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.A.

GENERAL TREATISE
011 THB
MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR:
THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL,
COXPIUSIIIO THB
CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN THE PREPARATION OF ACETIC
ACID AND ITS DERIVATIVES, AND THE PRACTICAL DETAILS
OF THE VARIOUS METHODS OF PREPARING VINEGAR
BY THE SLOW AND THE QUICK PROCESSES, WITH
ALCOHOL, WINB, GRAIN, MALT, CIDER,
MOLASSES, BBBTS, ETO. j :
: :::-:
loS WBLL AS " :.:
..
THE FABRICATION OF PYROLIGNEOUS ACID, WOOD VINEGAR, ETC. ETC.
TOGETHER' WITH THEIR APPLICATIONS,
AIID A
TREATISE ON ACETOMETRY.

UOE,
SOIlBTIIIB OF THB LABORATOBiis OF THB FBBI'ICH OOVBRI'IIIBIIT; AUTHOR OF
.. A GBI'IBBAL TRBATISB 011 TnB IIAIIUFACTURB OF SOAP;" .. A COII-
FLBTB TRBATISB 01'1 TANI'IIIIG, CURRYlIIG, AIID LBATHER
DRBSSIIIG," BTO. BTO.
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.
PHILADELPHIA:
HENRY OAREY BAIRD,
INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER,
'06 Walnut Stree*.
LON DON:
SAMPSON LOW, SON & MARSTON.
CROWN BUILDINGS, 188 FLEET ST.
1871.
.
...-. ':.
....
' ... -
~ .
Entered according to Act of Congress, In the year 1871, by
HENRY CAREY BAIRD,
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. All rights reserved.
PBILADELPBa:
COLLINS, PlUlITE&, 100 JAYNIt ST&BItT,


U;'il't. of
Ontario
APR 1 3 '34
PREF AC E.
. THE publication of this treatise having been long
delayed, and having at the same time been much in-
quired after, a few words of explanation seem necessary.
The esteemed friend of the publisher, the talented
and industrious author, died on Sunday, June 20, 1869,
at New Lebanon, N. Y., where he had for years had
charge of the extensive laboratory of Messrs. Tilden &
Co., manufacturing chemists; leaving the book in an
incomplete and imperfect state. This caused a post-
ponement of all preparations for its being sent to the
printer, and it was some time before the services of a
competent editor were obtained who would finally pre-
pare it for, and supervise its passage through, the press.
The undersigned is happy to be able to state that for
this important work he obtained the assistance of one of
the very ablest chemists in this country, who has ex-
pended upon it much conscientious care and time. He
believes that in its present form it will be found to be one
of the most valuable as well as useful technical treatises
which he has yet offered to the American and British
public.
H. C. B.
PUll.A.DELPHIA.,406 Walnut St., June 15, 1871.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION
HISTORICAL NOTICE
SECTION J.
CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES.
CHAPTER 1.
GENERAl. NOTIONS OF CUKIlIISTRY.
Chemistry .
of Bodies into Animals, and Minerals
or Molecules
Particles
l"orell .
Cohesion
States of Matter.
Solids, Liquids, and Gases .
Division of Bodies into Simple and Compound
Metallic and Non-metallic Elements
Analysis and Synthesis
Reagents
Chemical Combination
Affinity
Definite and Multiple Proportions
Generalities on Organic Chemistry
CHAPTER II.
ELIl:XKNTARY PRlIfCIPLKll.
Cellulose
Starch
Dextrin
Glncose
Gams
Sugars
\
PIoG.
17
19
21
22
23
23
24
24
24
25
27
27
28
29
30
30
32
33
39
42
44
48
48
49
VI
Alcoholic Fermentation
Ferment
Alcohol
Preparation
Properties of Alcohol
Malting
Steeping
Couching
Flooring
Drying
Brewing
Grinding
M.ashing
Boiling
Cooling
Fermentation
Cleansing

CHAPTER III.
ALCOHOL.
CH.\.PTRR IV.
ART OF BREWING.
CHAPTERV.
ACETIC FERJlKNTATION.
CHAPTER VI.
PAGE
55
61
66
67
68
71
72
76
77
77
81
81
83
86
88
89
91
ACKTIC ACID.
Hydrated Acetic Acid 105
Table showing the Proportions of Monohydrated Acetic Acid in 100
parts of Acid of different densities 108
Table of Densities of Acid at different Temperatures 109
CHAPTER VII.
METHODS OF PREPARING CONCENTRATED ACETIC ACID.
PrOCCl\s
Lartigue's Process
Baup8' Process .
Lowitz's Process
110
110
111
111
CONTENTS. Vll
PAOli:
Acetic Acid obtained by the Decomposition of the Acetates and by
Distillation III
Preparation of Acetic .Acid by the Acid Acetate or Potassa, by M.
Melsens . 112
Concentrated Acetic Acid with Acetate of Soda, and of
Lime, by M. K. Christt . 114
Preparation of Acetic Acid with the Pyrolignite of Lime. by M. Be-
ringer 115
Preparation of Crystallizable Acetic Acid. by M. Sebille-Auger 116
Process to obtain Crystallizable Acetic Acid, by M. Despretz . 118
Fabrication of Pure Acetic Acid and Acetates with Pyroligneous
Acid and Baryta 118
CHAPTER VIII.
DERIVATIVES OF ACETIC ACID.
Aldehyde
Acetone
Acetic Ether
Snlphacetic Acid
CHAPTER IX.
METALLIC ACETATF.8.
Acetates
Acetate of Potassa
of Soda
of Ammonia
of Baryta
of Strontia .
of Lime
of Alumina.
of Magnesia
of Manganese
Acetates of Iron
Acetate of Zinc
of Tin
of Cobalt
of Nickel
Acetates of Lead
of Copper
Acetate of Copper and Lime
Acetateil of Mercury .
Acetate of Silver
Table of the less important Acetates.
121
124
125
126
12j
129
130
134
135
136
136
138
140
140
141
143
144
144
145
145
152
156
156
!f8
159
viii
Ferments
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER X.
SACCHAROMETRY.
CHAPTER XI.
ALCOHOLOMETRY.
CHAPTER XII.
HYDROMETERS.
SECTION II.
WINE AND CIDER VINEGARS.
CHAPTER XIII.
GKNERALITIES ON THE FABRICATION OF VINEGARS.
CHAPTER XIV.
MOTHER OJ' VINKGAR, OR FKRMENT.
CHAPTER XV.
WINE.
The Cultivation of the Vine
The Vine in the United States
Grape Juice
Constitnent Principles of the Juice
Analysis of the Red Tartar
Analyses of the Juice of Ripe Grapes
of Wines and Liquors .
CHAPTER XVI.
DIFFERENT MODf:S OF MANUFACTURING VINEGAR.
Boerhaave's Method
Flemish Method .
Orleans Method.
Household Process
Method of the North of France
Spanish Method
Parisian Method
Improved French Method .
191
192
]97
198
199
199
200
202
203
204
205
205
206
206
207
:
CONTENTS.
CHAP'fER XVII.
CIDER VINEGAR.
CHAPTER XVIII.
FABRICATION OF VINEGAR WITH ALCOHOL AND WHISKEY.
SECTION III.
MALT VINEGAR.
CHAPTER XIX.
PREPARATION OF THE FERMENTID LIQUOR.
CHAPTER XX.
TRANSFORMATION OF THE FERJlINTED LIQUOR INTO VINEGAR.
Household Process for Malt Vinegar
SECTION IV.
QUICK PROCESS.
CHAPTER XXI.
OLD METHODS.
Boerhaave's Process .
CHAPTER XXII.
ApPARATUS.
CHAPTER XXIII.
GENERAL DETAILS OF THE OPERATION.
Bringing the Generators into Action .
Preparation of the Vinegar with Alcohol or Whiskey
Precautions to be taken during the Process
CHAPTER XXIV.
FABRICATION OF VINEGAR WITH GRAIN AND MALT.
Description of the Filter
Description of the Filtering Frames
Working of the Filter
ix
P"'G.
. 221
223
229
231
233
235
236
237
x

CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXV.
FABRICA.TION OF VINEGAR WITH GRAIN AI.ONK.
CHAPrER XXVI.
DIFFERKNT KINDS OF VINEGARS.
PAG.
Vinegar of German Brandy 242
Of Alcohol, &c. . 242
Vinegar of Sugar 243
Starch Vinegar . 245
Vinegar of Sweet Waters, Raisins, Fecula, &c. 246
"Vinegar with Cane Sugar 246
Vinegar with Roney 247
Vinegar of Molll.llses 247
Vinegar of 'Beer 247
Ale Vinegar 248
Cider Vinegar 248
Strong's American Vinegar Generator 250
Beet Vinegar 255
~ ~ Q ~ P r o ~ ~ ~ 9
Fubrication of Vinegar with Beet Sugar and Residuum, by Ruez-
Delsaux and Vanwormhoude 262
Fruit Vinegar 266
Vinegar of Rags 266
Seaweeds (Fucus) all a Source of Acetic Acia, by M. J. Stenhouse 267
CHAPTER XXVII.
IMPROVEIIIENTS IN THE QUICK PROCESS.
Ure's Process 269
Ham's Process 271
Process for preparing Strong Vinegar Economically in forty-eight
hours, by M. Dingler 271
Improvement in the Quick Process, by M. C. F. Anthon . 272
Quick Process-The Losses which are Experienced, and their
Causes, by M. F. Knapp 273
Researches on the Strength of Vinegar 275
on the Air Disengaged from the Generator. 275
New Generator of Dr. Spitaler, by M. Schweinsberg 286
New Industrial Process, by M. L. Pasteur 287
Tilden's Improvement in Generators . 292
The Author's Process 294
Decolorizing
Coloring
Clearing
Flavor and Odor
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
IIIPROVING VINBGAR.
SEOTION V.
WOOD VINEGAR.
CHAPTER XXIX.
Xl
PAGII
296
297
297
298
DI1"FERRlIIT PROCRSSK8 FOR DISTILLING WOOD.
Generalities 301
English Apparatus 303
French Apparatus 305
Reichenbach's Apparatus 308
Apparatus to Extract Pyroligneous Acid from Sawdnst 309
Ditrerent Modifications 312
ProportiollS of Acid and Charcoal in Various Kinds of Wood 313
CHAPTER XXX.
PURIl"ICATION 01" THB PRODUCTS 01" DISTILLATION.
Wood Naphtha
Purification of Wood Vinegar
SEOTION VI.
APPLICATIONS OF VINEGAR.
CHAPTER XXXI.
AROIIATIC Vlli'II:GAR AND HIGHLY CONCBNTRATJ:D VII'RGAR.
CHAPTER XXXII.
COMPOUND VINEGARS.
Table Vinegars .
Aromatic Distilled Vinegars
Toilet Vinegars .
:Medicinal Vinegars
316
319
32'
332
332
335
xu CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXXIII.
PRBSBRVUION OJ' ALIJlBNTARY SUBSTANCES.
Preservation of Animal Substances .
Preservation of Vegetable Substances
SECTION VII.
ACETOMETRY.
OHAPTER XXXIV.
PAa.
33i
. 338
ACKTOJlETRY.
Degree of Concentration of Vinegars, and Means of Ascertaining it 341
Acetometer of the Parisian Merchants 343
Descroizilles' Acetometer . 344
Frese'lius and Will's Process 347
Otto's Process 349
H. Fleck's Process 353
Salleron and R6veil's Process 358
J. J. Pohl's Process . 361
Table to Measure the Richness of Vinegars 362
Process with Carbonated Alkalies 364
Tables of Percentage of Acid in Vinegar . 366
CHAPTER XXXV.
ADULTBRATIONS OJ' VINBGAR.
APPENDIX.
The Metric System of Weights and Measures 373
Tables showing the Relative Value of French and English Weights
and Measures 3i5
Index. 383
A GENERAL TREATISE
011 mB
MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
INTRODUCTION.
D U R I ~ G the past quarter of a century important pro-
gress has been made in the fabrication of vinegar, and
valuable processes have been acquired, which have
given to the work more precision and many practical
advantages.
Science has given us a better knowledge of the nature
and composition of alcohols, the principles which pre-
side over acetic fermentation, and its accompanying
phenomena.
As a natural result, chemists and manufacturers have
discovered the proper means more economically to pro-
duce acetic acid, and to obtain from grains and from
many saccharine substances a vinegar of good quality,
as well as to give sure and practical processes by which
to ascertain the quantity of real acetic acid contained
in a vinegar; also to examine if that vinegar has been
adulterated by other substances dangerous to the health
of the consumer-in other words, to prepare, by general
and systematic methods, pure acetic acid and acetates,
and test their qualities.
In this work we have availed ourselves of all these
excellent materials, and have classified them, so as to
offer to the reader a full account of the state of the
2
18 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
science, and the progress of the industry of the vinegar
manufacturer.
We have not only indicated the scientific discoveries
and the industrial progress, but have also entered into
details which are of the highest interest to the vinegar
manufacturer, and have reproduced the development.
given them by chemists and inventors.
The work is divided into seven sections.
The first treats of the chemical principles, with full
particulars relative "to acetic acid, alcohol, etc.
The second treats of wine, cider, and alcohol vinegars.
The third examines malt vinegar or vinegar made
from grains, by the same process as is practised in Eng-
land and Germany.
The fourth treats of the quick process, in all its
details, with alcohol, wine, cider, grains, and different
saccharine juices, with all the recent improvements in
this process.
The fifth details the different methods of distilling
pyroligneous acid and vinegar.
The sixth gives the various applications "r vinegar.
The seventh and last, or acetometr!f, treats of the
methods of analyzing vinegars, and gives the adultera-
tions to which this product is submitted, and the modes
by which to detect them.
We believe we have given in this work everything
of value in the art of vinegar-making-grouping the
facts in the most methodical order.
We are much indebted to Messrs. Dumas, Mus-
pratt, Booth, Regnault, Otto, de Fontenelle, Drs. TIre
and Wetherill, and many others.
Such a work was much needed by the American
public, and we hope it will fulfill the purpose we had
in view when beginning it-" Be useful and instructive."
H.D.

