In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm ( i/lrm/ AL-g-ri-dhm) is a stepby-step procedure for calculations.

Algorithms are used for calculation, data processing, and automated reasoning. An algorithm is an effective method expressed as a finite list of well-defined instructions for [3] [4] calculating a function. Starting from an initial state and initial input (perhaps empty), the [5] instructions describe a computation that, when executed, proceeds through a finite number of [6] well-defined successive states, eventually producing "output" and terminating at a final ending state. The transition from one state to the next is not necessarilydeterministic; some algorithms, [7] known as randomized algorithms, incorporate random input. Though al-Khwrizm's algorism referred to the rules of performing arithmetic using HinduArabic numerals and the systematic solution of linear andquadratic equations, a partial formalization of what would become the modern algorithm began with attempts to solve the Entscheidungsproblem (the "decision problem") posed by David Hilbert in 1928. Subsequent [8] formalizations were framed as attempts to define "effective calculability" or "effective [9] method"; those formalizations included the GdelHerbrandKleene recursive functions of 1930, 1934 and 1935, Alonzo Church's lambda calculus of 1936, Emil Post's "Formulation 1" of 1936, and Alan Turing's Turing machines of 19367 and 1939. Giving a formal definition of [10] algorithms, corresponding to the intuitive notion, remains a challenging problem.
Contents
[hide]
[1] [2]

1 Informal definition 2 Formalization

2.1 Expressing algorithms

3 Implementation 4 Computer algorithms 5 Examples

o o

5.1 Algorithm example 5.2 Euclids algorithm

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5.2.1 Example 5.2.2 Computer language for Euclid's algorithm 5.2.3 An inelegant program for Euclid's algorithm 5.2.4 An elegant program for Euclid's algorithm

5.3 Testing the Euclid algorithms 5.4 Measuring and improving the Euclid algorithms

6 Algorithmic analysis

6.1 Formal versus empirical

6.1.1 FFT speedup

7 Classification

7.1 By implementation

o o o

7.2 By design paradigm 7.3 By field of study 7.4 By complexity

8 Continuous algorithms 9 Legal issues 10 Etymology 11 History: Development of the notion of "algorithm"

o o o o o o o o

11.1 Origin 11.2 Discrete and distinguishable symbols 11.3 Manipulation of symbols as "place holders" for numbers: algebra 11.4 Mechanical contrivances with discrete states 11.5 Mathematics during the 19th century up to the mid-20th century 11.6 Emil Post (1936) and Alan Turing (193637, 1939) 11.7 J. B. Rosser (1939) and S. C. Kleene (1943) 11.8 History after 1950

12 See also 13 Notes 14 References

14.1 Secondary references

15 Further reading 16 External links

Informal definition[edit]
For a detailed presentation of the various points of view around the definition of "algorithm", see Algorithm characterizations. For examples of simple addition algorithms specified in the detailed manner described in Algorithm characterizations, see Algorithm examples. While there is no generally accepted formal definition of "algorithm," an informal definition could [11] be "a set of rules that precisely defines a sequence of operations." which would include all computer programs, including programs that do not perform numeric calculations. For some [12] people, a program is only an algorithm if it stops eventually. For others, a program is only an algorithm if it performs a number of calculation steps. A prototypical example of an algorithm is Euclid's algorithm to determine the maximum common divisor of two integers; an example (there are others) is described by the flow chart above and as an example in a later section. Boolos & Jeffrey (1974, 1999) offer an informal meaning of the word in the following quotation: No human being can write fast enough, or long enough, or small enough ( "smaller and smaller without limit ...you'd be trying to write on molecules, on atoms, on electrons") to list all members of an enumerably infinite set by writing out their names, one after another, in some notation. But humans can do something equally useful, in the case of certain enumerably infinite

sets: They can give explicit instructions for determining the nth member of the set, for arbitrary finite n. Such instructions are to be given quite explicitly, in a form in which they could be followed by a computing machine, or by a human who is capable of carrying out only very elementary operations on symbols.
[13]

The term "enumerably infinite" means "countable using integers perhaps extending to infinity." Thus, Boolos and Jeffrey are saying that an algorithm implies instructions for a process that "creates" output integers from an arbitrary "input" integer or integers that, in theory, can be chosen from 0 to infinity. Thus an algorithm can be an algebraic equation such as y = m + n two arbitrary "input variables" m and n that produce an output y. But various authors' attempts to define the notion indicate that the word implies much more than this, something on the order of (for the addition example): Precise instructions (in language understood by "the computer") "good"
[15] [14]

for a fast, efficient,

[16]

process that specifies the "moves" of "the computer" (machine or human, to find,

equipped with the necessary internally contained information and capabilities)

[17] [18]

decode, and then process arbitrary input integers/symbols m and n, symbols + and = ... and "effectively" produce, in a "reasonable" time, output-integer y at a specified

place and in a specified format. The concept of algorithm is also used to define the notion of decidability. That notion is central for explaining how formal systems come into being starting from a small set of axioms and rules. Inlogic, the time that an algorithm requires to complete cannot be measured, as it is not apparently related with our customary physical dimension. From such uncertainties, that characterize ongoing work, stems the unavailability of a definition of algorithm that suits both concrete (in some sense) and abstract usage of the term.

