7 ^ = (W/2)

If the string is extensible, the acceleration o f different masses connected through it will be different until the string can stretch.

and in this situation [Fig. 3.14 (b)]

2 . String is assumed to be massless unless stated. This is

why, the tension in it everywhere remains the same and equal to appliedforce. However, if a string has a mass, tension at different points will be different being maximum (= applied force) at the end through which force is applied and minimum at the other end connected to a body. [Fig. 3.13 (a)]
Tmax.

(a)

(b)

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3.13

In order to produce tension in a string two equal and opposite stretching forces must be applied. The tension thus produced is equal in magnitude to either applied force {i.e., T = F ) and is directed inwards opposite to F [Fig. 3.13(b)]. Here it must be noted that a string can never be compressed like a spring. 4. Every string can bear a maximum tension, i.e., if the tension in a string is continuously increased it will break if the tension is increased beyond a certain limit. The maximum tension which a string can bear without breaking is called breaking strength. It is finite for a string and depends on its material and dimensions. 5. When a string is fixed horizontally (by clamping its free ends) and loaded at the middle [as shown in Fig. 3.14 (a)], for equilibrium o f point P*, 2rcos0 = W,i.e., From this, it is clear that: (a) As length o f string is shortened, 0 will increase and so cos0 will decrease and hence tension in the string will increase. This is why a string loaded at T= W/(2 cos9)

2d

9 = 90 T is Horizontal W is Vertical

w (c)

Fig. 3.14

This is why tension in a string loaded at the middle can never be lesser than half the suspended load.

(d) Tension in the string will be maximum when

cos 0 = min = 0, i. e., 0 = 90 and then Tmax = oo, However, as every string can bear a maximum finite tension (lesser than breaking strength) this situation cannot be realised practically. Furthermore as 0 = 90 means that the string is horizontal [Fig. 3.14(c)], we conclude that a

* If the string is not loaded at the middle for horizontal equilibrium o f P, 7} sin 9j = T2 sin 02, while for vertical equilibrium of P,7j cos 0j + T 2 cos 02 = W. For middle point by geometry o f problem, 0| = 02and so, T l =T2 = T

Fo r c e

and

Torque string can never remain horizontal when loaded at the middle however great the tension be or tension required to completely straighten a rope horizontally (without a sag) is infinite.

59 move in a direction opposite to acceleration. We usually represent this fact by stating that mass m experiences a psudeo-force ma opposite to acceleration. So as a result o f this, the string will incline to the vertical in a direction opposite to the acceleration o f the carriage. Now as the mass m is in equilibrium inside the carriage, T = sin 0 = ma and T cos 9 = mg which on solving for 0 and T yields tan 0 = (a/g) and T = m ^g2 + a 2 (>Tq ) i.e., the tension in the string becomes more than To and so the string may break. Also the string does not remain vertical but inclines to the vertical at an angle 0 = tan-1 (a/g) opposite to the acceleration (which may or may not be the direction o f motion o f the system).

Note:

0 = 90 means that the string at P becomes horizontal, so at P the only force is weight (as T balance each other) which is acting vertically downwards and remains unbalanced. This is also why this equilibrium cannot be achieved physically.

6. When a mass is suspended from a vertical string in a carriage, following situations are possible: (a) If the carriage (say lift) is in translatory equilibrium (i.e., at rest or moving uniformly), the forces acting on the system are as shown in [Fig. 3.15(a)]. For translatory equilibrium at point 0 , R = T q and for equilibrium o f mass m at point P, Tq = mg. So in this situation R = T 0 =mg = t O
T PO T i P<> mg (b)

....(a) O
T T PO mg

mg

(a)

(c)

Fig. 3.15

(b) If the carriage is accelerated up, the mass m is not in equilibrium but it has an upward acceleration a. So, the upward force T must be greater than the downward force mg such that T - mg - ma or T = m(g + a) [>T0] i.e., tension in the string will be more than Tq and the string may break if acceleration is such that T > Breaking strength. (c) If the carriage is accelerated down, the mass m is not in equilibrium but it has a downward acceleration a. So, downward force mg must be greater than upward tension T such that mg T = ma or T = m(g - a) [<T0] i.e., tension in the string will be lesser than T0. It is also interesting to note here that if the carriage begins to fall freely, i.e., a = g , tension in the string becomes zero! (d) If the carriage is accelerated horizontally, the motion o f point O will be accelerated translatory while due to inertia mass at P will try to maintain its position. So relative to P, O will move in the direction o f acceleration or relative to O, P will
(b)

(a)

Fig. 3.16
Note: (i) This arrangement is called accelerometer and can be used to determine the acceleration o f a moving carriage from inside by noting the deviation o f a plumb line suspended in it from the vertical and using the relation a = g tan 0 (ii) If the carriage is moving with uniform speed on a circular track [(Fig. 3.16 (c)] then as centripetal acceleration is directed radially inwards and is orthogonal to g, the problem becomes same as case (d) with a = (v2/r) = no2. So, the string will incline to the vertical away from the centre by an angle 0 such that 0 = tan_1[fl/g ] = tan~l [v2/rg] and tension in the string will be: T = m^j[g2 + (v 2/r)2 ]

60 7. Tension in a string passing over a fixed pulley* and loaded at the two ends such as Atwoods machine [Fig. 3.17(a)] can be dealt easily, quickly and correctly using properties 1, 2 and 6 o f strings discussed above. To understand this all, consider the system shown in Fig. 3.17 (a). The force (7g) N will pull the string down while (3g) N (on the other side) will oppose it. So, net pulling force = 7g -3 g = (4g) N, while the mass in motion is 7+3=10 kg. So, the magnitude o f acceleration o f A or B = (F/m)= (4g/10) = 0.4g m / s 2. Now as A is accelerated down while B up, so, Ta < (7g)N and rs > (3 g)N (as tension increases when body is accelerated up and decreases when accelerated down). But as tension in the string must be same everywhere, . (3g)N< T< (7g)N However, if we consider motion o f B, Tb = (g + a) = 3(g + 0.4g) = (4.2g)N and if we consider the motion o f A, Ta = (g - a ) = 7 (g -0 .4 g ) = (4.2g)N From this, it is clear that both A or B yield the same tension = (4.2g)N, i.e., 4.2 kg which is more than 3 kg and less than 7 kg.

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Tb = 3 ( g - o ) = 3 (g -0 .3 g ) = (2.1g)N and if we consider the motion o f A, Ta = mx a = 7x0.3g = (2.1g)N i.e., Ta =T b = 71= (2. lg)N = 2.1 kg Problem 5. A mass M is hung with a light inextensible string as shown in thefigure. Find the tension ofthe horizontal string.

Fig. 3.18

Solution: As there is a load at P, so tension in AP and PB will be different. Let there be T \ and T2 respectively. For vertical equilibrium o f P, T2 cos60=Mg, i.e., T2 = 2Mg And for horizontal equilibrium o f P Ti = T2 sin60= r 2 = (V3 / 2) Substituting the value o f T2 from Eqn. (i) in (ii), 7\ = (2Mg) x (V3/2) - ( S ) M g Ans. ....(ii) ....(i)

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3.17

Problem 6. Two particles, each o f mass m, are connected by a light string o f length 2L as shown in [Fig. 3.19(a)]. A continuous force F is applied at the mid point o f the string (* =0) at right angles to the initial position o f the string. Show that acceleration o f m in the direction at right angles to F is given by F x

Now if we place A (7 kg) mass on a frictionless table and B (3 kg) hangs through a string from the pulley as shown in Fig. 3.17(b). The forces acting on the system are as shown in same figure. In this situation the pulling force is (3g) N and as no force is opposing it, so the system will move whatever be the masses o f A and B. Here the mass in motion is 3 + 7=10 kg, so acc. o f A orB = (3g/10) = 0 .3 gm / s2. Also, the tension in the string will definitely be less than (3g) N as 3 kg is acceleration down. Actually if we consider the motion o f B,

where x is the perpendicular distance o f one o f the particles from the line o f action o f F. Discuss the situation when x=L. Solution: Let the mid point o f the string O be displaced by y downwards along ^-axis, so that at a given instant each string makes an angle 0 with the j^-axis as shown in Fig. 3.19(b). For motion o f point C, F - 2 T c o s Q = 0 x a y , i.e., T = F/(2cosQ) ....(i)

* (1) Single fixed pulley changes the direction o f force only and in general is assumed to be massless and frictionless. For details of pulley and system of pulleys interested reader is advised to consult other books. (2) The treatment given here is somewhat different from conventional me thod used to solve the problems o f pulleys.

Fo r c e
m #s

and

To r q u e
m x-axis

61 each o f length 1 m. The upper wire has negligible mass and the lower wire has uniform mass o f 0.2 kg/m. The whole system o f blocks, wires and support have an upward acceleration o f 0.2 m/s2. Acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 mis2. Find the tension at (a) the mid point o f lower wire, and ( b) mid point o f upper wire. Solution: As the system is accelerated up, tension at any point will be
Fig. 3.19

- 2 L ------ >

' rF

(a) Now consider the motion o f mass m at A towards B or vice-versa. Then as component o f T in the direction o f motion will be T cos (90-0) = T sin 0, so if ax is the acceleration o f m along x-axis, then from F =ma, T sin0 = ma. or ax = 7 sin0 / 7 ....(ii) Substituting the value o f T from Eqn. (i) in (ii), F sin0 F . 0 F ----- - x = tan0 = 2cos0 m 2m 2m This is the required result. From this, it is clear that if x = L, ax = oo, i. e., this situation cannot be realised in practice as when F is applied, the mid point o f string will be depressed in the y direction and so x cannot remain equal to L.
Note: (i) Acceleration o f particle in the direction o f force will be, T cos 0 m F

Tb
t 1.9 kg 1 Ta A t

T = m(g + a ) Now as for point A,

[See 3 .3 ,6 (b)]

m = 2.9+ 0.2/2 = 3kg T a =3(9.8+0.2)=30 N And for point B, m = 2.9+0.2+ 1.9+0 =5 kg so Tb =5(9.8 +0.2)=50N

Wm

2.9 kg

Fig. 3.21

Ans.