HISTORICAL NOTICE.
..
VINEGAR is one of the earliest known acids, and its
discovery must have immediately followed that of wine.
It is evident that, at the temperature of the Eastern
countries, where the first experiments on the juice of
the grape were made, fermentation must have set in
rapidly, and the wine been quickly transformed into an
acid compound.
If we take Milton as an authority on what took-place
at the creation of our world, we see that the fruit of
which Adam and Eve had partaken was intoxicating in
its nature, since the poet says:-
.. Soon 88 the force of that fallacions fruit,
That, with exhilarating power bland,
About their spirita had played, and inmost powers
Made err, was now exhaled."
I t would seem, then, that cider was known before
wine, the invention of the latter being generally con-
ceded to Noah. But by these remarks we do not intend
to raise any theological points, and, least of all, to solve
them; this duty properly devolving on some New Eng-
land D.D.
From the writings of Moses we learn that vinegar
was known by the Israelites and other Eastern nations.
Its solvent powers were also known in the earliest times,
and in the Proverbs of Solomon (chap. xxv. 20) we find:
20 JlANUFACTUBE or VINEGAR.
"As he that taketh away a garment in cold weather,
and as vinegar upon nitre, so is he that singeth songs
to a heavy heart."
We will here remark that "nitre" was very likely
the "natron," an impure carbonate of soda, found in
Egypt.
Hannibal, it is said, used vinegar for dissolving
mountains, and Cleopatra for dissolving pearls, which
shows that these distinguished individuals had expen-
sive habits.
Although vinegar was generally known, the principles
of acetic fermentation were of necessity ignored, for the
want of chemical knowledge. We owe the knowledge
of the purification and concentration of this acid, by
distillation of acetates (especially verdigris), to Albu-
cases, Basilius, .Valentinus, Tachenius, and Stahl.
Glauber distilled wood, and obtained an acid (acetic)
which he proved to be that contained in vinegar, and,
according to his own words, "Acidum aceto vini simil-
limum."
But the true nature of acetic acid, and the methods for
obtaining it from fermented liquors, such as wine or
alcohol, or from wood, &c., are due to the more recent
researches of Berthollet, Berzelius, de Saussure, Dobe-
reiner, Boerhaave, Mollerat, and Pasteur.
During the last twenty-five years great improvements
and discoveries have been made in the manufacture of
vinegar, which are described in full in the following
chapters.
SECTION I.
CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL NOTIONS OF OHEMISTRY.
CHEM:ISTRY-DIVISION OF BODIES INTO ANIM:ALS, VEGETA-
BLES, AND MINERALS-MOLECULES-ATOMS-PARTICLES
-PORES-COHESION-STATES OF MATTER-SOLIDS, LI-
QUIDS, GASES-DIVISION OF BODIES INTO SIM:PLE AND
COM:POUND-METALLIC AND NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS-
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS-REAGENT8-CHEMICAL COM:-
BINATION-AFFINITY-DEFINITE AND MULTIPLE PROPOR-
TION8-QENERALITIES ON ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
WITHOUT considering here the age of the science of
chemistry, and the signification first attached to the
term, we will remark that, in the present state of human
knowledge, the object of this science is the study of
the action and reaction of bodies upon each other, and
the investigation of their intimate constitution. Chem-
istry decomposes bodies, to isolate their different princi-
pIes; it destroys them; but its power does not reside
in this only; it can, by means as simple as numerous,
reproduce those bodies with all their primitive charac-
teristics.
A science, the power of which is so great, and the
results so magnificent, has, in all times, excited, to a
22 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
high degree, the interest and admiration of all those
who are not familiar with its mysteries; but what also
increases the attraction that its study inspires is the
knowledge that we soon acquire of its utility, by seeing
other branches of knowledge, such as medicine, hygiene,
industry, and the fine arts, come, one after the other, to
borrow its precepts and claim its help. How vast is the
domain of chemistry I it comprises all the phenomena
that nature presents in the immense variety of its pro.
ductions, and all the processes of the arts that are brought
to the industry of man.
Having explained the purpose of chemistry, let us
see how it proceeds, and let us first examine the bodies
on which the chemist operates.
When we study carefully the different bodies which
are found at the surface or in the bosom of the earth,
we soon see that they can be divided into three classes.
Some endowed with movement, provided with a will
which directs them, born from beings from whom they
reproduce the characteristics, and after a period, more
or less long, they cease to accomplish the acts by which
they manifest their existence. These are the ANIMALS.
Others, which appear also endowed with vitality,
which are born from similar individuals, and die after
a certain time, like animals, are essentjally distinguished
from them, in that they are obliged to live in the place
where their existence began, and are deprived of that
will which presides over the different acts of life. These
are called VEGETABLES.
Lastly, a third class of natural bodies comprises those
in which we cannot distinguish a principle of life, which
are incapable of reproduction, which exist from all
eternity, and preserve the same appearance, provided
GENERAL NOTIONS OF CHEMISTRY. 23
the outside circumstances in which they are placed do
not change. These are
Every body is formed by the reunion of particles of
the same nature, and each of these particles, taken
singly, possesses all the properties of the body from which
it is derived. It is thus that in dividing a piece of
sugar into 50 or 100 parts, we find in each of those
isolated parts, no matter how small they are, all
characteristics of the sugar. If we prosecute the divi-
sion of a body as far as we can, by mechanical pro-
cesses, we arrive at an extreme tenuity, but which,
however, is not the ultimate division, as we will demon-
strate.
Let us dissolve a few grains of common salt in a glass
of water. One drop contains very little of this salt. If
that drop is thoroughly mixed with a large mass of
water, it is evident that each drop of that mass contains
a little of the salt of the first salted drop. Conse-
quently the salt has experienced a very minute division
to be thus equally diffused through the mass of water;
and to prove that this effect has taken place, we need
only to place in the liquid a few drops of a liquor
which has the property of precipitating in a solid form
the salt which is in,
To those minute divisions which are invisible to the
naked eye has been given the name of ATOMS or MOLE-
CULES. From this we see that a body is formed of MOLE-
CULES or ATOMS, exactly similar. The name of PARTICLES
is given to the agglomeration of molecules large enough
to be perceptible to the eye, and which are the result of
mechanical division. The molecules, however, are not
placed immediately in contact, even in the most compact
bodies. Water poured npon a piece of chalk is quickly
absorbed, without the chalk acquiring an increase in its
24 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
size. Now, as the matter is impenetrable, to explain
the penetration of the chalk by the water, we must con-
ceive that the water lodges itself in the empty spaces
existing between the'solid molecules of the chalk. If
bodies can be compressed, that is, be reduced to a less
apparent volume-if, also, they diminish in volume when
reduced in temperature--it is evident that the molecules
ale brought more nearly in contact, and thus form a
smaller mass. These empty spaces, these intervals,
which thus isolate the molecules, are called PORES, and
this disposition is so general that it has been made an
essential property of matter, under the name of PORO-
SITY.
A very simple and natural reflection presents itself at
first to the mind. We ask bow it is that the molecules
of a body are united one to the other, in such a manner
that we have to employ some effort to effect their sepa-
ration. This clinging together is attributed to the
action of a peculiar force, the nature of which is un-
known, but the effects of which indicate positively its
existence. This occult force has received the name of
COHESION. It is, then, COHESION which unites, which
brings together the molecules of bodies, but it differs
in intensity in various bodies. Thus, as we know
already, glass, wood, and iron are not broken with the
same facility; iron offers more resistance than wood,
wood more than glass; this demonstrates that the cohe-
sion which unites the molecules or atoms of the iron is
more powerful than that which holds the molecules of
the wood, etc.
It is the variation of this force that produces the
* By impenetrability is understood the incapability of one body
to occupy the same space at the 8ame time with aDother body.
GENERA.L NOTIONS OF CHEMISTRY. 25
different states of matter. Matter exists in three dis-
tinct states: solid, as wood, stone, etc.; liquid, as water,
etc.; gase01J,s, as the air which surrounds us.
The same body often may assume these three states.
Water is an example. We know it in the state of
snow and ice, that is solid; in the liquid state; and in
the state of invisible vapor or gas. The air we breathe
always contains water.
Water can readily be made to take these three forms;
ice heated, quickly melts, giving a liquid that an increase
of heat reduces completely to vapor; this vapor resumes
the liquid form, and, on exposure to a yet lower tempera-
ture, freezes and again becomes solid ice.
While a large class of bodies possess the faculty of
taking these three different states, there are many which
take only two, others but one form; bones of animals
are always solid, and cannot, without alteration, take
either of the other forms; lead, usually solid, becomes
liquid by the action of heat, but such means are power-
less to reduce it into vapor; alcohol, that we generally
see in a liquid state, cannot be solidified, but the
slightest heat reduces it into gas; the air, which
surrounds us, under all conditions retains its gaseous
form.
In ordinary circumstances, the solids are the most
numerous at the surface of the earth, then come the
liquids; gases, properly 80 called, are limited, as they
do not exceed thirty in number.
The word GA.S, the origin of which is German, and
signifies S01J,I, spirit, was introduced by Van Helmond, a
celebrated Flemish chemist, born in Brussels in 1577,
and who died in 1644. He employed the term to de-
signate the vapor which is disengaged during the com-
bustion of charcoal, and the fermentation of grapes.
~ 6 MANUFACTURE or VINEGAR.
Later he applied it to all invisible substances disen-
gaged from bodies, either by the action of heat or by
chemical changes. Macquer, a celebrated French
chemist of the eighteenth century, has consecrated this
term, in the language of modern chemistry, to all kinds
of ai1's different from the atmospheric air. This latter
alone has kept the universal name of air. Thus the
air which disengages with noise from beer, cider, soda-
water, is a gas, named carbonic acid gas; that which is
so disagreeable whe? we light a match, is sulphurous gas.
There is necessarily a cause which modifies the power
of cohesion in different bodies. That cause is CALORIC,
or the fluid of heat. This is readily demonstrated by
exposing solid or liquid bodies to the action of fire, by
which they are melted or reduced to vapor, and when
removed from that action, they return to their primitive
state. Thus it is shown that the state of bodies de-
pends upon the relation existing between cohesion,
which brings together the molecules, and heat, whjch
tends to separate them; where caloric predominates
over the force of cohesion in a body, it becomes gaseous;
it is solid when cohesion is most powerful; lastly, it is
liquid when the two forces are in equilibrium.. It follows,
that in gas in which the force of cohesion is very weak,
perhaps null, the molecules are much separated from
each other, and tend ultimately to a greater divergence;
thus we are obliged to keep them in vessels, to prevent
their dispersion.
It is easy to perceive, merely by the observance of
facts, that all bodies in nature are not formed of a
single and similar matter. Thus, we readily distin-
guish lead from copper, copper from iron, and the dif-
ferent properties that we recognize in these different
bodies lead us to think that the intimate nature of
GENERAL NOTIONS OF CHEMISTRY. 27
the matter which composes them varies for each one.
When we more closely examine these bodies, we soon
acquire the knowledge that some have a very compli-
cated composition, while that of others is as simple as
possible. If lead or iron is submitted to the action of
the most violent fire, or to that of other agents as ener-
getic, we will separate nothing but iron or lead. If we
place wood in the same conditions, we shall isolate dif-
ferent gases, tar, charcoal, etc. Wood, then, is a sub-
stance formed of several kinds of matter, while lead and
iron contain but one, which, however, differ in each.
These facts lead us to divide all known bodies into
two great classes, SIMPLE and COMPOUND. The
first are also called ELEMENTS, because all others are
formed from them.
For many centuries, on the authority of Empedocles,
an old philosopher, of Agrigentum, who lived 460 years
before Christ, only four elementary substances were
known, viz., FIRE, AIR, WATER, and EARTH. Robert Boyle,
an Irish chemist of the seventeenth century, was the first
to dispute this, and considered the four elements of the
ancients as complex bodies. Modem science, with its
vigorous methods of observation, has accepted the theory
of Boyle, and has discovered other SIMPLE BODIES or ELE-
MENTS, the number of which is now above sixty-five.
These elements are generally classified as METALS
and non-metallic bodies, or METALLOIDS. This division
is convenient for study, and rests on several distinctive
characteristics which belong to the first, and are generally
missing in the second. Thus, by a metal we understand a
body which is generally very heavy, opaque, very bright,
and which retains that brightness even in its smallest
particles; by a metalloid we understand a simple body
which possesses neither the weight nor the brightness
28 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
of the metals, and which is translucent or transparent.
This distinction is not so important as would at first
appear. These elements, as we have said, by their re-
union form all the various compounds that nature pre-
sents us, or that we artificially produce. Thec1ass of
compound bodies is immense. To facilitate their study,
they are subdivided into several groups, according to
the number of elements of which they are constituted;
being termed binary, ternary, or quaternary, according
as they are formed of two, three, or four elements.
To discover the proper nature of bodies, to distinguish
compound bodies from those which are not, it is neces-
sary that science should furnish us methods susceptible
of great precision. One of them, which has for its
object the isolation of the components of a body in
such a manner that they may reappear with the proper-
ties which characterize them in their primitive state,
has received the name of analysis. The other, which
proceeds in a contrary manner, by reuniting the sepa-
rated elements of a compound, so as to reproduce it as
it formerly existed, is called synthesis.
I t is a well-known fact that chalk, heated in a retort,
gives at the same time a gas and quicklime. By pro-
ceeding thus with chalk, and setting free' its true con-
stituent principles, we make the analysis of that sub-
stance. If, on one hand, after carefully collecting the
gas disengaged during the calcination of chalk, it is
again placed in presence of quicklime under favorable
conditions, it quickly unites and reproduces the chalk.
This reproduction is the synthesis, and the operation is
the proof of the first, by demonstrating that chalk is a
binary compound which has for its constituent principles
lime and a peculiar gas called carbonic acid.
GENERAL NOTIONS OF CBEJOSTRY. 29
We may say, then, that analysis is the art of decom-
posing bodies, while synthesis recomposes them.
All chemical science consists in these two operations:
destroying and creating.
In analysis, the chemist uses agents and reagents. A
body which aids in the separation of the constituent
parts of a compound is an agent. Thus, for the exami-
nation of the lime, we have employed heat; heat is then
an agent of analysis.
But when, instead of trying to completely isolate the
different principles of a compound, we only desire to
indicate their presence, we then use bodies which, by
their respective effects on each of those principles, cause
to appear one of their distinctive properties, and permit
the distinction of their different natures. Bodies acting
in this way are called reagents.
A reagent is a body which, in its contact with ano-
ther, gives rise to certain signs or characteristic pheno-
mena, which are always the same under the same cir-
cumstances.
If we pour a little syrup of violet into vinegar, into
a solution of common salt, and into a solution of potassa,
the color of the syrup will not change in the salt, it red-
dens with the vinegar, and becomes green with the po-
tassa. This mode of action, so different for each body,
reveals the existence of distinct substances.
Every body has its proper reagent. Nothing is more
easy than to ascertain the composition of the different
8ubstances which exist at the surface of the globe, or
which form its aeriform envelope. With the help of a
small number of agents or reagents, one who is possessed
of chemical knowledge can penetrate all the bodies of
nature, and decompose most and reproduce many of
them at will
30 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
l
When two bodies of a different nature are in contact,
under suitable circumstances, we observe that they unite
so as to produce a new substance in which we do not
find the distinctive properties of its components. If, for
example, we take a certain quantity of potassa, a sub-
stance so caustic and so poisonous, and unite it with a
certain amount of sulphuric acid, which, not less ener-
getic than the potassa, burns, corrodes, and destroys all
organic matters, we shall obtain from the union a com-
pound almost tasteless, without destructive action on or-
ganic substances, and which can be introduced in large
quantities into the stomach. This compound is the
Glauber's salt, or sulphate of potassa.
The act by which a compound is formed is called
COMBINATION. We say that two bodies combine when,
by their intimate union, they lose their proper charac-
teristics by giving birth to a substance having new pro-
perties. The cause which determines the phenomenon
of combination, chemists have attributed to a natural
force as unknown in its nature as cohesion, and to which
they have given the name of AFFINITY.
This force, which, like cohesion, attracts the molecules
of bodies, differs essentially from the latter in that it
acts always on heterogeneous or different parts, and gives
birth to new bodies, the characteristics of which do not
recall those of the substances which constitute them;
while cohesion, as we have said, exercises its effects
on similar molecules, simple or compound, and only
produces more voluminous or more compressed masses,
but of the same nature as those which it reunites.
Thus, in lead it is cohesion which unites the molecules,
while in chalk it is affinity which determines the union
of the molecules of lime with those of the carbonic
acid.
GENERAL NOTIONS OF CHEMISTRY. 31
The intensity with which COHESION and AFFINITY ope-
rate in b r i n g i n ~ together the molecules' of bodies is
very different. Mechanical means only are necessary to
destroy the cohesion of a body, and by dividing we'
merely change its state without altering its intimate
properties. A stick of sulphur loses its cohesion by
pulverization in a mortar, but, thus reduced to a
fine powder, it has lost none of its distinctive qualities;
it retains the same color, taste, insolubility in water,
and combustibility.
To destroy, on the contrary, the affinity which unites
the constituent parts of a compound, it is necessary to
employ very energetic agents, which, by their action,
completely change the nature and primitive properties
of the compound. By acting on chalk with heat, we
separate the two principles which compose it, and by
the interposition of that powerful agent, caloric, we have
completely destroyed the substance, and, consequently,
caused the disappearance of all its essential qualities.
This result could not have been obtained by division or
other mechanical means.
To break the cohesion of a body, is simply to divide
it; to break the affinity of its constituent molecules, is
to decompose it. '.
Affinity does not act with the same intensity in all
bodies; thus all have not the same tendency to combine
with each other. Many causes prevent the action of
that force.
This power of the chemist is similar to that of the
creative genius of Him who made the world. Stones,
salts, water, fire, light, all are submitted to his will, and
in his hand all is created as all disappears. With a small
number of elementary bodies he can form thousands of
new substances, all differing from each other, and then
32 HANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
destroying these substances by means as simple as in-
genious; he can reproduce them by reuniting, under
favorable conditions, their constituent materials, which
he had isolated from each other. We can say. without
exaggerating. that. like a new Prometheus, the chemist
has found the secrets of nature, and vies with her in
many circumstances. More, his genius enables him to
discover the means of creating where nature cannot
imitate him. Indeed, the transformation of substances
one into the other is a play for him. According to his
will, he changes starch into gum, gum into sugar, sugar
into alcohol, alcohol into ether, and this latter into car
buretted hydrogen and water. From an inert substance
he gives birth to a series of bodies having precious pro-
perties; thus, from a piece of wood he can extract illu-
minating gas; sugar, which sweetens our food; vinegar,
which flavors it; and charcoal, which can cook it.
All these marvellous creations are very simple effects
produced by the intervention of those forces which,
under the names of affinity, caloric, electricity, attracticm,
or cohesion, are the causes of all the combinations and
decompositions.
The compounds of nitrogen with oxygen present a
very remarkable relation between the proportions of
their elements. The volume of nitrogen remaining the
same in all. that of oxygen varies as follows:-
100 volumel nitrogen with 60 yolumeB oz,YgeD form nltroua ozlde.
100" .. 100" .. .. binozide of nitrogen.
100" .. 1110" .. .. nitroua acid.
100" .. 200" .. .. h,Yponitrio acid.
100" .. 260" .. .. nitrlo acid.
That is, that the numbers which express the volume of
the oxygen, added to 100 of nitrogen, are between each
other as the numbers 1. 2, 3, 4, 5.
Similar simple relations are observed in all chemical
...
GENERAL NOTIONS OF CHEMISTRY. 33
compounds, and we can say, in a general manner, that
VJhen, in a series of compounds to which the two components
are common, one ofthose components varies in proportions,
the numbers which express those proportions, in weight or in
volume, are between them as the numbers 1,2,3,4,5, etc.;
that is, i ~ multiple, simple, and constant relatio1is.
The law known by the name of the theoT!J of the multiple
proportions is remarkable for its generality, for it em-
braces not only the binary combinations of the elements,
but also compounds of a higher order. It derives, be-
sides, from that other, the theory of the definite propor-
tions, which may be thus formulated:-
Bodies form between each other but a very small number
of compounds, the elements of which are always reunited in
invariable or definite proportions.
For instance, oxygen, sulphur, and chlorine unite with
a metal only in 1, 2, 3, or 4 proportions, rarely in a
greater number, and in each of the compounds which
results, the quantities of the oxygen and of the metal, of
the sulphur and the metal, etc., are always fixed, under
all circumstances.
The discovery of these remarkable laws is entirely
due to modern chemists. The ancients had no know-
ledge of their Qxistence; and by ancients we even desig-
nate the chemists who preceded the memorable epoch
of 1789, when chemistry, in the hands of Lavoisier,
Berthollet, Monge, Fourcroy, Guyton de Morveau,
Scheele, Priestley, Cavendish, and Volta, was completely
regenerated.
Generalities on Organic ChemistT!J.
In the formation of minerals, their component ele-
ments are submitted to the two great natural forces
called attraction and ajfinity. These also govern living
3
34 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
beings, which obey other forces peculiar and essential
to themselves.
Thus, vegetables, composed of organs designated by
the names of roots, trunks, leaves, flowers, fruits, and
seeds, grow, live, and die under the empire of a force
which, like the above, escapes our researches. It is the
'Vital force or the power of organization, the action of
which begins and ends with life.
Animals, provided with more complicated apparatus
or organs, some of which are specially destined for nu-
trition, and others for the reproduction of the species,
are, like the vegetables, submitted to the vital force
which is the cause of the physiological phenomena;
but, in addition, they obey the action of another force
not less powerful, sensibility, which gives the conscious-
ness of their existence, and presides over all the acts of
the intelligence.
These two forces, which act continually during life,
have great influence upon the composition of human
beings, and modify in a very extraordinary manner the
effects of the chemical forces. The mineral compounds
are very numerous and varied, but they are small in
comparison with the number and variety of the com-
o pounds which are developed in the tissues of vegetables
and animals, under the influence of the organic forces.
With organized beings we distinguish two kinds of
compounds :-
1. Inorganic compounds, which are also found in the
mineral kingdom. These compounds are due evidently
to the soil in which these beings live and remain; con-
sequently they are not productions of the bodies in
which they are found.
2. Organic compounds, which are found only in the
GENERAL NOTIONS OF CHEMISTRY. 35
organs of living beings, such as sugar, gums, oils, some
acids, etc. etc.
The o-rganic matters are formed by the reunion of a
small number of elements which belong to organic na-
ture; but what is remarkable is, that few only of the
simple bodies can become constituent principles of or-
ganized beings and of their products. Indeed, oxygen,
hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen are about the only
elements useful in the formation of organic substances.
Sulphur, phosphorus, and iron, when found, are in very
small proportions. But while a single simple body may
constitute alone a mineral substance, it always requires
at least two, more frequently three or four, to constitute
an organic substance. Thus, vegetable compounds are
formed of hydrogen and carbon, or hydrogen, carbon,
and oxygen; sometimes with nitrogen, as the animal
compounds which contain all these elements, except a
few which are not nitrogenized.
In inorganic bodies, the fundamental characteristic
resides in the difference of the nature itself of the
elements which constitute them; thus the compounds
of sulphur have nothing in common with those of
chlorine, those of hydrogen can be readily distin-
guished from those of phosphorus, etc. It is not so
with organic substances, since all have for bases the
same elements, sometimes to the number of three, some-
times four. It is only in the proportions of the ele-
mentary principles the difference resides. The number
of vegetables is considerable, since it is over one hun-
dred and twenty thousand; that of animals is probably
more considerable, and however they d i f f e ~ between each
other, a very extraordinary thing is, that chemically
only very slight variations exist in the proportions of
the oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen which essen-
36 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
tially form them. To detect, to determine these slight
variations, is the great effort of the chemist.
Whatever may be the mode of combination of organic
substances, they show, in general, a great tendency to
be destroyed and changed into other compounds,among
which are sometimes found inorganic bodies. Thus,
these mineral substances, which conduce so powerfully
to the nutrition of living beings, are returned by them
to the mineral kingdom when the life of the individual
is terminated, and are used as the elements of new
generations.
How can vegetables and animals create inside these
organs, with the help of four or five elementary prin-
ciples only, that multitude of compounds, the constitu-
tion and chemical properties of which are so distinct 1
By what means did they draw from the, soil and the
atmosphere the elements suitable to generate muscular
fibre, the oils or fats, the sugar, gum, starch, etc., com-
pounds which differ between each other only by very
insignificant variations in the three, four, or five elements
which essentially constitute them 1
These marvellous results are due to that mysterious
force, unknown to dead nature, which we call life,
vital force, assimilative force. God alone knows the
secret of those successive transformations through which
the organic elements pass to constitute the frames of the
organs of living beings, as well as the numerous pro-
ducts which accumulate on them necessarily; and all
this takes place, not by an effect of chance, but with an
admirable variety, and with an extreme wisdom.
Whilst we cannot, in laboratories,proceed by the
same methods employed by nature, it is permitted us to
form artistically a certain number of products which
are found in the living organism. The artificial repro-
GENERAL NOTIONS OF CHEMISTRY. 37
duction of many substances of vegetable or animal
origin, is one of the finest results that chemists have
obtained within the last ten years.
Thus, oxalic acid is no more extracted from the sorrel,
for sugar and starch can furnish it quicker and cheaper.
The same substances, submitted to other reactions,
give that powerful acid secreted by ants (formic acid).
By treating starch, wood, straw, rags, grains, etc., with
sulphuric acid, we make at will either gum or sugar
similar to that existing in fruits.
With the blood, horn, or meat, we manufacture the
salts called cyanides, prussiate of potassa, prussian blue,
and with them we obtain urea, the principle of urine,
the direct extraction of which is so long and so disgust-
mg.
Wax may be converted into the natural acid proper
to the fat of sheep. .
With one of the products of the distillation of wood,
the wood spirit, we give birth to the essential oil of the
flowers of gaultheria. '-
We create indifferently with sugar, according to the
mode of treatment, lactic acid, butyric acid, and vale-
rianic acid.
In all cases, the list of which can be multiplied,
we transform organic products of slight stability into
products much more stable, and which come nearer and
nearer the nature of the mineral substances. And this
is due to the great mobility of the elements of organic
compounds. Nothing is more easy than to successively
convert starch into gum; the gum into sugar; the Bugar
into alcohol; the alcohol into acetic acid or ether; and
the ether into water or carburetted hydrogen.
All these transformations, all these imitations, depend
on that excessive mobility of the elements of organic
38 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
matters by which they are unable to resist the action of
energetic reagents, as nitric acid, potassa, chromic acid,
chlorine, which take their carbon and hydrogen, and thus
change them into new substances less hydrogenized,
and less carburetted. But this same mobility is an
obstacle, on the other hand, to the power of chemists,
who cannot imitate the principles of the blood, the
cerebral matter, nor other substances of a similar com-
plicated nature. They cannot directly reunite the ele-
ments of an organic substance so as to reproduce it with
all its primitive characteristics, as is so often done with
mineral substances. Thus, while sugar can be trans-
formed into alcohol and carbonic acid, and these two
products represent the composition of the former, we
are unable, in the present state of science, to make
sugar with alcohol and carbonic acid. This impuissance
is due solely to the fact that the synthetical processes
which can be used to obtain such a reproduction are
too energetic, too different from those quiet and slow
rel!'t:tions which are accomplished in the living organism,
and can be effected only under conditions where organic
matter could not exist. We have not yet the means of
imitating, in our laboratories, what nature does so easily
within the organs- of plants and animals.
The ready decomposition of organic matters, the con-
tinual metamorphoses they experience, render their
study more difficult than that of mineral substances.
These latter are not destroyed by chemical reactions, for
their essential characteristic is the stability of their ele-
ments, and with them the chemist loses none of the
principles on which his investigations are carried on,
and he can always control the results of his analysis by
synthesis; but it is very different with the organic com-
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 39
pounds. Energetic reaction is a cause of destruction or
transformation; new products are formed, differing
greatly from those which pre-existed, and with which
it is impossible to reproduce that which was organized
under the influence of life.
CHAPTER II.
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES.
CELLULOSE-STARCH-DEXTRIN-GLUCOSE-GUMS-
SUGARS.
CELLULOSE, CI2HIOQIO.
THE cellulose or cellular tissue is particularly evident
in the young organs of vegetables. The cell is formed
in the liquids which circulate through the plants, and
grows by successive agglutinations with the cells pre-
viously formed, which occasions a modification in the
original form of the cells. Sometimes they are rounded
!lnd show a certain regularity, as in the pith of the
elder, and in the potato, in which case they constitute
the cellular tissue properly so called. Sometimes the
cells form elongated tubuli communicating by their
contracted extremities. As the vegetable portions grow
old on the living plant. the vascular vessels are filled
with woody fibre, which increases gradually in thickness,
and leaves only very narrow canals for the circulation
of the sap. The whole of this mechanism constitutes
the wood.
From all the substances entering into the composition
of plants, the cellular tissue is distinguished by its great
40 HANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
resistance to chemical agents, a resistance which allows
of its separation in a state of purity, sufficiently perfect
to permit the study of its properties, and its
elementary composition. It is always the same, not
only in all parts of the same plant, but also in all vege-
tables. CeUulose is the name given to that
which is regarded by chemists as forming the cellular
tissue of all plants.
It is nearly pure in cotton, and in hemp and flax,
that is, in the textile fibres extracted from the plants of
these names. It is also nearly pure in paper and old
linen, made of the substances just mentioned, and which,
during their preparation and use, have been subjected
to various chemical reactions which have gradually
effected the entire destruction of the more changeable
foreign substances mixed with the cellular tissue.
Cellulose is extracted from various parts of plants by
submitting them to successive chemical reactions which
destroy the more alterable woody fibre. The substance,
when obtained in as disintegrated a form as possible, is
digested with hot solutions of caustic potassa or soda, and,
after washing, the residue is treated with weak hydro-
chloric acid, and washed with water. By a repetition of
this process a certain number of times, the woody fibre
is completely removed'; although the same result may
be obtained more quickly by subjecting the substance to
more powerful oxidizing agents, such as weak solutions
of chlorine or hypochlorite of lime, and following each
of these with an alkaline solution, and dilute hydro-
chloric acid. The operations must be carefully con-
ducted, and reagents diluted with water, alone used.
The cellulose is then washed successively with alcohol
and ether, to dissolve the fatty matter.
Pure cellulose is white and transparent, insoluble in
ELEMENTARY PRINOIPLES. 41
water, alcohol, ether, and the fixed and volatile oils.
Dilute acid solutions have but little effect on it even at
boiling point, which is also the case with weak alka-
line solutions. The resistance cellulose offers to these
reagents varies with its cohesion, recently formed cellu-
lose being much more easily changed. Concentrated
sulphuric and phosphoric acids attack cellulose, and
convert it into a soluble substance called dextrin, then
change it into a ,sugary substance called glucose. Fu-
ming nitric acid combines, when cold, with cellulose, and
converts it into an insoluble substance, eminently com-
bustible and explosive, which we have described in
another work, and is called pyroxylin or gun cotton. At
the boiling point, nitric acid dissolves it, and transforms
it into oxalic acid. Acetic acid, even in a concentrated
state, has no action on it.
Cellulose, lis it exists in the cellular tissue of plants, is
not colored by an aqueous of iodine, but when
it has been acted upon by sulphuric acid, it assumes a
beautiful blue color. After some time, a solution of
chlorine or hypochlorite completely destroys cellulose,
forming water and carbonic acid; that destruction is
very rapid if the solution is hot and concentrated.
Its elementary composition is:-
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
44.44
6.18
49.38
100.00
Its formula is C1IHIOQ10. We must remark that oxy-
gen exists in it, in the proportion constituting water
The Fabrication of Matches. Phila.: H. C. Baird.