Formalization[edit]
Algorithms are essential to the way computers process data. Many computer programs contain algorithms that detail the specific instructions a computer should perform (in a specific order) to carry out a specified task, such as calculating employees' paychecks or printing students' report cards. Thus, an algorithm can be considered to be any sequence of operations that can be simulated by a Turing-complete system. Authors who assert this thesis include Minsky (1967), Savage (1987) and Gurevich (2000): Minsky: "But we will also maintain, with Turing . . . that any procedure which could "naturally" be called effective, can in fact be realized by a (simple) machine. Although this may seem extreme, the arguments . . . in its favor are hard to refute".
[19]

Gurevich: "...Turing's informal argument in favor of his thesis justifies a stronger thesis: every algorithm can be simulated by a Turing machine ... according to Savage [1987], an algorithm is a computational process defined by a Turing machine".
[20]

Typically, when an algorithm is associated with processing information, data is read from an input source, written to an output device, and/or stored for further processing. Stored data is

regarded as part of the internal state of the entity performing the algorithm. In practice, the state is stored in one or more data structures. For some such computational process, the algorithm must be rigorously defined: specified in the way it applies in all possible circumstances that could arise. That is, any conditional steps must be systematically dealt with, case-by-case; the criteria for each case must be clear (and computable). Because an algorithm is a precise list of precise steps, the order of computation is always critical to the functioning of the algorithm. Instructions are usually assumed to be listed explicitly, and are described as starting "from the top" and going "down to the bottom", an idea that is described more formally by flow of control. So far, this discussion of the formalization of an algorithm has assumed the premises of imperative programming. This is the most common conception, and it attempts to describe a task in discrete, "mechanical" means. Unique to this conception of formalized algorithms is the assignment operation, setting the value of a variable. It derives from the intuition of "memory" as a scratchpad. There is an example below of such an assignment. For some alternate conceptions of what constitutes an algorithm see functional programming and logic programming.

Expressing algorithms[edit]
Algorithms can be expressed in many kinds of notation, including natural languages, pseudocode, flowcharts, programming languages or control tables (processed by interpreters). Natural language expressions of algorithms tend to be verbose and ambiguous, and are rarely used for complex or technical algorithms. Pseudocode, flowcharts and control tables are structured ways to express algorithms that avoid many of the ambiguities common in natural language statements. Programming languages are primarily intended for expressing algorithms in a form that can be executed by a computer, but are often used as a way to define or document algorithms. There is a wide variety of representations possible and one can express a given Turing machine program as a sequence of machine tables (see more at finite state machine, state transition tableand control table), as flowcharts (see more at state diagram), or as a form of rudimentary machine code or assembly code called "sets of quadruples" (see more at Turing machine). Representations of algorithms can be classed into three accepted levels of Turing machine [21] description: 1 High-level description: "...prose to describe an algorithm, ignoring the implementation details. At this level we do not need to mention how the machine manages its tape or head." 2 Implementation description:

"...prose used to define the way the Turing machine uses its head and the way that it stores data on its tape. At this level we do not give details of states or transition function." 3 Formal description:

Most detailed, "lowest level", gives the Turing machine's "state table". For an example of the simple algorithm "Add m+n" described in all three levels see Algorithm examples.

Implementation[edit]
Most algorithms are intended to be implemented as computer programs. However, algorithms are also implemented by other means, such as in a biological neural network (for example, thehuman brain implementing arithmetic or an insect looking for food), in an electrical circuit, or in a mechanical device.

Computer algorithms[edit]

Flowchart examples of the canonicalBhm-Jacopini structures: the SEQUENCE (rectangles descending the page), the WHILE-DO and the IF-THEN-ELSE. The three structures are made of the primitive conditional GOTO (IF test=true THEN GOTO step xxx) (a diamond), the unconditional GOTO (rectangle), various assignment operators (rectangle), and HALT (rectangle). Nesting of these structures inside assignment-blocks result in complex diagrams (cf Tausworthe 1977:100,114).

In computer systems, an algorithm is basically an instance of logic written in software by software developers to be effective for the intended "target" computer(s) for the target machines to produce output from given input (perhaps null).

