TSL3106

N o t e b o o k : 2 PPG 08/11/2012 9:31 PM C re at e d : Suhaimi Shaarani A u t h o r: U p d at e d : 08/11/2012 11:40 PM

Reading Aloud Skills Enunciation - To pronounce; articulate Pronunciation - The act or manner of pronouncing words; utterance of speech Stress - The emphasis placed on the sound or syllable spoken most forcefully in a word or phrase Intonation - The use of changing pitch to convey syntactic information Rhythm - In phonetics, the sense of movement in speech, marked by the stress, timing, and quantity of syllables. Reading Comprehension Skills Reading for main ideas and Supporting details Inferencing, predicting and drawing conclusion Sequencing Cause and effect Synthesizing - To combine so as to form a new, complex product Evaluating Selecting, Adapting and Producing Activities and Materials for Developing Reading Aloud and Reading Comprehension Skills Readibility Context Techniques for Teaching Vocabulary Word attack skills Contextual clues Visuals Mimes, actions and gestures Dictionary Games

Skimming Scanning Extensive reading Intensive reading

reading shorter texts to extract accurate detailed information quickly reading a text to get the gist of it quickly going through a text to find a particular piece of information reading longer texts, usually for pleasure

A top-down reading model This model states that readers begin with expectations and ideas about a text, based on its title, format and style, before they begin to look for words that will substantiate or refute these expectations. It is an approach which begins with a picture of the whole and deals with the parts in terms of this. Reading is a guessing game because readers must infer meaning, decide what to retain or not, and read on. Relying on their experience and intelligence. emphasizes what the reader brings to the text reading is driven by meaning

proceeds from whole to part Features of top-down approach...(Gove 1983) readers can comprehend a selection even though they do not recognise each word readers should use meaning and grammatical cues to identify unrecognised words reading for meaning is the primary objective of reading rather than mastery of letters, letter/sound relationships and words reading requires the use of meaning activities rather than the mastery of a series of word-recognition skills the primary focus of instruction should be the reading of sentences, paragraphs, and whole sentences the most important aspect about reading is the amount and kind of info gained through reading A bottom-up reading model. This process reflects the old models of reading as a simple process of decoding words into thoughts. However, it accepts that words must first be recognised and, having been decoded, the thoughts must then be remembered. It is an approach which works from the parts to the whole, building up gradually in a process of growth. Readers must first recognize multiple linguistic signalsletters, syllables, words, phrases, grammatical cues, discourse markersin order to understand their reading. emphasizes on the written or printed text reading is driven by a process that results in meaning (..or, reading is driven by text) proceeds from parts to whole Features of a bottom-up approach to reading. identify letter features link these features to recognise letters combine letters to recognise spelling patterns link spelling patterns to recognise words, and then proceed to sentences, paragraph and text-level processing An Interactive reading model recognizes the interaction of bottom-up and top-down processes simultaneously throughout the reading process (combination of both)...a bit like "inductive'/"deductive" approach in grammar teaching. Features of interactive reading model the interactive model suggests that the reader constructs meaning by the selective use of info from all sources of meaning (graphemic, phonemic, morphemic, syntax, semantics)...ok?....without adherence to any one set order.... an interactive model is one which uses print as input and has meaning as output. But the reader provides input too, and the reader, interacting with the text, in selective in using just as little of the cues from text as necessary to construct meaning. (Goodman, K. 1981) Reading is at once a perceptual and a cognitive process. it is a process which bridges and blurs these two traditional distinctions. Moreover, a skilled reader must be able to make use of the sensory, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic info to accomplish the task. These various sources of info appear to interact in many complex ways during the process of reading (Rumelhart, D. 1985)

The Purpose of reading Read for understanding. Studying involves reading to comprehend concepts and details. These components depend on each other. Details help explain or support general concepts, and concepts provide a framework for remembering details. Read to evaluate critically . Critical evaluation involves understanding. It means approaching material with an open mind, examining causes and effects, evaluating ideas, and asking questions that test the writer's argument and assumptions. Critical reading brings a level of understanding that goes beyond basic information recall. Read for practical application. A third purpose for reading is to gather usable information that you can apply toward a specific goal. When you read a textbook preface or an instruction booklet for a new software package, your goal is to learn how to do or use something. Reading and action usually go hand in hand. Read for pleasure. Some materials you read for entertainment, such as Sports Illustrated magazine, the latest page-turner by DaVinci Code author Dan Brown, or even novels by Charles Dickens and Jane Austen. As Yale professor Harold Bloom points out, reading for pleasure gives you the opportunity to enlarge your life and to enter into "alternate realities." "Why read?" Bloom asks. "Because you can know, intimately, only a very few people, and perhaps you never know them at all. After reading [the Thomas Mann masterpiece] The Magic Mountain you know Hans Castorp thoroughly, and he is greatly worth knowing."

Reading readiness To develop own knowledge of the English Language so he can understand what he reads Motivation to learn to read in English The ability to discriminate between shapes so that he can recognize letters and words when he begins to learn to read Recognition that print has meaning just as talk has meaning Extensive Reading Carried out "to achieve a general understanding of a text." Occurring when students read large amounts of high interest material, usually out of class, concentrating on meaning, "reading for gist" and skipping unknown words. The aims of extensive reading are to build reader confidence and enjoyment. Extensive reading is always done for the comprehension of main ideas, not for specific details. Characteristics: Students read as much as possible. A variety of materials on a range of topics is available. Students select what they want to read . The purposes of reading are usually related to pleasure, information and general understanding. Reading is its own reward.

Reading materials are well within the linguistic competence of the students in terms of vocabulary and grammar. Reading is individual and silent. Reading speed is usually faster than slower. Teachers orient students to the goals of the program. The teacher is a role model of a reader for the students.