42 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
STARCH, C
12
H
1
00IO.
Starch is the feculent matter of plants, and is found
in all parts to a greater or less degree. It is, however,
rarely found in the stems and branches of the dicoty-
ledonous plants, is always contained in the cavities of
the cellular substance, perfectly isolated, but surrounded
by an aqueous liquid. The gluten and other substances
with which it is associated are separable by mechanical
means. All that is llSed in the arts' is obtained from
wheat, com, and potatoes.
Starch has exactly the same composition in all vege-
tables, and is identical with that of cellulose. Starch
dried in vacuo at 234 contains:-
Carbon
Hydrogen.
Oxygen
44.44
6.18
49.38
100.00
which corresponds to C
1
2H
1
oQ
1
0.
Starch is always found in the form of brilliant, white
sand, pulverulent granules, varying in size from 1"h to
IT!nth of an inch in diameter. Each grain consists of
several concentric layers, decreasing in thickness and
hardness interiorly.
It is insoluble in alcohol, ether, and cold water, but
at 150 it forms with the latter a thick solution, which
. gelatinizes by cooling. At 140 starch separates into two
portions, without solution of either; or 0.003 to 0.004
is left unacted upon, while the residue forms a jelly.
The action of boiling water increases the volume of
starch thirty-fold. When the heat is raised to 395 to
430, it is converted into dextrin. If heated in a
digester with 5 parts of water at 320, a gum-like pro-
duct, similar to dextrin, is obtained; but if the tempera-
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES 43
ture is raised to 356, much sugar is formed. Hydrated
starch heated in a closed tube at 212 to 266, is
converted into a paste; at 305 it forms a transparent
solution, which on cooling deposits minute granules
soluble in water at 158 to 212, but unaltered in pro-
perties from the original starch. A continued ebullition
for several days, converts starch into a bitter matter,
and undetermined gummy principles.
The most characteristic test for the presence of starch
is iodine, which imparts to it a deep violet color when
pure and moist. The iodine must not be used in
excess. The color disappears wh.en the paste is heated,
but returns again in cooling. Starch solution is precipi-
tated by alcohol, subacetate of lead, lime, and tannin.
Starch is dissolved by dilute acids, excepting acetic
acid, and by prolonged ebullition is converted first into
dextrin, and ultimately into grape-sugar.
Strong nitric acid converts it into oxalic acid and
:I:!Jlaidin.
Concentrated sulphuric acid, when rubbed up with
starch, yields a gummy mass, which liquefies and forms
soluble compounds with lead, lime, and baryta. If the
acid is diluted with 2 parts of water, starch is carbon-
ized, and formic acid produced.
Ammonia alone has no action on starch. A lye con-
taining 2 per cent. of soda swells the grains to 60 or 70
times their original bulk. Fused hydrate of potassa
transforms it into formic, acetic, and metacetonic acids.
When rubbed with strong potassa lye, it unites and forms
a transparent gelatinous compound, soluble in water and
alcohol, from which starch is precipitated by acids.
Diastase with starch produces a series of reactions.
At first it only causes liquefaction and deposition of
minute granules at 140 to 160, when heated in a
44 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
digester. Thus far the starch continues to be blued by
iodine, but where by further reactions it is converted
into dextrin, the tint passes gradually into violet and
purple, and ultimately disappears when the dextrin is
transformed into sugar.
The principal sources of starch are wheat, corn,
potatoes, rice; it is prepared fl'om the grains of the
cereals by soaking, crushing, and fermenting them.
The acetous fermentation thus produced at the ex-
pense of the sugar present, promotes the solution of the
gluten, so that, by washing the crushed grains in baskets
with running water, the starch is carried through the
meshes as a milky liquid, which must be run upon hair
sieves into clean vats. In a short time the starch sub-
sides, and the supernatant liquor is then decanted, and
the upper stratum of slimes also removed. After re-
peated washings with fresh water, the starch is to be'
well stirred, and the milky liquor again strained upon
hair sieves of greater fineness than those first used. After
repose, the water and slimes are separated as before, the
starch strained in linen bags', and dried by exposure to
the sun or in a warm room.
Wheat contains from 56 to 76 per cent. of starch;
corn from 70 to 75, potatoes from 15 to 30, rice from 80
to 85 per cent.
Starch plays a very important part in the fabrication
of vinegar from grains.
DEXTRIN, C11lH1oQIO.
As has already been stated, starch, when treated for
some time with water containing some hundredths of a
mineral acid, sulphuric for instance, is soon completely
dissolved, being first converted into a substance closely
resembling gum-arabic, and then, if the ebullition be
ELEHENTARY PRINCIPLES. 45
continued, changing into sugar. The first product of
transformation has received the name of dextrin.
Dextrin is very soluble in water, and dissolves also
in dilute alcohol, but is insoluble in absolute alcohol.
As it dissolves but sparingly in concentrated alcohol,
which dissolves a much larger proportion of the sugar,
this solvent is frequently employed to separate dextrin
from the sugar with which it is ordinarily mixed.
Dextrin separated from its solutions by evaporation,
assumes the form of a colorless, transparent substance,
without any appearance of crystallization, closely resem-
bling gum-arabic, but possessing an opposite rotatory
power. Heated with commercial nitric acid, it gives
oxalic acid, but not mucic acid, thus distinguishing it
chemically from gum. Iodine does not color the
solutions of dextrin, which affords an easy test for
ascertaining when the transformation of the amylaceous
matter is completed, and which exhibits the action of
sulphuric acid in the preparation just indicated. By
pouring into a small quantity of the hot liquor, previous
to boiling, a few drops of an aqueous solution of iodine,
the beautiful indigo-blue color peculiar to starchy matter
is produced, while if the same experiment be repeated
some time after, the iodine produces a violet tinge, and
at a still later period, a purplish or reddish hue; lastly,
no change of color is effected, the yellowish tinge being
merely due to the aqueous solution of iodine. But at
this period a portion of the dextrin formed has gene-
rally undergone a more advanced transformation, and is
changed into sugar.
Solutions of dextrin possess some properties of solu-
tions of gum, and may be substituted occasionally for
them in the arts.
One method of preparing dextrin consists in heating
46 HANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
starch to a temperature of about 410, when it becomes
disaggregated and converted into dextrin; the dried
starch being spread in layers of from 1 to Ii inch in
thickness, on sheet-iron tables, in a furnace heated by a
regular circulation of hot air, the temperature of which
must not exceed 410.
The product thus obtained is called torrified starch, or
leiocomme, and exhibits the pulverulent appearance of
starch, while its color is slightly yellowish, owing to a
more advanced decomposition. Another method con-
sists in moistening 1000 parts of starch with 300 of
water containing 2 of nitric acid, and, after allowing the
substance to dry spontaneously, heating it for one or
two hours in a stove at 212 or 230 when the transfor-
mation is effected, and the acid is evaporated.
Diastase.-We have already mentioned the name of
diastase; some remarks are necessary on that important
body.
It is a peculiar nitrogenous substance, which possesses
the property of converting a large proportion of starch
into dextrin, and even into sugar when its action is suf-
ficiently prolonged. It exists in the germ of the cerealia
and tubercular vegetables. It appears to be formed at
the moment of germination, probably at the expense of
the albuminous matter contained in the grain, as it re-
sides in the very origin of the germ and in the eye of
the tuber; and its use in the vegetable economy appears
to be that of disaggregating the amylaceous matter, and
transforming it into an isomeric soluble substance, when
the vital forces then change into other isomeric, but
insoluble, substances, such as cellulose, which are to form
the framework of the growing plant.
Diastase is generally extracted from barley which has
sprouted, by digesting the powdered grain in water at
ELEIlENTARY PRINCIPLES 47
77 to 86, and, after several hours, compressing the
paste in a cloth and filtering; when the liquid contains
diastase in solution, and may be used immediately to
effect the transformation of starch. If the active prin-
ciple is to be separated from it, it must be heated to
167, a temperature which does not alter the substance,
but at which an albuminoid substance mixed with it
coagulates. Anhydrous alcohol is then poured into the
liquor as long as any precipitate is formed, when the
diastase is precipitated in flakes, which are redissolved
in water, and again reprecipitated by alcohol. The sub-
stance, dried in vacuo, is white, amorphous, soluble
in water and weak alcohol, but insoluble in concentrated
alcohol. The aqueous solution is neutral and tasteless,
and is not precipitated by acetate of lead. Diastase may
be preserved for a long time in dry air, but soon putre-
fies in dampness; and a temperature of 212
0
deprives it
entirely of its action on starch, which is very powerful,
for one part of diastase is sufficient to transform into
dextrin, and subsequently into sugar, 2000 parts of starch;
to produce which effect by the action of acid, it would
require thirty times the weight of sulphuric acid. It
cannot be supposed, on account of the small proportion
of diastase, that any ordinary chemical reaction takes
place, and the phenomenon mUtlt rather be compared to
those mysterious actions called actions by contact, and it
may also be assimilated to other phenomena, also im-
perfectly explained, known by the name offermentation.
Diastase appears to be more active between the tem-
peratures of 149 and 167, the action ceasing at a higher
degree. At 32 it still converts starch into dextrin and
sugar, but at 10,4 dextrin alone is formed. Diastase
exerts no action on cellulose, lignin, nor even cane-
sugar, which is so easily changed by diluted acids.
48 HANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
. The action of diastase is applied in the arts to the
purpose of obtaining dextrin with more or less s u g a r ~
the transformation being effected in a double boiler be-
tween the sides of which steam is made to circulate;
the ground barley, or malt, being suspended in water
heated at 167, the starch is added to it by small quan-
tities as it dissolves. The operation is watched, and the
liquor tested from time to time with the aqueous solu-
tion of iodine; and when a vinous color is produced, the
action of the diastase must be quickly paralyzed, as
otherwise a large quantity of sugar would be formed, and
it is done by rapidly heating the liquor to 212 by pass-
ing steam through it. It is then decanted, and evapo-
rated to a syrupy consistenc,e.
The dextrin, thus prepared, is used in the baking of
pastry, or in the manufacture of beer, cider, alcohol, and
various alcoholic liquors; that obtained from torrified
starch, or by the action of acids, is used in dyeing and
calico printing, and also in surgery in what is called the
immovable treatment of fractures.
GLUCOSE.
I ~ treating of sugars, 'we shall speak of this very in-
teresting product.
Guxs, C
12
HIOOIO.
Certain substances, as yet imperfectly understood,
which issue from trees, are called gums. Their element-
ary composition is the Bame as that of amylaceous mat-
ter, but they differ from it in several of their chemical
properties; thus, amylaceous matter forms oxalic acid
with nitric acid, while, under the same circumstances,
gums produce both oxalic acid and a peculiar acid called
mucic acid. Gums may be divided into three species:-
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 49
1. Gum-arabic or arahin.
2. The gum of our indigenous fruit-trees, or celasin.
3. Gum-tragacanth, the essential principle of which
has been called bassorin. Iodine does not color gums
when they are pure, and when gum-tragacanth assumes
a blue tinge, it is due to the presence of a. small quan-
tity of starch.
It is not our purpose to study the different gums; we
have mentioned them, as they oecupy the middle rank
between amylaceous matter and sugars.
SUGARS.
Sugars are substances soluble in water, having a
sweet taste, and possessing the property of being con-
verted into alcohol and carbonic acid, when left in con.
tact with certain nitrogenous o r ~ a n i c substances, called
yeasts, or leaven. Sugars are widely diffused through the
vegetable kingdom; and three principal species have
been distinguished by chemists:-
1. Cane sugar.
2. Grape sugar.
3. Uncrystallizable fruit sugar.
The first species is perfectly well known, while the
others are less so, and when their properties are more
accurately ascertained they will probably be subdivided.
A crystallizable substance, sugar of milk, is also found in
the milk of animals, and should be classed among the
sugars. In their composition, sugars present this re-
markable fact, that their hydrogen and oxygen exist in
exactly the proportions which form water.
Cane Sugar, C
1
2H
ll
O
ll
.-Cane sugar exists in solution
in the juice of a large number of vegetables; and may
be said ~ be found in all vegetables, the juice of which is
not acid, as acids convert cane sugar into fruit sugar. It
4
60 HANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
is also abundantly found in the sugar cane, the sugar
beet, melons, turnips, the stalks of corn, the sap of the
maple, as well as many tropical fruits, etc. It is prin-
cipally extracted from the sugar cane and sugar beet.
Large quantities are obtained from the maple.
Pure cane sugar is found in commerce, either in the
form of large colorless and transparent crystals, consti-
tuting sugar candy, or in that of small crystals adhering
to each other, as in the common loaves of sugar. It is
inodorous, has a very sweet taste, and a density of 1.60.
It dissolves in one-third of its weight of cold, and in a
still smaller quantity of boiling water. It dissolves in
80 times its weight of boiling absolute alcohol, but the
greater portion is deposited during the cooling; it is
nearly insoluble in cold alcohol. It dissolves more
easily in slightly diluted alcohol, for 4 parts of alcohol at
181.5 will dissolve one of sugar. Cane sugar melted in
water turns the plane of polarization of polarized light
towards the right.
Heated to 320, cane sugar fuses and forms a viscous
mass flowing with difficulty, which solidifies into a trans-
parent mass, having a vitreous fracture.
Melted sugar kept for some time at 356
0
loses the
property of crystallizing when again dissolved in water.
The composition of crystallized cane sugar corresponds
to the formula C
12
H
ll
O
ll

Heated between 410 and 428, it loses 2 equiva-


lents of water, and is converted into caramel, the formula
of which is C
12
H
9
0
9
On continuing to heat caramel,
it parts with more water, and is converted into a black
insoluble product; and if the temperature be further
increased, acid products and inflammable gases are dis.
engaged, while a black coal remains.
When a solution of sugar is boiled for a long time,
ELEKENTARY PRINCIPLES. 51
the sugar undergoes alteration, which is observed by
examining the successive effects of th.e liquid on polar-
ized light. It loses the property of crystallizing, and re-
sembles sugar which has been heated for some time to 356.
Mineral acids, though much diluted, and the greater
part of organic acids, alter cane sUg'ar and transform it
into an uncrystallizable sugar which turns the plane of
polarization of the polarized light to the left. This new
sugar closely resembles fruit sugar. In that reaction
the acids undergo no change.
Cane sugar combines with bases, and forms in certain
cases crystallizable compounds called saccharates, the
principal of which are the saccharates of baryta, BaO,
C
12
Hll0l1, two saccharates of lime, represented one by
3CaO,2(C12Hll0l1), and the other by CaO,C
lt
H
l1
Ol1, the
saccharate of lead, 2PbO,C12HIOOIO.
Concentrated sulphuric acid blackens cane sugar, and
yields complicated products. Monohydrated nitric acid
produces with sugar an insoluble and very combustible
substance analogous to that obtained from starch. Ordi-
nary nitric acid transforms it into a very soluble and
deliquescent acid called otralhydric or o3:!Jsaccharic acid.
At the boiling point, sugar reduces several metallic
salts; it precipitates suboxide of copper, Cu
2
0, from the
acetate of copper, and metallic copper from the sulphate
and nitrate.
By distilling one part of sugar and eight parts of
quicklime in a glass retort, gases are disengaged, and an
oily liquid is collected. The liquid, shaken with water,
joins with and forms a product, C
3
H
3
0, which is abun-
dantly obtained in the distillation of the acetates, and is
known by the name of acetone. The liquid, exhausted
by water, decomposes almost entirely into an oily liquid,
boiling at 183.2, and called metacetone.
52 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Sugar of Acid Fruits, C12H
12
0lll._That variety of
sugar found in which is often called uncr!Js-
tallizable or fruit sugar, possesses the property of turning
the plane of polarization to the left, and exists exclusively
in the sour juices of vegetables, and principally in fruits.
To extract it, the juice is expressed, the acids saturated
with chalk, the juice boiled with white of egg, which
removes the mucilaginous substances, and, lastly, the
liquid is evaporated at a gentle heat. This substance,
when dry, has the appearance of a very deliquescent
gum, dissolving largely in water, and even in alcohol
at .40. In contact with yeast, it ferments directly,
producing alcohol and carbonic acid.
By boiling cane sugar with diluted acid, it is readily
converted into this second species. Cane always
undergoes this first transformation under the influence
of yeast before that of fermentation, properly so called,
that is to say, before being converted into alcohol and
carbonic acid. Its chemical composition corresponds
to the formula CllIH12012.
Grape Sugar, C
12
H
H
OH._If a syrupy solution of fruit
sugar is allowed to rest for some time, it deposits small
crystalline grains of a sugary substance which has been
improperly called grape sugar. It is the same substance
which forms the white powder on dry raisins.
The urine of patients laboring under a peculiar
disease called diabetes mellitus, Of saccharine diabetes,
contains sometimes ten per cent. of a sugar, the com-
position of which is identical with that of grape sugar.
The same sugar is obtained by boiling starch, or any
other amylaceous substance, with weak sulphuric acid.
This variety is generally. called glucose. The granular
sugar found in honey appears to be identical with grape
sugar.