"Elegant" (compact) programs, "good" (fast) programs : The notion of "simplicity and elegance" appears informally in Knuth and precisely in Chaitin: Knuth: ". . .we want good algorithms in some loosely defined aesthetic sense. One criterion . . . is the length of time taken to perform the algorithm . . .. Other criteria are adaptability of the algorithm to computers, its simplicity and elegance, etc"
[22]

Chaitin: " . . . a program is 'elegant,' by which I mean that it's the smallest possible program for producing the output that it does"
[23]

Chaitin prefaces his definition with: "I'll show you can't prove that a program is 'elegant'"such a proof would solve the Halting problem (ibid). Algorithm versus function computable by an algorithm : For a given function multiple algorithms may exist. This is true, even without expanding the available instruction set available to the programmer. Rogers observes that "It is . . . important to distinguish between the notion of algorithm, i.e. procedure and the notion of function computable by algorithm, i.e. mapping yielded by procedure. The same function may have several [24] different algorithms". Unfortunately there may be a tradeoff between goodness (speed) and elegance (compactness)an elegant program may take more steps to complete a computation than one less elegant. An example that uses Euclid's algorithm appears below. Computers (and computors), models of computation : A [25] computer (or human "computor" ) is a restricted type of [26] machine, a "discrete deterministic mechanical device" that [27] blindly follows its instructions. Melzak's and Lambek's primitive [28] models reduced this notion to four elements: (i) discrete, distinguishable locations, (ii) discrete, [29] indistinguishable counters (iii) an agent, and (iv) a list of instructions that are effectiverelative to the capability of the [30] agent. Minsky describes a more congenial variation of Lambek's "abacus" model in his "Very Simple Bases [31] for Computability". Minsky's machine proceeds sequentially through its five (or six depending on how one counts) instructions unless either a conditional IFTHEN GOTO or an unconditional

God
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the term "God" in the context of monotheism and henotheism. For the general concept of "a god", see Deity. For God in the context of specific religions, see an index of pages

beginning in "God in". For discussion of the existence of God, see Existence of God. For other uses, see God (disambiguation).

Part of a series on

God

General conceptions

Agnosticism

Apatheism

Atheism

Deism Henotheism

Ignosticism

Monotheism Panentheism

Pantheism

Polytheism Theism

Transtheism

Specific conceptions

Creator

Demiurge

Devil

Father

Great Architect

Monad

Mother Supreme Being

Sustainer

The All The Lord

Trinity

Tawhid

Ditheism

Monism Personal

Unitarianism

In particular religions

Abrahamic Bah'

Christianity

Islam Judaism

Ayyavazhi

Buddhism

Hinduism Jainism

Sikhism

Zoroastrianism Attributes

Eternalness

Existence

Gender

Names "God"

Omnibenevolence

Omnipotence Omnipresence

Omniscience

Experiences and practices

Belief

Esotericism

Faith

Fideism

Gnosis Hermeticism

Metaphysics

Mysticism Prayer

Revelation

Worship Related topics

Euthyphro dilemma

God complex Neurotheology

Ontology

Philosophy Problem of evil

Religion

Religious texts

Portrayals of God in popular media

God is often conceived as the supreme being and principal object of faith.[1] In theism, God is the creator and sustainer of the universe. In deism, God is the creator (but not the sustainer) of the universe. In pantheism, God is the universe itself. Theologians have ascribed a variety of attributes to the many different conceptions of God. Common among these are omniscience (infinite knowledge), omnipotence (unlimited power), omnipresence(present everywhere), omnibenevolence (perfect goodness), divine simplicity, and eternal and necessary existence. Monotheism is the belief in the existence of one God or in the oneness of God. God has also been conceived as being incorporeal (immaterial), a personal being, the source of allmoral obligation, and the "greatest conceivable existent".[1] Many notable medieval philosophers and modern philosophers have developed arguments for and against the existence of God.[2] There are many names for God, and different names are attached to different cultural ideas about who God is and what attributes he possesses. In the Hebrew Bible "I Am that I Am", and the "Tetragrammaton" YHVH are used as names of God, while Yahweh, and Jehovah are sometimes used in Christianity as vocalizations of YHVH. In Arabic, the name Allah ("the God") is used, and because of the predominance of Islam among Arab speakers, the name "Allah" has connotations with Islamic faith and culture. Muslims regard a multitude of titular names for God, while in Judaism it is common to refer to God by the titular names Elohim or Adonai. In Hinduism, Brahman is often considered a monistic deity.[3] Other religions have names for God, for instance, Baha in the Bah' Faith,[4] Waheguru in Sikhism,[5] and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism.[6]
Contents
[hide]

1 Etymology and usage 2 General conceptions

o o o

2.1 Oneness 2.2 Theism, deism and pantheism 2.3 Other concepts

3 Existence of God 4 Specific attributes

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4.1 Epitheta 4.2 Gender 4.3 Relationship with creation

5 Theological approaches 6 Non-theistic views of God

6.1 Anthropomorphism

7 Distribution of belief in God 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links

Etymology and usage

Detail of Sistine Chapel frescoCreation of the Sun and Moon byMichelangelo (c. 1512), a well-known example of the depiction ofGod the Father in Western art

Main article: God (word) The earliest written form of the Germanic word God (always, in this usage, capitalized[7]) comes from the 6th century Christian Codex Argenteus. The English word itself is derived from the Proto-