Problem 9. What is the tension in a rod o f length L and mass M at a distanceyfrom F\, when the rod is acted on by two unequalforces F\ and F2 (< F j) as shown in Fig. 3.22?
C B-> y -A

Fig. 3.22

Solution: As net force on the rod = (F1- F 2) and its mass

= constant

2m

is M, so acceleration o f the rod will be a = (Fv-F 1)/M ....(i) Now considering the motion o f part AB o f the rod [which has mass (M/L)y and acceleration a given by Eqn. (i)] assuming that tension at B is T , Fj - T = (MIL)yx a Substituting a from Eqn. (i) VL or
Note:

(ii) As particles move towards each other x or 0 will decrease and so also the acceleration a* and for x=O,(0=O),ax;=0.

Problem 7. Two blocks o f masses 6 kg and 4 kg connected by a rope o f mass 2 kg are resting on a frictionless floor as shown in Fig. 3.20. I f a constant force o f 60 N is applied to the 6 kg block, find the acceleration o f the system and the tension in the rope at points A, B and C. Solution: As the mass o f the system is (6 + 4 + 2 ) = 12 kg and applied force is 60N, the acceleration o f the system, F 60 , , 2 a = = = 5 m/s m 12 Now at point A as tension is pulling the rope and block B o f mass 4kg, Ta =(2 + 4)x5 = 30N Similarly for B and C, Tb - { 1+4)x5 = 25N
Note: 6kg 4kg 2kg B A T

[fromF =ma]

M Ans.

llll
Q

I I I

60 N

T=FX f i - 2 |+ Fo ( y ) UJ A-

Fig. 3.20
To calculate tension at B we can also consider the motion o f the other part o f rod, i.e.,BC. However, then equation o f motion will be, T - F 2 = (M/L)(L - y )x a M { L - y ) i F x - F 2) T =F 2 + M

i.e.,

which on solving gives again,

and

Tc = (0 + 4)x5=20N Ans.

r - F' H

In this problem as rope is not massless, tension is different at different points o f the string, being maximum at the end closest to the applied force and minimum at the end farthest from the force.

Problem 8. Two blocks o f masses 2.9 kg and 1.9 kg are suspended from a rigid support S by two inextensible wires

Problem 10. A small mirror o f area A and mass m is suspended in a vertical plane by a weightless string. A beam o f light o f intensity Ifalls normally on the mirror and the string is deflectedfrom the vertical by a very small angle 0. Assuming the mirror to be perfectly reflecting, obtain an expression fo r 0.

62 Solution: If light exerts a force F on the mirror, then for vertical equilibrium o f the mirror,

P h y s ic s

fo r

C o m p e t it io n s V ol. I

the rope with a constant downward force F - 2mg. In which case the acceleration o f'm ' is more? Solution: In case (A), the pulling force = 2mg -m g = mg and the mass is 2m + m - 3 m So, Accelerationa = (mg/3m) = gl3

T // 10/ 7

m Mirror

: Light

While in case (B), the pulling force = 2mg -m g = mg but The mass in motion = m + 0 = m so Acceleration a' = (mg/m) = g i.e., acceleration in case (B) is more (actually 3 times) than in case (A). Ans. Problem 12. Three equal weights o f mass m each are hanging on a string passing over a fixed pulley as shown in Fig. 3.25. What are the tensions in the string connecting weights A t o B and B to C? Solution: In this problem, as the pulling force is 2mg while opposing force is mg, so net force = 2mg - mg = mg, and as the mass in motion = m + m + m = 3m, so ....(b) Force _ mg _ g The acceleration = Mass 3m 3

mg

Fig. 3.23

T cos 0 = mg and for horizontal equilibrium, T sin 0 = F Dividing Eqn. (ii) by (i), tan 0 = Now for light radiation, E - h v h(cfk) [as c = vX] or E = pc [as A , = hip] So, change in momentum o f light due to reflection 4P= P 2 ~ P i = P ~ ( r P ) = 2p So, force due to light radiation on the mirror Ap _ 2p 2E F = At or 2IA as / = AAt mg ....(a) ....(ii)

Now as A is accelerating up while B and C down, so tension 7\ is such that mg< T y < 2mg Actually for the motion o f A Eic] ....(c) T \ = m(g + a) = m(g + g!3) = (4/3)mg Now to calculate tension in the string BC we consider the downward motion o f C, i.e., T2 = m(g - a ) = m(g - g/3) =(2/3 )mg Ans.

Substituting the value o f F from Eqn. (c) in (a), tan0 - 0 = -2IA mgc
Note:

[as 0 is small]

Ans.

This example is an illustration o f the fact that like matter, radiation (light) also exerts pressure (force).

Problem 13. An elevator and its load weigh a total o f 1600 kg. Find the tension T in the supporting cable when the elevator, originally moving downwards at 20 m/s, is brought to rest with constant acceleration in a distance o f 50 m. Solution : As the lift, moving downwards, stops after travelling a distance o f 50 m, from v = u +2as we get i.e. 02 =202 + 2a x 50 a = -4 m/s2 W = m(g + a) = 1600(10 + 4) = 22400 newton Ans. Problem 14. Consider the situation shown in Fig. 3.26(a). Both the pulleys and the strings are light and all the surfaces are frictionless. Calculate (a) the acceleration o f mass M, (b) tension in the string PQ and (c) force exerted by the clamp on the pulley.
9 2

Problem 11. The pulley arrangements o f Fig. 3.24 (a) and (b) are identical. The mass o f the ropes is negligible. In

i.e., lift is accelerated up with an acceleration 4 m/s2.

(b)

Fig. 3.24

(a) the mass m is lifted up by attaching a mass 2m to the other end o f the rope. In (b) m is lifted up by pulling the other end o f

Fo r c e

and

Torque For mass M, For monkey, From Eqns. (i) and (ii), Uq = m g; m+ M
t

63 T - M oq mg - T = mag Mm g M +m ....(i) ....(ii)

Ans.

Fig. 3.26

Solution: As pulley Q is not fixed, so if it moves a distance d the length o f string between P and Q will change by 2d (d from above and d from below), i. e. , M will move 2d. This in turn implies that if a (-> 2d) is the acceleration o f M, the acceleration o f Q and o f 2M will be (a/2) ( > d). Now if we consider the motion o f mass M, it is accelerated downward; so T = M (g-a) and for the motion o f Q, 2T - T ' = 0 x (a/2) = 0, and for the motion o f mass 2M, T' = 2M(a/2), (1/2)Ma = M ( g - a ) i. e., or T' = Ma a = (2/3 )g ....(iii) From Eqns. (ii) and (iii) as T= (l/2)Ma, so Eqn. (i) reduces to So, the acceleration o f mass M is (2/3)g while tension in the string PQ from Eqn. (i) will be, r = M [g -(2 /3 )g ] = (l/3)M g Now from Fig. 3.26 (b), it is clear that force on pulley by the clamp will be equal and opposite to the resultant o f T and T at 90 to each other, i.e., (R2) = 4 t 2+ T 2 = j 2 T = (-j2/3)Mg
Note:

....(i) T' = 2T ....(ii)

(ii) The monkey s actual acceleration is superposition o f acceleration of rope and acceleration o f monkey relative to rope. Let the monkey move upwards with respect to the rope with an acceleration a =a. The weight moves with an acceleration a0, which is the acceleration o f rope relative to fixed pulley.

Fig. 3.27

i.e.,

+ a* = ( a 0 - a ) [as monkey moves upwards and rope slides downwards, overall the monkey will be accelerated downwards] The equations o f motion are: For mass M , T = Ma^ For monkey, m g - T = w(a0 - a ) ....(i) ....(ii)

Solving Eqns. (i) and (ii), we will get m(g + a) , Mm(g + a) . and T = ---- ---------------------Ans. a0 = ^ ----M +m M +m (iii) For downward motion o f the monkey, we have to change sign o f a to get m (g-a) a0 = ^ ----M +m and M m(g-a) . T = ---- ^ -------------------------- L Ans. M +m

Ans.

In this problem the acceleration o f pulley Q or mass 2M will be all = (1/3 )g and tension in the string connecting 2Mto the pulley Q, T' will be 2T = (2/3)Mg.

Problem 15. A monkey o f mass m climbs up to a rope hung over afixed pulley. The opposite end o f the rope is tied to a weight o f mass M lying on a horizontal plane. Neglecting the friction, find the acceleration o f both the bodies (relative to the plane) and the tension o f the rope fo r the three cases: (i) The monkey does not move with respect to the rope. (ii) The monkey moves upwards with respect to the rope with acceleration a. (iii) The monkey moves downwards with respect to the rope, with acceleration a. Solution: (i) If the monkey does not move on the rope, the acceleration o f both bodies will be the same, equal to a0. The equations o f motion are:

Problem 16. A block o f mass m is placed on the inclined surface o f a wedge o f mass M as shown. Find the acceleration o f the wedge if the frictional forces are negligible. Solution: When the block m is released from rest, its relative motion is along the inclined surface o f wedge M. Let a be the acceleration o f block m relative to the wedge along the incline and ,4 be the acceleration o f wedge relative to ground towards left. The block exerts a normal reaction R on the wedge. The horizontal component/? sinG o f this normal reaction causes the wedge to accelerate towards left. i?sin0 = A4 ....(i)

64

P h y s ic s

fo r

C o m p e t it io n s V ol. I component ....(ii) ....(iii) ....(iv) ....(v)

Applying Newton s law, ^suitant = ^ma form: Along x-axis where R sin 0 = max ax = ar cos0 - A a y = a r sin0 Solve the above equations to get the result. Along y-axis mg - R cos 0 = ma y

A sin 0 ax = ar- A c o s 6 ay = A sin 6

Problem 17. Two 100 g blocks hang at the ends o f a light flexible cord passing over a small fiictionless pulley. A 40 g block rests on the block on right and removed after 2 sec. (a) Howfar will each block move in thefirst second after the 40 g block is removed? (b) What was the tension in the cord before the 40 g block was removed? (c ) What was the tension in the cord supporting the pulley after the 40 g block was removed? Solution: When two blocks o f masses m \ and m2 are component hanging from the ends o f a string passing over a fixed pulley, their acceleration is: a _ (m2 - m l )g (m2 + ml ) and the tension is: T = ffij + m2

The net acceleration or the absolute acceleration o f block a= + aw is the vector sum o f its relative acceleration ar and the acceleration o f wedge A. or abw ~ ab ~ aw (if,

Applying Newton s law, Resultant = ^ma form. Sum o f all the forces along jc-axis 'LFX = max Sum o f all the forces along _y-axis 2,Fy = may

We choose x-a;:is along incline and y-axis normal to it. 'LFX = max /ngsinG = m(ar - A cosO) 'LFy = m a y mg cos Q R = m(^4sin0) We can solve (i), (ii) and (iii) to get mgsinOcosO [ M + msin2 0] and Alternative method From the force diagram o f the wedge, J?sin0 = M4 ....(i) For the block, let us take the horizontal and vertical components o f acceleration as ax and a y .
R cos 0

_(ii) ....(iii) From t =0 to t = 2 (M =100g, m = 40g), a _ [(M

+

m) - M ] g = g
6 Fig. 3.30

[M + m + M ]

v = u +at = 0 + (g/6)(2) = 980/3 cm/s

Ans.