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 53
It crystallizes with difficulty, producing a compound
crystallization, is less soluble in water than cane sugar,
for it requires one and a half part of cold water to dis-
solve one of grape sugar. Its taste is less sweet. It dis-
solves more freely in alcohol than cane sugar, as one
part of it dissolves in 60 parts of boiling absolute alco-
hol, and in five or six parts of alcohol at 181.40. Its
solution turns the plane of polarization to the right.
It softens at 140, and is completely liquefied at 212,
at which temperature it loses 2 eqs. of water, and is
converted into a new sugar, C1sH1S01S, which presents
the composition of fruit sugar, although it continues to
turn polarized light to the right.
It combines less readily with bases than cane sugar,
and, when boiled with alkaline solutions, the liquor
turns brown, exhales a smell of burnt sugar, acid pro-
ducts being formed which combine with the alkali.
Slaked lime converts it into a powerful acid-glucic
acid, C8H
6
06. This acid forms salts with lime and lead.
By one and a half part of concentrated
sulphuric acid gradually upon one part of grape sugar
melted at 212, treating it with water, and, lastly, satu-
rating the liquor with carbonate of baryta, the liquid
will contain a soluble salt called sulphosaccharate.
A boiling solution of this sugar immediately reduces
the blue liquor obtained by pouring potassa and tartrate
of potassa into salts of the oxide of copper, CuO, and
precipitates from it the red suboxide of copper, Cu
2
0.
This reaction has been employed for the purpose of
ascertaining the quantity of grape Bugar existing in a
fluid.
Glucose, C
12
H
H
O
H
._If the action of diastase, or that
of acids on starch. be prolonged, the dextrin which
is first formed is converted into sugar, and the solution,
54 KANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
when evaporated, sets into a crystalline mass resembling
that formed by grape sugar. This sugar is called glucose,
and is identical with grape sugar. In the transforma-
tion, the amylaceous matter, C
12
HIOQIO, absorbs four
equivalents of water to constitute glucose, C12H
14
014, and
it is important to remark that cane sugar, C
12
H
ll
O
ll
, is
intermediate between these two substances, while it
has hitherto been impossible to arrest the absorption of
water at one equi v.; for it would be of immense com-
mercial value, if the intermediate product could be pre-
served, as it is much more valuable than glucose.
Glucose is found in c o m m ~ r c e under three different
forms-in syrup, in mass, and granulated.
The saccharification is effected by sulphuric acid
diluted with 33 times its weight of water, and heated
to a temperature slightly above 212. The operation
is performed in a wooden vat, at the bottom of which
is a lead pipe baving a great number of holes. The
tube communicates with a steam generator, which drives
steam into the water in the tub, which being two-thirds
filled with acidulated water, is rapidly heated to 212.
The starch, previously diluted with water, is gradually
added, and, in 30 or 40 minutes after the last addition
of starch, the conversion into sugar is completed. In
order to ascertain this, a few drops of the liquid are
allowed to cool, and treated with a small quantity of a
solution of iodine, which should produce no change of
color. Then the steam is arrested, and the acid satu-
rated with chalk. The liquor is allowed to rest twelve
hours, is decanted and bleached by filtration through
animal black, and is then evaporated in order to reduce
it to the degree of concentration required. If solid
glucose is to be obtained, the syrup is concentrated to
40 or 42 Baume, and, when sufficiently cool, run into
ALCOHOL. 55
barrels, in which it solidifies. To granulate it, it is
evaporated to only 3Z' B., and allowed to remain twenty-
four hours in reservoirs in which it cools as rapidly as
possible; after which the syrup is brought into vats,
the bottoms of which are pierced with small holes c l o ~ e d
,with pins, fermentation being prevented by pouring
into each vat about six ounces of an aqueous solution
of snlphurous acid. Crystallization does not commence
for eight days. When two-thirds of the mass is solidi-
fied, the pins are removed and the liquid flows out.
The .crystals are then dried on plates of plaster at a
temperature not exceeding 77.
Glucose in grains is rarely made, except for the pur-
pose of adulterating brown sugar.
In syrup and in bulk it is used in the manufacture
of beer, alcohol, and vinegar.
CHAPTER III.
ALCOHOL.
ALOOHOUO FERMENTATION....FERMENT....ALCOHOL----
PREPA.BATION-PROPERTIES.
ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION.
ANCIENT philosophers, chemists of the middle ages,
etc., had ascertained that vegetable matters deprived of
life experienced spontaneous alterations which changed
their nature, and that the new products were different
according to the nature of the vegetable itself; they
gave to those alterations the name of fermentation, and
published more or less erroneous hypotheses as to their
formation. Boerhaave was the first who explained this
56 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
l
phenomenon. He established three kinds of fermenta-
tion: 1st, the spirituous.. 2d, the acetous.. 3d, the putrid.
According to this theory, the second fermentation could
not take place until the first had manifested itself; it
was a series of movements united one to the other by
the same cause, and succeeding each other in the above "
established order. Fourcroy admitted five fermenta.
tions: the saccharine, the vinous, the acid, the coloring,
and the putrid.
The saccharine fermentation takes place every time a
saccharine matter is developed in a substance aban.
doned to itself, as at the time of the maturity of some
fruits; the second, when saccharine liquors are spon.
taneously decomposed and transformed into alcohol;
the third, when alcoholic liquors pass to the state of
acetic acid; the fourtb, when a coloring substance is pro-
duced; and the fifth, when putrefaction begins. In this
work, we shall examine only the second and third.
It is a well.demonstrated fact that saccharine sub-
stances dissolved in water, united to a ferment, are soon
converted into alcohol when they are exposed to a
gentle heat between 59 and 86. As soon as the fer-
mentation begins, the saccharine substance is gradually
decomposed, the liquor becomes muddy, carbonic acid
gas is produced, which carries with it the parts of the
ferment which rise to the surface in the form of a scum.
which again falls to the bottom of the liquitl, and is
raised anew by the carbonic acid gas. This tumultuous
movement diminishes after a time, the liquid gradually
becomes clear, and takes a vinous and an acid taste.
When the disengagement of the carbonic acid gas stops.
and the liqQid has become clear, and of a specific gra-
vit.y less than water. it is ascertained that the greater
part of the sugar is transformed into alcohol. After
ALCOHOL. 57
fermentation, there yet remains the vinous liquor, more