Activities: Reading may be combined with a speaking component. For example, they may interview each other about their reading. Reading may be combined with a writing component. For example, after reading the newspaper, students may be asked to write a newspaper report. Class time may be included for book exchange, if there is an in-class library. Students may set their own goals for their next session. Students may progress from reading graded reading material to authentic text . It should be expected that students will "slow down" in their reading then, it it becomes more challenging. In some Extensive Reading Programs, teachers will allow their students to report on their reading in their native language so as not to make the "proof" of reading more difficult than the reading itself. This, of course, only works if the teacher understands the student's first language. Extensive reading programs are often cited as being more "pleasurable" because there are no "tedious" exercises to complete.

Assessment: there are no reading comprehension exercises or formal assessments in Extensive Reading programs. Course grades for an Extensive Reading program may be determined by marks given for reading reports, reading journals, book reports and projects.

Role of Teacher The teacher gives recommendations on reading materials, based on student's interests. The teacher guides students in choosing appropriate levels of material, beginning with easy books. The teacher guides students in choosing a variety of materials of their interest. This may especially be necessary for students that choose the same type over and over. The teacher guides students in setting specific goals for amounts read. The teacher provides modeling. If class time is given for reading, the teacher reads at the same time. The teacher overlooks if students are not aware of the exact meaning of each word. The teacher should not jump in and explain. The teacher leads pre-reading activities to build interest in the text, such as in the characters, places, themes, and actions. The teacher must be careful to provide just enough to stimulate curiosity but not so much that the need to read is removed.

Role of Student The student assumes total responsibility for developing reading ability . The student reads without the use of a dictionary. The student usually chooses their own material and moves along at their own pace but

must push themselves in order to show greater progress.

Advantages The students may: develop a "reading habit" gain more confidence in reading improve their attitude towards reading and become more motivated to read feel more autonomous over their own learning and more likely to take more initiative. become more " independent readers", being able to read for different purposes and being able to change reading strategies for different kinds of texts become more aware of what's available to them to read and how to access materials expand sight vocabulary acquire "incidental" grammatical competence - that is, it may be acquired even though it was not directly taught build background knowledge increase reading comprehension improve overall language competence be more prepared for further academic courses because they have read large quantities An Extensive Reading program may be combined with writing or combined with speaking practice in a meaningful way (such as when students discuss with each other the books they have been reading. Broughton (1978) suggested that "It is by pursuing the activity of extensive reading that the volume of practice necessary to achieve rapid and efficient reading can be achieved." (p.92) Krashen (1993a) suggested that the benefits of free voluntary reading included "enhanced language acquisition and literacy development, more ideas and information, greater success in life, loss of verbal memory, and more fun."

Challenges: An Extensive Reading program may be costly and time-consuming to set up if materials are not already available. It may be difficult to get support from Administration. Students need to have easy access to texts within their language proficiency level. An Extensive Reading program is easiest to establish when the students have a high level of second language proficiency. For intermediate levels, students require a specialized library within their language proficiency range. They need texts they can read without great use of a dictionary. It may be difficult to keep students challenged to read more difficult texts as the program continues. Some established programs use a "weighing scale" for students to record materials read, giving more "marks" for materials read at a higher level. Although this has proven to be a motivating or competitive factor in some cases, in others it becomes counter-productive if students try to read texts that are more difficult than they can manage and consequently become discouraged. Reading each student's journals and reports can be very time-consuming for teachers. Students who come from a culture in which literacy is not valued may be unwilling to participate in pleasure reading or may not get support at home. Some teachers prefer a skills based program and do not feel comfortable with Extensive Reading. Some teachers are unaware of how to use Graded Readers and so, provide a limited range of activities for students, limiting their responses. Some teachers feel that time spent on Extensive Reading will take away from time that

could be spent on learning language skills. Others will argue that Extensive Reading provides a "richer context" for practice. Some people feel that if graded readers are used, they can give a false impression of the level of reading that has been achieved. They feel that some students may try "ungraded" materials too soon and may revert to using a dictionary to translate. Some people feel that students may place too much emphasis on the number of pages read instead of on the understanding achieved. Students that have only been exposed to Intensive Reading programs may not believe that Extensive Reading is a "proper" way to learn. Aeberscold (1997) reported that feedback from students in an Extensive Reading program indicated that they liked the "choice" but not the "load" Intensive reading Calls attention to grammatical forms, discourse markers, and other surface structure details for the purpose of understanding literal meaning, implications, rhetorical relationships, and the like. As a "zoom lens" strategy . Intensive Reading, sometimes called "Narrow Reading", may involve students reading selections by the same author or several texts about the same topic. When this occurs, content and grammatical structures repeat themselves and students get many opportunities to understand the meanings of the text. Characteristics: usually classroom based reader is intensely involved in looking inside the text students focus on linguistic or semantic details of a reading students focus on surface structure details such as grammar and discourse markers students identify key vocabulary students may draw pictures to aid them (such as in problem solving) texts are read carefully and thoroughly, again and again aim is to build more language knowledge rather than simply practice the skill of reading seen more commonly than extensive reading in classrooms Materials: usually very short texts - not more than 500 words in length chosen for level of difficulty and usually, by the teacher chosen to provide the types of reading and skills that the teacher wants to cover in the course Skills developed: rapid reading practice Interpreting text by using: word attack skills text attack skills non-text information Activities: Intensive reading exercises may include: looking at main ideas versus details understanding what is implied versus stated