(m + M )g sin 0 [M + msin 0]

Hence, at t = 2s, left block is moving up With velocity 980/3 cm/s and right block is moving down with velocity 980/3 cm/s. Tension in the string during this interval is: T _ 2M(m + M )g m + 2M
_

[ 4 3 N

From ?=2to t=3, when m is removed, blocks move with a constant velocity. The distance covered = s = (980/3) x 1= 326.6cm = 3.226 m. Tension in the string = weight o f each block. T = M g=0.98N and7v= 2 r = 1.96N Ans.

Problem 18. Find the acceleration o f rod A and wedge E in the arrangement shown in the Fig. 3.31. The entire surfaces are smooth.
Fig. 3.29

Fo r c e

and

Torque m
R cosa

65 Regarding springs it is worth noting that: 1. Springs are assumed to be massless. This is why the restoring elasticforce in a spring is assumed to be the same everywhere. 2. Springs can be stretched or compressed and the stretch or compression is always taken to be positive. (A string cannot be compressed!)

J L
Rod A|

/
R

M
Wedge B mg

R sin a

Stretching a spring (a)

Compressing a spring (b)

Fig. 3.33

.Sis

Fig. 3.31

To produce extension or compression in a spring two equal and opposite forces are to be applied and in equilibrium restoring force developed due to elasticity o f spring is equal to either force, i.e., F=F' and is always opposite to applied force. 3. For small stretch or compression, springs obey Hookes law, i.e., for a spring, Force oc stretch (or compression) i.e., F =ky ....(a) i.e., restoring force is linear. This force in a spring is not constant and depends on stretch (or compression) y. Greater the stretch (or compression) greater will be the force and vice-versa.

Solution: Accelerations o f wedge and rod are different. In this problem, applying Newton s law will provide just two useful equations, one in the direction o f motion o f rod and other for the motion o f wedge. The force diagram suggests four unknowns N, R, a and A. Hence, we will have to establish relationship between accelerations o f rod and wedge. This relationship is referred as kinematic relationship. It can be seen from the free body diagram that if the wedge moves a distance S horizontally then the rod moves distance s vertically. Relationship between them is, = cot a s or = cot a a Equations for rod: Equations for wedge: "LFX = MaxR sin a = MA g cot a Solve Eqns. (i), (ii) and (iii) to get A =
c o t2 a +1

....(i)

~LFy=may , m g - R cos a =ma ...(ii) ....(iii) Ans.

(a)

(b) Fig. 3.34

3 .4 Springs
Springs can be o f many types such as helical [Fig. 3.32 (a)] or spiral [Fig. 3.32 (b)] and are stretchable or compressible.

4. k is called theforce constant o f the spring and is equal to the slope o f force versus stretch curve. It has dimensions [F/L\ - [MT-2 ] and units N/m. Greater the force constant o f a spring lesser will be the stretch (or compression) for a given force and more stiffer is said to be the spring. The force constant k o f a spring depends on wire (its length, radius r and material) used to make the spring, radius o f spring R and length I o f spring.* It is well established that for a given spring

(a)

Fig. 3.32

* Actually k = (r\r /4nlR ) where t|is the modulus o f rigidity and rt is the number o f turns per unit length.

P h y s ic s jfcoc(l IT) ....(b)

fo r

C o m p e t it io n s V ol. I

i. e., smaller the length o f the spring, greater will be the force constant and vice-versa. [Fig. 3.34 (b)] 5. Force constant o f composite springs'. If a number o f springs are connected to a body and we want to reduce it to a single spring, following three cases o f common interest are possible: (a) Springs in Parallel: This situation is shown in Fig. 3.35(a). If the force F pulls the mass m by the stretch in each spring will bey, i.e., yi = y 2 = y
fR

spring by y, the other will be compressed by the same amount; so

y\= yi= y

Now as F =ky and k s are not equal, so F\ * F 2, but F =Fi + F 2, i.e., ky = ky\ + k 2y2 k=ki+k2 [asF = Ay] ... .(c) which in the light o f Eqn. (i) reduces to 6. When a spring is stretched (or compressed) work done on it is stored as elastic potential energy. If at any time a spring is stretched by an amount x, the force acting on it F = kx. So the work done in changing the stretch from x to x + dx, dW = Fdx = kxdx [asF=fcc] So, work done in stretching the spring from 0 to y, W= \ nkxdx = k[x2ll\ l = - k y 2 y

....(i)

ki J (M k2 f 2m. w m -M & fm (a)

I mg

Fig. 3.35

(a)
Fig. 3.36

(b)

Now as for a spring F =ky and as k s are not equal, so F\ ^ F2 but for equilibrium, F = F 1 + F 2, i.e., ky^=k1y 1 + k 2y2 [asF = Ay] which in the light o f Eqn. (i) reduces to k = ki + k2 +.... -(a) This is like capacitors in parallel or resistances in series. (b) Springs in Series: This situation is shown in Fig. 3.35(b), as springs are massless, so force in these must be same, i.e.,
f 1= f 2 = f

So, elastic potential energy U stored in the spring, U = W =-ky2 2 ....(a)

i.e., work done or elastic potential energy stored in a spring varies non-linearly with stretch (or compression). From this it is clear that if the stretch in a spring is doubled, the force is doubled but energy stored becomes 4-times.
Note: Work done can also be calculated graphically from force versus stretch curve. The area o f strip shown dA=Fdx = dW, so work done in stretching the spring from 0 to y ,W =\dA=A= area o f triangle = (1/2 )yky =

....(i)

Now as F =ky and as k s are not equal, so stretches will not be equal, i.e., or y\*y2 but y = f t + y 2 as for F = ky, y = F F =F + Fl k k\ k2

1. If there are two springs o f force constants kl and k2 with k i > k 2, then work done: (a) When they are stretched by same amount (jq =x2 ), Wx (l/2 )M i2 k\ , >1 = ----------- = wi {\n)k2x l h i.e., W \ > W2 i.e., work done is more on the spring o f greater force constant.

which in the light o f Eqn. (i), reduces to - = + + k ki k2 ....(b)

(c) Springs in series with a mass between them : As shown in Fig. 3.35 (c), if force F stretches a

Fo r c e

and

Torque 2= mg 1+ J 1+ 2hk mg

67 ....(c)

(b) When they are stretched by same force, W \ _ W ~i m kixf a /2)*2*2 xi_ X2

[as/7 ! = F 2 here means k\X\ = k 2x 2] or W2 i.e., K2 Kx i as k\xi = k2x 2 , = x 2 kx 9.

However, as stretch can never be negative so negative sign is inadmissible, i.e., z= mg k

1+ J1 +

2hk mg

....(d)

wj < vv2 or w2 > W y

Now if h - 0 , z > (2mg/k) If a spring is horizontal and a mass m is attached to it as shown in Fig. 3.38(a), in equilibrium it is unstretched or uncompressed and so its length will be equal to its natural length as mg is balanced by reaction R.

i.e., work done is more in the spring o f smaller force constant. Elongation or compression produced in a spring'. (a) When a body, is placed on it and equilibrium is achieved. If : the spring is stretched (or compressedj'by x, then in equilibrium mg = kx or x= k ....(a)

TJ J | 1+yo
Tt

(b)

When a body is just dropped on it, due to change in momentum on collision an impulsive force will act and so here, F > mg. If y is the maximum stretch o f the spring, by conservation o f mechanical energy,
(a)

mg

(b)
Fig. 3.38

(c)

-mgy,

i.e.,

y-

....(b)

i.e., when the body is just dropped on a spring the maximum stretch (or compression) is double o f when the body rests on it in equilibrium. (c) When the body is dropped from a height h, then if the spring is compressed (or stretched) by z, potential energy lost by the body is mg(h + z) [and not mgh] while elastic energy stored in the spring is (1/2)^. So, by conservation o f mechanical energy,

However, if the system is made vertical as shown in Fig. 3.38 (b) and (c) then in equilibrium its length F> or < l ( = l y0 ) such that mg = ky0, i. e., yQ = (mg/ k ). This is also why in some problems related to springs, sometimes we replace (m/k) by (yo/g) which is constant for a given mass and spring.

10. If two masses connected by a spring are pulled by a

force F (or one mass is given a velocity u0), then initially the acceleration (or velocity) o f the two masses will be different and stretch in spring will change [Fig. 3.39(a)], After some time both the masses will move with same acceleration (or velocity) and the stretch in the spring will remain constant. The problem then can be treated like that o f strings with T = ky [Fig. 3.39(b)].

v2or &2 (a) i f e 2 =mg(h + z) or 1 2 - kz - mgz - mgh = 0

vi r ai
Fig. 3.39

v or a (b)

v or a

11. If in case o f simple harmonic motion, restoring force is provided by a spring, then (a) If the spring has a mass M and a mass m is suspended from it, the problem becomes

which on solving for z yields,

P h y s ic s equivalent to that o f massless spring if instead o f suspended mass m we consider effective mass, me = m + Ml 3 (b) If two masses wj and m2 connected by a spring are oscillating, the problem reduces to the oscillation o f a single mass m called reduced mass if we define m as,

fo r

C o m p e t it io n s V ol. I

(c) As the spring is stretched by y 0, 1 2 1 gain in elastic energy = - ky^ = - mgy0 as from Eqn. (a ) k = yo.
Note: Here it is worth noting that: (i) The mechanical energy lost by the body is mgy0 while the energy gained by the spring is (l/2)mgy0 which contradicts the law o f conservation o f mechanical energy. Actually in this process mechanical energy is not conserved but energy is conserved. The difference (l/2)wgy0 is first converted into KE o f mass m (due to which it oscillates) and then lost as heat to the surroundings due to viscous force between air molecules o f the surroundings and the mass. (ii) This problem can be viewed as mechanical analogue o f charging a capacitor by a battery as also in charging a capacitor by a battery. Energy lost by the battery is q V while energy gained by the capacitor is (1/2)qV, i.e , 50% o f the electrical energy is wasted as heat in charging a capacitor!

x,
m

_ L

m2

Question I. I f a spring offorce constant k is cut into two pieces o f length l\ and l2,find theforce constant ofeach part. Answer: As for a spring, force constant k oc (1//) so so
; k\

7 1 , k2 cc

and

k oc-

kx k I I

/j + 1 2 k ( 1 ^ 1+ l h)

and

k2 _ li + l2 k ( h Ans.
1 \ k2 = k 1 + ^ h ,

i.e.,

and

Note:

I f l i : l^ .: 1 : n, i.e., I2 = w/j.&i = (1+ w)andfc2 = [1+ (l/n)]&.