or less sugar which has escaped decomposition, and which


also undergoes this process after a time. ':Phis is called
the secondary fermentation.
The quantity of carbonic acid which is produced is
not in direct ratio with the quantity of saccharine mat-
ter, but in ratio with the relative proportions of the
sugar and ferment which exist in the different kinds of
JUIces.
Vinous fermentation has been, from the earliest times,
.
intrusted to inexperienced hands; it was only towards the
end of the eighteenth century that chemistry began to ex-
plain it, and it is to the works of Fahroni, Legentil, Chap-
tal, Dandolo, etc., that it owes primarily the improve-
ments it has received. In the act of alcoholic fermenta-
tion, all the ferment is not decomposed; indeed, it re-
quires only 11 part of dry ferment to transform 100 parts
of sugar into. alcohol. The carbonic acid gas, which is
disengaged, carries with it some aqueous alcohol which
marks 14.
Lavoisier proved, by a direct experiment, that alcohol
was due to the decomposition of sugar by a ferment.
He took:-
Sagar
Water
Yeast ia paste
Dry yeast
When the fermentation
products were:-
Water
Alcohol
Carbonic acid
Acetic acid
Uadecomposed Bogar
Dry yeast
50 kilog.
200 "
8.620 "
1.375 II
was established, the new
200.200 kilog.
28.250 "
17.800 "
1.225 ..
2.003 II
0.674 ..
58 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
l
If all the sugar had been decomposed, there would
have been about 30 kilogrammes of alcohol.
M. Gay-Lussac has obtained from 50 kilogrammes
of sugar:-
Alcohol
Carbonic acid
100.00
Lavoisier thought that, in the vinous fermentation,
a portion of the sugar was oxygenized at the e ~ p e n s e of
the other; and that one, more hydrogenated, formed
alcohol, while the other was converted into carbonic acid,
which was explained as follows: Sugar, like organic sub-
stances in general, is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen; in its decomposition, oxygen forms with a part
of the carbon carbonic acid, and hydrogen, with the
remaining carbon, produces alcohol.
M. Gay-Lussac, in his theory (Ann. de ehimie, vol.
xcv.), supposes that sugar is composed of 40 parts of
carbon, and 60 of water or its elements; if those weights
are changed in volumes of each of the constitutive prin-
ciples of this body, we obtain:-
Vapor of carbon 3 vols.
Hydrogen. 8 II
Oxygen 8t "
And we know that analysis has demonstrated that
alcohol is composed of:-
1 vol. of bicarbnretted} Vapor of carbon 2 vols.
hydrogen. Hydrogen. 2"
1 vol. of vapor Of} Hydrogen 1 vol.
water. Oxygen i ..
From these elements of composition, omitting the
weak products of the ferment, to consider only the alco-
hol and the carbonic acid, we find, by examining the
ALCOHOL. 59
composition of the sugar and that of the alcohol, that
to produce that liquor, we must take from the sugar one
volume of vapor of carbon and one volume of oxygen,
which, by combining, produce one volume of carbonic
acid gas, while the combination of the hydrogen and
the other parts of the constituents of the sugar produce,
alcohol According to this theory, if we reduce the
volumes to weight, 100 parts of sugar, decomposed by
the fermentation, are changed:-
Into alcohol 61.84
It carbonic acid. . 48.66
Whatever probability there may be in this theory, it
yet remains to determine what becomes of the nitrogen
of the ferment, which is not mixed with the carbonic
acid, nor is it a constituent principle of the white sub-
stance which is precipitated and is due to the decompo-
sition of the ferment, nor of the small quantity of that
very soluble substance which is found in the alcoholic
product; however, it is certain that the carbonic acid
and alcohol are both formed at the expense of the sugar.
This is a great question to solve. Is air necessary
to the fermentation 1 In the affirmative we find a
learned chemist, whose name is the greatest authority.
Gay-Lussac squeezed into a tube full of mercury, and well
deprived of air, some grains of grapes; the fermentation
would not begin until a little oxygen had been passed
into it. M. De Fontenelle announced that, having filled
with oil five bottles of15litres each, so as to remove the air
adhering to the sides, he emptied them and immediately
filled them with grape juice, covering this with a layer
of oil about six inches thick, and that, notwithstanding
the total deprivation of air, the fermentation began two
days after; which would seem to prove that the pressure
60 KANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
of the aIr 18 not an absolute necessity. In the above
experiment, we believe the fermentation took place on
account of the air contained in the juice. According to
the calculations and the theory of M. Gay-Lussac, none
of the elements of the air enter in the formation of the
carbonic acid and alcohol, which are entirely due to the
sugar. Moreover, he has himself ascertained that sugar
and barley fermented very well'without the contact of
air (Ann. de ehimie, vol. lxxvi.); it is, therefore, easy
to conclude that the quantity of alcohol ought to be in
direct ratio with that of the saccharine matter.
Like grape juice, the different saccharine vegetable
substances are susceptible of undergoing the vinous fer-
mentation with or without the addition of ferment, pro-
vided they contain the nitrogenous substances necessary
to perform the functions of a ferment. Thus, apple
juice gives cider, that of pear perry, and the saccharine
matter developed in fermented and roasted barley, beer;
honey and molasses, diluted with a sufficient qu'antity
of ferment, result in a more or less strong alcoholic
liquid.
. Several substances have been discovered which have
the greatest analogy with the alcohol of wine; those
substances have been designated by the name of alcohols.
Thus we have:-
The wine alcohol, or ordinary alcohol.
The methylic" "spirit of wood.
The amylic " "oil of potatoes.
All these substances present the following character-
istics:-
Treated by an oxidizing body, these alcohols lose 2
equivs. of hydrogen, gain 2 equivs. of oxygen, and are
ALCOHOL. 61
transformed into an acid. Thus, ordinary alcohol gives
acetic acid according to the following equation:-
C ' H 8 0 ~ + 0' - C'H'O' + 2HO
~
Alcohol.
~
Acetic aold.
But, before reaching this point of oxidation, they pass
through an intermediate state, that of aldehyde, which
is an alcohol which has lost 2 equivs. of hydrogen with-
out gaining oxygen.
C ' H 8 0 ~ + 0' - C'H'02 + 2HO
~ ~
Alcohol. Aldehyde.
Alcohols treated with bodies having great affinity for
water, lose one equivalent of water, and' are transformed
into ether.
~
Alcohol.
~
Ether.
When that dehydrating action acquires a greater
energy, the ether itself loses a .new equivalent of water,
and the alcohol is transformed into a carburetted hydro-
gen, from which it differs by two equivs. of water.
C'H
8
02 - 2 HO = C'H'
~
Alcohol.
~
BloarbareUed.
hydrogen.
FERMENT.
Ferment is a species of microscopic vegetable, which
is spontaneously developed in the organs of plants, and
in a large number of nitrogneous matters when left to
putrefy; and which is also formed by exposing to the
ordinary temperature a solution of sugar mixed with
albuminous substances of vegetable or animal origin.
After sOIne time the liquid becomes cloudy, and small
ovoidal bodies are deposited, gradually increasing in size
until they attain a diameter of Th of a millimetre.
62 KANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Two species of ferment, differing in their manner of de-
velopment and mode of action on solutions of sugar,
may be observed. The first, called upper !least, is de-
veloped in a mixture of sugar and water, and albumi.
nous substances, when the tempera.ture is comprised
between 64.5 and 77; while the second, or lower !least,
is duly found Oat temperatures between 32 and 46.4.
In order to study the shape and development of the
globules under the microscope, a very small quantity of
yeast is diluted in an infusion of grain-sprouted barley,
for example-and a drop of the liquid is placed between
two pieces of thin glass, the edges of which are luted,
to prevent the evaporation of the water. These plates
are placed under the microscope, taking care to bring
an isolated granule of yeast under the cross-threads of
the micrometer, in order to study its development.
During the first two hours, the original globule exhibits
nothing peculiar, while after this period there forms at
a point of its surface a rupture, which gradually in-
creases for six hours, until it has attained the dimen.
sions of the original globule. The second globule soon
generates a third, which arises on the sides of the
second, in the same way as this grew on the first, and
so on. In an experiment lasting three days, 30 globules
had formed around the original globule, and on the
fourth day another formed, which was the last, the
albuminous matter necessary for their formation having
probably been exhausted. Six successive generations
were thus observed; the various globules adhered to
each other, but there appeared to be no intercommuni.
cation.
It will hence be perceived that, on adding an albu.
minous substance to a mixture of sugar and ferment,
the sugar is not alone affected by the ferment, as the
ALCOHOL. 63
albuminous matter itself undergoes several metamor-
phoses, and is converted into yeast; which fact explains
the reason why in breweries, at the close of the opera-
tion, a quantity of yeast is withdrawn seven or eight
times greater than that which had been originally used.
The yeast is carefully collected, and subsequently used
to effect other fermentations, particularly in the making
of bread.
It is easy to observe that each globule is composed of
a solid envelope containing a liquid; and it therefore
forms a sort of cell, which is lined with a layer of mu-
cilaginous substance. On observing for several days
the systems of globules which have acquired their per-
fect development, it will be seen that smaller granules,
whose rapid motion proves that they float in a liquid,
are formed in each globule, and, after a sufficient length
of time, the whole of the contained liquid is converted
into granules.
The globules, the development of which we have
followed, belong to the upper yeast, and it is easy to
see that they are formed by shoots upon each other. The
lower yeast is always composed of isolated globules scat-
tered through the liquid; their formation obeying the
same laws as those of the upper yeast, while the tem-
perature must not exceed 44.6 to 46.4. Each globule
appears at first like an isolated point in the liquid, and
gradually increases until it attains a diameter of about
-do of a millimetre. Some observers think that the
old globules of lower yeast burst, and suspend in the
liquor the granules they contain, each of which is then
transformed into a globule, in which case the mode of
generation of the lower must differ totally from that
of the upper yeast. If the temperature be raised from
68 to 17, the isolated globules of lower yeast are im-
64 KANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
mediately developed by shoots, and then produce upper
yeast. The action of the two kinds of yeast on solu-
tions of sugar is also very different; upper yeast pro-
ducing a much more active fermentation, with a copious
evolution of carbonic acid, while the yeast is violently
agitated in the liquid, and ascends to its surface; while,
on the other hand, lower yeast acts much more slowly,
and frequently requires two or three months to effect
the complete transformation of sugar into alcohol and
carbonic acid, the ferment being disturbed by no rapid
movement, but, on the contrary, gently deposited at the
bottom of the liquid. Lower yeast is used in the manu-
facture of certain kinds of beer, particularly the Ba-
vanan.
It has been impossible to follow with the microscope
the transformation of yeast during the fermentation of
sugar, on account of the disengagement of carbonic acid;
and it has been merely ascertained that the yeast in-
creases by about one-quarter of its weight. Its chemi-
cal composition is also changed; and while fresh yeast
has been found to contain:-
Carbon 47.0
Hydrogen 6.6
Nitrogen 10.0
Oxygen, about 35.0
and, in addition, small quantities of sulphur, phos-
phorus, and some mineral bases, such as potassa and lime;
the same yeast after fermentation was composed of:-
Carbon. 47.6
Hydrogen 7.2
Nitrogen 5.0
Thus, the carbon remaine4 nearly the same, while the
hydrogen sensibly increased, and the nitrogen decreased
by one-half.
ALCOHOL. 65
On bringing an aqueous solution of iodine into con-
tact with globules of ferment, the outer envelope is not
colored, while the liquid inside becomes of a brown color,
which may be proved by crushing the globules between
plates of glass, when the envelopes exhibit the character-
istics of cellulose. 'Vhen a certain quantity of yeast is
allowed to decompose completely in contact with a solu-
tion of sugar, and the residue is bruised in a mortar, and
perfectly exhausted by water, alcohol, and ether, a white
substance remains, which yields glucose with sulphuric
acid, and does not dissolve in alkaline liquids, which, on
the contrary, immediately dissolve the albuminous sub-
stances in yeast.
Ferment, dried i ~ vacuo or at a low temperature,
yields a hard,corneous, semitransparent, and reddish-gray
mass; the property of which, of causing the fermentation
of saccharine liquors, is only suspended, and is again called
forth by digesting the substance for some time in water.
If it be boiled for a few moments, it loses this pro-
perty; but may recover it by contact with the air when
it has not been exposed for too long a period to a tem-
perature of 212<'. Alcohol, sea-salt, and a great excess
of sugar, oxide of mercury, corrosive sublimate, pyrolig-
neous acid, sulphurous acid, nitrate of silver, essential
oils, etc. etc., destroy the fermenting power of yeast;
while certain substances which are v.ery violent poisons
to animals, such as arsenious acid and tartar emetic, do
not produce this effect; and neither do these substances
prevent the fermentation of certain microscopic plants, for
solutions of tartar emetic,. if exposed to the air, become
covered with confervre.
The action by which ferment converts sugar into
alcohol and carbonic acid is yet unexplained. Some
chemists insist that vital force causes the development
5
66 J[ANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
and successive metamorphoses of the globules of ferment ;
while others think that ferment only acts by its presence,
and that its action should be compared to that by which
certain mineral substances effect the decomposition of
feeble compounds without any change in their ele-
mentary composition. Thus binoxide of manganese
will decompose binoxide of hydrogen (oxygenated water)
into oxygen and water, without being itself in the least
changed. Lastly, according to some authors, the move-
ments of the particles of ferment during their successive
metamorphoses are the principal cause of the decomposi-
tion of sugar; as these movements, by being communi.
cated to the saccharine particles, destroy their inertia,
and cause the elementary molecules.to be grouped so as to
form more fixed compounds. We shall be satisfied with
stating what is known concerning alcoholic fermentation,
and shall venture no explanation of this mysterious phe-
nomenon, which is as yet too imperfectly understood to
allow of the establishment of any theory upon certain
data.
ALCOHOL.
In theoretical chemistry the generic word alcohol is
applied to a class of substances which may differ widely
in regard to their physical appearance and deportment-
such as their temperature of ebullition, their greater or
less facility to ignite, etc.-but which are similar in their
chemical reactions.
For instance, sulphuric and phosphoric acids and
chloride of zinc, which have a powerful affinity for
water, will absorb two equivalents of water from the
alcohols and transform them into carburet of hydrogen
or into ether and water; chlorine will abstract hydrogen
and form aldehydes; other oxidizing substances will
.substitute two atoms of oxygen instead of two of
ALCOHOL. 67
hydrogen which are eliminated, and convert the alcohols
into acids.
As an example of these substitutions, we may demon-
strate by chemical formulre how alcohol is transformed
into acetic acid. Ordinary alcohol is represented by
CH
6
02 and acetic acid by CHO\ and we see that the
acid is alcohol less 2 equivalents of hydrogen, plus 2
equivalents of oxygen.
Alcohols are also, chemically speaking, the hydrated
oxides of certain radicals, such as methyl, ethyl, amyl,
etc., hence their formulre may be represented in this
manner:-
{
MetbYI C'HI} (, {MetbYliC C'H'O, HO
The radicals Ethyl C-H5 the : ~ : h o l s Etbylic C-H
5
0, HO
Amyl CIOHu Amylic CloHlIO, HO
while ethers are the anhydrous oxides of the same
radicals.
By the transformation by oxidation, which we have
mentioned above, these alcohols become acids, thus:-
Methylic alcohol produces formic acid.
Ethylic" " acetic"
Amylic " " valerianic acid.
The most important alcohol in the arts is that pro-
duced by the vinous fermentation of saccharine sub-
.stances, and found in wine, brandy, whiskey, cider, beer,
etc.; therefore, in the following pages, we shall dwell
more exclusively on the hydrated oxide of ethyl, or
commercial alcohol.
Alcohol, as found in the trade, is obtained by the
distillation of saccharine liquors after the vinous fer-
mentation. By fractional and repeated rectification, an
alcohol may be obtained which will not contain more
than five to ten per cent. of water, but the affinity of
water for alcohol is so great that the process of distilla-
68 KANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
tion alone is not sufficient to eliminate the last portions
of water, and it is necessary to add certain substances
whose affinity for water is still greater than that of
water for alcohol.
To obtain absolute alcohol, i. e., without any water, a
certain quantity of fused chloride of calcium or of
quicklime is allowed to stand for a few days, with
occasional shaking, with the commercial alcohol in a
closed vessel-a retort, for instance. The alcohol is then
distilled, preferably at the temperature of a water or
steam bath, and the distillate collected in stoppered
bottles, since absolute alcohol will extract the dampness
of the atmosphere. The first condensed portions are
generally impure, and should be rejected. A second dis-
tillation, over a fresh quantity of chloride of calcium or
quicklime, is almost always necessary in order to obtain
an alcohol absolutely pure and free from water, whose
specific gravity is 0.7947 at 59 and 0.791 at 65 F.
Calcined sulphate of copper and carbonate of potassa
are sometimes employed instead of quicklime and chlo-
ride of calcium, but they do not present any advantage
over the latter substances..
Properties of Alcohol.
PuPe alcohol is a colorless liquid, more fluid than
water, but with a hot and pungent taste, on account of
its affinity for water, which it extracts from the living
parts of the organism with which it comes in contact.
Injected into the veins, it produces sudden death by
coagulating the blood; a large quantity introduced into
the stomach may also cause death.
Up to the present time it has not been found possible
to solidify alcohol. Dr. Mitchell, of Philadelphia, found
that at a temperature of --130, obtained by evaporating
ALCOHOL. 69
solid carbonic acid and ether in vacuo, alcohol of sp. gr.
0.798 became oily; at -146 it flowed like melted wax;
at -166 Faraday found that it did not congeal.
The point of ebullition of pure alcohol is 173.5, and
the specific gravity of its vapor is 1.601. A greater or
less quantity of water in the alcohol will change the
point of ebullition and the elastic force of the vapor.
On account. of the great affinity of alcohol for water,
there is a production of heat when the two, liquids are
mixed together. On the other hand, if anhydrous or
absolute alcohol at the freezing point is mixed with
snow or ice of the same temperature, a cold of -35
0
is
produced, when the proportion of snow or ice is slightly
above that which alcohol will melt.
When alcohol is mixed with water there is a con
traction of the bulk, which gradually increases until the
mixture is made of 100 parts of alcohol to 116.23 of
water, which corresponds to the hydrate C t H 6 0 ~ + 6HO.
The analysis of alcohol shows that it is composed of.-
Eqalvalenl.ll. Per cent.
4 eqoivalents of carbon
=
24 52.18
6
..
hydrogen
"'"
6
18.0'
2
..
oxygen
"'"
16 U.78
46 100.00
At a white heat alcohol is decomposed in many com
pounds. Its vapor, mixed with oxygen in the ratio of 1
to 3, explodes by the electric spark. Hence the danger
of entering with a light a room where alcoholic vapors
may be confined.
Alcohol dissolves many gases, and some of them in
greater proportion than water does; for instance, sul.
phurous acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, and olefiant gases.
Alcohol is extensively employed for the manufacture
70 JUNUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
of varnishes, since it readily dissolves most of the
mastics, gums, and resins.
It also dissolves many salts, forming with them com-
binations called alcoholates or alcohates, similar to
hydrates. Iodine, sulphur, and phosphorus are dissolved
by it, but the last two not very readily.
Chromic acid oxidizes alcohol and produces aldehyde.
Chlorine and bromine act in a similar manner, causing
alcohol to lose hydrogen and, become aldehyde.
C4H
6
02 _ H2 _ Aldehyde C
4
H
4
0ll _ C4H
s
O, HO.
Iodine should give similar results.
Powerful acids, such as sulphuric, phosphoric, arsenic,
and others, give rise to ethers with moderately dilute
alcohol.
Potassium and sodium decompose pure alcohol, and
form compounds in which one equivalent of hydrogen is
substituted by one of potassium or sodium.
The simple mixture of alcohol and certain acids
presents curious phenomena, in which the action of
the acid is partially neutralized. Thus, sulphuric acid
with pure alcohol does not act upon neutral carbonates,
while it decomposes acetate of potassa; hydrochloric
acid with alcohol has no effect upon carbonate of
potassa, and, on the other hand, reacts upon carbonates
of soda, lime, and strontia; acetic and tartaric acids
dissolved in alcohol do not decompose any carbonate,
and the tincture of litmus is not affected when the
mixture is made in certain proportions.
ART OF BREWING.
CHAPTER IV.
ART OF BREWING.
71
KALTlNG : STEEPING - COUCHING - FLOORING - DRYING.
BREWING: GRINDING-MASHING-BOILING-COOLING-
FERllENTING-CLEANSING.
THE knowledge of the art of brewing is most im-
portant to the vinegar manufacturer who desires to
produce this acid from the starch of several vegetables.
But before the starch can be sold as vinegar several
operations have to take place, the most important of
which are:-
1. Malting, when part of the starch of the grain is
transformed into diastase, which will saccharify the re-
maining starch and that added afterwards.
2. Mash.ing, when the diastase is made to react upon
the starch, transforming it into sugar.
3. Fermenting, when the sugar, under the action of
ferments, becomes alcohol.
4. Cleansing, when the alcoholic liquors are separated
from the insoluble parts. A slow secondary fermenta-
tion generally takes place.
The aim of the vinegar manufacturer, as with the
distiller, is to transform all the sugar into alcohol, and to
avoid the production of unpleasant essential oils, which
will impair the taste of the vinegar.
MALTING.
Malting consists of the following processes: Steeping,
couching, flooring, sweating, and kiln-drying.
72 HANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
The steeping is performed in l a r ~ e cisterns, made of
wood or stone, which being filled with clear water up to
a certain height, a quantity of barley is shot into them
and well stirred about with rakes. Grain that is good
is heavy, and subsides; the lighter grains that float on
the surface'are damaged, and are to be skimmed off; for
they would damage the quality of the malt and the
flavor of the beer made with it. Seldom do they
amount to more than two per cent. Portions of barley
are successively emptied into the steep cistern, till the
water stands only a few inches (about five) above its
surface; when this is levelled very carefully, and every
light seed is removed.
Generally, the steep lasts from forty to sixty hours,
varying, however, according to circumstances: new
barley requires a longer period than old, and bigg re-
quiring much less time than barley.
In the course of this steep some carbonic acid is
evolved from the grains and combines with the water,
which, at the same time, takes on a yellowish tinge, and
acquires a smell resembling straw, from the fact that it
dissolves some of the extractive matter of the barley-
husks. The grain imbibes about one-half of its weight
of water, and increases in size about one-fifth. By
losing this extract the husk becomes nearly one-seven-
tieth lighter in weight, and paler in color.
The length of time that the grain continues in steep
depends, in a slight measure, on the temperature of the
air, and is not so long in summer as in winter. Usually,
from forty to forty-eight hours will be found sufficient
for sound, dry grain. The object of steeping is to
.. Bigg is a kind of barley, the Hordlum ht:r:amchoJl, while commqn
barley is Hordeum vulgare.
~ - - - - - ' T '
ART OF BREWING. 73
expand the farina of the barley with humidity, and thus
prepare the seed for germination, in the same way as the
moisture of the earth prepares for the growth of the
radicle and plumule. in seed sown in it. The grain
must not remain too long in the steep; it is injurious,
because it prevents the germination at the proper time,
and thus exhausts a portion of the vegetative power: it
causes also an abstraction of saccharine matter by the
water. Maceration is known to be complete when the
grain can be easily transfixed with a needle, and is
swollen to its full size. Here is what is thought to be
a good test: Should a barley-corn, when pressed between
the finger and thumb, continue entire in its husk, it is
not sufficiently steeped j but if it sheds its flour upon
the finger, it is ready. Should the substance exude in
the form of a milky juice, the steep has been too long
continued, and the barley is spoiled for germination.
It sometimes happens, in warm weather, that the
water becomes acid before the grain is thoroughly
swelled. The way to avoid this accident, which is
generally very evident to the smell and taste, is by
drawing off the foul water through the tap at the
bottom of the cistern, and replacing it with fresh cold
water. It is well to remove the water two or three
times at one steep.
It cannot be denied that carbonic acid is evolved
during the steeping of grain. It is obvious from. the
most simple experiment. You have only to mix the
steep-water with lime-water, and the whole becomes
milky, and carbonate of lime is deposited. If the
steep-water be agitated, it froths on the surface like ale.
After the water is drawn off, and occasionally a fresh
quantity passed through, to wash away any slimy matter,
which is apt to generate in warm weather, the barley is
74 HANUFA.CTURE OF VINEGAR.
laid on the couch.floor, of stone flags or movable wooden
boards, as the case may be, in heaps from twelve to sixteen
inches high, and left in that position for twenty-four
hours. When you can take the barley between your
finger and thumb and squeeze it together, it has been
long enough in the steep.
Should a thermometer be plunged into the grain and
observed from time to time, it will be found that the
barley continues for several hours without acquiring
any perceptible increase of heat. The moisture 'on the
surface of the corns during this period gradually exhales,
or is absorbed, so that they do not perceptibly moisten
the hand. At last the thermometer begins to rise, and
continues to do so gradually till the temperature of the
grain is nearly ten degrees higher than that of the
surrounding atmosphere. It is about ninety-six hours
after it has been thrown out of the steep that this
happens. An agreeable odor is now exhaled, which has
some resemblance to that of apples. Should the hand
be now thrust into the heap, it will be found that it
feels warm, while, at the same time, it has become so
moist as to wet the hand. This moisture, when it
appears, is called sweating, by maltsters, and it con-
stitutes a remarkable period in the process of malting.
It is thought that a little alcohol is at this period
exhaled by the grain.
If the grains in the inside of the heap at the time of
sweating be examined, it will be observed that the roots
are beginning to make their appearance at the bottom
of each seed. They at first have the appearance of a
w h i ~ prominence, which soon divides itself into three
rootlets. The number of rootlets in bigg seldom exceeds
three, but in barley it frequently amounts to five or six.
Unless their growth is checked, these rootlets increase
ART OF BREWING. 75
in length with great rapidity; and the principal atten-
tion of the maltster is directed to keeping them short
till the grain be sufficiently malted.
The very rapid growth of the roots, and the too high
elevation of temperature, are prevented by spreading
the grain thinner upon the floor, and carefully turning it
over several times a day. The depth at first is about
sixteen inches; but this depth is diminished a little at
every turning, till at last it is reduced to three or four
inches.
The turnings are to be regulated by the temperature
of the malt, but they are seldom fewer in number than
two each day. The temperature of the grain is kept as
nearly as possible at fifty-five degrees in Scotland; but
in England the temperature is about sixty-two degrees.
In about twenty-four hours after the sprouting of the
roots, the rudiment of the future stem begins to make
its appearance. The name given to this substance is the
acrospire. From the same extremity of the seed with
the root this rises, and, advancing within the husk or
skin, would at last (if the process were continued long
enough) issue from the other extremity in the form of
a green leaf; but the process of malting is stopped before
the acrospire has made much progress.
During the time that the grain is on the malt-floor,
it has been ascertained that it absorbs oxygen gas and
throws oft' carbonic acid gas; but to what amount these
absorptions and emissions take place has not been ascer-
tained: they are certainly small. The appearance of
the kemel, or mealy part of the corn, undergoes a con-
siderable change as the acrospire shoots along the
grain. The glutinous and mucilaginous matter in a
great measure disappears, the color becomes whiter, and
the texture of the grain so loose that it crumbles to
76 HANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
powder between the fingers. As soon as this is ac-
complished, which takes place when the acrospire has
come nearly to the end of the seed, the process is stopped
altogether.
It was formerly the 'custom in many breweries, at this
period to pile up the whole grain into a pretty thick
heap, and allow it to remain for some time. The evolu-
tion of a very considerable heat is the consequence,
while, at the same time, the malt becomes exceedingly
sweet. This plan, though, is now laid aside, because it
occasions a sensible diminution in the malt, without
being of any essential service; for the very same change
takes place afterwards, while the malt is in the mash-
tun, without. any loss whatever.
.The length of time during which the grain continues
on the malt-floor varies according to tircumstances. It
is converted into malt more speedily the higher the
temperature of the grain is kept. Generally, fourteen
days may be specified as the period which intervenes
from throwing the barley out of the steep till it is
ready for the kiln; though in some countries, Scotland
for one, the time is not shorter than eighteen days, or
even three weeks. Here, no doubt, is an advantage
which one malting possesses over another, as everything
which shortens the progress, without injuring the malt,
must turn out to the advantage of the manufacturer.
In very dry weather it is sometimes necessary to water
the barley on the couch. Occasionally the odor disen-
gaged from the couch is offensive, resembling that of
rotten apples. This is a bad prognostic, indicating
either that the barley was of bad quality, or that the
workmen, through careless shovelling, have crushed a
number of the grains in turning them over.
For this reason, when the weather causes too quick
ART OF BREWING. 77
germination, it is better to check it by spreading the
heap out thinner than by turning it too frequently over.
A moderate temperature of the air is best adapted to
malting, therefore it cannot be caI1'ied on well during
the heat of summer or the extreme cold of winter.
Malt-floors should be placed in substantial thick-walled
buildings, without access of the SUD, so that a uniform
temperature of 59 or 60 may prevail inside. Some
recommend them to be sunk a little under the surface
of the ground, if the situation is dry.
To dry the malt upon the kiln is the. last process in
malting, which stops the germination, and enables the
brewer to keep the malt for some time without injury.
As soon as the malt has become perfectly dry to the
hand upon the floor, it is taken to the kiln, and dried
hard with artificial heat, to stop all further growth.
The malt-kiln, which is described particularly hereafter,
is a round or square chamber, covered with perforated
plates of cast-iron, whose area is heated by a stove or
furnace, so that not merely the plates on which the malt
is laid are warmed, but the air which passes up through
the stratum of malt itself has the effect of carrying off
very rapidly the moisture from the grains. The layer
of malt should be about three or four inches thick, and
eveuly spread, and its heat should be steadily kept at
from 90 to 100 Fahrenheit, till the moisture be mostly
exhaled from it. During this time the malt must be
turned over frequently, and latterly every three or four
hours.
When it is nearly dry, its temperature should be
raised to from 145 to 165 F., and it must be kept at this
heat till it has assumed the desired shade of color, which
is commonly a brownish-yellow or a yellowish-brown.
The fire is now allowed to die out, and the malt is left
78 MA.NUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
on the plates until it has become completely cool-a
result promoted by the stream of cool air which now
rises up through the bars of the grate; or the thoroughly
dry, browned malt may, by damping the fire, be taken
hot from the plates, and cooled upon the floor of an
adjoining apartment. The prepared malt must be kept
in a dry loft, where it can be occasionally turned over
until it is used. The period of kiln-drying should not
be hurried. Many persons employ two days iu this
operation. Kiln-drying ~ o e s not merely extract the
moisture from the grain, but continues to a certain
extent the transformation of starch into sugar.
According to color and degree of drying, malt is
distributed into three sorts-pale, yellow, and brown.
The first is produced when the highest heat to which it
has been subjected is from 90 to 100 F.; the amber-
yellow when it has suffered a heat of 122<'; and the
brown when it has been treated as above described. The
black malt used by the porter brewer to color his beer
has suffered a much higher heat, and is partially charred.
The temperature of the kiln should, in all cases, be most
gradually raised, and most equably maintained. If the
heat be too great at the beginning, the husk gets hard
and dried, and hinders the evaporation of the water
from the interior substance; and should the interior be
dried by a stronger heat, the husk will probably split,
and the farina become of a horny texture, very refractory
in the mash-tun.
In general, it is preferable to brown malt rather by a
long-continued, moderate heat, than by a more violent
heat of shorter duration, which is apt to carbonize a
portion of the mucilaginous sugar, and to damage the
article. In this way the sweet is sometimes converted
into a bitter principle.
ART OF BREWING. 79
Good malt is distinguished by the following characters':
The grain is round and full, breaks freely between the
teeth, and has a sweetish taste, an agreeable smell and
is fnIl of a soft flour from end to end. It affords no
unpleasant flavor on being chewed; it is not hard, so
that when drawn along an oaken table across the fibres,
it leaves a white streak, like chalk. It swims upon
water, while unmalted barley sinks in it. Since the
quality of t h ~ malt depends much on that of the barley,
the same sort only should be used for one malting.
New barley germinates quicker than old, which is more
dried up; a couch of a mixture of the two would be
irregular, and difficult to regulate.
Description of the Malt-kiln.-Figs. 1,2,3,4 show the
construction of a well-contrived malt kiln. Fig. 1 is the
Fig. 1 Fig. 2.
ground-plan; Fig. 2 is the vertical section; and Figs. 3
and 4 a horizontal and vertical section in the line of the
malt-plates. The same letters denote the same parts in
each of the figures. A cast-iron cupola-shaped oven is
supported in the middle upon a wall of brickwork four
feet high; and beneath it are the grate and its ash-pit.
The smoke passes off through two equidistant pipes
into the chimney. The oven is surrounded with four
,tile' byGoogIe
80 HANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
pillars, on whose top a stone lintel is laid: a is the grate,
nine inches below the sole of the oven b; c, c, c, C are the
four and nine-inch strong pillars of brickwork which bear
the lintel m; d, d, d, d are strong nine-inch pillars, which.
Fig. 8. Fig..
t t
00 ,001
support the girder and joists upon which perforated
plates repose; e denotes a vaulted arch on each of the
four sides of the oven; f is the space between the kiln
and the side.arch, into which a workman may enter to
inspect and clean the kiln; 9,9, the walls on either side
of the kiln, upon which the arches rest; h, the space for
the !lshes to fall; k, the fire-door of the kiln; 1, l,
junction-pieces to connect the pipes r, r with the kiln:
the mode of attaching them is shown in Fig. 3. These
smoke-pipes lie about three feet under the iron plates,
and at the same distance from the side-walls; they are
supported upon iron props, which are made fast to the
arches. In Fig. 2, II shows their section; at s, S, ~ ~ i g . 3,
they enter the chimney, which is provided with two
register or damper plates, to regulate the draught
through the pipes. These registers are represented by
t, t, Fig. 4, which shows a perpendicular section of the
chimney. m, Fig. 2, is the lintel, which causes the
heated air to spread laterally instead of ascending in
,tile' byGoogIe
ART OF BREWING. 81
one mass in the middle, and prevents any combustible
particles from falling upon the iron cupola. n,n are
the main girders of iron for the iron beams 0, 0, upon
which the perforated plates p lie; q, Fig. 2, is the vapor-
pipe in the middle of the roof, which allows the steam of
the drying malt to escape. The kiln may be heated
either with coal or wood.
The size of this kiln is about twenty feet square; but
it may be made proportionally either smaller or greater.
The perforated floor should be large enough to receive
the contents of one steep or couch.
The perforated plate might be conveniently heated by
steam-pipes, laid zigzag, or in parallel lines under it;
. or a wire-gauze web might be stretched upon such
pipes. The wooden joists of a common floor would
answer perfectly to support this steam-range, and the
heat of the pipes would cause an abundant circulation
of air. For drying the pale malt of the ale brewer, this
plan is particularly well adapted.
The roots and acrospire of the grain have been broken
off by the friction during the turnings on the kiln, and
are separated upon a wire sieve.
BREWING.
Brewing may be said to consist of six operations, viz. :
grinding, mashing, boiling, cooling,fermenting, and cleans-
ing.
Grinding.-The kiln-dried malt is sometimes ground
between stones in a common corn-mill, like oatmeal;
but it is more generally crushed between iron rollers.
The cylinder malt mill is constructed as shown in
Figs. 5, 6. I is the sloping trough by which the malt is
It!t down from its bin or floor to the hopper A of the
6
82 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
mill, whence it is progressively shaken in between the
rollers B, D. The rollers are of iron, truly cylindrical,
and their ends rest in bearings of hard brass, fitted into
the side-frames of iron. A screw E goes through the
Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
upright, and serves to force the bearing of the one roller
towards that of the other, so as to bring them closeI
together when the crushing effect is to be increased.
G is the square end of the axis, by which one of the
rollers may be tumed either by the hand or by power;
the other derives its rotary motion from a pair of equal-
toothed wheels H, which are fitted to the other end of
the axes of the rollers. d is a catch which works into
the teeth of a ratchet-wheel on the end of one of the
rollers (not shown in this view). The lever c strikes
the trough b at the"bottom of the hopper, and gives it
the shaking motion for discharging the malt between
the rollers, from the side-sluice a. e, e, Fig. 5, are scra-
per-plates of sheet-iron, the edges of which press by a
weight against the surfaces of the rollers, and keep them
clean.
Instead of the cylinders, some employ a crushing-mill
ART OF BREWING. 83
of a conical, grooved form, like a coffee-mill upon a large
scale.
It is probable that more of the kernel would be dis-
solved if the malt were ground finer than is customary
to do. The reason for grinding it only coarsely, is to
render it less apt to set. But this object might be ac-
complished equally well by bruising the malt between
rollers, which would reduce the starchy part to powder,
without destroying the husk. This method, indeed, is
practised bymany brewers, but it should be followed byaU.
Jfashing.-Before explaiuing the various stages of
this process, it may be found advantageous to give some
data of the proportions of extractive substances which
are practically obtained from malt. It has been found
by analysis that malt contains 78.3 per cent. of extrac-
tive or available principles, that is to say, saccharine
matter with albumen and gluten. But in practice, from
234 to '256 pounds have been extracted from a quarter
of good malt weighing 352 pounds, while theoretically
the proportion should be 275 pounds.
In order that the brewer may know how much has
been extracted, and is contained in the worts, Muspratt
recommenf\s ascertaining the specific gravity of the worts
by means of the Casartelli saccharometer, and multiply-
ing the indication by 2.65 or 2.72 l according to Casar--
telli), and the product will be the real weight of extract
in each barrel of wort. Therefore, knowing the amount
extracted from a quarter in the first mash, the differ-
ence between this amount and 275 is what remains to
be taken during the second mash. This allows the
manufaCturer to add the proper proportion of water
needed for a wort of a desired strength.
The vinegar manufacturer will add enough water to
obtain a wort which, after fermentation, will contain
84 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.