making inferences looking at the order of information and how it effects the message identifying words that connect one idea to another identifying words that indicate change from one section to another Assessment : Assessment of intensive reading will take the form of reading tests and quizzes. The most common systems of questioning are multiple-choice and free-response. Mackay (1968) , in his book Reading in a Second Language, reminds teachers that the most important objective in the reading class should NOT be the testing of the student to see if they have understood. Teachers should, instead, be spending most of the time training the student to understand what they read. Role of the teacher The teacher chooses suitable text. The teacher chooses tasks and activities to develop skills. The teacher gives direction before, during and after reading. The teacher prepares students to work on their own. Often the most difficult part is for the teacher to "get out of the way" . The teacher encourages students through prompts, without giving answers. Advantages It provides a base to study structure, vocabulary and idioms. It provides a base for students to develop a greater control of language It provides for a check on the degree of comprehension for individual students Disadvantages There is little actual practice of reading because of the small amount of text. In a class with multi-reading abilities, students may not be able to read at their own level because everyone in the class is reading the same material. The text may or may not interest the reader because it was chosen by the teacher. There is little chance to learn language patterns due to the small amount of text. Because exercises and assessment usually follow intensive reading, students may come to associate reading with testing and not pleasure. Skimming Skimming is a quick reading to get: to know the general meaning of a passage to know how the passage is organized, that is, the structure of the text to get an idea of the intention of the writer Skimming is a more complex task than scanning because it requires the reader to organize and remember some of the information given by the author, not just to locate it. Skimming is a tool in which the author's sequence can be observed, unlike scanning in which some predetermined information is sought after.

When it is used Skimming is used when reading some some general question in mind. Skimming is used in making decisions on how to approach a text such as when

determining if a careful reading is deserving. Skimming is used to build student confidence and an understanding that it is possible to gain meaning without reading every word in a text. Skimming is a skill that a student may want to develop if they are planning to continue with academic studies. It is often used in reviewing for a test.

Role of the teacher Before the students start reading, the teacher should guide students to ask themselves the following questions: What kind of audience was the text written for? Was it, for example, the general public, technical readers, or academic students? What type of text is it? Is it, for example, a formal letter, an advertisement, or a set of instructions? What was the author's purpose? Was it , for example, to persuade, to inform or to instruct? The teacher should make the following clear to students before assigning a skimming exercise: the purpose of the exercise how deeply the text is to be read

Role of the student Students read through the text in the following manner: Read the title if any. Read the introduction or the first paragraph. Read the first sentence of each of the following paragraphs. Read any headings or sub-headings. Look at any pictures or phrases that are in boldface or italics Read the summary or last paragraph.

Activities Students must locate facts that are expressed in sentences, not single words. Although speed is essential and the teacher often sets a time limit to the activity, skimming should not be done competitively. Students should be encouraged individually to better themselves. To improve skimming, readers should read more and more rapidly, to form appropriate questions and predictions and then read quickly Pugh (1978) suggests that to assess skimming, after the students have read and completed the assigned questions, further questions may be asked, "beyond the scope of the purpose originally set" (p.70). If students can answer these questions correctly, it indicates they have read the text too closely. Scanning Scanning ia a quick reading, focusing on locating specific information. Scanning involves quick eye movements, not necessarily linear in fashion, in which the eyes wander until the reader finds the piece of information needed. Scanning is used when a specific piece of information is required, such as a name, date, symbol, formula, or phrase, is required. The reader knows what the item looks like and so, knows when he has located what he was searching for. It is assumed then, that very little information is processed into long-term memory or even for immediate understanding because the objective is simply matching.

When it is used Scanning is used often with technical, scientific or professional materials to locate specific information. Scanning is a valuable skill for second language learners to develop because often they do not require a detailed read of a text. There are many everyday uses for scanning, relevant to a purpose, such as reading a schedule.

Role of Teacher The teacher selects passages that do include specific information. The teacher may use authentic materials that are commonly scanned in real life, such as the telephone directory, menus, bus schedules. The teacher may ask students before they scan a text to note how the information is organized in the text. The teacher needs to remind students that as they read carefully to find the required information, they should pay particular attention to titles and keywords.

Role of the Student The student forms questions before reading. What specific information are they looking for? The student looks for contextual clues. The student tries to anticipate what the answer might look like and what sorts of clues would be useful. The student is aware of the graphic form that the answer may take, such as a numeral, a written number, a capitalized word or a short phrase that includes key words.

Activities Activities may include exercises that are devised by the teacher in which students scan for a single word or specific text . Activities may include exercises that are often carried on as a competition so students will work quickly. Students use skills of prediction and anticipation. Students may do any of the following: make predictions and guesses use titles and tables of contents to get an idea of what a passage is about activate prior knowledge about the topic of the passage by answering some questions or performing a quiz anticipate what they want to learn about the top use titles, pictures, and prior knowledge to anticipate the contents of the text use key words, that may have been given to them by the teacher, that do not appear in the text, that allude to the main idea It is an accepted view today that efficient readers are not passive. They react with a text by having expectations and ideas about the purposes of the text as well as possible outcomes. They reflect on expectations as they read, anticipate what will come next. In other words, they "interact with the text". Reading approaches Phonics approach most soundly supported by research for effective instruction in beginning reading Must be explicitly taught Must be systematically organized and sequenced

Must include learning how to blend sounds together Multi-Sensory Approach effective for special needs Uses all possible senses tracing, saying, listening, looking Typically called VAKT Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic, Tactile Can be used with either Phonics or Whole Language Linguistic Method supported only by "qualitative research" instead of quantitative research Teaches "whole words" in word families Students are not explicitly taught that there is a relationship between letters and sounds for most sounds Language Experience called "Whole Language" Expects child to learn reading as "naturally" as speech Uses childs oral language as content for reading Uses childs oral language as basis for spelling instruction Children learn to "read" by reading and re-reading "big books" together with the teacher and then the teacher gradually withdraws prompts so child appears to be reading that book Reading Comprehension Support Explicitly teaches strategies and techniques for studying texts and acquiring meaning

Reading skills Reading skills enable readers to turn writing into meaning and achieve the goals of independence, comprehension, and fluency. Definition Reading skills are specific abilities which enable a reader to read the written form as meaningful language to read anything written with independence, comprehension and fluency, and to mentally interact with the message. Example Word attack skills let the reader figure out new words. Comprehension skills help the reader predict the next word, phrase, or sentence quickly enough to speed recognition. Fluency skills help the readers see larger segments, phrases, and groups of words as wholes. Critical reading skills help the reader see the relationship of ideas and use these in reading with meaning and fluency. Literacy hour Stages of Literacy Hour Whole class shared text work Whole class shared sentence/word work Guided reading Independent work Plenary