Problem 19. A dynamometer D is attached to weights o f mass M = 10 kg andm = 10 g. Force F =20 N an df = ION are applied to the weights. What will happen to the weights and what will the dynamometer show if. (c) The force F is applied to larger weight and f to smaller weight. ( b) The force f is applied to larger weight and F to smaller weight. (c) What will the dynamometer show if the mass M = m=5 kg?
I* D I

Question II. I f the stretch in a spring o f force constant k is doubled, find: (a) the ratio o f final to initialforce in the spring, ( b) the ratio o f elastic energy stored in the two cases and (c) the work done in changing the stretch from y to 2y. Answer: (a) As for a spring F =ky
F Z _ ^ 2 = = 2

Fx

kyx

ym m m m
Fig. 3.40

(b) As for a spring U = (l/2)ky u2

U\

q / 2 ) t j j ; _ (2^ ) 2 _ i
(y f

Solution: In all the cases as net pulling force is F - f , while the mass involved is m + M Acceleration (a) = ^rce = = 1 mass m + M g2 ...(i)

(c) As work done is stored as elastic potential energy o f spring W = U 2- U 1 = h ( 2 y ) 2 - h ( y ) 2 = 3 - k y 2[ = l U x] Ans. Question III. I f a body o f mass m suspended by a spring comes to rest after a downward displacement y$, find (a) the force constant o f the spring, (b) loss in gravitational potential energy and (c) gain in elastic potential energy. Answer: (a) For equilibrium ky0 =mg, i.e., k = mg/y0 ...(a) (b) As the mass m has descended a distance yo, loss in potential energy = mgy0

So, the whole system will move in the direction o f larger force with acceleration given by Eqn. (i). (a) If T \ is the reading o f dynamometer then for motion o f M and m respectively, we have F-Ti=M a i.e., T\=F - Ma and Tx - f = ma and Tx = f + ma

Substituting a from Eqn. (i) in any o f the above, we get mF + M f _ - - /= 1 0 N m+ M ....(ii) Ans.

Fo r c e

and

Torque

69 Now the lower disc will leave the table only and only if foe2 > m2g i.e., x 2 > m2g/k ....(iii) Substituting the values o f x\ and x2 from Eqns. (i) and (iii) in (ii), F + mxg _ 2m\g | k or F > ( m l +m2)g k i.e., Fmin=(m{ +m2)g m2g

(b) For this case, equations o f motion for m and M will be respectively, F - T 2 =ma and T2 - f = Ma Either o f these equations in the light o f Eqn. (i), yields T _ MF + mf F _ 20 N m+ M (iii) Ans.

(c) Substituting m = M in Eqn. (ii) or (iii), we get T3 = = 20+10 = i5N

The tension in the spring is independent o f mass in this Ans. case.

Note: If / = F, a = 0 and T=F - f

So the lower disc will spring back and rise o ff the table if the spring is pressed by a force greater than the weight o f the system. Ans. Problem 21. Two blocks A and B are connected to each other by a string and a spring; the string passes over a frictionless pulley as shown in Fig. 3.42. Block B slides over the horizontal surface o f a stationary block C and the block A slides along the vertical side o f C, both with same uniform speed. The coefficient o f friction between the surface o f the blocks is 0.2. Force constant o f the spring is 1960 N/m, I f the mass o f block A is 2 kg, calculate the mass o f the block B and the energy stored in the spring. Solution: In this problem: (1) As masses A and B are moving with constant velocity, this is a problem o f dynamic equilibrium, i.e., forces acting on mass A (or B) balance each other. (2) As string and spring are weightless and no mass is involved between them, T ^ = T^ng = T (3) Force o f friction on block B , f B =\iRB =\j.ms g (as Rb =ms&) while on blockA , f A =\iRA = 0 (as r a =mAgcos90=0), In the light o f above for horizontal equilibrium o f B, T = f B =nmBg While for vertical equilibrium o f A, ....(i) ....(ii)

i.e., if two equal forces are applied to two different masses connected by a spring the system remains at rest and the tension in the spring is equal to eitherforce. The stretch in the spring will be (F/k) as F = k y .

Problem 20. A disc o f mass m2 is placed on a table. A stiff spring is attached to it and is vertical. The other end o f the spring is attached to a disc o f mass m \ [Fig. 3.41(a)]. What minimumforce should be applied to the upper disc to press the spring such that the lower disc is lifted o ff the table when the externalforce is suddenly removed? mi

C cr
af

X1

m2

(a)
Fig. 3.41

(b)

T=mAg So from Eqns. (i) and (ii), [imBg = mAg i.e.,

Solution: In Fig. 3.41(b), position A o f the upper disc shows undeformed spring. Let the external force applied be F. If on applying the force F, the upper disc o f mass wij is pressed downwards by xj (as at b), F + mlg = kxl ....(i) Now if on releasing the upper disc the extension o f the spring is x 2 (as at C ), then by conservation o f mechanical energy ifo c 2 =~hc\ +mxg{xx + x 2) i.e., I. C ., - k(xl - x 2 ) = m^g{xi + x 2 )
1 2 2.

r j------------ 2mlS + X y2 X

....(ii)

70 Now as for spring T = ky, in the light o f Eqn. (ii), becomes ky=mAg i-e., y=(2x9.8)/1960 = 10-2 m

P h y s ic s

fo r

C o m p e t it io n s V ol. I

the direction o f intended motion. Regarding friction it is worth noting that: 1. If a body is resting on a rigid horizontal surface and no force is applied, the forces acting are weight and reaction which balance each other. The force of friction is zero (and not |xR). As if it is assumed to act on the body, the body will not be in equilibrium and the direction o f force o f friction cannot be decided, i.e., if a body is at rest and no pulling force is acting on it, force o f friction on it is zero. 2. Now if a force is applied to pull the body and it does not move, the friction acts which is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the applied force (again not ^i?), i.e., friction is self-actingforce. Further as the body is at rest the friction is called static friction.

So the energy stored in the spring, U ={\!2)ky2 =(1/2)x 1960x(10-2 ) 2 =0.098 J AnsT

Problem 22. On applying a force F the mass M is displaced vertically down byy from equilibrium position. Find the force F in terms o f the force constant k o f the spring and displacementy, for the cases (A) and (B), as shown in Fig. 3.43. Solution: Case (A) For the equilibrium o f mass M, F =T and for the equilibrium o f pulley, 2T = F' ....(ii) But as due to shift o f mass M b y y , the spring stretches by (y/2), so F' = k(y!2) ....(iii) So substituting F' from Eqn. (iii) in Eqn. (ii) and then T from Eqn. (ii) in Eqn. (i), we get F = 0k!A)y ....(a) ....(i)

f=F (b)

f = ma

(c)
Fig. 3.44

(b)

3. If the applied force is increased, the force o f static friction also increases. If the applied force exceeds a certain (maximum) value, the body starts moving. This maximum force o f static friction up to which the body does not move is called limiting friction, i.e., static friction is a self-adjusting force with an upper limit, called limitingfriction. 4. The maximum value o f force o f friction up to which the body remains at rest, i.e., limitingfriction is found experimentally to depend on normal reaction,
Limiting Friction Dynamic Friction

Fig. 3.43

Case (B) As tension in massless string and spring will be same, T = F' And for equilibrium o f pulley, T + F' = F So from Eqns. (i) and (ii), F = 2F' ....(i) ....(ii) ... .(iii)

Now if the mass M shifts by y the spring will stretch by 2y (as string is inextensible) F' =k ( 2y ) So, substituting F' from Eqn. (iv) in Eqn. (iii), F = (4 k ) y ....(b)Ans. i.e., ....(iv)
Applied Force F

(a)
Fig. 3.45

(b)

3.5 Friction
If we slide or try to slide a body over a surface the motion is resisted by a bonding between the body and the surface. This resistance is represented by a single force and is called friction. The force o f friction is parallel to the surface and opposite to

f i x R or f L =\is R

....(a)

where is a dimensionless constant called coefficient o f static friction which depends on the nature o f surfaces in contact and force o f adhesion between them.

Fo r c e

and

Torque

71 Lubrication reduces friction as it prevents interlocking o f elevations and depressions. 9. It is a general misconception that friction always opposes the motion. No doubt friction opposes the motion o f a moving body but in many cases it is also the cause o f motion. For example: (a) In moving, a person or vehicle pushes the ground backwards (action) and the rough surface o f ground reacts and exerts a forward force due to friction which causes the motion. If there had been no friction there will be slipping and no motion. (b) In cycling, the rear wheel moves by the force communicated to it by pedalling while front wheel moves by itself. So, when pedalling a bicycle, the force exerted by the rear wheel on ground makes the force o f friction act oh it in the forward direction (like walking). Front wheel moving by itself experiences force o f friction in backward direction (like rolling o f a ball). [However, if pedalling is stopped, both wheels move by themselves and so experience force o f friction in backward direction.] (c) If a body is placed in a vehicle which is accelerating, the force o f friction is the cause o f motion o f the body along with the vehicle (i.e., the body will remain at rest in the accelerating vehicle until ma<\is mg). If there had been no friction between body and vehicle the body will not move along with the vehicle.
Note: From these examples, it is clear that without friction motion cannot be started, stopped or transferred from one body to the other.

