CHAPTER 3: HEREDITY AND VARIATION CELL DIVISION GENE, DNA AND CHROMOSOME 1.Each cell has a nucleus.

Inside the nucleus are the chromosomes Setiap sel mempunyai nucleus. Di dalam nucleus terdapat kromosom.

2.They are the thread-like structure made up of long DNA molecule Kromosom seperti bebenang halus yang terbina daripada molekul DNA

3.Chromosome come in pairs. In each pair of chromosomes, there are thousands of different genes. Kromosom wujud berpasangan. Setiap pasangan kromosom mempunyai beribu gen yang berbeza. 4. Human being has 46 of chromosomes( 23 pairs). Manusia mempunyai 46 kromosom ( 23 pasang)

5.DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA is a sort of blueprint that determines the genetic information carried by the chromosomes. 6.There are two types of cell division, namely a. mitosis b.meiosis MITOSIS 1. Mitosis is process of cell division that occurs in somatic cells except in sex cells. Mitosis ialah proses pembahagian sel yang berlaku di sel soma kecuali sel pembiakan 2. In the process, one parent cell produces two daughter cells. Di dalam proses ini sel induk menghasilkan dua sel anak. 3. Through mitosis, each daughter cell contains the same number of chromosomes and thus the same genes as the parent cell. Melalui proses mitosis setiap sel anak mengandungi bilangan kromosom yang sama dan sama seperti sel induk

MEIOSIS 1. Meiosis is a process of cell division that occurs in sex organs for production of gametes or sex cells.

Meiosis ialah proses pembahagian sel yang berlaku di organ pembiakan untuk penghasilan gamet dan sel pembiakan. 2. In the process, one parent cell produces four daughter cells Dalam proses ini sel induk menghasilkan 4 sel anak. 3. In meiosis, the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells is half of the number of chromosomes in the parent cell Dalam proses meiosis, bilangan kromoson dalam sel anak separuh daripada sel induk

4. Meiosis only occurs in reproductive cells in the ovary and testis (in animals) as well as in the ovary and anther (in plants) to produce gametes. Meiosis hanya berlaku di sel pembiakan iaitu ovari dan testis bagi haiwan dan ovari dan anter bagi tumbuhan untuk menghasilkan gamet. 5. The process of meiosis involves two divisions Proses meiosis terbahagi kepada dua bahagian a. Meiosis I b.Meiosis II 6. Crossing over in meiosis results in variations where the daughter cells are genetically different from the parent cells Pindah silang dalam meiosis menyebabkan variasi dimana sel anak berbeza dengan sel induk secara genetik

THE IMPORTANCE OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS KEPENTINGAN MITOSIS DAN MEIOSIS MITOSIS 1. Forms new cells for growth Membentuk sel baru untuk pertumbuhan 2. Form new cells to replace cells or tissue which damaged or have died Membentuk sel baru untuk menggantikan sel atau tisu yang rosak atau mati. 3. Maintain the genetic information of the parent cells Mengekalkan maklumat genetic bagi sel induk MEIOSIS 1. Meiosis causes variation among species of the same organism Meiosis menyebabkan variasi antara spesies yang sama organisma 2. To produce gametes Untuk menghasilkan gamet

COMPARISON BETWEEN MEIOSIS AND MITOSIS PERBANDINGAN ANTARA MITOSIS DAN MEIOSIS MITOSIS DIFFERENCES MEIOSIS Where it occurs Dimana ia berlaku Number of daughter cell produced Bilangan sel anak yang dihasilkan Number of chromosomes daughter sel Bilangan kromosom sel anak Genetic contents of daughter cells Kandungan genetic sel anak Crossing over process

Proses pindah silang Exercise Fill in the blanks 1. ___________ are thread like structures found in the nuclei of animal and plant cells 2. Chromosomes contain hereditary material called __________ 3. ___________is a cell division process to form new cells in the body 4. _____________ is a ccell division process to form gamets 5. In human being, mitosis occurs in ______ while meiosis occurs in reproductive organs like ________and _________ 6. In plants, mitosis occurs in ___________and ____________ while meiosis occurs in __________and _______