Technique of assessing reading The purpose and benefits of assessment To identify skills that need review. Assessment provides teachers with information on what skills students have and have not mastered. It is needed to help teachers know the skill levels of their students, since students have varying experiences and knowledge. To monitor student progress. A teacher can learn which students need review before covering additional content and which students are ready to move forward. To guide teacher instruction. Through consistent assessment, a teacher can make informed decisions about what instruction is appropriate for each student. To demonstrate the effectiveness of instruction. The information gained from assessment allows teachers to know if all students are mastering the content covered. It is important for teachers to use instructional time effectively, and this can be done when teachers are knowledgeable about what their students are ready to learn and what they already know. Therefore, the information gained from assessment allows a teacher to create appropriate instruction for their students To provide teachers with information on how instruction can be improved. Assessment examples for specific areas of reading Letter knowledge The ability to associate sounds with letters Present a student with a list of letters and ask the student to name each letter. Another example is to have a student separate the letters from a pile of letters, numbers, and symbols. Students can also be asked to separate and categorize letters by uppercase and lowercase Phonemic awareness The ability to hear and manipulate sounds in words These assessments examine a student's knowledge of how sounds make words. A student can be asked to break spoken words into parts, or to blend spoken parts of a word into one word. Additionally, a student can count the number of phonemes in a word to demonstrate understanding, or a student can delete or add a phoneme to make a new word Emerging practice The theory of multiple intelligences is one that many educators support and believe to be effective. Dr. Gardner developed this theory in 1983, and he suggests that eight different intelligences account for student potential (Armstrong, 1994; Gardner, 1983). They include: linguistic intelligence logical mathematical intelligence visual spatial intelligence bodily kinesthetic intelligence musical intelligence interpersonal intelligence intrapersonal intelligence naturalist intelligence

Decoding The process of using lettersound correspondences to recognize words To have a student read a passage of text as clearly and correctly as possible. The teacher records any mistakes that the student makes and analyzes them to determine what instruction is needed. Fluency The automatic ability to read words in connected text To ask a student to read a passage aloud for one minute. Words that are skipped or pronounced incorrectly are not counted. The number of correct words read is counted and this total equals a student's oral reading fluency rate. Reading comprehension The process of understanding the meaning of text Involves a student reading a passage that is at an appropriate level for the student, and then having the student answer factual questions about the text. Considerations when selecting an assessment Every assessment will not be appropriate for all students. Different measures provide distinct information. Assessments should always be culturally and linguistically appropriate Planning for Teaching Reading Principles of Lesson Planning What is a Lesson Plan? Its the framework of my lesson. Its the map I follow during class. Its the product of my thoughts about the class and what I hope to achieve Why Plan ahead? reduces uncertainty or panic and gives you confidence and clarity. reminds you to prepare materials beforehand, and makes it easier for you to organize the time and activities flow in classes. For students, evidence of a plan shows them the teacher has devoted time to thinking about the class. It is a way to help gain the respect of your students. It suggests professionalism and commitment. ensures that the class you are teaching gets a balanced mixture of different materials, content and interaction types. Planning helps you to develop a personal style. Categories for Planning a Lesson Goals Objectives Prerequisites Materials Lesson Description Lesson Procedure Assessment/Evaluation What to consider? Engage: get the students interested in the class and hopefully enjoying what they are doing. Study: it is a focus of language, such as grammar or vocabulary and pronunciation. It does not have to be NEW language input. Activate: the students do writing and/ or speaking activities which require

them to use not only the language they are studying that day, but also other language that they have learnt. Goals Goals determine: Purpose of the lesson How students will engage We need to think about: Previous plans and activities Broader objectives of the unit plan or curriculum as well as the goals for this unit Future activities and new knowledge Central objective: What will students be able to do by the end of this lesson? Objectives Focus on what your students will do to acquire further knowledge and skills Questions to ask include: What will students be able to do during this lesson? Under what conditions will students' performance be accomplished? How will you determine if the objectives have been met? How will students demonstrate that they have learned and understood the objectives of the lesson? What do you want the student to learn as a result of the lesson It should be observable and measurable. Categories of Objectives Knowledge - involves cognitive functions. Students categorize, analyze, recall, synthesize, recite, define. Skills - concerns performing an action. Students measure, sing, play. Creating Learning Objectives Create a stem Eg. After completing the lesson, the student will be able to After you create the stem, add a verb Eg. analyze, recognize, compare, provide, list, etc Then, determine the actual product, process, or outcome Eg. generate ideas and plans for speech by using _____ (brainstorming, clustering, etc.) Verbs to Use in Creating Educational Objectives (Blooms Taxonomy) Knowledge choose, collect, complete, copy Comprehension arrange, categorize, change Application organize, predict, produce Analysis identify, illustrate, infer, outline Synthesis construct, create, deduce Evaluation explain, interpret, justify Prerequisites Make sure students are ready to meet the lessons objectives Check on their prior knowledge Questions include: What must students already be able to do before this lesson? What concepts have to be mastered in advance to accomplish the lesson objectives?