"
"
65
about 5 per cent. of acetic acid, remembering that a
good average practical yield is 1 part of sugar to 1 of
starch, 1 part of alcohol for 2 parts of sugar, and that 1
of alcohol will produce I! of monohydrated acetic acid.
The mash.tun is made of wood or of cast-iron plates
bolted together, of a size to suit the trade of the manu-
facturer. It is preferable to have it shallow rather than
high, and a good proportion is to give it a diameter
three times its height. In order to prevent the settling
of the grist, and to obtain a thorough mixture, the mash
tun is furnished with a stirring-apparatus, moved by
hand or by power. There is also a perforated false
bottom for draining the clear wort.
H is seldom that pure malt is employed alone for a
mash, it being too expensive a process, inasmuch as the
diastase contained in the malt may transform into sugar
a great proportion of starch. Therefore a grist for
mashing is usually a mixture of malt with other grains,
such as unmalted barley, corn, oats, wheat, &c.; the
proportions being variable' and regulated by the habit or
the fancy of the manufacturer, or the changing price of
these grains. A knowledge of the proper proportions for
a mixture may be had by consulting the results obtained
by Balling, and which give the average per cent. of
extract from the following substances:- .
Wheat or maize (Indian-corn) 70 per cent. of malt extract.
Barley 60"" \
Barley malt (not kiln-dried) 57" ..
Equal parts of wheat and
barley
Equal parts of raw and
malted barley . 58" "
According to the skill of the maltster, from 10 to 25
pounds of ground malt will saccharify one hundred
pounds of starch.
..
ART OF BREWING. H5
Oats in the grist will impart a peculiar flavor to the
alcohol produced. Potato starch may be .sefully em-
ployed, preferably with a mixture of other grains; but
whenever the proportion of raw grain is very large, a
certain quantity of chaff is added, which renders it more
easy to drain off the clear wort. A grist containing
one-eighth of malted barley and seven-eighths of un-
malted grain is a proportion very often employed.
The grist, or meal of mixed grains, is gradually added
to the water put into the mash-tun, which should have
a temperature of 140 to 150, and the mass is thoroughly
mixed so as to moisten and divide the grist equally.
Then a fresh quantity of water, at the proper tempera-
ture, is added, and the whole allowed to rest until the
starch of the grain is changed into sugar by the diastase
of the malt.
Three or four mashings are necessary to extract all
the available parts of the grist, but the proportions of
water added at each operation vary with each manu-
facturer. Those who use a great deal of water at the
last mashings, either evaporate it down afterwards, or
use it for a subsequent mashing.
The temperature of the water is better when kept
within the limits of 140 to 150 during the first mash-
ing, but it may be slightly and gradually raised in the
second, third, or fourth mashing, since most of the ex-
tractive substances have been taken during the first
mashing. The maximum temperature of water at the
last mashing is 175.
The length of time for each operation is equally vari-
dble with the nature of the grist. The more malt the
more rapid the process. With the proper temperature
and constant stirring, a mashing may be ended after
86
MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAH.
two hours' time; three to four hours are sometimes re-
quired.
Each wash, or the worts of each mashing, are drawn
off by a faucet under the false perforated bottom, into
under tanks. The specific gravity of the first wort is
generally about 1.1050; that of the second is about
1.012; that of the third, 1.008; and that of the fourth,
only slightly above water.
Dr. Ure gives the following examples of proportions
of grain and water in moderate-sized factories: Five
hundred bushels of malt and '000 gallons of water at
160
0
for the first mashing, to wh,icli are added 5000
gallons at 180
0
for the second, and 4500 gallons for the
third mashings. The first and second worts are mixed
together, and make about 9000 gallons. The third
wort is reserved for mashing a fresh quantity of 500
bushels of malt.
If rye is used instead of malt, 90 bushels of it are
mixed with 190 of raw wain, and 5200 gallons of water
are employed, the temperature of which must not be as
high as when pure malt is used, but the operation lasts
longer.
Boiling.-The worts are a solution of sugar, unde-
composed starch, and a certain percentage of glutinous,
gummy, ahd albuminous substances:
The object of boiling is twofold: to concentrate
worts which are too diluted, and which, without this
operation, will give too weak a vinegar; and to eliminate
part of the nitrogenous substances by the coagulation of
the albumen. This latter circumstance is more important
to the beer and ale brewer than to the vinegar manufac-
turer, because beer containing nitrogenous substances
will not keep well, and will always have a tendency to
turn sour; nevertheless, although the process of acetifi-
ART OF BREWING. 87
cation is aided' by the presence of these nitrogenous
substances, the vinegar produced has not the same
pleasant taste and smell as when they have been
removed.
Therefore, boiling the worts is llseful for concentrating
weak worts, and for getting rid of the albumen and other
impurities; besides, the undecomposed starch is trans-
formed into sugar; but if the worts have the proper
strength, boiling shouJd not last more than the time
sufficient to effect the coagulation.
Certain kinds 'of instruments called saccharometers
are employed by brewers to ascertain the quantity of
malt extract or of sugar in their worts. The annexed
table giyes the per cent. of sugar (glucose) for varying
specific gravities. In the absence of the saccharometer,
an hydrometer giving the specific gravities may be
employed.
Table giving the specific gravity of Saccharometer degrees at the
temperature of 63.
8 ~ 1 . 8 a r o ~ 1 1 l
Bagarlll 8agarla
SpecUla 8peeilia 100 8peeille' 100 Specilia
part. of ,rani,.. part> of r&1'It,.. part> of .rnlt,.. part> of ,rnlt,..
IOlatioll. oolatloll. olatloll. lolatloa.
---
0 1.0000 20 1.0832 40 1.1794 60 1.2900
1 1.0040 21 1.0877 41 1.1846 61 1.2959
2 1.0080 22 1.0922 42 1.1898 62 1.3019
3 1.0120 23 1.0967 43 1.1951 63 1.3079
4 1.0160 24 1.1013 44 1.2004 64 1.3139
5 1.0200 25 1.1059 45 1.2057 65 1.3190
6 1.0240 26 1.1106 46 1.2111 66 1.3260
7
1.0281 27 1.1153 47 1.2165 67 1.3321
8 1.0322 28 1.1200 48 1.2219 68 1.3383
9 1.0363 29 1.1247 49 1.2274 69 1.3445
10 1.0404 30 1.1295 50 1.2329 70 1.3507
11 1.0446 31 1.1343 51 1.2385 71 1.3570
12 1.0488 32 1.1391 52 1.2441 72 1.3633
13 1.0530 33 1.1440 53 1.2497 73 1.3696
14 1.0572 34 1.1490 54 1.2553 74 1.3760
15 1.0614 35 1.1540 65 1.2610 75 1.3!i24
16 1.0657 36 1.1590 56 1.2667 75.35 1.3847
17 1.0700 37 1.1641 57 1.2725
18 1.0744 38 1.1692 58 1.2783
19 1.0788 39 1.1743 59 1.2841
88 HANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
We will remark that the determination of the propor-
tion of sugar is performed by volumetric analysis much
more exactly than by any kind of hydrometer, since
albuminous and gummy matters and undecomposed
starch influence the specific gravity of the worts, and,
therefore, vitiate the indications of the instrument. At
best, a saccharometer will give but approximate results,
and its use will continue to be one of those" rules of
thumb" so much relished by so-called practical men.
The boiling is performed in copper boilers, and the
impurities are skimmed off the surface, and further
separated by passing the wort through strainers made
of a fine sieve or of packed straw.
Cooling.-The object of this operation is to prevent a
too rapid fermentation of the worts, by which acetic
acid will be formed before all the sugar is transformed
into alcohol. At the same time, if the temperature
during the fermentation is too great, a part of the alcohol
may evaporate.
The tendency to acetification is greater with grain
worts than with malt worts.
Several processes of c o o l i n ~ are employed. The older
method consists in running the boiled clear worts into
shallow pans of wood or cast-iron, and forcing air on
the surface by means of ventilators made like horizontal
windmills. Not only is the wort cooled, but a great
deal of the liquid is evaporated, which is an inconve-
nience in some cases, since the specific gravity of the
wort is increased. Another method, which retains all
the water of the wort, consists in passing it through tin
pipes cooled externally by fresh water. A third process,
which partakes of the preceding two; employs the
shallow pans, but a stream of cold water passes through
pipes immersed in the wort. A great deal of ingenuity
ART OF BREWING. 89
has been exercised and many patents granted for cooling
worts and beer, but it would be too long to mention
them here, the principal point being to assert the
necessity of a rapid cooling.
Fermentation.-This operation is the most difficult of
the art of brewing, and requires skill and great attention
on the part of the vinegar manufacturer. A tumultuous
or too rapid fermentation causes a loss of alcohol by
volatilization, and sometimes of w'ort, when the liquors
run over the fermenting-tun. On the other hand, if the
temperature is suffered to fall low, if the yeast is poor,
the fermentation will cease, and it will be extremely
difficult to revive it, even with the addition of fresh
yeast dissolved in hot wort.
The conditions of a good fermentation are: A good
wort of proper strength, since, if it is too diluted, acid
fermentation may take place at the same time as the
alcoholic one; on the other hand, a heavy wort, too rich
in extractive substances, will retain a considerable pro-
portion of sugar unconverted into alcohol, because the
alcohol already produced prevents the further decompo-
sition of the sugar. In worts properly diluted it has
been found, practically, that nearly one-fifth ofthe sugar
is not converted into alcohol.-A good yeast which will
rapidly cause the fermentation of the wort. The pro-
portion of yeast varies with its strength, and the specific
gravity of the worts; generally from 1 to 2 per cent. of
fresh yeast is employed, and only a portion of it is mixed
with the wort in the fermenting-tun, the remainder being
gradually added afterwards. Sometimes, instead of
fresh y e ~ s t , which is always employed at the beginning
of the fermentation, old yeast is added at the last stages
of the operation.-A proper temperature of the room
(60) and of the liquid in the tun, varying from 60 to
90 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
85. The lowest temperature is that advisable at the
beginning of the fermentation, and the highest at the
end. It must be remembered that the fermentation
itself raises the temperature of the wort considerably,
and that worts which when" charged mark 60, may
have their temperature raised up to 80. If the tem-
perature is raised, it must be done gradually. Small
fermenting-tuns require a higher dpgree of heat than
large ones.
The fermenting-tun is usually made of wood, but im-
proved ones are of iron within another of wood. The
space between them may be filled with cold or hot water,
in order to keep the temperature at the desired point.
A few hours after the worts and yeast have been put
into the fermenting-tun, bubbles of carbonic acid appear
at the surface; their number increases rapidly, the tem-
perature naturally rises, and the nitrogenous substances
are seen going up with a rapid motion. The foam thus
formed, and which is called yeast, settles at the top and
is never removed from the tun, while some brewers, at
the beginning of the operation, break it and force it
down. It soon comes up again, becomes harder, and is
allowed to remain undisturbed until the end of the
operation, although the denser parts of it fall to the
bottom when the specific. gravity of the liquor has
diminished. The end of the operation is near when
the top yeast separates from the sides of the tun and
becomes darker, when the movement of gas diminishes,
and the temperature of the wort subsides.
During the operation, the specific gravity of the fer-
menting wort is frequently examined, and constantly
diminishes, by the fact that sugar becomes transformed
into alcohol, and the specific gravity of the latter sub-
stance being smaller than that of water, it follows that
ART OP BREWING. 91
the specific gravity of the worts must become lower and
lower as the proportion of alcohol increases.
Muspratt gives, as an example, the observations of
Donavan on the variations of specific gravity, called
degrees of attenuation, of a wort after five days' fermen-
tation, the original specific gravity being 1.050.
Pinlt morning, temperature 700; specific gravity of wort, 1.050
"
evening,
"
70
" " "
1.050
Second morning,
"
72
" " "
1.046
"
evening,
..
76
" "
"
1.032
Third morning,
u
80
u u u
1.022
..
evening,
u
84
u
"
u
1.012
Pourth morning,
u
88
.. u u
1.007
u
evening,
..
88
"
"
u
1.005
Fifth morning,
"
88
u u
"
1.003
u
evening,
"
86
u
"
u
1.001
The time of fermentation varies with the quantity of
wort to be fermented, the temperature, the yeast, and
the season of the year. A fermentation should not be
hurried, but should be kept constantly brisk until its
natural termination. From three to six days are gene-
rally necessary for a proper fermentation, and if the
temperature in the tun at the end of the operation is
high, it is proper to cover the tun tight, in order not to
lose the alcohol produced.
Cleansing.-This last operation of our process of
brewing consists in racking the fermented wort, called
wine or wash, from the tun into casks, where a second
slow fermentation, or rather the continuation of the
first, takes place with the aid of a certain proportion of
the yeast, fallen to the bottom of the fermenting-tun.
If care be taken to keep the casks constantly full, the
impurities raised by the fermentation escape by the
bungs, and the liquid below becomes cleansed, besides
gaining a little more alcohol from the sugar, which was
not decomposed in the fermenting-tun.
92
MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
CHAPTER V.
ACETIC FERMENTATION.
THE acetic fermentation may be regarded, as a trans-
formation of alcoholic liquors into acetic acid. In the
alcoholic fermentation, if the air plays any part, it is
of small importance; while the acetic fermentation
cannot be established and continued without the pre-
sence of this fluid. The circumstances without which
that fermentation could not take place, and those which
favor it, are the following:-
1. The contact of the air with the liquid. This is
absolutely necessary; yet Becken, Stahl, and Lepechin
have announced- that they have converted wine into
vinegar by bottling, hermetically sealed, and keeping it
exposed at a gentle heat; but, as it will be observed that
the conversion was slow and the vinegar not very strong,
it is easy to explain it. Air was present in the neck of
the bottle, and, without doubt, the porosity of the cork
permitted the entrance of more. Messrs. Struve and
Bertrand, have advanced that heat alone was sufficient
without the access of air, to transform wine into vine-
gar. Such assertions, so contrary to experience, to I
obtain credit, should be accompanied by strong proofs,
yet these chemists give none. Although daily practice
and the theory of the acetification, so well studied by
* Beclcen, Phys. Soaterraioe, book i., sec. 5. Demacll.g, Art da
Vioaigrier.
ACETIC FERMENTATION. 93
modern chemists, were more than sufficient to refute
such an error, M. J. de Fontenelle has demonstrated its
absurdity by a direct experiment.- He kept wine in
vacuo under the receiver of the pneumatic machine,
without perceiving the least traces of acetification.
During the time, a remarkable fact occurred; the wine
was partly decolorized, and deposited on the edges of the
vessel bitartrate of potassa and lime united with the
coloring ma'tter.
Whatever may be the utility of the air in the act of
the acetic fermentation, the alcoholic liquid must not
be exposed to a current of this fluid, because it would
volatilize some alcohol. But, as a general rule, the
larger the surface exposed to the air the quicker the
acetification. It is accelerated by stirring the liquor
, from time to time.
2. To cause the establishment of the acetic fermenta-
tion, the wine must be exposed to a temperature be-
tween 50 and 86. Demachy believes that the alco-
holic liquor must undergo a heat of 77 to 81, to be
susceptible of acetification, and that the heat must not
be above 88. This chemist is mistaken j that elevation.
of temperature, it is true, favors the fermentation, but it
can equall)' well establish itself much below this degree,
since in the south of France vinegar is made in cellars,
the temperature of which is constantly at 50. Lepechin
says the most convenient temperature is 84, and that
above 90 it is noxious, for at a higher temperature he
had obtained a vinegar which, by the little taste it had,
was not deserving of that name. This effect can be attri-
buted to the volatilization of a part of the alcohol, and,
from what experience has demonstrated, we believe the
* Chimie MMicale, p. 568.
94 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
temperature the most favorable to fermentation is .that
of 68 to 86. This elevation of temperature is so
suitable to the acetification, that it is sufficient to expose
to the sun a barrel containing one-third of wine, mixed
with a little of good vinegar, to convert it in a few days
into a very strong and aromatic vinegar.
3. The presence of the ferment is absolutely neces-
sary; for alcohol diluted with water, and placed in the
above circumstances, would never ferment; if brewer's
yeast or any other kind is added to it, it will be con-
verted into vinegar. As soon as the acetic fermentation
begins, the liquor becomes muddy, and its temperature
rises the first day as high as 93 to 104, then it diminishes
each day, and remains stationary at that at which the
fermentation takes place. At the same time, filaceous
substances are formed, which move about, and deposit
in the bottom of the vessel, and on its sides, where they
form a slimy mass, which carries off a part of the color-
ing-matter, united with bitartrate of potassa and lime.
While the action lasts, there is a production and disen-
gagement of carbonic acid gas. The liquor gradually be-
comes clear, loses its vinous odor and flavor, and acquires
the acid taste and odor peculiar to acetic acid or vinegar;
it is then that the vinegar is regarded as perfect. . This
is an error; there yet exists in this product a part of the
alcohol and ferment which have escaped the decomposi-
tion. As in the alcoholic fermentation, a secondary acid
fermentation takes place, which is as much longer as the
liquor was more spirituous. In the new fermentation, the
decomposition of the alcohol continues, and, at the same
time that carbonic acid gas is disengaged, a membranous
substance is formed in the vinegar, which is of a dirty
white color, firm, translucid, elastic, and often volu-
minous enough to occupy a part of the capacity of the
ACETIC FERMENTATION. 95
vessel. This substance is known by the name of
mother of vinegar, and can be used as a ferment to
determine the acetic fermentation of alcoholic liquors.
Just as the presence of sugar is necessary to produce
alcohol, so is alcohol an absolute necessity to obtain
vinegar by the fermentation.
Stahl was one of the first chemists who attributed the
production of acetic acid to the decomposition of
alcohol; Venel, Spielman, etc., were of the same
opinion, and that opinion-has been held by Boerhaave.
But Venel and Spielman believed that the bitartrate of
potassa had also some action. The acetification of
vinous liquors, obtained by the fermentation of sugar,
proves the contrary. Some have pretended that car-
bonic acid could also be converted into acetic acid.
They quoted in support of their opinion the experiment
of Chaptal, who having dissolved a volume of carbonic
acid gas, disengaged from beer in fermentation, in a
volume of water, and having exposed the solution for
some time to the air, obtained acetic acid. This fact
can be easily accounted for, since the carbonic acid
gas which disengages from the fermenting-vats always
carries with it an alcoholic water marking 14, and
it is, to this alcohol, and not to the carbonic acid, that
the vinegar thus obtained is due. Lavoisier, thought
that the alcohol and this acid equally contributed to
the formation of the vinegar. The alcohol, he says,
furnishes the hydrogen and a portion of the carbon; the
carbonic acid furnishes some carbon and the oxygen;
lastly, the atmospheric air must furnish the balance of
the oxygen to transform the mixture into acetic acid.
This theory is inadmissible, because it does not agree
with the results of modern observation.
Glaser, Boerhaave, Spielman, and nearly all the
96 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
ancient chemists, thought that the wine, on being trans-
formed into vinegar, absorbed air. Lavoisier, on the
contrary, announced that a single principle of the air,
the oxygen, was absorbed, and consequently that the
acetic fermentation was nothing more than the acidifi-
cation of the wine by the absorption of the atmospheric
oxygen, and that it was only requisite to add hydro-
gen to carbonic acid, to transform it into acetic acid.
His opinion on the absorption of o x y ~ e n by wine was
adopted by nearly all chemists, until M. de Saussure had
ascertained that by acidifying wine in a known quantity
of air, the air afterwards contained a proportion of
carbonic acid equal to that of the oxygen absorbed.
According' to these facts, so contrary to the theory of
Lavoisier, no oxygen would have been absorbed in the
formation of the vinegar, but carbon taken from the
alcohol. Thus, if it is sufficient to take carbon from
the alcohol to convert it into vinegar, in the experiment
noted by Chaptal, the alcohol does not require the carbon
of the carbonic acid to be transformed into vinegar. It
must be remembered that, according to the experiment
of Saussure, the alcoholic liquid would not absorb an
atom of the oxygen of the air, since it had formed and
disengaged a volume of carbonic acid gas equal to that
of the oxygen which had disappeared, and that, accord-
ing to the most exact analysis, a volume of carbonic.
acid is composed of a volume of oxygen gas and one
volume of vapor of carbon condensed into one volume.
We have said that vinegar contains a certain quan-
tity of alcohol which has escaped acetification, and we
may add that old and strong vinegar contains less of it,
bllt yet some will be found. 1\1. de Fontenelle distilled
* Traite Elementaire de Chimie, vol. i. pp. 159-160.
ACETIC FERMENTATION. 91
twenty quarts of vinegar obtained from a very spirit-
uous wine, and he obtained for the first product nearly
one quart of an inflammable liquid, which was scarcely
acid, lighter than water, and with a very pronounced
taste and odor of acetic ether. Six months afterwards
he distilled very strong vinegar, and obtained less ether.
He at first thought that this ether was due to the alco-
hol contained in the vinegar, w:hich, by reacting on the
acid, formed ether; but he was soon undeceived, for, after
the ether had ceased to distill, he added two quarts of
good wine and obtained alcohol at 20. In another
case he substituted one quart of brandy for the wine,
and also obtained alcohol at 20. He concludes from
these facts that the vinegar does not contain alcohol,
but acetic ether formed during the acetification.
We know that alcohol experiences different modes of
decomposition: by oxidation, by losing hydrogen, by
the separation of a simple equivalent of water, by the
substitution of haloid bodies for the whole or a part of
its hydrogen, with or without elimination of oxygen, and
lastly by the substitution of a metal for its hydrogen.
The bodies resulting from these decompositions are
known by the names of acetal, aldehyde, meta-aldehyde,
para-aldehyde, etc., and lastly of acetic acid, which is the
only product which interests us.
Blondeau has given a new theory of fermentation:
" Acetic acid is one of the bodies the most frequently met
with in nature, where it is formed under the most varied
influences, and which establish the fact that the ele-
ments of organic substances have the most pronounced
tendency to reunite to constitute that acid. Thus, if
we submit an organic substance to distillation, it is very
rarely that acetic acid is not produced. If an organized
body is abandoned to fermentation, this acid will appear.
7
98 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
It is found in the products of a multitude of animal'
secretions, and lastly, it results from the oxidation of
certain substances, and particularly of alcohol under the
influence of platinum black. According to this, we are
led to believe that an acid, which is met with under
such different circumstances, must owe its origin to
causes which are not always the same." However, but
one of these causes has generally been studied, that
which results in the oxidation of alcohol.
M. Blondeau does not admit the theory of simple
oxidation, which to him appears too exclusive, in en-
deavoring to determine some of the circumstances under
which acetic acid is produced. He believes that when
sugar-water is placed in contact with an albuminoid sub-
stance, such as casein, certain mycoderma are developed,
which find in the nitrogenized matter the elements
necessary to their development, whilst they transform.
the sugar into acetic acid.
It is to the same cause that we must attribute the
production of acetic acid, which is found so in
the vats of' starch-makers, and which has resulted from
an isomeric transformation which has been produced in
the starch.
The changes in and starch, which, under the
influence of the microphytes, become acetic acid, seem
to constitute a special phenomenon to which M. Blon-
deau proposes to give, by analogy, the name of acetic
fermentatioR, for these two substances appear to pass
from the neutral state to that of acid without change of
composition.
Another phenomenon is exhibited when the acid re-
sults from the combustion of a part of the elements of
organic substances which are burned by the oxygen of
the air under an influence which has not been suffi-
ACETIC FERMENTATION. 99
cientlyexamined. It is true M. Pasteur advanced the
theory that there existed certain mycoderma, and in
particular the mycoderma aceti, which possessed the pro-
perty of taking the oxygen of the air and of transferring
it to organic matters, such as alcohol, which is thus
partly burned and transformed into acetic acid; but the
experiments of M; Blondeau demonstrate that this only
occurs when the mycoderma have advanced to the mem-
branous state. It is then an inherent property of the
membranous state, and not a physiological action. which
determines the change.
M. Pasteur has lately thrown much light on the
phenomena of acetic fermentation. He has exhibited
before the Chemical Society of Paris the first results of
his researches on the acetic fermentation, having dis-
covered in the cryptogamic plants of the genus myco-
derma (of which he mentions three of the most interest-
ing species) a remarkable property which gives a com-
plete explanation of the acetification of alcoholic liquors.
On the surface of an organic liquid, containing princi-
pally phosphates and an albuminoid matter. he developlJ
a species of the genus mycoderma, until the whole surface
of the liquor is covered with it. Then with a syphon
he draws off the generative liquor, in such a manner that
the veil formed by the mycoderma reaches without in-
jury the bottom of the vessel. Afterwards the liquid is
substituted by pure alcohol diluted with water, marking
about 10. The mycoderma, wetted with difficulty by
liquids on account of its fatty principles, is raised, and
covers the surface of the new liquid. The little plant
is then placed in exceptional conditions. Its life is
antagonized, if it is not rendered entirely impossible,
because it has only for food the principles found in
its own substance, especially if care has been taken
100 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
to wash it beneath with water before the addition of
the alcoholic liquid. Experience demonstrates that the
plant, under these abnormal circumstances of life or of .
death, immediately causes the reaction of the oxygen of
the air upon the alcohol of the liquid. The acetification
immediately begins, and sometimes with much activity.
After a few days the action of the plant slackens, but it is
far from being exhausted. If the liquor is drawn off and
substituted by a new portion of alcohol, the acetification
continues for the second liquid, and the operation may
be prolonged for months. On the other hand, when the
acetification stops in a liquor already acetic, it may be
renewed if fresh mycoderma plants are introduced into
that liquor.
During this entire operation the plant experiences
profound modifications without increasing in weight.
On the contrary, it experiences a kind of combustion
which dissolves its materials in such a way that the
liquid becomes apt by degreee to feed the plant or one of
the species of the same genus mycoderma. At this time
phenomena entirely different in appearance take place.
The acetic acid and the alcohol completely disappear,
with the greatest rapidity. Five days are sufficient to
take off all the acidity of the liquor, which is then
neutral and ready to give birth to different infusoria,
and consequently to a putrid alteration.
All the second part of the phenomena, announced by
M. Pasteur, can be produced when mycoderma are de-
veloped upon alcoholic liquids which contain elements
proper to the feeding of the plant, such as wine, beer,
and fermented liquors in general, except when, by cir-
cumstances unknown or determined by the operator, the
plant is placed in conditions similar to those indicated.
in the first part of the experiment.
ACETIC FERMENTATION. 101
To resume. acetification is produced by a sppcies of
the genus mycoderma. When the plant is in full life
and health. it does not give an effective a ~ e t i c fermen-
tation. Indeed, if that acid exists in the liquor; the
plant destroys it as well as the alcohol; on the con-
trary, if the plant be sick. if food is refused to it, it
transforms alcohol into aldehyde and acetic acid.
All that has been maintained in regard to the influence
of ordinary organized porous bodies is without founda-
tion, and the following experiments prove it:-
M. Pasteur allowed to run along a rope alcohol di.
luted with water. The drops which fell from the end of
the rope did not contain any traces of acetic acid. The
experiment lasted more than a month, with a very slow
speed of running, a drop every two or three minutes.
But when the experiment was repeated after having
dipped the rope, at the beginning of the experiment, in
a liquid, on the surface of which was a pellicle of myco-
derma. which partly remained on the rope, the alcohol
which drained from the rope in contact with the air
was transformed into acetic acid, and the acetifying
power lasted several weeks.
It is evident, from these two experiments, that in the
quick process the shavings are without acetifying action,
and have no other part than to support the plants.
In the fabrication, as performed at Orleans, the
acetification, according to M. Pasteur, is due only to a
nearly insensible pellicle, very thin, which covers the
liquid of the barrels, and which is formed by the smallest
~ p e c i e s of the mycoderma. The mothf!1' of the vinegar, that
is, the deposit which is at the bottom of the barrels, and
on which are poured every eight days ten quarts of wine,
after drawing ten quarts of vinegar, has no influence on
this phenomenon. All the work is done at the surface,
102 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
by the pellicle which covers the liquid. But if this
pellicle becomes thicker and develops itself, the alcohol
and acetic acid disappear. The vinegar left in the
barrel has precisely the effect to moderate the develop-
ment of the plant, and to render it sickly; but it does
not otherwise interfere with the acetification.
The connection of the mycoderma with the oxygen
is not confined to the phenomena already described.
M. Pasteur has ascertained that when put in presence
of sugar without the contact of oxygen, they have the
power to develop themselves. Their respiration without
doubt is then effected by the oxygen taken from the
sugar, and it is very remarkable that under these cir-
cumstances the sugar will ferment. These facts add
new support to the theory of M. Pasteur. At the same
time they give an -explanation of all the changes of
form of brewer's yeast, and of the sporules of muce-
dinre which often, have attracted the attention of micro-
. graphers. Indeed, in these new conditions of life and
development, the mycodelma experience modifications
in the size of their parts, and in their mode of propaga-
tion, which at first would induce a belief in the transfor-
mation into new species. It is somewhat similar to the
metamorphoses of insects and intestinal worms.
CHAPTER VI.
ACETIO ACID.
THIS acid is the most interesting of all the organic
acids, as it enters more than any other into the indus-
trial arts, and is fonnd the most frequently in nature,