7. Mitosis produces __________ daughter cells, while meiosis produce __________daughter cells 8. ___________________which occurs during miosis causes variation among the species. Exercise 1. Figure shows a part of the cell division which takes place in the human somatic cell Rajah di bawah menunjukkan sebahagian daripada pembahagian sel yang berlaku dalam sel soma manusia

a. Name the process of cell division __________________________________ _____________________________ b.Complete stage X in figure

c. State two importance of this cell division __________________________________ _____________________________ __________________________________ ______________________________ d.State two section in plants that experience this cell division. i. __________________ ii ____________________________ f. How many daughter cell are produced in this cell division. ___________________________________ 2. Figure shows some stages of cell division occurring in humans. Rajah dibawah menunjukkan peringkat pembahagian sel yang berlaku dalam badan manusia

a. What type of cell division in this diagram? __________________________________ _____________________________ b.What happens at stage L __________________________________ _____________________________ c. Name two organs in humans where this cell division occurs i. ________________ ii____________ d.State one reason for the importance of this cell division __________________________________ __________________________________ _

e. State two section in plants which experience this cell division. i.____________ ii______________ f. How many daughter cell are produced in this cell division. _____________________________________ _____

INHERITANCE DOMINANT GENES AND RECESSIVE GENES PERWARISAN GEN DOMINAN DAN GEN RESESIF 1. Dominant genes are genes which shows the characteristics that they control when paired with a dominant gene or recessive gene. Gen dominant ialah gen yang menunjukkan ciri ciri yang dikawal apabila bergabung dengan gen dominant atau gen resesif 2. Recessive genes are genes which only show that characteristic that they control when these genes are paired with another recessive gene Gen resesif ialah gen dimana menunjukkan ciri yang dikawal hanya apabila bergabung dengan gen resesif 3. The characteristic determined by dominant genes are called dominant traits. Ciri yang ditentukan oleh gen dominant dikenali sebagai sifat dominan 4. The characteristic determined by recessive genes are called recessive traits.

Ciri yang ditentukan oleh gen resesif dikenali sebagai sifat resesif 5. Dominant genes are represented by capital letters whreas recessivegenes are represented by small letters Gen dominan diwakili oleh huruf besar manakala gen resesif diwakili ole huruf kecil 6. For example Sebagai contoh H: represents the gene curly hair which is dominant gene Mewakili gen rambut kerinting dimana gen dominan h: represents the gene for straight hair which is recessive gene Mewakili gen rambut lurus dimana gen resesif Human characteristic controlled by dominant genes Tall Curly hair Black hair Human characteristic controlled by dominant genes Dwarf Straight hair Blonde hair

Free ear lobe Attached ear lobe MECHANISM OF INHERITANCE OF TRAITS Mekanisma dalam perwarisan sifat 1. A schematic diagram can be used to illustrate of traits determined by the genes. Gambarajah skema boleh digunakan untuk mengillustrasi penentuan sifat bagi gen Copy pg 55 2.Genotype is the genetic composition of an organism or the combination of genes it possesses Genotip ialah kandungan genetic bagi organisma. Contoh HH, Hh dan hh 3. Phenotype is the characteristics that can be observed or determined Fenotip ialah ciri yang boleh diperhatikan contoh rambut kerinting.

Example

1.If a right handed man (Kk) marries a left-handed woman (kk), determine the probability of their child being born left handed [ K: dominant gene(right handed), k: recessive gene (left handed)] 2.Amin and Minah are tall (Tt). Determine their probability of having a. a tall child b. a short child [T: dominant gene (tall), t: recessive gene (short)]

SEX DETERMINATION Penentuan Jantina Anak 1.They are two types of sex chromosomes, that is Terdapat dua jenis kromosom seks a.X chromosomes b.Y chromosomes 2.Females have two chromosomes XX Perempuan mempunyai dua kromosom XX 3.Male have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome XY Lelaki mempunyai satu kromosom X dan satu kromosom Y 4. Formation of baby girl Pembentukan bayi perempuan

5. Formation of baby boy Pembentukan bayi lelaki

22+Y

Formation of baby boy Formation of baby boy

Copy figure 3.10 pg 59

OCCURRENCE OF TWINS Kejadian kembar 1.There are two types of twins Terdapat dua jenis kembar a.identical twins kembar seiras b.non-identical twins kembar tidak seiras 2.Sometimes the division of the embryo is not complete, therefore Siamese twins are formed. Kadangkala pembahagian embrio tidak lengkap, oleh itu menyebabkan kembar Siam terbentuk