Materials Determine necessary: Preparation time Resources/materials Books, equipment, etc Helpful questions to ask are: What materials will be needed? What needs to be prepared in advance? Lesson Procedure Detailed, step-by-step description How to achieve your objectives How to proceed Lesson Plan Format (L&S) Class : Year 1 Amanah Subject : English language Time : 8.00 a.m -9.30 a.m. Date : 23rd of July 2012 (Monday) Enrolment : 34 students Focal skills : Reading Other skill : Listening Previous knowledge: Students have learnt to ask simple questions and making polite requests Learning outcomes: By the end of the lesson, students should be able to: sing song with guidance. use polite requests appropriately. respond to requests. Stage/Time Content Set Induction Presentation Practice Production Closure Teaching/Learning Activities Notes/Resources

TSL3106
N o t e b o o k : 2 PPG 08/11/2012 9:31 PM C re at e d : Suhaimi Shaarani A u t h o r: U p d at e d : 08/11/2012 11:40 PM

Reading Aloud Skills Enunciation - To pronounce; articulate Pronunciation - The act or manner of pronouncing words; utterance of speech Stress - The emphasis placed on the sound or syllable spoken most forcefully in a word or phrase Intonation - The use of changing pitch to convey syntactic information Rhythm - In phonetics, the sense of movement in speech, marked by the stress, timing, and quantity of syllables. Reading Comprehension Skills Reading for main ideas and Supporting details Inferencing, predicting and drawing conclusion Sequencing Cause and effect Synthesizing - To combine so as to form a new, complex product Evaluating Selecting, Adapting and Producing Activities and Materials for Developing Reading Aloud and Reading Comprehension Skills Readibility Context Techniques for Teaching Vocabulary Word attack skills Contextual clues Visuals Mimes, actions and gestures Dictionary Games

Skimming Scanning Extensive reading Intensive reading

reading shorter texts to extract accurate detailed information quickly reading a text to get the gist of it quickly going through a text to find a particular piece of information reading longer texts, usually for pleasure

A top-down reading model This model states that readers begin with expectations and ideas about a text, based on its title, format and style, before they begin to look for words that will substantiate or refute these expectations. It is an approach which begins with a picture of the whole and deals with the parts in terms of this. Reading is a guessing game because readers must infer meaning, decide what to retain or not, and read on. Relying on their experience and intelligence. emphasizes what the reader brings to the text reading is driven by meaning

proceeds from whole to part Features of top-down approach...(Gove 1983) readers can comprehend a selection even though they do not recognise each word readers should use meaning and grammatical cues to identify unrecognised words reading for meaning is the primary objective of reading rather than mastery of letters, letter/sound relationships and words reading requires the use of meaning activities rather than the mastery of a series of word-recognition skills the primary focus of instruction should be the reading of sentences, paragraphs, and whole sentences the most important aspect about reading is the amount and kind of info gained through reading A bottom-up reading model. This process reflects the old models of reading as a simple process of decoding words into thoughts. However, it accepts that words must first be recognised and, having been decoded, the thoughts must then be remembered. It is an approach which works from the parts to the whole, building up gradually in a process of growth. Readers must first recognize multiple linguistic signalsletters, syllables, words, phrases, grammatical cues, discourse markersin order to understand their reading. emphasizes on the written or printed text reading is driven by a process that results in meaning (..or, reading is driven by text) proceeds from parts to whole Features of a bottom-up approach to reading. identify letter features link these features to recognise letters combine letters to recognise spelling patterns link spelling patterns to recognise words, and then proceed to sentences, paragraph and text-level processing An Interactive reading model recognizes the interaction of bottom-up and top-down processes simultaneously throughout the reading process (combination of both)...a bit like "inductive'/"deductive" approach in grammar teaching. Features of interactive reading model the interactive model suggests that the reader constructs meaning by the selective use of info from all sources of meaning (graphemic, phonemic, morphemic, syntax, semantics)...ok?....without adherence to any one set order.... an interactive model is one which uses print as input and has meaning as output. But the reader provides input too, and the reader, interacting with the text, in selective in using just as little of the cues from text as necessary to construct meaning. (Goodman, K. 1981) Reading is at once a perceptual and a cognitive process. it is a process which bridges and blurs these two traditional distinctions. Moreover, a skilled reader must be able to make use of the sensory, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic info to accomplish the task. These various sources of info appear to interact in many complex ways during the process of reading (Rumelhart, D. 1985)

The Purpose of reading Read for understanding. Studying involves reading to comprehend concepts and details. These components depend on each other. Details help explain or support general concepts, and concepts provide a framework for remembering details. Read to evaluate critically . Critical evaluation involves understanding. It means approaching material with an open mind, examining causes and effects, evaluating ideas, and asking questions that test the writer's argument and assumptions. Critical reading brings a level of understanding that goes beyond basic information recall. Read for practical application. A third purpose for reading is to gather usable information that you can apply toward a specific goal. When you read a textbook preface or an instruction booklet for a new software package, your goal is to learn how to do or use something. Reading and action usually go hand in hand. Read for pleasure. Some materials you read for entertainment, such as Sports Illustrated magazine, the latest page-turner by DaVinci Code author Dan Brown, or even novels by Charles Dickens and Jane Austen. As Yale professor Harold Bloom points out, reading for pleasure gives you the opportunity to enlarge your life and to enter into "alternate realities." "Why read?" Bloom asks. "Because you can know, intimately, only a very few people, and perhaps you never know them at all. After reading [the Thomas Mann masterpiece] The Magic Mountain you know Hans Castorp thoroughly, and he is greatly worth knowing."

Reading readiness To develop own knowledge of the English Language so he can understand what he reads Motivation to learn to read in English The ability to discriminate between shapes so that he can recognize letters and words when he begins to learn to read Recognition that print has meaning just as talk has meaning Extensive Reading Carried out "to achieve a general understanding of a text." Occurring when students read large amounts of high interest material, usually out of class, concentrating on meaning, "reading for gist" and skipping unknown words. The aims of extensive reading are to build reader confidence and enjoyment. Extensive reading is always done for the comprehension of main ideas, not for specific details. Characteristics: Students read as much as possible. A variety of materials on a range of topics is available. Students select what they want to read . The purposes of reading are usually related to pleasure, information and general understanding. Reading is its own reward.

Reading materials are well within the linguistic competence of the students in terms of vocabulary and grammar. Reading is individual and silent. Reading speed is usually faster than slower. Teachers orient students to the goals of the program. The teacher is a role model of a reader for the students.