ACETIC ACID. 103


readily formed in several products of the vegetable
kingdom, as in the sap of plants. Moreover, the
decomposition and putrefaction of animal and vegetable
substances give birth to it, which is made evident by
distillation at a certain temperature.
Alcohol, when pure, or merely diluted with water,
does not combine with the oxygen of the air, while the
combination is readily effected in the presence of certain
substances, the chemical elements of which do not in-
terfere, as, for example, very finely divided platinum,
which may cause the oxidation of a large quantity of
alcohol at the expense of the oxygen of the air. In
order to perform this experiment, a capsule or watch-
glass containing platinum black ie placed in a dish and
covered with a large bell glass, having an opening at
the top through which passes a glass funnel with a long
and slender stem. Three small wooden wedges support
the bell glass, and allow the entrance of air beneath.
The alcohol, heated at about 90, is dropped through
the funnel and falls upon the platinum; a slight eleva-
tion of temperature ensues, and vapors condense and
trickle down the sides of the bell glass. The liquid
thus formed ou the bottom of the dish is nearly pure
acetic acid; but there are produced at the same time-
1st, a certain quantity of aldehyde, easily recognized by its
smell; 2dly, a peculiar substance called acetal; and 3dly,
a small quantity of acetic ether arising from the reaction
of the acetic acid on the undecomposed alcohol. , These
three substances can be removed by distilling the acid
liquor previously saturated with an alkali.
Where the duty on alcohol is light, vinegar may be,
and has been, manufactured directly from alcohol, by
the above method. A working apparatus is composed
of a series of shelves about one foot apart, upon which
104 :MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
rest a certain number of shallow dishes of porcelain or
stoneware. In the centre of each of these, and sup-
ported by stoneware or glass tripods, rest smaller dishes
containing the platinum black. The whole is covered.
with a glass house, made wholly of glass, if the apparatus
is small, or of a frame of wood with glass windows and
glass top for the production of larger quantities of
vinegar. The air is made to circulate slowly through
the apparatus, and the temperature is maintained by
steam-pipes at about 90. There should not be more
than one and a half inch of distance between the sur-
faces of the platinum and of the alcohol. After a certain
length of time the platinum ceases to act as powerfully
as at first, and requires a calcination to restore its ac-
tivity.
The drawbacks to this process are high prices for
alcohol and the large quantity of the very expensive
platinum necessary to work on a manufacturing scale.
Eight ounces of platinum black and a glass apparatus
of twelve cubic feet capacity will transform one pound
of pure alcohol into acetic acid in a day.
Theoretically, 100 parts of pure alcohol require 69
parts of oxygen to make 110 of acetic acid plus 60 of
water, or about 10 cubic inches of air to 1 grain of al-
cohol.
The successive transformations of alcohol by the
direct oxidation may be represented by the following
symbols:-
Aloohol. Aldehyde.
, - - ~ ' - - ~ , . ,
C'H
6
0,HO + 20 _ C'H
3
0,HO+2 water.
Aldehyde. Acetlo aold.
" .,
C'H
3
0,HO + 2 water + 20 -= C
I
H
3
0\HO+2 water.
ACETIC ACID. 105
These formulre show that if there is not a sufficiency
of air, and consequently of oxygen, aldehyde will be
formed, with a loss in the products, because aldehyde is
a very volatile substance, which is easily recognized in
the work-rooms by its smell and its smarting action on
the eyes. Therefore, there should be plenty of air in
the apparatus, in order to transform into acetic acid
the aldehyde in its nascent state, and thus not give it
time to escape unoxidized.
Hydrated Acetic Acid, C'Hsos,HO.
4 carbon
3 hydrogen.
3 oxygen
1 water
In liquid.
24
3
24
9
60
Per oent.
40
5
40
15
100
This acid is also called glacial acetic acid, and radical
vinegar. The dry acid does not exist in a free state,
being always combined with water or a base. The
smallest quantity of water united with it being 1 equiv.,
as represented above.
For the strongest and pure acid, acetate of soda twice
fused, and crystallized after each fusion, is thoroughly
dried at 21Z> to 248
0
and powdered. It is then intro-
duced into a retort, and for every 3 Ibs. of it are gradu-
ally added 9.7 Ibs. of concentrated sulphuric acid, free
from water and nitrous vapors. By the heat of the mix-
ture alone one-eighth passes over. A gentle fire is then
applied until the remainder is perfectly fluid.
Without extreme care, the acetic acid is decomposed
and becomes empyreumatic. If carefully distilled, the
only impurity will be sulphurous acid, which is removed
by digesting it with black oxide of manganese, forming
106 llANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
a sulphate, and then redistilling. The redistillation
also frees it from sulphuric acid and sulphate of soda,
when these are present.
The above quantities yield 2 lbs. of concentrated acid
with 20 per cent. of water; but the last two-thirds are
separately collected, and exposed in a closed vessel to a
temperature of 40 Fah. or less. The hydrated acetic
acid crystallizes and the more aqueous solution is poured
off. By remelting and recrystallizing, the pure hydrate
is obtained.
There is another method of preparation, which is by
decomposing the dry acetate of lead by sulphuric acid.
The crystallized acetate is dried at a temperature not
higher than 320, and stirred till the fused mass concretes;
when cold it is pulverized, and the powder again heated
at 320 and stirred till the particles cease to accrete;
30 parts of this powder are gradually added to 8 parts
of concentrated sulphuric acid and distilled at 320 till
dry. It is purified in the same manner as the above.
Its density is 1.063 to 1.065, and not above 1.0685.
It crystallizes below 62 in transparent, colorless,
broad laminre and tables; fuses above 60.8 to a clear
liquid of a specific gravity 1.063, with a peculiar, pene-
trating, and agreeable odor, and a highly pungent and
acid taste, blistering the skin. It fumes slightly in a
moist atmosphere, attracting water from it; miscible in
every proportion with water, alcohol, ether, and many
essential oils; it dissolves resin and camphor. The acid
liquid boils at 248; the density of its vapor is 2.278 ;
it is inflammable, burning with a pale blue flame; its
vapor passed through an iron tube at a low red heat is
converted into carbonic acid and acetone; at a higher
heat, a carburet of hydrogen is also produced; and at
a still higher temperature, it is entirely converted into
A.CETIC A.CID. 107
inflammable gases, while carbon is deposited. Mixed
with sulphuric acid, it becomes brown and black, with
development of heat and sulphurous acid. Periodic acid
decomposes it, producing formic and iodic acids, and
iodine. In the dark and when cold, chlorine does not
decompose it; but exposed to the light, 3 equivs. of
hydrogen are removed by chlorine as hydrochloric acid,
3 more equivs. of chlorine substituting it, and forming
the chloro-acetic acid.
By mixing the hydrated acid with successive portions
of water, its density increases up to a certain point, and
by subsequent dilution decreases, as shown by the fol-
lowing table:-
Hydrated Speclfio Hydrated Speolfio
acid. Water. gravity. acid. Water. gravity.
110 . 0.0 1.0630 110 55.0 1.07.2
.. . 10.0 1.0H2 .. '. 66.5 1.0728
.. 22.5 1.0770 II 97.5 1.0658
.. 8 ~ . 5 1.0791 II 198.5 1.0631
II 8.0 1.0763 II 118.2 1.0630
By the table of composition of acetic acid, given
below, the hydrate, with a specific gravity of 1.063, con-
sists of 51 dry acid, and 9 water; by the adjoining
table, the acid of density 1.0791 consists by calculation
of 51 dry acid to 26.73 of water, and the lowest of a
density like the first (1.063) consists of 51 acid and
72.40 water.
Sp. gr. Equlv.1Ft. No. of equlv.
A+aq. A +aq.
Hydrate of acetic acid. 1.0630 51 + 9 1 + 1
Aqueous .. .. 1.0191 51 + 26.13 1 + 3
II .... 1.0630 51 + 12.0 1 + 8
It is, therefore, evident that with strong acid the spe-
cific gravity is no test of the strength of the acid, since
the same specific gravity, 1.063, belongs to two acids,
the one containing 1 eq. and the other t:J eqs. of water
to 1 of dry acid.
108 IIANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
130i lbs. of hydrated acetic acid contain 110.92 lbs.
of anhydrous acetic acid; consequently we .may say
that every 100 lbs. of absolute alcohol yield 111 Ibs. of
anhydrous acetic acid. One pound of mono-hydrated
acetic acid is generated from 0.77 pound of absolute
alcohol; one pound of anhydrous acetic acid arises from
0.9 lb. of absolute alcohol. .
These results are theoretical; in practice less strength
is obtained, owing to a loss in alcohol by evaporation
during the process.
As a test of the strength of acetic acid, the hydro-
meter may be relied on to a limited extent, where it is
of good quality, and does not contain mucilaginous
matters.
The following table, by Mohr, shows the proportions
of mono-hydrated acetic acid in 100 parts of acid of dif-
fE'rent densities:-
Hydrated Hydrated
acid in 100 B e & u m ~ . Speo. gral'. aoid in 100 B e & u m ~ . Spec. grav.
parts. parts.
--
100
9
1.0635 46
8
1.0550
97 1.0680 43 1.0530
94 10
1.0706 40 1.0513
91 1.0721 37 7
1.0480
88 1.0730 34 6.6 1.0450
85 1.0780 31 6
1.0410
82 1.0730 28 1).6 1.0380
79 10.5
1.0735 25 b
O
1.0340
76 1.0730 22 4.6 1.0310
73 1.0720 19 3.9 1.0260
70 10
1.0700 16
3-'
1.0230
67
1.0690 13 3.1
1,0UsO
64
1.0680 10 2.1 1.0150
61 1.0670 7 1.7 1.0107
68 1.0660 4 1 1.0050
65 9
1.0640
62
1.0620
49 1.0590
The following table, by M. Oudemans, gives the den-
sities of acid found at different temperatures:-
.
ACETIC ACID. 109
0
I .
....
Doullyat nODallyal
0""
...]