Pg 60 dan 61 Differences between identical twins and non identical twins- pg 62

Comparison between identical twins and non identical twin Perbandingan antara kembar seiras dengan kembar tak seiras Differences Identical twins Non identical twins Formation Formed when Two ovum ovum fertilised by fertilized by a two sperms sperm divides into two Placenta One shared Two placenta embryos formed grow in separate placenta Sex Same sex Same or different sex Genetic Same genetic, Different

make-up

same appearance

genetic make-up, have different appearance

Mutation Mutasi 1.Mutation is the spontaneous change to the structure of genes or chromosomes of an organism. Mutasi ialah perubahan spontan pada struktur gen atau kromosom 2.Mutation causes change of characteristic in a child Mutasi menyebabkan perubahan ciri-ciri pada kanak-kanak 3.Mutation occurs in somatic cells or gametes Mutasi berlaku di sel soma atau gamet 4.There are two types of mutation Terdapat dua jenis mutasi

a. gene mutation b. chromosome mutation Gene mutation Mutasi gen 1.Gene mutation involve change in the chemical structure of a gene. Mutasi gen ialah perubahan pada struktur kimia pada gen 2.Gene mutations change or produce new genes to replace normal genes. Mutasi gen mengubah atau menghasilkan gen baru untuk menggantikan gen yang normal 3.Genes that have undergoes mutation are called mutants. Gen yang mengalami mutasi dipanggil mutan 4.Examples of inherited diseases caused by gene mutation are:

Contoh penyakit yang disebabkan oleh mutasi gen Diseases Explanation Colour Cannot differentiate the blindness colours red and green Buta Tidak dapat membezakan warna warna merah dan hijau Albinism - the newly produced genes Albino are unable to produce skin pigment Gen baru yang terhasil tidak boleh menghasilkan pigmen kulit - the skin and hair of albinos are white and their eyes are pink Warna kulit dan rambut albino berwarna putih dan mata berwarna merah jambu Hemophilia - caused by deficiency of a type of protein in the blood

required for blood clotting . Disebabkan oleh kekurangan sejenis protein dalam darah yang diperlukan untuk pembekuan darah Chromosomes mutations 1.Chromosome mutation involve changes in the number of chromosomes or arrangement of genes in chromosomes Mutasi kromosom ialah perubahan dalam bilangan kromosom atau susunan gen dalam kromosom 2.Chromosome mutation can cause hereditary diseases like Mutasi kromosom boleh menyebabkan penyakit seperti a.Downs syndrome b.Klinefelters syndrome c.Turners syndrome

Diseases Downs syndrome

Explanation -Caused by the presence of one extra chromosome at chromosome 21 Disebabkan oleh kehadiran lebihan kromosom pada kromosom yang ke-21 - the baby has 47 chromosome Bayi mempunyai 47 kromosom Klinefelters - has one extra x syndrome chromosome , XXY Terlebih

Symptom -Slanting eyes Mata sepet -shorter stature Bertubuh pendek - mentally retarded Terencat akal

-undevelopped testes Testes tidak berkembang

kromosom X, XXY

Turners syndrome

Lacks one X chromosome -kurang kromosom x, XO

- infertility mandul breast enlargement pembesaran buah dada -sterile mandul -lack secondary sexual characteristic Kekurangan ciri seks sekunder

Factors that cause mutation

Factors Nuclear

Examples Effects Alpha, beta Change the or gamma chromosome

radiation High frequency radio waves Toxic chemicals

rays X- rays or ultraviolet light

structure Change the chromosome structure

Cigarette Cancer smoke, drug, colouring, sweetener

EXERCISE 1. State each type of hereditary disease based on the explanation given Brief explanation Type of hereditary disease a. Changes in the genes Albinism that control skin colour b. patient cannot Colour blindness distinguish between red and green c.Patients blood clots hemophilia

slowly d. Patients somatic cell has 47 chromosomes e. patients somatic cell has one extra X chromosome f. patients somatic cell lacks of one X chromosome