Activities: Reading may be combined with a speaking component. For example, they may interview each other about their reading. Reading may be combined with a writing component. For example, after reading the newspaper, students may be asked to write a newspaper report. Class time may be included for book exchange, if there is an in-class library. Students may set their own goals for their next session. Students may progress from reading graded reading material to authentic text . It should be expected that students will "slow down" in their reading then, it it becomes more challenging. In some Extensive Reading Programs, teachers will allow their students to report on their reading in their native language so as not to make the "proof" of reading more difficult than the reading itself. This, of course, only works if the teacher understands the student's first language. Extensive reading programs are often cited as being more "pleasurable" because there are no "tedious" exercises to complete.

Assessment: there are no reading comprehension exercises or formal assessments in Extensive Reading programs. Course grades for an Extensive Reading program may be determined by marks given for reading reports, reading journals, book reports and projects.

Role of Teacher The teacher gives recommendations on reading materials, based on student's interests. The teacher guides students in choosing appropriate levels of material, beginning with easy books. The teacher guides students in choosing a variety of materials of their interest. This may especially be necessary for students that choose the same type over and over. The teacher guides students in setting specific goals for amounts read. The teacher provides modeling. If class time is given for reading, the teacher reads at the same time. The teacher overlooks if students are not aware of the exact meaning of each word. The teacher should not jump in and explain. The teacher leads pre-reading activities to build interest in the text, such as in the characters, places, themes, and actions. The teacher must be careful to provide just enough to stimulate curiosity but not so much that the need to read is removed.

Role of Student The student assumes total responsibility for developing reading ability . The student reads without the use of a dictionary. The student usually chooses their own material and moves along at their own pace but

must push themselves in order to show greater progress.

Advantages The students may: develop a "reading habit" gain more confidence in reading improve their attitude towards reading and become more motivated to read feel more autonomous over their own learning and more likely to take more initiative. become more " independent readers", being able to read for different purposes and being able to change reading strategies for different kinds of texts become more aware of what's available to them to read and how to access materials expand sight vocabulary acquire "incidental" grammatical competence - that is, it may be acquired even though it was not directly taught build background knowledge increase reading comprehension improve overall language competence be more prepared for further academic courses because they have read large quantities An Extensive Reading program may be combined with writing or combined with speaking practice in a meaningful way (such as when students discuss with each other the books they have been reading. Broughton (1978) suggested that "It is by pursuing the activity of extensive reading that the volume of practice necessary to achieve rapid and efficient reading can be achieved." (p.92) Krashen (1993a) suggested that the benefits of free voluntary reading included "enhanced language acquisition and literacy development, more ideas and information, greater success in life, loss of verbal memory, and more fun."

Challenges: An Extensive Reading program may be costly and time-consuming to set up if materials are not already available. It may be difficult to get support from Administration. Students need to have easy access to texts within their language proficiency level. An Extensive Reading program is easiest to establish when the students have a high level of second language proficiency. For intermediate levels, students require a specialized library within their language proficiency range. They need texts they can read without great use of a dictionary. It may be difficult to keep students challenged to read more difficult texts as the program continues. Some established programs use a "weighing scale" for students to record materials read, giving more "marks" for materials read at a higher level. Although this has proven to be a motivating or competitive factor in some cases, in others it becomes counter-productive if students try to read texts that are more difficult than they can manage and consequently become discouraged. Reading each student's journals and reports can be very time-consuming for teachers. Students who come from a culture in which literacy is not valued may be unwilling to participate in pleasure reading or may not get support at home. Some teachers prefer a skills based program and do not feel comfortable with Extensive Reading. Some teachers are unaware of how to use Graded Readers and so, provide a limited range of activities for students, limiting their responses. Some teachers feel that time spent on Extensive Reading will take away from time that

could be spent on learning language skills. Others will argue that Extensive Reading provides a "richer context" for practice. Some people feel that if graded readers are used, they can give a false impression of the level of reading that has been achieved. They feel that some students may try "ungraded" materials too soon and may revert to using a dictionary to translate. Some people feel that students may place too much emphasis on the number of pages read instead of on the understanding achieved. Students that have only been exposed to Intensive Reading programs may not believe that Extensive Reading is a "proper" way to learn. Aeberscold (1997) reported that feedback from students in an Extensive Reading program indicated that they liked the "choice" but not the "load" Intensive reading Calls attention to grammatical forms, discourse markers, and other surface structure details for the purpose of understanding literal meaning, implications, rhetorical relationships, and the like. As a "zoom lens" strategy . Intensive Reading, sometimes called "Narrow Reading", may involve students reading selections by the same author or several texts about the same topic. When this occurs, content and grammatical structures repeat themselves and students get many opportunities to understand the meanings of the text. Characteristics: usually classroom based reader is intensely involved in looking inside the text students focus on linguistic or semantic details of a reading students focus on surface structure details such as grammar and discourse markers students identify key vocabulary students may draw pictures to aid them (such as in problem solving) texts are read carefully and thoroughly, again and again aim is to build more language knowledge rather than simply practice the skill of reading seen more commonly than extensive reading in classrooms Materials: usually very short texts - not more than 500 words in length chosen for level of difficulty and usually, by the teacher chosen to provide the types of reading and skills that the teacher wants to cover in the course Skills developed: rapid reading practice Interpreting text by using: word attack skills text attack skills non-text information Activities: Intensive reading exercises may include: looking at main ideas versus details understanding what is implied versus stated