Germanic * uan. Most linguists[who?] agree that the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form * hut-m was based on the root * hau()-, which meant either "to call" or "to invoke".[8] The Germanic words for God were originally neuterapplying to both gendersbut during the process of the Christianization of the Germanic peoples from their indigenous Germanic paganism, the word became a masculine syntactic form.[9] In the English language, the capitalized form of God continues to represent a distinction between monotheistic "God" and "gods" in polytheism.[10][11] The English word "God" and its counterparts in other languages are normally used for any and all conceptions and, in spite of significant differences between religions, the term remains an English translation common to all. The same holds for Hebrew El, but in Judaism, God is also given a proper name, thetetragrammaton (written YHWH), in origin the name of an Edomite or Midianite deity, Yahweh. In many translations of the Bible, when the word "LORD" is in all capitals, it signifies that the word represents the tetragrammaton.[12] Allh (Arabic: allh) is the Arabic term with no plural or gender used by

Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews meaning "The God" (with a capital G), while " ilh" (Arabic: ellh) is the term used for a deity or a god in general.[13][14][15] God may also be given a proper name in monotheistic currents of Hinduism which emphasize the personal nature of God, with early references to his name as Krishna-Vasudeva in Bhagavata or later Vishnu and Hari.[16]

General conceptions
Main article: Conceptions of God There is no clear consensus on the nature of God.[17] The Abrahamic conceptions of God include the monotheistic definition of God in Judaism, the trinitarianview of Christians, and the Islamic concept of God. The dharmic religions differ in their view of the divine: views of God in Hinduism vary by region, sect, and caste, ranging from monotheistic to polytheistic to atheistic. Divinity was recognized by the historical Buddha, particularly akra and Brahma. However, other sentient beings, including gods, can at best only play a supportive role in one's personal path to salvation. Conceptions of God in the latter developments of the Mahayana tradition give a more prominent place to notions of the divine.[citation needed]

Oneness
Main articles: Monotheism and Henotheism Monotheists hold that there is only one god, and may claim that the one true god is worshiped in different religions under different names. The view that all theists actually worship the same god, whether they know it or not, is especially emphasized in Hinduism[18] and Sikhism.[19] Islam's most fundamental concept is tawhd (meaning "oneness" or "uniqueness"). God is described in the Qur'an as: "Say: He is Allah, the One and Only; Allah, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."[20][21] Muslims repudiate the Christian doctrine of

the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension or equal and does not resemble any of his creations in any way. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules, and are not expected to visualize God.[22] Henotheism is the belief and worship of a single god while accepting the existence or possible existence of other deities.[23]

Theism, deism and pantheism

Main articles: Theism, Deism, and Pantheism

A blank map of the observable universe

Theism generally holds that God exists realistically, objectively, and independently of human thought; that God created and sustains everything; that God is omnipotent and eternal; personal and interacting with the universe through for example religious experience and the prayers of humans.[24] It holds that God is both transcendent and immanent; thus, God is simultaneously infinite and in some way present in the affairs of the world.[25] Not all theists subscribe to all the above propositions, but usually a fair number of them, c.f., family resemblance.[24] Catholic theology holds that God isinfinitely simple and is not involuntarily subject to time. Most theists hold that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent, although this belief raises questions about God's responsibility for evil and suffering in the world. Some theists ascribe to God a self-conscious or purposeful limiting of omnipotence, omniscience, or benevolence. Open Theism, by contrast, asserts that, due to the nature of time, God's omniscience does not mean the deity can predict the future. "Theism" is sometimes used to refer in general to any belief in a god or gods, i.e., monotheism or polytheism.[26][27] Deism holds that God is wholly transcendent: God exists, but does not intervene in the world beyond what was necessary to create it.[25] In this view, God is not anthropomorphic, and does not literally answer prayers or cause miracles to occur. Common in Deism is a belief that God has no interest in humanity and may not even be aware of humanity. Pandeism and Panendeism, respectively,

combine Deism with the Pantheistic or Panentheistic beliefs discussed below. [28][29][30] Pandeism is proposed to explain as to Deism why God would create a universe and then abandon it,[31] and as to Pantheism, the origin and purpose of the universe.[31][32] Pantheism holds that God is the universe and the universe is God, whereas Panentheism holds that God contains, but is not identical to, the Universe; the distinctions between the two are subtle.[citation
needed]

It is also the view of the Liberal Catholic Church, Theosophy, some views of Hinduism

except Vaishnavism which believes inpanentheism, Sikhism, some divisions of Neopaganism and Taoism, along with many varying denominations and individuals within denominations. Kabbalah, Jewish mysticism, paints a pantheistic/panentheistic view of God which has wide acceptance in Hasidic Judaism, particularly from their founder The Baal Shem Tov but only as an addition to the Jewish view of a personal god, not in the original pantheistic sense that denies or limits persona to God.[citation needed]

Other concepts
Dystheism, which is related to theodicy, is a form of theism which holds that God is either not wholly good or is fully malevolent as a consequence of the problem of evil. One such example comes from Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov, in which Ivan Karamazov rejects God on the grounds that he allows children to suffer.[33] Another example would be Theistic Satanism.[citation needed] Nontheism holds that the universe can be explained without any reference to the supernatural, or to a supernatural being. Some non-theists avoid the concept of God, whilst accepting that it is significant to many; other non-theists understand God as a symbol of human values and aspirations. Others such as Richard Dawkins see the idea of God as entirely pernicious. In his book, The God Delusion, Dawkins writes: "God, in the sense defined, is a delusion; and as later chapters will show, a pernicious one." In modern times, some more abstract concepts have been developed, such as process theology and open theism. The contemporaneous French philosopher Michel Henry has however proposed a phenomenological approach and definition of God as phenomenological essence of Life.[34] God has also been conceived as being incorporeal (immaterial), a personal being, the source of all moral obligation, and the "greatest conceivable existent".[1] These attributes were all supported to varying degrees by the early Jewish, Christian and Muslim theologian philosophers, including Maimonides,[35] Augustine of Hippo,[35] and Al-Ghazali,[2] respectively.