5. If the applied force is increased further and sets the body in motion, the friction opposing the motion is called kinetic or slidingfriction. Experimentally, it is also well established that kinetic friction is lesser than limiting friction and is given by

--(b)
where is called coefficient o f kinetic friction. If we compare Eqn. (a) with (b) as f L>f K, |i5 > \ iK , i.e., we require more force to start a motion than to maintain it against friction.
Note: In addition to static and sliding there is also another kind o f friction called rolling friction. When a body (say wheel) rolls on a surface the resistance offered by the surface is called rolling friction. In rolling the surfaces in contact do not rub each other. The velocity o f the point o f contact with respect to the surface remains zero all the time although the centre o f the wheel moves forward. The rolling friction is negligible in comparison to static or kinetic friction which may be present simultaneously, i.e.,

___________________________________________________
6. If we consider a body on an inclined plane which is just on the verge o f sliding, then as shown in Fig. 3.45(b) for equilibrium along and perpendicular to the plane, f L = mg sin0 i.e., i.e., mg sin0 = and R = mg cos0 mg cos0 or 0 = tan-1 ((a)* But as by definition f L =ii$R, Us =tan0

Angle 0 is called angle offriction or angle o f repose. In practice it is usually found that 0<H,s <1 7. It has been observed that force o f friction is practically independent o f macroscopic area o f surfaces in contact and relative velocity between them (if it is not too high). However, it depends on the nature o f material o f the surfaces in contact (i. e. , force o f adhesion) and their roughness or smoothness (i.e., elevations and depressions). Normally, with increase in smoothness friction decreases. However, if the surfaces are made too smooth by polishing and cleaning, the bonding force o f adhesion will increase and so, the friction will increase resulting in cold welding. 8. Friction is a non-conservative force, i.e., work done against friction is path dependent. In its presence mechanical energy is not conserved as it converts, energy o f motion (i.e., kinetic energy) o f a body into heat. Thus, friction reduces efficiency o f a machine.
* If inclination of plane 0 < tan 11 0 ., force o f friction = external force (=

10. Motion o f two bodies one resting on the other can be dealt easily using properties o f friction and equations o f motion. To understand this all, consider the following two cases: (A) When a body A o f mass m is resting on a body B o f mass M and a force F is applied to the upper body as shown in Fig. 3.46 (a). Following three situations are possible: i (a) When there is no friction the body A will move on body B with acceleration (F/m) and body B will remain at rest, i.e., aA = (F/m) while aB = 0

sin 0) and if 0 > tan 1| x , frictional force = |xR =\x mg cos 0

72
mp a M

P h y s ic s
f

fo r

C o m p e t it io n s V ol. I

aB = (F/M), aA = 0
h----------

h------- L B Frlctionless (a) Fig. 3.46

Note:

B
Frlctionless (b)

As relative to B, A will move backwards with acceleration (F/M) and so will fall from it after time, _ f 2 L _ [2ML "V "V F

If L is the length o f B as shown in Fig. 3.46, (a) will fall from B after time t 2L t = J = J ------

(b) If friction is present between A and B only and both are moving together, then F a = --------m+ M So, the force on the body A will be r,, mF F = ma = --------m+ M Now as this force to the upper body A is provided by the friction between A and B, so both will move together only and only if F '< h , i.e., 7 < n s mg or F < \ i S (m + M ) g m+ M So, both bodies will move together with acceleration
a A = a B = F/(m + M ) if F<\x$(m + M ) g (c) From case (b), it is clear that both will move with different acceleration if F>|i5 ( m + M ) g and then equation o f motion o f A will be

\ ci

\ F

2ML .12 [as s = - a t and a=F/m\

(b) If friction is present between A and B only, the body A will not slide on B till F < fL i.e., F<\xs mg

[as fL = V s R = V s mg] But both will move together with common acceleration, aA ~ aB = ' F _ _ j MF and F' = Ma = M +m M +m

(c) If in case (b) F > f L, the two bodies will move in the same direction (i.e., o f applied force) but with different accelerations. Here force o f friction will oppose the motion o f A while will cause the motion o f B. So, the equation o f motion o f body A will be,
f

~ / k =maA

maA =\iKmgi.e.,aA while for B, F f K = Mag i.e.,aB = ( F - \ i Kmg)/M

Note: (i) So, acceleration o f A relative to B will be

i.e., aA = (F -\xK mg)/m [as f K =|A*mg] while for body B, f K =MaB,i.e.,aB=\iKmg/M

Note: (i) As both the bodies are moving in same direction, acceleration o f A relative to B will be, M F -\ iK mg(m + M ) a = aA - a B = -------------- ------------

a = aA~aB = -

F - [ i Kg(m + M y M

mm

negative sign implies that relative to B, A will move backwards and will fall from it after time 1ML

So, A will fall from B after time,

T=J =
a

ImML \ M F -\ iK mg(m + M )

- g - E

- HKg(m + M )

ass = - a t

1 2

(ii) If there is friction between B and floor, B will move only if I k > f i with f t = H'0 + M )g and then f K - f = MaB. However, if B does not move, force between B and floor will be / ' = A ^ no1 fL

(ii) If there is friction between B and floor, the system will move only if F >\i(m + M)g( = fL % then replacing F by F - f [ . The whole (B) case will be valid. However, if F < the system will not move and friction between B and floor will be F while between A and B zero.

(B) When a body A o f mass m is resting on a body B o f mass M and a force F is applied to the lower body as shown in Fig. 3.46 (b). Again there are three posibilities: (a) When there is no friction, B will move with acceleration (F/M) whiled will remain at rest (relative to ground) as there is no pulling force on A, i.e.,

Problem 23. A block o f mass 1 kg lies on a horizontal surface in a truck, the coefficient o f staticfriction between the block and the surface is 0.6. What is theforce o f friction on the block if the acceleration o f the truck is 5 m/s2? Solution: The force on the block due to acceleration o f the truck will be opposite to the acceleration o f truck and will be F = m a = l x 5 = 5N ....(i)

Fo r c e

and

Torque

73

while the limiting friction, = = 1^5 wg = 0.6x 1x9.8 = 5.88 N As the applied force F is lesser than limiting friction f L, the block will remain at rest in the truck and force o f friction will be equal to applied force 5 N (and not f L) in the direction o f acceleration o f the truck. Problem 24. Assuming the length o f a chain to be L and coefficient ofstatic friction n, compute the maximum length o f the chain which can be held outside a table without sliding. Solution: If y is the maximum length o f the chain which can hang outside the table without sliding, then for equilibrium o f the chain, the weight o f hanging part must be balanced by force o f friction on the portion on the table: W=f L But from Fig. 3.47, ....(i)
Fig. 3.47

So

h= r-y= r 1 V T V .

w M yg W=
and so that R = W = (L-y)g
L

Problem 26. A blockplaced on a horizontal surface is being pushed by a force F making an angle 0 with the vertical as shown in Fig. 3.49. The coefficient o f friction between block and surface is p. (a) Find the force required to slide the block with mg uniform velocity on the floor. ( b) Fig. 3.49 Show that if 0 is smaller than a certain angle Q,the block cannot be made to slide across the floor, no matter how great the force be. Solution: (a) Forces acting on the block are shown in Fig. 3.49. For vertical equilibrium o f the block, R = F cos Q + mg While for horizontal motion, F smQ -\i R=ma or / r sin0 =|ai? F sin 0 = ^(F cos 0 + mg) limg F = (sin0 - f i c o s 0) [as v = constant a = 0] Substituting /? from Eqn. (i) in the above, ....(i)

/z,=|xK = \ x^ j-(L -y)g

Substituting these values o f W and f L in Eqn. (i), we get M M ,T . - j - y g = ii Y' (- L ~y^g which on simplification yields y 4 |xL/(l + p.). Problem 25. I f the coefficient o f friction between an insect and bowl is and the radius o f the bowl is r, find the maximum height to which the insect can crawl up in the bowl. Solution: The insect will crawl up the bowl till the component o f its weight along the bowl is balanced by limiting frictional force. So, resolving weight perpendicular to the bowl and along the bowl, we get R = mg cos 0 f L =mg sin0 Dividing Eqn. (ii) by (i), tan0 = ( f L/R) or or or tan 0 = | a 4 ^ .y2)/yy=

i.e.,

(b) As friction is present, for motion F must be + ve. This is possible only if sin0 -|^cos0 >O
i.e.,

....(i) ....(ii)

tan0 >(j, 0 >0q

or with

0 >tan- 1(^i) 0 O = tan-1 (|i)

or [as/^^nJ?]

So, for angle 0 < 0 0 [= tan _1 (ja)] no motion will take place however great the force F be. Problem 27. A body o f mass m rests on a horizontalfloor with which it has a coefficient o f static friction (i. It is desired to make the body move by applying the minimum possible force F. Find the magnitude o f F and the direction in which it has to be applied.

74 Solution: Let the force F be applied at an angle 0 with the horizontal as shown in Fig. 3.50. For vertical equilibrium, R + F sin 0 = mg i.e., R = mg - F sin 0 ....(i) while for horizontal motion F cos 0 > f i
i.e.

P h y s ic s

fo r

C o m p e t it io n s Vol. I

f l = \ i R - [img = 0.25 x 20 = 5 N (a) When F=2N , F < fL So, both will move together with acceleration

2
20 +2 [as f L = |xR] ....(ii)

= 1 = 0.09 m/s2 11

F cos0 > |ji?

and force o f friction will be equal to applied force (and not |ii?) but= Ma = = 1.8 N (< F). Ans.

(b) When F = 20 N, the block and cart will move with different acceleration as F > f L. For the motion o f block, F - f L =maB i.e., 2 0 - 5 - 2 a B, i.e., aB =(15/2)=7.5m/s2 Ans.

and for the motion o f cart,

Fig. 3.50

f l - Mac ,

i. e.,

ac = (5/20) = 0.25 m/s2

Substituting value o f R from Eqn. (i) in (ii), we get F cos 0 > i.e., - F sin 0) \x.m g F > (cos0 + |^sin0)

and in this situation force o f friction will be f L = 5 N. Problem 29. Block A weighs 4 N and block B weighs 8 N. The coefficient o f kinetic friction is 0.25 fo r all surfaces. Find theforce F to slide B at a constant speed when (a) A rests on B and moves with it ( b) A is held at rest and (c) A and B are connected by a light cord passing over a smooth pulley as shown in Fig. 3.52 (a), (b) and (c) respectively.
A

....(iii)

For the force F to be minimum (cos0 + ^sin0) must be maximum, i.e., (cos 0 + n sin 0) = 0
U0

or so that,

-s in 0 +)xcos0 =0

i.e., ,

tan 0 = | a
1

....(iv)

...

l+| L lZ Substituting these values in Eqn. (iii), F >

1

Vl + ^

mg

i.e., + |i/

F>

mg

l + H*

y /l + | ^ 2 so that, Fm in = _ m g _

with 0 = tan 1(jo.)