making inferences looking at the order of information and how it effects the message identifying words that connect one idea to another identifying words that indicate change from one section to another Assessment : Assessment of intensive reading will take the form of reading tests and quizzes. The most common systems of questioning are multiple-choice and free-response. Mackay (1968) , in his book Reading in a Second Language, reminds teachers that the most important objective in the reading class should NOT be the testing of the student to see if they have understood. Teachers should, instead, be spending most of the time training the student to understand what they read. Role of the teacher The teacher chooses suitable text. The teacher chooses tasks and activities to develop skills. The teacher gives direction before, during and after reading. The teacher prepares students to work on their own. Often the most difficult part is for the teacher to "get out of the way" . The teacher encourages students through prompts, without giving answers. Advantages It provides a base to study structure, vocabulary and idioms. It provides a base for students to develop a greater control of language It provides for a check on the degree of comprehension for individual students Disadvantages There is little actual practice of reading because of the small amount of text. In a class with multi-reading abilities, students may not be able to read at their own level because everyone in the class is reading the same material. The text may or may not interest the reader because it was chosen by the teacher. There is little chance to learn language patterns due to the small amount of text. Because exercises and assessment usually follow intensive reading, students may come to associate reading with testing and not pleasure. Skimming Skimming is a quick reading to get: to know the general meaning of a passage to know how the passage is organized, that is, the structure of the text to get an idea of the intention of the writer Skimming is a more complex task than scanning because it requires the reader to organize and remember some of the information given by the author, not just to locate it. Skimming is a tool in which the author's sequence can be observed, unlike scanning in which some predetermined information is sought after.

When it is used Skimming is used when reading some some general question in mind. Skimming is used in making decisions on how to approach a text such as when

determining if a careful reading is deserving. Skimming is used to build student confidence and an understanding that it is possible to gain meaning without reading every word in a text. Skimming is a skill that a student may want to develop if they are planning to continue with academic studies. It is often used in reviewing for a test.

Role of the teacher Before the students start reading, the teacher should guide students to ask themselves the following questions: What kind of audience was the text written for? Was it, for example, the general public, technical readers, or academic students? What type of text is it? Is it, for example, a formal letter, an advertisement, or a set of instructions? What was the author's purpose? Was it , for example, to persuade, to inform or to instruct? The teacher should make the following clear to students before assigning a skimming exercise: the purpose of the exercise how deeply the text is to be read

Role of the student Students read through the text in the following manner: Read the title if any. Read the introduction or the first paragraph. Read the first sentence of each of the following paragraphs. Read any headings or sub-headings. Look at any pictures or phrases that are in boldface or italics Read the summary or last paragraph.

Activities Students must locate facts that are expressed in sentences, not single words. Although speed is essential and the teacher often sets a time limit to the activity, skimming should not be done competitively. Students should be encouraged individually to better themselves. To improve skimming, readers should read more and more rapidly, to form appropriate questions and predictions and then read quickly Pugh (1978) suggests that to assess skimming, after the students have read and completed the assigned questions, further questions may be asked, "beyond the scope of the purpose originally set" (p.70). If students can answer these questions correctly, it indicates they have read the text too closely. Scanning Scanning ia a quick reading, focusing on locating specific information. Scanning involves quick eye movements, not necessarily linear in fashion, in which the eyes wander until the reader finds the piece of information needed. Scanning is used when a specific piece of information is required, such as a name, date, symbol, formula, or phrase, is required. The reader knows what the item looks like and so, knows when he has located what he was searching for. It is assumed then, that very little information is processed into long-term memory or even for immediate understanding because the objective is simply matching.

When it is used Scanning is used often with technical, scientific or professional materials to locate specific information. Scanning is a valuable skill for second language learners to develop because often they do not require a detailed read of a text. There are many everyday uses for scanning, relevant to a purpose, such as reading a schedule.

Role of Teacher The teacher selects passages that do include specific information. The teacher may use authentic materials that are commonly scanned in real life, such as the telephone directory, menus, bus schedules. The teacher may ask students before they scan a text to note how the information is organized in the text. The teacher needs to remind students that as they read carefully to find the required information, they should pay particular attention to titles and keywords.

Role of the Student The student forms questions before reading. What specific information are they looking for? The student looks for contextual clues. The student tries to anticipate what the answer might look like and what sorts of clues would be useful. The student is aware of the graphic form that the answer may take, such as a numeral, a written number, a capitalized word or a short phrase that includes key words.

Activities Activities may include exercises that are devised by the teacher in which students scan for a single word or specific text . Activities may include exercises that are often carried on as a competition so students will work quickly. Students use skills of prediction and anticipation. Students may do any of the following: make predictions and guesses use titles and tables of contents to get an idea of what a passage is about activate prior knowledge about the topic of the passage by answering some questions or performing a quiz anticipate what they want to learn about the top use titles, pictures, and prior knowledge to anticipate the contents of the text use key words, that may have been given to them by the teacher, that do not appear in the text, that allude to the main idea It is an accepted view today that efficient readers are not passive. They react with a text by having expectations and ideas about the purposes of the text as well as possible outcomes. They reflect on expectations as they read, anticipate what will come next. In other words, they "interact with the text". Reading approaches Phonics approach most soundly supported by research for effective instruction in beginning reading Must be explicitly taught Must be systematically organized and sequenced

Must include learning how to blend sounds together Multi-Sensory Approach effective for special needs Uses all possible senses tracing, saying, listening, looking Typically called VAKT Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic, Tactile Can be used with either Phonics or Whole Language Linguistic Method supported only by "qualitative research" instead of quantitative research Teaches "whole words" in word families Students are not explicitly taught that there is a relationship between letters and sounds for most sounds Language Experience called "Whole Language" Expects child to learn reading as "naturally" as speech Uses childs oral language as content for reading Uses childs oral language as basis for spelling instruction Children learn to "read" by reading and re-reading "big books" together with the teacher and then the teacher gradually withdraws prompts so child appears to be reading that book Reading Comprehension Support Explicitly teaches strategies and techniques for studying texts and acquiring meaning

Reading skills Reading skills enable readers to turn writing into meaning and achieve the goals of independence, comprehension, and fluency. Definition Reading skills are specific abilities which enable a reader to read the written form as meaningful language to read anything written with independence, comprehension and fluency, and to mentally interact with the message. Example Word attack skills let the reader figure out new words. Comprehension skills help the reader predict the next word, phrase, or sentence quickly enough to speed recognition. Fluency skills help the readers see larger segments, phrases, and groups of words as wholes. Critical reading skills help the reader see the relationship of ideas and use these in reading with meaning and fluency. Literacy hour Stages of Literacy Hour Whole class shared text work Whole class shared sentence/word work Guided reading Independent work Plenary