Existence of God
Main article: Existence of God Countless arguments have been proposed in attempt to prove the existence of God.[36] Some of the most notable arguments are the 5 Ways of Aquinas, the Argument from Desire proposed byC.S.

Lewis, and the Ontological Argument formulated both by St. Anselm and Descartes.[37] Even among theists, these proofs are heavily debated. Some, such as the Ontological Argument, are highly controversial among theists. Aquinas spends a section of his treatise on God refuting St. Anselm's proof.[38] St. Anselm's approach was to define God as, "that than which nothing greater can be conceived". Famed pantheist philosopher Baruch Spinoza would later carry this idea to its extreme: By God I understand a being absolutely infinite, i.e., a substance consisting of infinite attributes, of which each one expresses an eternal and infinite essence. For Spinoza, the whole of the natural universe is made of one substance, God, or its equivalent, Nature.[39] His proof for the existence of God was a variation of the Ontological argument.[40] Renowned physicist Stephen Hawking and co-author Leonard Mlodinow state in their book, The Grand Design, that it is reasonable to ask who or what created the universe, but if the answer is God, then the question has merely been deflected to that of who created God. In this view it is accepted that some entity exists that needs no creator, and that entity is called God. This is known as the firstcause argument for the existence of God. Both authors claim however, that it is possible to answer these questions purely within the realm of science, and without invoking any divine beings. [41] Some theologians, such as the scientist and theologian A.E. McGrath, argue that the existence of God is not a question that can be answered using the scientific method.[42][43] AgnosticStephen Jay Gould argues that science and religion are not in conflict and do not overlap.[44] There are many philosophical issues concerning the existence of God. Some definitions of God are nonspecific, while others can be self-contradictory. Arguments for the existence of God typically include metaphysical, empirical, inductive, and subjective types, while others revolve around perceived holes in evolutionary theory and order and complexity in the world. Arguments against the existence of God typically include empirical, deductive, and inductive types. Conclusions reached include views that: "God does not exist" (strong atheism); "God almost certainly does not exist"[45] (de facto atheism[46]); "no one knows whether God exists" (agnosticism[47]); "God exists, but this cannot be proven or disproven" (weak theism); and that "God exists and this can be proven" (strong theism). There are numerous variations on these positions.[citation needed]

Specific attributes
Epitheta
Main article: Names of God It is difficult to distinguish between proper names and epitheta of God. Throughout the Hebrew and Christian Bible there are many names for God that portray his nature and character. One of them is elohim,[48][49] (which is actually a plural word). Another one is El Shaddai, meaning God Almighty.[50] A third notable name is El Elyon, which means The Most High God.[51]

God is described and referred in the Quran and hadith by certain names or attributes, the most common being Al-Rahman, meaning "Most Compassionate" and Al-Rahim, meaning "Most Merciful" (See Names of God in Islam).[52] Vaishnavism, a tradition in Hinduism, has list of titles and names of Krishna.

Gender
Main article: Gender of God The gender of God can be viewed as a literal or as an allegorical aspect of a deity who, in Classical western philosophy, transcends bodily form.[53][54] In polytheistic religions, the gods are more likely to have literal sexual genders which would enable them to interact with each other, and even with humans, in a sexual way. In most monotheistic religions, there is no comparable being for God to relate to in a literal gender-based way. Thus, in Classical western philosophy the gender of this oneand-only deity is most likely to be an analogical statement of how humans and God address, and relate to, each other. Namely, God is seen as begetter of the world and revelation which corresponds to the active (as opposed to feminine receptive) role in sexual intercourse.[55] God is usually characterised as male in Biblical sources, except: female in Genesis 1:2627,[56][57] Psalm 123:2-3, and Luke 15:8-10; a mother in Hosea 11:34, Deuteronomy 32:18, Isaiah 66:13, Isaiah 49:15, Isaiah 42:14, Psalm 131:2; a mother eagle in Deuteronomy 32:11-12; and a mother hen in Matthew 23:37 and Luke 13:34.