Ans.

(c)
Fig. 3.52

1 + H^

Problem 28. A cart weighing 200 N can roll without friction along a horizontal path. The cart carries a block weighing 20 N. The coefficient o f friction between the block and the cart is 0.25 and g = 10 m/s2. Find the force o f friction between the block and cart and their acceleration when aforce o f (a) 2 Nis applied to the block, (b) 20 N is applied to the block. Solution: In this problem the mass o f block is (20/ 10) = 2 kg, while o f cart (200/10) = 20 kg. The force o f limiting friction between block and cart, *R

Solution: (a) When A moves with B the force opposing the motion is the only force o f friction between B and S the horizontal and as velocity o f system is constant, F = /j =0.25(4 + 8 )=3N (b) When A is held stationary, the friction opposing the motion is between A and B and B and S. So, i.e. F =ni?! +|tii?2 = 3+0.25(4) F =3 +1 = 4N (c) In this situation for dynamic equilibrium o f B F =(ii?i +|a/?2 + T while for the uniform motion o f A, T = \iR 2 -0) ....(ii)

3g1

Fo r c e

and

Torque

75 Problem 31. A body o f mass 5 x 103 kg is launched up on a rough inclined plane making an angle o f 30 with the horizontal. Obtain the coefficient o f friction between the body and theplane ifthe time ofascent is halfofthe time ofdescent. Solution: When the body is projected up the plane there will be retardation aA such that mg sin 0 + f i = maA or aA =g(sin0 + ^ cos0)[as f L =|oi? =|j.ffzgcos0] ....(i) Now from equation o f motion, v = u + at and v = u +2 as

Substituting T from Eqn. (ii) in (i), we get F = + 2fjL R 2 = 3 + 2 x l = 5N Ans.

Problem 30. A block o f mass 2 kg slides on an inclined plane which makes an angle o f 30 with the horizontal. The coefficient o f friction between the block and the surface is 4(3/2.) (a) What force should be applied to the block, so that the block moves down without any acceleration? ( b) What force should be applied to the block so that it moves up without any acceleration? (c) Calculate the ratio o f the powers needed in the above two cases, in the speed o f block is same in both the cases. Solution: Here f L =\iR = |i/ngcos0 = J m x 2 x g x ( S / 2 ) = 3g/^ and component o f weight along the plane mgsinO = 2 x g x (1/2) = g (a) As /Mgsin0< f i , the block will remain at rest on the plane and so to move it down the plane force F must be applied parallel to the plane downwards as shown in Fig. 3.53 (a).

Fig. 3.54

For the motion up the plane, 0 = u - a AtA and 0 = u2 - 2 aAs [asu = 0]

Eliminating u between these, we get

U = ^ ( 2 s/ ua )

--(ii)

Now when the body slides down the plane, there will be acceleration aD such that
Fig. 3.53

m g s m d - f L =maD or aD =g(sin0 -| icos0) [as f L =p./? =|awgcos0]....(iii) and from equation o f motion, [as v = constant so, a =0] s = ut + - a t 2

So, equation o f motion down the plane will be (Fd + mg sin Q ) - f L = ma or Fd 1 3 + 2g--g = 2 V2 3 -s/2
FD =

or

g = llN

Ans.

tD =-\j(2s/aD ) [asH=0] According to the given problem,

....(iv)

42 (b) If F jj is the force required to move the block up the plane, the equation o f motion will be
F U ~ W l + *gsin0) = ma

tA =\ tD
which in the light o f Eqns. (ii) and (iv) becomes M _ aD _ 1 tp \aA 2 Now substituting the values o f aA and aD from Eqns. (i) and (iii) in the above, we get sin0 - n c o s 0 _ 1 sin0 + (a,cos0 4 which on simplification gives | j. = -ta n 0 = - x 5 5 ^ = = 0.346 5 Ans.

or

or (c) As so

Fjj = 2 g ~ + g jzz [as v = constant so, a = 0 ] 2 ' V 2 / f~ \ 3 + -J2 g =30.6N Ans. FU = 4~2 power = (force) x (velocity) Pp _ F p v p _ Fp
Pu F UVU FU

[asu/j = v t/]

i.e.,

Pp_

3 -V 2

= 0.36

Ans.

Pu

3 + V2

76 Problem 32. A 60 kg block is pushed up an inclinedplane by means o f a horizontal push P as shown in the figure. The coefficients o f friction between incline and block are = 0.6 and ij , = 0.4 and the ramp makes an angle o f 30 with the horizontal. (a) What value o f P is required to move the block at a constant speed o f 0.20 mis along the incline? (b) I f the person pushing should stop for rest and let P = 0, does the block slide back on the incline?

P h y s ic s

fo r

C o m p e t it io n s V ol. I

mg cose mg

Now for equilibrium in a direction perpendicular to AB,

/?' = /KgCOS0

which in the light o f Eqn. (i) gives R - (1/V2)wgcos0 And for the motion along the trough, mg sin 0 -|xKi -\iR2 = ma or Solution: From the force diagrams as shown in figure: ^-components: F^c + ^sin 0 - P cos 0 = 0 ^-components: where N - W cos 0 - P sin 0 = 0 =\xkN H(Wcos0 +P sin0) + fFsin - P c o s 0 =0 or P [n* sin 0 - cos 0] = -W[ix * cos 0 + sin 0]. Ans. tt t.. sin0 + lu c o s 0 T Hence we obtain, P = --------- ---------W = 747.24 N cos0 -|ijt sin0 .... (i) ....(ii) i. e., a = g sin 0 - (2 jxR // m) [asi?! =R2 =R] Substituting R from Eqn. (ii) in the above, . 2u mgcos0 a =gsin9 x - _
( ii)

m
a = g[sin 0 - V2|icos 0] Ans.

From Eqns. (i) and (ii),

Problem 34. The friction coefficient between the board and thefloor shown in Fig. 3.57 is | i. Find the maximumforce that the man can exert on the rope, so that the board does not slip on the floor. Solution: The forces acting on the system are shown in Fig. 3.57 For vertical equilibrium o f the point P T=F ....(i)

If force P is removed, the block will have a tendency to slide down due to W sin 0 (component o f weight along incline). Maximum possible force o f friction is | xsN. (i) If fFsin 0 > \isN, the block slips down. (ii) If PFsin 0 < | a^N, the block will stay in equilibrium in this situation. As here fFsin0 = Wx}-< ixsN =0.6x WcosB =0.6Wx , 2 2 [from (ii),putP =0] therefore, the block will stay in equilibrium. Ans. Problem 33. A block o f mass m is sliding on an inclined right angle trough as shown in Fig. 3.56 (a) and ( b). If\i is the coefficient o f kineticfriction, find the acceleration o f the block. Solution: As here reactions are from two surfaces and the body is a cube so Rl = R 2 =R. The resultant o f these reactions will be perpendicular to line AB and will be given by R' =2R cos 45= -J2R ....(i)

Fig. 3.57

And for vertical equilibrium o f the system*

JT
Man rmg

|r
Board R it t M g

Fig. 3.58
* While for the vertical equilibrium o f man i?! + T = mg and for board R = Mg + Rl ....(iii) ....(iv)

Adding Eqns. (iii) and (iv), we again get Eqn. (ii), which is written directly.

Fo r c e

and

Torque i.e.,R =(m + M )g - T ....(ii)

77 direction opposite to intended motion, i.e., on A towards the pulley while on B downwards so that equations o f motion for A and B will become T + f L =ma or T = ma -|xmg
ma
-

R + T = (m + Af)g,

Now the system will not move horizontally till i.e., T < fL T<n[(m + M ) g - T ] ( f L =\iR)

and

T = mg + f [ T = mg + 1 xma

which on simplification gives T ^ n(m + M )g

and

Eliminating T between these,

\img = mg + \xma
1 +

a+n)
So in the light o f Eqn. (i), we get _| u(m + M )g or Ans.

H, 8 l-n

Ans.

( 1 + H)

Problem 35. Consider the situation shown in Fig. 3.59. The horizontal surface below the bigger block is smooth. The coefficient o f friction between the blocks is ji. Find the minimum and maximum accelerations with which the system should move in order to keep the smaller blocks at rest with respect to the bigger block.
Ri

Problem 36. Two blocks o f masses m and M are connected to the ends o f a string passing over a pulley. M lies on the plane inclined at an angle 0 with the horizontal and m is hanging vertically as shown. The coefficient o f static friction between M and the plane is Find the minimum and maximum values o f m, so that the system is at rest.

Fig. 3.60

Solution: In the present problem motion will depend on the relative values o f m and M. If m is heavier than M, then the block M will move upwards. If m is much lighter than M, then the block M will move downwards. Consider following situations: Case (i) M is about to start sliding upwards (Motion impending upwards). This will happen if m is much heavier than M. As M is just at the point o f sliding up, frictional force on M is (j,S N acting down the plane. Solution: If the system is not accelerated, the block B will pull the blocks. Let a be the minimum acceleration, so that A and B are at rest relative to C. As A has a tendency to move towards the pulley, while B downwards, so force o f friction on A will act away from the pulley while on B upwards. Now as A is at rest relative to C, so its equation o f motion is or T - f i = ma T-ma+nmg ....(i) [as f L =pi?i =\img] and as block B is at rest relative to C, so for its vertical and horizontal equilibrium, we have T + f [ = mg or T = mg-\ima and R2 = ma ....(ii) [ asfl=\iR2 =\xma] Maximum value o f m - M(sin0 + (x^cosG) Case (ii) M is about to start sliding downwards (motion impending downwards). This will happen if m is much lighter than M. As M is about to start sliding down, the frictional force is \isNacting upwards. ....(iii) Balancing forces along Jt-axis and j-axis: N = Mg cos 0, Minimum value o f T = MgsinQ-\isN, T = mg Mg cos 0 m = M(sin 0 - n 5 cos 0) Hence, mg = Mg sin 0 V

Balancing forces along x-axis and j-axis: N = MgcosQ, T = MgsinQ + iisN, T = mg Hence, mg = Mg sin0 +|a^Mg cos 0
T

mg

Eliminating T between Eqns. (i) and (ii), ma + \img = mg - \ima

i.e., 1+ H

Now, if the acceleration o f the system is continuously increased, there will come a situation when A will have a tendency o f slipping away from the pulley P and B upwards. In this situation the force o f friction on A and B will act in a

78 A
T

P h y s ic s

fo r

C o m p e t it io n s Vol. I

mg sin e

mg cos 0

mg

Fig. 3.61 (b)

Therefore the blocks are at rest if, M(sin0 -|j.i cos0)< m< M(sin0 + n5cos0) Ans.