Technique of assessing reading The purpose and benefits of assessment To identify skills that need review. Assessment provides teachers with information on what skills students have and have not mastered. It is needed to help teachers know the skill levels of their students, since students have varying experiences and knowledge. To monitor student progress. A teacher can learn which students need review before covering additional content and which students are ready to move forward. To guide teacher instruction. Through consistent assessment, a teacher can make informed decisions about what instruction is appropriate for each student. To demonstrate the effectiveness of instruction. The information gained from assessment allows teachers to know if all students are mastering the content covered. It is important for teachers to use instructional time effectively, and this can be done when teachers are knowledgeable about what their students are ready to learn and what they already know. Therefore, the information gained from assessment allows a teacher to create appropriate instruction for their students To provide teachers with information on how instruction can be improved. Assessment examples for specific areas of reading Letter knowledge The ability to associate sounds with letters Present a student with a list of letters and ask the student to name each letter. Another example is to have a student separate the letters from a pile of letters, numbers, and symbols. Students can also be asked to separate and categorize letters by uppercase and lowercase Phonemic awareness The ability to hear and manipulate sounds in words These assessments examine a student's knowledge of how sounds make words. A student can be asked to break spoken words into parts, or to blend spoken parts of a word into one word. Additionally, a student can count the number of phonemes in a word to demonstrate understanding, or a student can delete or add a phoneme to make a new word Emerging practice The theory of multiple intelligences is one that many educators support and believe to be effective. Dr. Gardner developed this theory in 1983, and he suggests that eight different intelligences account for student potential (Armstrong, 1994; Gardner, 1983). They include: linguistic intelligence logical mathematical intelligence visual spatial intelligence bodily kinesthetic intelligence musical intelligence interpersonal intelligence intrapersonal intelligence naturalist intelligence

Decoding The process of using lettersound correspondences to recognize words To have a student read a passage of text as clearly and correctly as possible. The teacher records any mistakes that the student makes and analyzes them to determine what instruction is needed. Fluency The automatic ability to read words in connected text To ask a student to read a passage aloud for one minute. Words that are skipped or pronounced incorrectly are not counted. The number of correct words read is counted and this total equals a student's oral reading fluency rate. Reading comprehension The process of understanding the meaning of text Involves a student reading a passage that is at an appropriate level for the student, and then having the student answer factual questions about the text. Considerations when selecting an assessment Every assessment will not be appropriate for all students. Different measures provide distinct information. Assessments should always be culturally and linguistically appropriate Planning for Teaching Reading Principles of Lesson Planning What is a Lesson Plan? Its the framework of my lesson. Its the map I follow during class. Its the product of my thoughts about the class and what I hope to achieve Why Plan ahead? reduces uncertainty or panic and gives you confidence and clarity. reminds you to prepare materials beforehand, and makes it easier for you to organize the time and activities flow in classes. For students, evidence of a plan shows them the teacher has devoted time to thinking about the class. It is a way to help gain the respect of your students. It suggests professionalism and commitment. ensures that the class you are teaching gets a balanced mixture of different materials, content and interaction types. Planning helps you to develop a personal style. Categories for Planning a Lesson Goals Objectives Prerequisites Materials Lesson Description Lesson Procedure Assessment/Evaluation What to consider? Engage: get the students interested in the class and hopefully enjoying what they are doing. Study: it is a focus of language, such as grammar or vocabulary and pronunciation. It does not have to be NEW language input. Activate: the students do writing and/ or speaking activities which require

them to use not only the language they are studying that day, but also other language that they have learnt. Goals Goals determine: Purpose of the lesson How students will engage We need to think about: Previous plans and activities Broader objectives of the unit plan or curriculum as well as the goals for this unit Future activities and new knowledge Central objective: What will students be able to do by the end of this lesson? Objectives Focus on what your students will do to acquire further knowledge and skills Questions to ask include: What will students be able to do during this lesson? Under what conditions will students' performance be accomplished? How will you determine if the objectives have been met? How will students demonstrate that they have learned and understood the objectives of the lesson? What do you want the student to learn as a result of the lesson It should be observable and measurable. Categories of Objectives Knowledge - involves cognitive functions. Students categorize, analyze, recall, synthesize, recite, define. Skills - concerns performing an action. Students measure, sing, play. Creating Learning Objectives Create a stem Eg. After completing the lesson, the student will be able to After you create the stem, add a verb Eg. analyze, recognize, compare, provide, list, etc Then, determine the actual product, process, or outcome Eg. generate ideas and plans for speech by using _____ (brainstorming, clustering, etc.) Verbs to Use in Creating Educational Objectives (Blooms Taxonomy) Knowledge choose, collect, complete, copy Comprehension arrange, categorize, change Application organize, predict, produce Analysis identify, illustrate, infer, outline Synthesis construct, create, deduce Evaluation explain, interpret, justify Prerequisites Make sure students are ready to meet the lessons objectives Check on their prior knowledge Questions include: What must students already be able to do before this lesson? What concepts have to be mastered in advance to accomplish the lesson objectives?

Materials Determine necessary: Preparation time Resources/materials Books, equipment, etc Helpful questions to ask are: What materials will be needed? What needs to be prepared in advance? Lesson Procedure Detailed, step-by-step description How to achieve your objectives How to proceed Lesson Plan Format (L&S) Class : Year 1 Amanah Subject : English language Time : 8.00 a.m -9.30 a.m. Date : 23rd of July 2012 (Monday) Enrolment : 34 students Focal skills : Reading Other skill : Listening Previous knowledge: Students have learnt to ask simple questions and making polite requests Learning outcomes: By the end of the lesson, students should be able to: sing song with guidance. use polite requests appropriately. respond to requests. Stage/Time Content Set Induction Presentation Practice Production Closure Teaching/Learning Activities Notes/Resources