Relationship with creation

See also: Creator deity and Worship

God the Father by Cima da Conegliano, c. 1515

Christian theologian Alister McGrath writes that there are good reasons to suggest that a "personal god" is integral to the Christian outlook, but that one has to understand it is an analogy. "To say that God is like a person is to affirm the divine ability and willingness to relate to others. This does not imply that God is human, or located at a specific point in the universe."[58] Muslims believe that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[59][60] He is viewed as a personal God and there are no

intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God. A reciprocal nature is mentioned in the hadith qudsi, "I am as My servant thinks (expects) I am".[61] Adherents of different religions generally disagree as to how to best worship God and what is God's plan for mankind, if there is one. There are different approaches to reconciling the contradictory claims of monotheistic religions. One view is taken by exclusivists, who believe they are the chosen peopleor have exclusive access to absolute truth, generally through revelation or encounter with the Divine, which adherents of other religions do not. Another view is religious pluralism. A pluralist typically believes that his religion is the right one, but does not deny the partial truth of other religions. An example of a pluralist view in Christianity is supersessionism, i.e., the belief that one's religion is the fulfillment of previous religions. A third approach isrelativistic inclusivism, where everybody is seen as equally right; an example being universalism: the doctrine that salvation is eventually available for everyone. A fourth approach is syncretism, mixing different elements from different religions. An example of syncretism is the New Age movement.

Theological approaches

The Name of God written in Arabic calligraphy by 17th-century Ottoman artist Hfz Osman. In Islam, it is considered a sin to anthropomorphize God.

Theologians and philosophers have ascribed a number of attributes

Latin America
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from America latina)

"Latin American" redirects here. For Latin American people, see Latin Americans.

Latin America

Area

21,069,501 km2(8,134,980 sq mi)[citation needed]

Population

589,018,078[1]

Pop. density

27 /km2 (70 /sq mi)

Demonym

Latin American

Countries

19[citation needed]

Dependencies 1[citation needed]

Languages

Spanish, Portuguese, Quechua,Mayan languages, Guaran,French, Aymara, Nahuatl, Italian,German and others.

Time Zones

UTC-2 to UTC-8

Largest cities

[2]

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Mexico City So Paulo Buenos Aires Rio de Janeiro Bogot Lima Santiago

8. 9. 10.

Caracas Medellin Guadalajara

Latin America (Spanish: Amrica Latina or Latinoamrica; Portuguese: Amrica Latina; French: Amrique latine) is a region of the Americas where Romance languages (i.e., those derived from Latin) particularly Spanish and Portuguese, and variably French are primarily spoken.[3][4]Latin America has an area of approximately 21,069,500 km2 (7,880,000 sq mi),[citation
needed]

almost 3.9% of the Earth's surface or 14.1% of its land surface area. As of 2010, its population

was estimated at more than 590 million[5][not in citation given] and its combined GDP at 5.16 trillion United States dollars (6.27 trillion at PPP).[6] According to Phelan (1968, p. 296), the term "Latin America" was first used in 1861 in La revue des races Latines, a magazine "dedicated to the cause of PanLatinism".
Contents
[hide]

1 Etymology and definitions

1.1 Subdivisions

2 History

o o o o o

2.1 Pre-Columbian history 2.2 European colonization 2.3 Independence (18041825) 2.4 Consolidation and liberal-conservative conflicts (18251900) 2.5 World wars (19141945)

2.5.1 Brazil's participation in World War II 2.5.2 Involvement in World War II

2.6 Cold War (19461990)

2.6.1 Economy 2.6.2 Reforms 2.6.3 Bureaucratic authoritarianism 2.6.4 U.S. Relations 2.6.5 Cuban Revolution 2.6.6 Bay of Pigs Invasion 2.6.7 Alliance for Progress 2.6.8 Cuban missile crisis

2.7 Washington Consensus

o o o

2.8 Turn to the Left 2.9 The return of social movements 2.10 Commodity boom and increasing relations with China

3 Demographics

o o o o o o

3.1 Ethnic groups 3.2 Language 3.3 Religion 3.4 Migration 3.5 Education 3.6 Crime and violence

4 Economy

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4.1 Size 4.2 Standard of living 4.3 Environment 4.4 Poverty and inequality 4.5 Trade blocs 4.6 Metropolitan economies 4.7 Tourism

5 Culture

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5.1 Art 5.2 Film 5.3 Literature 5.4 Music and dance

6 Bibliography 7 See also 8 References 9 External links

Etymology and definitions[edit]

The Parc de l'Amrique-Latine inQuebec City, the capital of a French speaking province in Canada, celebrates the cultural ties between Quebec and the other people who speak a Romance language in the Americas.

The idea that a part of the Americas has a linguistic affinity with the Romance cultures as a whole can be traced back to the 1830s, in the writing of the French Saint-Simonian Michel Chevalier, who postulated that this part of the Americas was inhabited by people of a "Latin race", and that it could, therefore, ally itself with "Latin Europe" in a struggle with "Teutonic Europe", "Anglo-Saxon America" and "Slavic Europe".[7] The idea was later taken up by Latin American intellectuals and political leaders of the mid- and late-nineteenth century, who no longer looked to Spain or Portugal as cultural models, but rather to France.[8] The term was first used in Paris in an 1856 conference by the Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao[9] and the same year by the Colombian writer Jos Mara Torres Caicedo in his poem "Two Americas.[10] The term Latin America was supported by the French Empire ofNapoleon III during the French invasion of Mexico, as a way to include France among countries with influence in America and to exclude Anglophone countries, and played a role in his campaign to imply cultural kinship of the region with France, transform France into a cultural and political leader of the area, and install Maximilian of Habsburg as emperor of the Second Mexican Empire.[11] This term was also baptized[clarification needed] in 1861 by French scholars in La revue des races Latines, a magazine dedicated to the Pan-Latinism movement.[12] In contemporary usage:

In one sense, Latin America refers to territories in America where the Spanish or Portuguese languages prevail: Mexico, most of Central and South America, and in the Caribbean, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico in summary, Hispanic America and Brazil. Latin America is, therefore, defined as all those parts of the Americas that were once part of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires.[13] By this definition, Latin America is coterminous with Iberoamerica ("Iberian America").[14]

Particularly in the United States, the term more broadly refers to all of the Americas south of the United States,[citation needed] thus including: English-speaking countries such as Belize,Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Antigua and Barbuda, St. Lucia, Dominica, Grenada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Kitts and Nevis and the Bahamas; French-speaking Haiti and Martinique, Guadeloupe, French Guiana; and the Dutchspeaking Curaao, Aruba, St. Maarten and Suriname. (In the former Curaao and Aruba, Papiamento a predominantly Iberian-derived creole language is spoken by the majority of the population.) This definition emphasizes a similar socioeconomic history of the region, which was characterized by formal or informal colonialism, rather than cultural aspects. (See, for example, dependency theory.)[15] As such, some sources avoid this oversimplification by using the phrase "Latin America and the Caribbean" instead, as in the United Nations geoscheme for the Americas.[16][17][18]

In a more literal definition, which remains faithful to the original usage, Latin America designates all of those countries and territories in the Americas where a Romance language (i.e., languages derived from Latin, and hence the name of the region) is spoken: Spanish, Portuguese, and French, and the creole languages based upon these. Considering this definition,Quebec, in Canada, is technically part of Latin America as well. But this region is rarely considered so, since its history, distinctive culture, economy, geographical location and British-inspired political institutions are generally deemed too closely intertwined with the rest of Canada.[19]

The distinction between Latin America and Anglo-America is a convention based on the predominant languages in the Americas by which Romance-language and English-speaking cultures are distinguished. Neither area is culturally or linguistically homogeneous; in substantial portions of Latin America (e.g., highland Peru, Bolivia, Guatemala, and Paraguay), Native American cultures and, to a lesser extent, Amerindian languages, are predominant, and in other areas, the influence of African cultures is strong (e.g., the Caribbean basin including parts of Colombia andVenezuela) and the coastal areas of Ecuador and Brazil.[citation needed]

Subdivisions[edit]

The 4 common subregions in Latin America

Latin America can be subdivided into several subregions based on geography, politics, demographics and culture. If defined as all of the Americas south of the United States, the basic geographical subregions are North America, Central America, the Caribbean and South America;[20] the latter contains further politico-geographical subdivisions such as the Southern Cone and the Andean states. It may be subdivided on linguistic grounds into Hispanic America and Portuguese America.

History[edit]

Main article: History of Latin America See also: History of North America, History of South America, History of Central America, and History of the Caribbean

Pre-Columbian history[edit]
Main articles: Settlement of the Americas, Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas, and Pre-Columbian era

Parque Nacional Tikal in Peten,Guatemala.

Archaeological site of Chichn-Itz inYucatn, Mexico. One of the New Seven Wonders of the World.

The earliest known settlement was identified at Monte Verde, near Puerto Montt in Southern Chile. Its occupation dates to some 14,000 years ago and there is some disputed evidence of even earlier occupation. Over the course of millennia, people spread to all parts of the continents. By the first millennium AD/CE, South America's vast rainforests, mountains, plains and coasts were the home of tens of millions of people. The earliest settlements in the Americas are of the Las Vegas Culture[21] from about 8000 BC and 4600 BC, a sedentary group from the coast of Ecuador, the forefathers of the more known Valdivia culture, of the same era. Some groups formed more permanent settlements such as the Chibchas (or "Muiscas" or "Muyscas") and the Tairona groups. These groups are in the circum Caribbean region. The Chibchas of Colombia, theQuechuas and Aymaras of Bolivia and Per were the three indigenous groups that settled most permanently.

A view of Machu Picchu, a pre-Columbian Inca site in Peru. One of the New Seven Wonders of the World.

The region was home to many indigenous peoples and advanced civilizations, including the Aztecs, Toltecs,Caribs, Tupi, Maya, and Inca. The golden age of the Maya began about 250, with the last two greatcivilizations, the Aztecs and Incas, emerging into prominence later on in the early fourteenth century and mid-fifteenth centuries, respectively. The Aztec empire was ultimately the most powerful civilization known throughout the Americas, until its downfall in part by the Spanish invasion.

European colonization[edit]
Main articles: European colonization of the Americas, Spanish colonization of the Americas, and Portuguese colonization of the Americas

Romantic Painting of Christopher Columbus arriving to the Americas Primer desembarco de Cristbal Coln en Amrica, by Discoro Puebla 1862.