Problem 37. Two blocks in contact with each other are sliding on an inclined board. The mass o f first block is m \ and that o f second block is m2. The coefficient o f friction between the block and the board is jxj fo r the block 1 and \ x 2 fo r the block 2. The angle o f inclination o f the board is a. Determine'. (a) acceleration o f blocks and (b) force R with which the blockspress against each other. Solution: Consider the force diagrams o f m \ and m2. R represents contact force between mi and m2. N i , N 2 are normal reactions between blocks and the inclined plane.

Problem 38. In the --------- 0 1 1 Pi figure, masses m\, m2 and M are 20 kg, 5 kg ___ F and 50 kg respectively. M The coefficient of friction between M and \ ^2 ^ ground is zero. The coefficient o f friction Fl- 3-64 betweenmi and M and that between m2 and ground is 0.3. The pulleys and the string are massless. The string is perfectly horizontal between P\ and m \ and also between P2and m2. The string is perfectly vertical between P\ and P2. An external horizontalforce F is applied to the mass M. (Take g =10 m/s2) (a) Draw a free body diagram fo r mass M, clearly showing all the forces. (b) Let the magnitude o f the force offriction between m \ and M be f\ and that between m2 and ground be f 2. For a particular F it isfound thatf\ = 2 /2. F in d f andf2. Write down equations o f motion o f all the masses. Find F, tension in the string and accelerations o f the masses. Solution: (a) The free body diagram showing all forces acting on M is shown in Fig. 3.65. (b) The maximum static sliding frictional force on m\, / l =H i g = 0.3x20x10 = 60N and on m2, f 2 = \xm 2g = 03 x 5 x l0 = 15N For given F , f\ = lf2 :. Maximum value o f f\ can be 30 N as

Fig. 3.62

Fig. 3.65

Balancing forces along .y-axis: N} = wijgcosa Forces along x-axis: N 2 = m2gcos cl /Mjgsina - R = mxa w2gsina + R - ^ 2-^2 =tn2a ....(ii) ....(iii) ....(iv) ....(i)

( / 2)max=15N This implies that m ^ cannot slide on Mbut moves along with it with same acceleration, as pseudo force is less than maximum static frictional force. So, all three blocks are moving with common acceleration a. The forces acting on my, m2 and M in the direction o f motion are as shown in Fig. 3.66. a a a mi m2 M
f1 = 2f2 = 3 0 N f2 = 15 N f! = 30 N

(/l + w 2)^ sin a - ^ i ^ jg c o s a - n 2w2 co sa = {m -y + m2)a a = g[(m\ + / 2 )sina -((Jj/mj + |a2m2)c o s a ]/(m 1 +m2); g =9.8 m/s2 Ans.

Fig. 3.66

Substituting the expression for a, in Eqn. (iii) or (iv), we get R=

Note:

Applying Newton s 2nd law o f motion, 3 0 - T = 20a r -1 5 =5a F - 30 = 50a Adding Eqns. (i) and (ii), 15=25a a = 0.6 m/s 2 ....(i) ....(ii) ....(iii)

2 - l-i i )m\ tn2g cos a /(tmj +m2)

Ans.

If (x! > n 2 then R will come out to be negative. Reaction between two bodies can never be negative. Least value o f the reaction between two bodies is zero, which implies that the blocks will slide down without touching each other. They will get separated.

Fo r c e

and

Torque

79 planes o f a wedge and the peg isfixed to the top o f the wedge. The planes o f the wedge supporting mj and m2 are inclined at 30 and 60 respectively, with the horizontal. Calculate the acceleration o f the masses and. the tension in the string.
P

Substituting for a in Eqns. (i) and (iii), T = 3 0 -2 0 x 0 .6 = 18N and F =30 + 50x0.6 = 60 N Ans. Problem 39. A man pushes a cylinder o f mass m \ with the help o f a plank o f mass m2 as shown. There is no slipping at any contact. The horizontal component o f theforce applied by __________ the man is F. Find: (a) the accelerations o f the plank and centre o f mass o f the cylinder and (b) the magnitudes and directions offrictional forces at contact points. '\ = ' 2 ()mi

w m m r n m m t m m m m m m m
Fig. 3.67

Solution: Fig. 3.68 (b) shows the plank moving to right with acceleration ap towards right under the action o f external force F and frictional force / j . In Fig. 3.68 (c), the cylinder is rotating due to frictional forces / j and f 2 producing a torque about the centre o f mass. -fi

Solution:

As m1 gsin30> m2gsin60, so wj will be

moving downward and m2 upward with the same acceleration as the string is inextensible. The forces and their resolved components along and perpendicular to the incline are shown in Fig. 3.69. The equations o f motion are: /lgsin30o- r -m^a T - m 2gsi n60 - m2a Adding and solving, ....(i) ....(ii)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 3.68

m^g sin 30-m2g sin 60 a=(mx +m2)

.

For linear motion o f plank and cylinder, equations o f motion are, F ~ f\ = m2ap f l + f 2 =mlac ....(i) -.(ii)

3 x ----------

V3

x 10

S r .3 + ~ V3

where a = , ac being the acceleration o f centre o f mass R o f cylinder having radius R and a is its angular acceleration. For rotatory motion o f cylinder, mxR 2 a = m\R a

= 2.8 m/s2 Substituting for a in Eqn. (i), T = 7n1 gsin30-7w1a = 3 x 10x - - 3 x 2.S
2

Further, ap =2 ac. Solving equations (i), (ii) and (iii), 4F

= 6.6 N

Ans.

(3toj + 8 m2 )

8F
(3mj + 8 m2 )

F _ 3mlac _____3m,_____
1 4 (3mj + 8 m2 )

and

_ m lac fz

m\F
(3/Wj + 8 m2 )

Ans.

Problem 41. A rod o f length I and mass M is fixed to one end o f a string. The string passes over a massless,frictionless pulley. A small ball o f mass m (< M) is attached to the other side o f the string. The ball has an opening through which the string passes and the ball can slide along the string with somefriction. Initially, the ball is held at level with the lower end o f the rod. When set free, both the masses move with constant acceleration. What is Mg mg the force o f friction, if the ball rises to the level o f Fig. 3.70 the upper end o f the rod in time t?

Problem 40. Two blocks o f masses m \ =3 kg and m2 = V3 kg are connected by a light inextensible string which passes over a smooth peg. The blocks rest on the inclined smooth

Solution: When the system is set in motion, let aM, am be the accelerations o f rod and ball respectively and F the force o f friction applied by the string on the ball. The equations o f motions are:

80 M g - T = MaM F - m g = mam ....(i) ....(ii)

P h y s ic s

fo r

C o m p e t it io n s V ol. I

(ii) It is long range force as it acts between any two particles in the universe. (iii) It is independent o f the nature o f medium between the particles. [B] Electromagnetic Force Force exerted by one particle on the other because o f the electric charge o f the particles is called electromagnetic force. The description o f electromagnetic force is more complicated and is given by Lorentz force equation Fem = Fe + Fm = ?E + q (\ x B)

The string ispulled up and the ball slides down due to its weight.Friction between the ball andstring tries to hold it but ultimately it moves with acceleration am. As the string is massless, the net force on any portion o f it must be zero. So, F -T Eqn. (i) can be written as: Mg - F = Ma M Adding Eqns. (ii) and (iii),
+ aM ~ F

....(iii)

f 1 m M

....(iv)

As the rod moves downward while ball upward, so, relative distance o f the rod and ball in time t, 1 2
l = - ( am + a M )t

For simplicity we divide it into two part, viz., electric which makes an electrically charged balloon stick to a wall and magnetic with which a magnet picks up iron nails. Following are the main characteristics o f electromagnetic forces: (i) These can be attractive or repulsive. (ii) These are long range forces. (iii) These depend on the nature o f medium between the charged particles. (iv) All macroscopic forces (except gravitational) which we experience as push or pull or by contact are electromagnetic, i.e., tension in a rope, the force o f friction, reaction, muscular force or force experienced by a compressed spring are electromagnetic forces. These are manifestations o f the electromagnetic attractions and repulsions between atoms, e.g., (a) When a body is placed on a surface, the surface due to electromagnetic repulsion pushes it up producing normal reaction, (b) Tension in a stretched string is maintained only because the atoms o f the rope attract one another. [C] Nuclear Force It is the strongest force that keeps nucleons (neutrons and protons) together inside the nucleus in spite o f large electric repulsion between protons. Radioactivity, fission and fusion, etc., result because o f nuclear force. Regarding nuclear force it is worth noting that: (i) It is charge independent as it exists between two neutrons, a neutron and a proton or two protons. (Yukawa gave his 7 t-meson theory to explain it). (ii) It is a short range force, i.e., effective only over a distance o f few fermi. (iii)/? shows saturation properties, i.e., force required to remove a nucleon from a nucleus is approximately the same whether the nucleus contains 10 or 100 nucleons. (iv) It can be attractive, repulsive or zero. For r < 0.5 fermi it is repulsive and for r > 40 fermi it approaches zero. (v) It is spin dependent. The force between two nucleons having parallel spins is stronger than the force between two nucleons having anti-parallel spins.

Substituting for (am + a M ) fromEqn.(iv), l = - F /1 2 ym or _L ' M Ans.

2ImM F = ( M m)t

Note:

In case F <m g,am is negative, i.e., ball slides down. The relative displacement = ^iaM ~ am )t anc* so the final result remains unchanged.