Downs syndrome Klinefelters syndrome Turners syndrome

EFFECTS OF GENETIC RESEARCH ON HUMAN LIFE Kesan kajian genetik terhadap kehidupan manusia 1.Research in genetic has contributed greatly to medicine and agriculture

Kajian dalam bidang genetic amat berguna dalam bidang perubatan dan pertanian Medicine Perubatan Disease Genetic research Diabetic Bacteria has genetically modified to make human insulin Bacteria diubahsuai secara genetik untuk membuat insulin manusia Hemophilia Sheep which have been genetically modified can produce milk which contain protein that can cure hemophilia Kambing biri biri yang telah ubahsuai genetic dapat menghasilkan susu yg

mengandungi protein yang boleh merawat hemofilia. Agriculture pertanian 1. Selective breeding is done on crops and livestock to produce high quality agriculture products Kacukan terpilih dilakukan untuk menghasilkan produk pertanian yang berkualiti Example: oil palm Dura x Pisifera Tenera (more fruits, have thinner shell) The importance of selective breeding Kepentingan kacukan terpilih 1. produce breed that is resistant to diseases menghasilkan kacuk yang tahan terhadap penyakit

2. shorter growth period masa pertumbuhan yang lebih pendek 3. higher yield hasil yang lebih banyak 4. better quality produce menghasilkan produk yang lebih berkualiti VARIATION Variasi 1. Variation is the differences in characteristics which exist among individuals of the same species Variasi ialah perbezaan dalam sifat yang wujud di kalangan individu yang sama spesies 2. There are two types of variation a. continuous variation variasi selanjar b. discontinuous variation variasi tidak selanjar

Continuous variation 1. Continuous variation refers to characteristics which do not show obvious variation in a trait among individuals of the same species Variasi selanjar ialah variasi yang menunjukkan sifat yang pebezaannya tidak jelas dan tidak ketara. 2. Examples a. height b. body weight c. intelligence d. skin colour Discontinuous variation 1. Discontinuous variation refers individuals showing clear-cut characteristics with no intermediate between them.

Variasi tak selanjar ialah variasi yang menunjukkan perbezaan sifat yang jelas dan ketara, 2. examples a. blood groups b. fingerprint- cap jari c. ability to roll the tongueskebolehan menggulung lidah d. type of ear lobe- jenis cuping telinga

Factors That Cause Variation Factor faktor yang menyebabkan variasi

Genetic factor - inherited from parents diwarisi dpd ibubapa - example: blood group, eye colour

Environmental factor - Caused by food, exposure by sunlight, climate and weather - example: body weight, intelligence

IMPORTANCE OF VARIATION Kepentingan variasi 1.Enable each individual of the same species to be different from one another

Membolehkan kita membezakan individu individu dalam spesies yang sama. 2. Variasi menghasilkan spesies atau variety tumbuhan dan haiwan yang baru
Latihan m/s 77 soalan no 1

EXERCISE 1. Table 1 shows the height of 30 students in a class.

a.based on data in table1 , complete Table 2 Height 145- 150- 155- 160- 165(cm) 149 154 159 164 169 Number of students Table 2 b. Based on the result in Table 2 , draw a histogram.

c. (i) Based on the histogram, what type of variation is shown by the height of the students? ii. Explain your answer in c (i) d. Give one factor that can affect this type of variation Answer: c. i. continuous variation ii. Variation shows not clear cut differences d. type of food /genetic factor 2. Figure 1 shows a cross-breeding between a pea plant with red flowers and pea plant with white flowers to produce F1 generation plants. The gene of the red

flowers is dominant, while that of the white flowers is recessive.

Pea plant with red flowers Parents: MM Pea plant with white flowers

mm

Gametes:: F1 generation:

b.what type of cell division takes place during the formation of gametes? c.Complete the schematic diagram in figure 1 to show the cross- breeding between the plants. d.State the colour of the flowers produced in the F1 generation.

e.State the parts of the flower that produce the male gamete and the female gamete. f. If the F1 generation plants are g.cross- bred among themselves, predict the ratio of the number of plants with red flowers to the number of plants with white flowers produced Answer: a. Meiosis c. red d. male gamete: anther female gamete: ovary e. 3:1