With the arrival of the Europeans following Christopher Columbus' voyages, the indigenous elites, such as the Incas and Aztecs, lost power to the heavy European invasion. Hernndo Corts seized the Aztec elite's power with the help of local groups who did not favor the Aztec elite, and Francisco Pizarro eliminated the Incan rule in Western South America. The European powers of Spain and Portugal colonized the region, which along with the rest of the uncolonized world, was divided into areas of Spanish and Portuguese control by the line of demarcation in 1494, which gave Spain all areas to the west, and Portugal all areas to the east (the Portuguese lands in South America subsequently becoming Brazil).

The Colonial city of Granada in Nicaragua, is one of the most visited sites in Central America.

By the end of the sixteenth century Spain and Portugal had been joined by others, including France, in occupying large areas of North, Central and South America, ultimately extending from Alaska to the southern tips of thePatagonia. European culture, customs and government were introduced, with the Roman Catholic Church becoming the major economic and political power to overrule the traditional ways of the region, eventually becoming the only official religion of the Americas during this period. Epidemics of diseases brought by the Europeans, such as smallpox and measles, wiped out a large portion of the indigenous population. Historians cannot determine the number of natives who died due to European diseases, but some put the figures as high as 85% and as low as 25%. Due to the lack of written records, specific numbers are hard to verify. Many of the survivors were forced to work in European plantations and mines. Intermixing between the indigenous peoples and the European colonists was very common, and, by the end of the colonial period, people of mixed ancestry (mestizos) formed majorities in several colonies.

Independence (18041825)[edit]
Main articles: Latin American wars of independence, Spanish American wars of independence, and Brazilian Declaration of Independence

Simn Bolvar, Liberator ofVenezuela, Colombia, Ecuador,Bolivia, Peru and Panama

Jos de San Martn, The Liberator of Argentina, Chile andPeru.

Pedro I, the emperor of Brazil.

In 1804, Haiti became the first Latin American nation to gain independence, following a violent slave revolt led by Toussaint L'ouverture on the French colony of Saint-Domingue. The victors abolished slavery. Haitian independence inspired independence movements in Spanish America. By the end of the eighteenth century, Spanish and Portuguese power waned on the global scene as other European powers took their place, notably Britain and France. Resentment grew among the majority of the population in Latin America over the restrictions imposed by the Spanish government, as well as the dominance of native Spaniards (Iberian-born Peninsulares) in the major social and political institutions. Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1808 marked a turning point, compelling Criollo elites to form juntas that advocated independence. Also, the newly independent Haiti, the second oldest nation in the New World after the United States, further fueled the independence movement by inspiring the leaders of the movement, such as Miguel Hidalgo y

Costilla of Mxico, Simn Bolvar of Venezuela and Jos de San Martn of Argentina, and by providing them with considerable munitions and troops. Fighting soon broke out between juntas and the Spanish colonial authorities, with initial victories for the advocates of independence. Eventually these early movements were crushed by the royalist troops by 1810, including those of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla in Mexico in the year 1810. Later on Francisco de Miranda in Venezuela by 1812. Under the leadership of a new generation of leaders, such as Simn Bolvar "The Liberator", Jos de San Martn of Argentina, and other Libertadores in South America, the independence movement regained strength, and by 1825, all Spanish America, except for Puerto Rico and Cuba, had gained independence from Spain. Brazil achieved independence with a constitutional monarchy established in 1822. In the same year in Mexico, a military officer, Agustn de Iturbide, led a coalition of conservatives and liberals who created a constitutional monarchy, with Iturbide as emperor. This First Mexican Empire was short-lived, and was followed by the creation of a republic in 1823.

Consolidation and liberal-conservative conflicts (18251900)[edit]

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World wars (19141945)[edit]

See also: Pan-Americanism

Brazil's participation in World War II[edit]

After World War I, in which Brazil was an ally of the United States, Great Britain, and France, the country realized it needed a more capable army but didn't have the technology to create it. In 1919, the French Military Mission was established by the French Commission in Brazil. Their main goal was to contain the inner rebellions in Brazil. They tried to assist the army by bringing them up to the European military standard but constant civil missions did not prepare them for World War II. Brazil President, Getlio Vargas, wanted to industrialize Brazil allowing it to be more competitive with other countries. He reached out to Germany, Italy, France, and the United States to act as trade allies. Many Italian and German people immigrated to Brazil many years before World War II began thus creating a Nazi influence. The immigrants held high positions in government and the armed forces. It was recently found that 9,000 war criminals escaped to South America, including Croats, Ukrainians, Russians and other western Europeans who aided the Nazi war machine. Most, perhaps as many as 5,000, went to Argentina; between 1,500 and 2,000 are thought to have made it to Brazil; around 500 to 1,000 to Chile; and the rest to Paraguay and Uruguay.[22] It was not a secret that Vargas had an admiration for Hitler's Nazi Germany and its Fhrer. He even let German Luftwaffe build secret air forces around Brazil, but he knew that he could never favor the Nazis because of their racism towards the large black population in Brazil. This alliance with Germany became Brazil's second best trade alliance behind the United States.