3.6 The Basic or Fundamental Forces

All the forces observed in nature such as muscular force, tension, reaction, friction, elastic, weight, electric, magnetic or nuclear, etc., can be explained in terms o f only the following four basic interactions: [A] Gravitational Force The force o f interaction which exists between two particles due to their masses is called gravitational force. This force is given by the well known Newton s law o f gravitation, i.e.. or f = G ? v * 17 r3 Gm\m2
1*1 =

Falling o f an apple to the earth or motion o f moon around the earth are the most familiar examples o f gravitational force. This is discussed in detail in Chapter 9 Gravitation and Gravity . Here it will be sufficient to remember that: (i) It is the weakest force and is always attractive.

Fo r c e

and

T orque (4) Now as according to Newton s II law: ie , dt p T t - f i d ? *i Pi

81

[D] W eak Force It acts between any two elementary particles. Under its action aneutron can change into a proton emitting an electron and a particle called antineutrino. This process is called negative P -decay. Never think that a neutron is composed o f a proton, an electron and an antineutrino. The force responsible for this change and many other radioactive decay reactions is different from gravitational, electromagnetic or nuclear forces. Such forces are called weak forces. The range o f a weak force is very small, in fact much smaller than the size o f a proton or a neutron. It has been found that for two protons at a distance o f 1 fermi,
F n F e m Fw

which in the light o f Eqn. (i) reduces to J = P2 Pi = A P

a

- *

-(IV)

-FG :: 1:10 2 :10~7 :10 38

i. e. , the action o f impulse is to change the momentum o f a body or particle and the impulse o f a force is equal to the change in momentum. This statement is known as impulse-momentum theorem and is analogous to work-energy theorem with the difference that the- former is related to vector physical quantities while the latter to scalars. (5) Examples o f impulse are hitting, kicking, catching, jumping, diving and collision, etc. In all these cases an impulse acts. Now for a given effect, J = JF dt = Fav At = Ap = constant So, constt. At

Physicists have long believed that all these fundamental forces are different aspects o f a single super-force . Einstein spent most o f his life in trying to unify these forces but failed. However, in 1979, Glashow, Salam and Others showed that weak force and electromagnetic force are different aspects o f a single electro weak force . The quest for further unification o f fundamental forces still continues.

3.7 Impulse
If a large force acts on a body or particle for a small time, the product o f force with time is defined as impulse, i.e., ....(i) Regarding impulse it is worth noting that: (1) It is a vector quantity having dimensions [MLT-1] and unit N-s. Its direction is same as that o f force. (2) From Eqn. (i) it is clear that the impulse is equal to the area under F(t) curve (Fig. 3.71).

So if time o f contact At is increased, average force is decreased (or diluted) and vice-versa. This is why: (a) In hitting or kicking a ball we decrease the time o f contact, so that a large force acts on the ball producing greater acceleration. (b) In catching a ball a player by drawing his hands backwards increases the time o f contact and so, lesser force acts on his hands and his hands are saved from getting hurt. (c) In jumping on sand (or water), the time o f contact is increased due to yielding o f sand or water, so force is diluted and we are not injured. However, if we jump on a cemented floor, the motion stops in a very short interval o f time resulting in a large force due to which we are seriously injured. Question IV. A force exerts an impulse J on a body changing its speed from u to v. The force and objects motion are along the same line. Show that the work done by theforce is J(u + v)/2. Answer: According to work-energy theorem we have W = AK = - m v 2- mu 2
1 2

Fig. 3.71

i.e.,

(3) In case o f impulse usually force is time dependent, so if Fav is the average magnitude o f the force, we can write the magnitude o f the impulse as j =
m

W = - m(v - u)(v + u) 2 J = m(v - u)

....(i)

But according to impulse-momentum theorem ....(ii) So, eliminating m between Eqns. (i) and (ii), W-i.e
1 J

F dt = Faw\t* d t = F m At
h

....(ii)

in which At is the duration for which the force acts. The value o f Fav must be taken so that the area within the rectangle o f Fig. 3.71 is equal to the area under the F(t) curve, i.e., / a v= (//A 0 ....(iii)

(v - u)(v + u)

2 (v-u )

W= J ( v + u)/2

This is the required result.

82 Problem 42. A cricket ball o f mass 150 g is moving with a velocity o fY l m/s and is hit by a bat so that the ball is turned back with a velocity o f 20 mis. I f the duration o f contact between the ball and bat is 0.01 s, find the impulse and the averageforce exerted on the ball by the bat. [EAM CET1992] Solution: According to given problem, change in momentum o f the ball
! /O

P h y s ic s

fo r

C o m p e t it io n s V ol. I O
r \ yy ' P 1'F F ,0^ 0

/ /

r Rotation
^

o K \\ r \ S \N Rotation S \
c

S \

t y = P f ~Pi = m (v - u) = 150x10"3[2 0 -(-1 2 )] So, by impulse-momentum theorem, J = Ap = 4.8 N-s And by time averaged definition o f force in case o f impulse, F av = Z = Ap. 4.80= 480N At At 0.01 Ans.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig. 3.73

Further from Eqn. (ii) it is also clear that torque t will be: minimum When |sin0|= min = 0 i.e., 0 = 0 or 180 > i.e., F is collinear with r . and [Fig. 3.73(c)] maximum When | sin0|= max = 1 i.e.,0 = 90 > i.e., F is orthogonal to r . and tmax = _F >[Fig. 3.73 (d)]

3.8 Torque
If a pivoted, hinged or suspended body tends to rotate under the action o f a force, it is said to be acted on by a torque: -> - r* x = rx F
Rotation Rotation

r t

S I

(4) Torque is the cause o f rotatory motion and in rotational motion it plays the same role as force plays in translatory motion, i.e., torque is rotational analogue o f force. This all is evident from the following correspondencies between rotatory and translatory motion:
Rotatory motion
Rotation (i) ? = I a

Translatory motion
F =m a

K
(b)
(C)

(ii)W=f^-dB (iii) P = x eo M , . -

-*W=lF-d7
P = F- v

Fig. 3.72

^ ^

Regarding torque it is worth noting that: (1) It has dimensions [ML2T -2 ] and units N-m, same as that o f work or energy. However, in case o f torque N-m cannot be written as joule, because joule is used specifically for work or energy. (2) It is an axial vector, i.e., its direction is always > perpendicular to the plane containing vector r and, F in accordance with right hand screw rule. It is customary to ascribe a positive sign to all torques acting to turn a body anticlockwise and a minus to all torques tending to turn it clockwise. (3) The magnitude o f torque will be: T = rFsin0 [as| Ax B |= A B sin0] ....(ii)

dp - ip F = dt

(5) Rotation o f a door about a hinge, rotation o f grinding wheel about a pivot or unbolting a nut by a pipe-wrench can be cited as examples o f torque. In these for producing a desired rotational effect x = constant i.e., Frsin8 = constant i.e., F = c-0DtfL rsinO

i.e., longer the arm and greater the sin 0, lesser will be the force required for producing the desired rotational effect. This is why it is much easier to rotate a body about a given axis when the force is applied at maximum distance from the axis o f rotation and normal to the arm. (6) On tilting, a body will restore its initial position due to torque o f weight about the point O till the line o f action o f weight passes through its base. On tilting, a body will topple due to torque o f weight about O, if the line of action o f weight does not pass through the base. This is self-evident from Fig. 3.74.'

But from Fig. 3.73 (a) or (b) ?-sin9 = p = .L distance between axis o f rotation and line o f action o f force. So, x = p F = Moment o f force ....(iii) This is why torque is synonymous with moment o f force, and p is called moment or lever arm.

Fo r c e

and

Torque

83 Question V. Discuss whether or not a body is in equilibrium and what type o f motion it executes when two oppositely directedforces are applied to it. Answer: There are four possibilities depending on the magnitude and point o f application o f the forces: (A) When the forces are equal and act along the same line As shown in Fig. 3.77 (a) in this situation:
2F=0

and

St = 0

Fig. 3.74

(7) A body is said to be in rotational equilibrium* if resultant torque acting on it is zero, i.e.,
Zt =0

e.g., in case o f beam balance or see-saw, the system will be in rotational equilibrium if
t 1+

t F Rest Spinning (b) Slipping Rolling (d)

(a)

(c)

Fig. 3.77
x2 = 0

or or

Flh ~ F 2l2 =0
F\h = F 2 l2
o
i R

So the body is in both translatory as well as in rotatory equilibrium, i.e., body will remain at rest, if initially it was at rest. (A dipole situated in a uniform field with its axis collinear with the field is an example o f this situation.) (B) When the forces are equal and do not act along the same line As shown in Fig. 3.77 (b) in this situation:
R.H.S.

Fi L.H.S.

IF = 0

but

[=Fl]

Fig. 3.75

However, if

L.H.S. will move downwards and if

So, the body is in translatory equilibrium but not in rotatory equilibrium, i.e., it will not translate but will rotate, i. e., will spin. (A dipole situated in a uniformfield with its axis at an angle to the field is an example o f this situation.) (C) When the forces are unequal and act along the same line As shown in Fig. 3.77 (c) in this situation: EF 0 but Sx = 0 So the body is in rotatory equilibrium but not in translatory equilibrium, i.e., it will not rotate but will translate, i.e., will slip or skid. (A dipole situated in a non-uniform field with its axis collinear with the field is an example o f this situation.) (D) When theforces are unequal and do not act along the same line As shown in Fig. 3.77 (d) in this situation: EF 5 *0 and It * 0 So, the body is neither in translatory nor in rotatory equilibrium, i.e., it will rotate as well as translate, i.e., will roll. (A dipole situated in a non-uniform field with its axis at an angle to the field is an example o f this situation.)

t [ < x 2 R.H.S. will move downwards and the system will not be in rotational equilibrium.
Note: A special combination o f forces even when the entire body is free to move can rotate it. This combination o f forces is called a couple. A couple is defined as combination o f two equal but oppositely directedforces not acting along the same line. The torque exerted by a couple is also given by

? = -?xF
and is independent o f the location o f the axis o f rotation. The basic difference between torque and couple is the fact that in case o f couple both the forces are externally applied while in case o f torque one force is externally applied and the other is reactionary.

* As for translatory equilibrium as F=0, so equilibrium o f a body or system implies: 2F = 0 (a ) and Ex* = 0

....(b)

Eqns. (a) and (b) are called conditions o f equilibrium.