G

is
I
z1:::>

320 690 1040
;; &
320 590
1040
'"'

-
0 0.9999 0.9992 0.9924 51
1.0740 1.0623 1.0416
1 1.0016 1.0007 0.9936 52
1.0749 1.0631 1.0423
2 1.0033 1.0022 0.9948 63
1.0768 1.0638 1.0429
3 1.0051 1.0037 0.9960 54
1.0767 1.0646 1.0434
4 1.0069 1.0062 0.9972 56
1.0776 1.0663 1.0440
6 1.0088 1.0067 0.9984 56
1.0783 1.0660 1.0445
6 1.0106 1.0083 0.9996 57
1.0791 1.0666 1.0450
7 1.0124 1.0098 1.0008 68
1.0798 1.0673 1.0455
8 1.0142 1.0113 1.0020 59
1.0806 1.0679 1.0460
9 1.0159 1.0127 1.0032 60
1.0813 1.0685 1.0464
10 1.0l7d 1.0142 1.0044 61
1.0820 1.0691 1.0468
11 1.0194 1.0167 1.0066 62
1.0826 1.0697 1.0472
12 1.0211 1.0171 1.0067 63
1.0832 1.0702 1.0475
13 1.0228 1.0185 1.0079 64
1.0838 1.0707 1.0479
14 1.0245 1.0200 1.0090 65
1.0845 1.0712 1.0482
15 1.0262 1.0214 1.0101 66
1.0851 1.0717 1.0486
16 1.0279 1.0228 1.0112 67
1.0856 1.0721 1.0488
17 1.0295 1.0242 1.0123 68
1.0861 1.0726 1.0491
18 1.0311 1.0266 1.0134 69
1.0866 1.0729 1.0493
19 1.0327 1.0270 1.0144 70
1.0871 1.0733 1.0495
20 1.0343 1.0284 1.0155 71
1.0875 1.0737 1.0497
21 1.0359 1.0298 1.0166 72
1.0879 1.0740 1.0498
22 1.0374 1.0311 1.0176 73
1.0883 1.0742 1.0499
23 1.0390 1.0324 1.0187 74
1.0886 1.0744 1.0500
24 1.0405 1.0337 1.0197 75
1.0888 1.0746 1.0501
25 1.0420 1.0350 1.0207 76
1.0891 1.0747 1.0501
26 1.0435 1.0363 1.0217 77
1.0893 1.0748 1.0501
27 1.0450 1.0375 1.0227 78
1.0894 1.0748 1.0500
28 1.0465 1.0388 1.0236 79
1.0896 1.0748 1.0499
29 1.0479 1.0400 1.0246 80
1.0897 1.0748 1.0497
30 1.0493 1.0412 1.0255 81
1.0897 1.0747 1.0495
31 1.0507 1.0424 1.0264 82
1.0897 1.0746 1.0492
32 1.0520 1.0436 1.0274 83
1.0896 1.0744 1.0489
33 1.0634 1.0447 1.0283 84
1.0894 1.0742 1.0485
34 1.0547 1.0459 1.0291 85
1.0892 1.0739 1.0481
35 1.0560 1.0470 1.0300 86
1.0889 1.0736 1.0475
36 1.0573 1.0481 1.0308 87
1.0885 1.0731 1.0469
37 1.0585 1.0492 1.0316 88
1.0881 1.0726 1.0462
38 1.0598 1.0502 1.0324 89
1.0B76 1.0720 1.0455
39 1.0610 1.0513 1.0332 90
1.0871 1.0713 1.0447
40 1.(1622
1.0523 1.0340 91
(It) 1.0705 1.0438
41 1.0634 1.0533 1.0348 92
1.0696 1.0428
42 1.0646 1.0543 1.0355 93
1.0686 1.0416
43 1.0657 1.0552 1.0363 94
1.0674 1.0403
44 1.0668 1.0562 1.0370 95
1.0660 1.0388
45 1.0679 1.0571 1.0377 96
1.0644 1.0370
46 1.0690 1.0580 1.0384 97
1.0625 1.0350
47 1.0700 1.0589 1.0391 98
1.0604 1.0327
48 1.0710 1.0598 1.0397 99
1.0580 1.0301
49 1.0720 1.0607 1.0404 100
1.0553 1.0273
50 1.0730 1.0615 1.0410
(It) The density of the acid over 90 per cent. cannot be determined at
becallie it lolldi1lel at that temperature.
110 :MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
CHAPTER VII.
DIFFERENT METHODS OF PREPARING CONCENTRATED
ACETIO ACID.
PERis' PROCESS--LARTIGUE'S PROCESS-BAUPS' PROCESS--
LOWITZ'S PROCESS--PROCESS BY THE DECOKPOSITION OF
ACETATES AND BY DISTILLATION-BY THE ACID ACETATE
OF POTASSA-CHRISTT'S PROCESS--BERINGER'S KETHOn--
SEBILLE-AUGER'S PROCESS--FABRICATION or ACETIC ACID
AND PURE ACETATE, WITH PYROLIGNEOUS ACID AND
BARYTA.
PEREs' PROCESS.
M. PEREs substitutes verdigris for acetate of copper,
on account of its cheapness. He takes powdered ver-
digris and covers it with good vinegar, until all the
oxide of copper is transformed into acetate. If the ope-
ration is performed with one pound of verdigris, he dis-
tills the product with two pounds of sulphuric acid at
66, and at a gentle heat, and thus obtains more acetic
acid than by the ordinary method.
The residu,um in the retort gives, by washing and
evaporation, fine crystals of sulphate of copper.
LARTIGUE's PROCEss.
M. Lartigue .extracts acetic acid from acetate of lead,
by decomposing this salt with slightly diluted sulphuric
acid, and on the next day adding to it peroxide of man-
ganese; he then separates the clear liquid, precipitates
the excess of sulphuric acid by acetate of lead, filters
the liquid, and distills.
DIFFERENT KETHODS or PREPARING ACETIC ACID. 111
BAUPS' PBOOESS.
He distills together 16 ounces of acetate of lead, 1
ounce peroxide of manganese, and 9 ounces of sulphuric
acid.
LoWITZ'S PROCESS.
He distills a mixture of three parts of acetate of po-
tassa with four of sulphuric acid; the acid which passes
by the distillation contains sulphuric acid, which is
separated by another distillation over acetate of baryta.
The acid thus obtained is so concentrated that it crys-
tallizes in the receiver.
ACETIC ACID OBTAINED BY THE DECOKPOSITION OF THE
ACftATES AND BY DISTILLATION.
Sulphuric acid having much more affinity for bases
than acetic acid, it is evident that by the action of this
acid on those salts, the acetic acid will be set free and
sulphuric acid will combine with the b a s e ~ This is the
method followed to obtain very pure and concentrated
acetic acid. It is also evident that this acid will possess
those qualities in a greater degree according as the acetate
is more or less deprived of water, and the sulphuric acid
purer and more concentrated. The sulphuric acid must
mark 66 and be deprived of nitrous acid. Acetate of
soda is preferable; it is obtained pure by crystallizing it
two or three times. To deprive it of its crystallization
water, it is reduced to powder and heated in a dish,
stirring it constantly and being careful not to fuse it. It
is then passed through a sieve and is ready for use.
Take-
Dry powdered acetate of 80da 6 Ib8.
Sulphuric acid 19 ..
Introduce the salt into a tubulated retort provided with
a receiver. Pour the acid, heated at 12ZJ, on to it and
112 IU.NUFACTURE or VINEGAR.
close the tubulure: a very brisk reaction takes place,
the mass grows warm, the sulphuric acid unites with
the soda, while the acetic acid set free passes over by dis-
tillation. When one-eighth of the acid has passed over,
the distillation stops; then heat the retort a little, and
regulate the heat so as to prevent spirting. Notwith-
standing these precautions, a little sulphuric acid and
some sulphate of soda are always carried over. When
all the mass is fused, the operation is completed. The
product must be redistilled upon a slight excess of ace-
tate of soda to deprive it of any sulphuric acid. The
empyreumatic portions of the second distillation are
kept apart, and generally four pounds of rectified acetic
acid are obtained. This acid contains on an average
twenty per cent. of water.
To obtain this acid in a very concentrated state, put
aside the first third of the rectification, while the two
other thirds are frozen and then drained carefully. By
liquefying the solid acid, freezing and draining it anew,
it is brought to its maximum of concentration.
PREPARATION OF ACETIC ACID BY THE ACID ACETATE OF
POTASSA, BY M. MELSENS.
According to Thompson there is an acid acetate of po-
tassa containing six equivalents of crystallization water.
Detmer has proposed the formation of an acid acetate
of potassa by a current of chlorine passed into a solution
of neutral acetate.
The bi-acetate of potassa, which Melsens obtains by
supersaturating acetate of potassa with acetic acid, eva-
porating and allowing it to crystallize, deserves the
.attention of chemists. .
It has different forms, according to the degree of con-
centration, the degree of acidity, and the temperature
......I
DIFFERENT IIETHODS OF PREPARING ACETIC ACID. 113
at w h i c ~ it deposits. It is obtained in prismatic needles
or lamellre, which, when dried between blotting-paper,
present a nacreous appearance.
When crystallized slowly, it deposits in the form of
long, flat prisms. These crystals are very flexible; ex-
posed to. the air, they liquefy, though they are less
deliquescent than the neutral acetate. Anhydrous al-
cohol dissolves them better warm than cold; a concen-
trated solution forms a mass by cooling.
When desiccated in dry air, bi-acetate of potassa may
be heated at 248
0
in vacuo, without losing more than
two or three thousandths of its weight.
At about 2 9 ~ 0 it melts and loses some traces of acid.
It forms a crystalline mass by cooling; it begins to boil
at about 392, but as fast as it loses crystallizable acetic
acid its boiling-point rises to 572, the temperature at
which the neutral acetate remaining in the retort melts
and is decomposed. It is represented by the formula
(C
4
R
3
03)2KO+RO.
This process to obtain pure acetic acid will doubtless
be preferred in laboratories, as it gives of acetic acid
about one-third the weight of the acid acetate employed.
It might, with some modifications, become an indus-
trial process.
Indeed, when an excess of acetic acid, not too much
diluted, is distilled upon neutral acetate of potassa, a
portion of the acid combines with it, while the other
passes over in the distillate; but as fast as the heat in-
creases, the acid which distills becomes stronger, and
lastly pure crystallizable acetic acid is obtained, if the
temperature is kept at about 572.
The last acid thus obtained has the composition of
the monohydrated acid.
8
114 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR
CONCENTRATEll ACETIC ACID WITH ACETATE OF S ~ D A AND
PYROLIGNITE OF LIME, BY M. K. CHRISTT.
The acetates which can be obtained in great abundance
for the fabrication of acetic acid are, the acetate of soda,
the pyrolignite of lime, and the acetate of lead.
To obviate the inconvenience of the preparation of
acetic acid with acetate of soda and sulphuric acid, or
with acetate of lime or lead, M. Christt tried to decom-
pose the pyrolignite of lime by h)'drochloric acid, and
obtained satisfactory results. If the required quantity
of acid is poured on this salt, a solution of chloride
of calcium is formed and the acetic acid is given off
in the distillation. The distilled product contains only
traces of hydr.ochloric acid.
He made an experiment on a large scale. On 100
pounds of pyrolignite of lime he poured 120 pounds of
hydrochloric acid at 20 Baume, and after leaving the
mixture all night, he introduced it into a copper still.
At the beginning and at the end the heating must not
be too brisk, so that the liquid, which is very conl!istent,
may not pass over. The distillation proceeds pretty fast,
and gives 100 pounds of acid at 8 Baume, of a yellow
color, and with a slight empyrpumatic odor. But when
rectified and neutralized by litharge, it gives colorless
crystals of acetate of lead.
The acetate of soda can be obtained by saturating
purified pyroligneous acid with carbonate of soda, evapo-
rating to dryness, and melting the salt in a kettle. The
acetate of soda thus obtained is of a gray color, and
when decQmposed by sulphuric acid gives pure acetic
acid.
If, instead of sulphuric acid, the acetate of lead is
decomposed by nitric acid, a pure acid is obtained free
from nitric acid.
J
DIFFERENT METHODS OF PREPARING ACETIC ACID. 115
100 parts of acetate of lead and 53 of nitric acid at
40 B. give 65 of acetic acid of a specific gravity 1.06
and 80 of nitrate of lead.
PREPARATION OF ACETIC ACID WITH THE PYROLIGNITE OF
LIME, BY M. BERINGER.
M. Schnedermann has called attention to the losses
experienced in the decomposition of the pyrolignite of
lime by Glauber's salt.
In the manufactories where pure acetic acid is pre
pared with pyroligneous acid, it is alleged that this latter
is saturated while warm with carbonate of lime, the
whole being constantly stirred, and lastly, with hydrate
of lime, by means of which a portion of the pyroligneous
matters is separated in combination with the lime which
partially reforms at the surface, whence it is removed.
The neutralized liquid is allowed to stand until the
excess of lime has deposited, leaving the liquor clear,
when it is evaporated in a kettle until it marks 15. It
is then mixed with a concentrated solution of Glauber's
salt and carefully stirred; a thick precipitate of sulphate
of lime is formed, acetate of soda remaining in solution.
Some experiments have, nevertheless, demonstrated
that acetate of lime was not completely decomposed by
the Glauber's salt, even when an excess of sulphate of
soda was employed. Independently of this, a portion
of this sulphate of soda will precipitate in combination
with the sulphate of lime in the state of an insoluble
double salt. Consequently the proportion of Glauber's
salt employed for the decomposition of the acetate of
lime must be determined by experiment. .Lastly, the
acetate of lime which is not decomposed by the Glauber's
salt, can by the use of soda be transformed into acetate
of soda.
116 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
The acid extracted from purified acetate of soda is
purer than the commercial acetic acid mannfactured in
Germany by saturating the essigspirit (vinegar at 9 per
cent. made by the quick process) with lime, and decom-
posing the salt of lime by sulphuric acid.
A remarkable fact is that the different species of wood
not only furnish, as demonstrated by Stoltze, unequal
proportions of acid, but the nature of the tar and the
pyroligneous products is very variable, which is probably
due to the resins and other substances contained in
those woods.
PREPARATION OF CRYSTALLIZABLE ACETIC ACID,
BY M. SEBILLE-AuGER.
Crystallizable acetic acid can be obtained from nearly
all pure and anhydrous acetates.
Dry distillation of acetate of silver produces it of a
purity equal to 20 parts of real acid to 30 of water.
From verdigris may be obtained an acid containing
rarefy more than 58 per cent. of real acid; 2 parts of
verdigris give, on an average, 1 of real acid.
The best process for procuring pure acetic acid is the
treatment of acetate of soda with sulphuric acid. The
method is as follows:-
Prepare pure sulphuric acid by boiling it for a few
minutes. Crystallize the acetate of soda several times,
and dry it in a cast-iron kettle, being careful not to melt
it. After pulverization, pass it through a hair sieve,
and introduce it into a well-dried retort; 6 Ibs. of
acetate of soda require 1 9 ~ Ibs. of concentrated sul-
phuric acid. For this quantity, the retort must have
a capacity of at least 16 gallon. By using less acid, the
acetate will be imperfectly decomposed.
The retort is put upon the fire and connected with a
DIFFERENT IIETHODS OF PREPARING ACETIC ACID. 111
receiver; the whole is well luted. The apparatus being
ready, the acid should be poured into the retort, when the
reaction immediately takes place, and much heat is dis-
engaged. About one-eighth of the acetic acid distills
without the employment of fire; but when the reaction
slackens, raise the heat little by little.
When the mass is entirely melted, the operation is
completed; this requires from four to five hours. It is
very difficult to prevent a little sulphuric acid and sul-
phate of soda from passing over.
To rectify the acetic acid, add enough acetate of soda
to saturate the sulphuric acid, and distill very carefully.
The first products are the weakest. the den-
sity is less than 1.0766, or 11.3 of the areometer at
the of 60, the acid which passes over
crystallizes at 39 to When the density is 1.0622,
or 8.6 of the areometer, the acid is at its maximum of
strength. The rectified product from the above quantity
is generally 4 lbs. of about 80 per cent. acid.
Sulphate of Roda may be used to increase to 20 per
cent. a pyroligneous acid which contains only 5 or 6 per
cent. of real acid; but it requires distilling to separate
the sulphate of soda. It is better to obtain this acid in
a single distillation, as there is less decomposition, which
gives an empyreumatic odor to the product.
If it is not necessary to obtain a perfectly pure acid,
it may be prepared from distilled pyroligneous acid satu-
rated with soda and decomposed by sulphuric acid at the
ordinary temperature. The product is a 40 per cent.
acid.
A copper still is used, which is provided with a silver
pipe and a condenser of the same metal. This is filled
with acid freed from sulphate of soda by a first distilla-
tion; the first half of the product, which is too weaks is
118
MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
"I
separated; the distillation is continued nearly to dry-
ness, and in the same manner two other distillations are
made. The apparatus is then cleaned, and loaded with
the whole. or a part of the last products of the three
distillations, averaging 55 per cent. of real acid, and of
"a density of 10.656, or 10.2; during the distillation
the first products mark from 10.766 to 11.3 at the
temperature of 60; at that point the specific gravity
decreases, while the strength of the acid increases. The
receivers are then changed, and the products are as much
more easily crystallizable as their density is less.
PROCE, TO OBTAIN CRYSTALLIZABLE ACETIC ACID,
BY M. DESPRETZ.
M. Despretz has published the following process,
which is kept secret by some manufacturers:-
Dry acetate of lead is employed; this salt liquefies,
and must be stirred until it becomes in a pulverulent
state, a degree of desiccation which determines the eva-
poration of a little acid.
.. Then distill this in a retort with sulphuric acid. The
product thus obtained is acetic acid, immediately crys-
tallizable.
FABRICATION OF PURE ACETIC ACID AND ACETATES WITH
PYROLIGNEOUS ACID AND BARYTA.
M. F. Kuhlmann has been the first to propose the
preparation of pure acetic acid and acetates with pyro-
ligneous acid and baryta.
"When crude pyroligneous acid is saturated by na-
tural carbonate of baryta or sulphuret of barium, an
acetate is obtained, which it is necessary to roast with
moderation in order not to decompose it, but, however,
raising the temperature sufficiently high to permit a
DIFFERENT METHODS OF PREPARING ACETIC ACID. 119
clear solution and tho precipitation of all the tarry part.
It is important, in every case, during this calcination, not
to exceed an incipient red heat. The operation may be
repeated several times.
" The acetate of baryta thus obtained is decomposed
by one equivalent of sulphuric acid; the decomposition is
complete only when the solution is not too concentrated.
" The result is sulphate of baryta and weak acetic
acid, which, however, has sufficient density to be di-
rectlyused in some manufactures. Thus, it can be
immediately employed in the fabrication of white-lead,
acetate of lead, and other acetates.
" When, to produce the decomposition of the acetate
of baryta by sulphuric acid, too much of the concen-
trated solutions of acetate is used, the sulphate of baryta
does not separate in its ordinary form; but then contains
acetic acid, and presents a half-transparent
appearance, which it is difficult to destroy.
"To obtain a purer acid, the acetate of lraryta can be
transformed into acetate of soda by the addition of sul-
phate of soda.
"It is scarcely necessary to say that when a more
concentrated acid is required, it is sufficient to distill the
acetate of baryta with sulphuric acid."
M. C. F. Richter has recently ireated this question
in a note which we may sum up as follows:-
It pas been proposed, and different methods have been
tried by which to prepare pure acetic acid free from
empyreumatical matters, and pure acetates with pyro-
ligneous acid, but without good results. The most
economical and simple method is always the carboniza-
tion of the empyreumatical matter; but the question is
how to conduct that carbonization so as not to destroy
the acetic acid. .The preparation from acetate of lime
120 MA.NUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
and that from the acetate of soda do not give satisfactory
results, because lime as a base is too weak, so that acetic
acid in that combination is decomposed by the heat
necessary to destroy the empyreumatic oils, thus mate-
rially diminishing the amount of pure salt. Acetate of
soda acts in the same manner, notwithstanding that it
supports, without decomposition; a higher temperature,
because the decomposition of the empyreumatic sub-
stance becomes more difficult as the acetate of soda
melts, and the carbonate of soda due to the destroyed
empyreumatic acids remains dissolved in the liquor, and
is. always ready to be again decomposed and to combine
with new quantities of empyreumatic acids which become
free, so that the temperature has to be raised, and the
calcination kept up for a long time, circumstances under
which it is impossible to avoid a partial decomposition
of the acetate. Lastly, the thick melted matter permits
the empyreumatic vapors to escape with difficulty; by
continually stirring, it forms, on cooling, thick crusts,
which still retain some empyreumatic substances, and
render the work both difficult and laborious.
All these inconveniences are avoided, according to
Richter, by cOp1bining acetic acid with baryta.
To prepare the acetate of baryta, mix finely-powdered
natural carbonate of baryta with pyroligneous acid, until
there is no more foaming, and the solution, yet slightly
acid, is neutralized by sulphuret of barium or caustic
baryta. After the liquid has become clear by settling,
evaporate it in a flat dish. The crystals which form
must be removed, and deposited on an inclined surface
near the dish, where they remain to drain.
To calcine these drained crystals, use a large dish,
about 3 inches deep, and offering a surface of 9 to 10
square feet, set in masonry in such a way that the bottom
DERIVATIVES OF ACETIC ACID. 121
is uniformly heated, but without becoming red. In
this dish the crystals are spread to a thickness of about
two inches, constantly stirred, and care being taken that
they do not stick to the bottom; lastly, they must be
heated until no more empyreumatic vapors are disen.
gaged, and a specimen will give with water a colorless
solution.
The crystals eflloresce to a homogeneous powder,
which must be removed from the fire into another dish
and constantly stirred until quite cold.
In order to prevent a too great pulverization during
the calcination, there may be mixed with it two parts of
acetate of soda, which, by melting, renders the acetate of
baryta damp, and also permits immediate neutralization
with carbonate of soda. The calcined mass is washed
with water, and the white acetate of baryta obtained by
evaporation can be used to prepare acetic acid and
acetates.
CHAPTER VIII.
DERIVATIVES OF ACETIC ACID-ALDEHYDE-ACETONE-
ACETIC ETHER.
ALDEHYDE, C
4
H
4
02.
ALDEHYDE is formed under a variety of circumstances,
in which alcohol, ether, and the compound ethers are
subjected to oxidizing agencies; while the best method
of preparing it consists in distilling in a retort, at a
gentle heat, a mixture of six parts of concentrated suI.
phuric acid, four parts of water, four parts of alcohol at
0.80, and six parts of finely-powdered peroxide of man.
122 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
ganese. The retort should be only one-third filled, be-
cause the mixture swells considerably during the opera-
tion. A cooling apparatus, through which very cold
water passes, and a receiver surrounded by a refrigerat-
ing mixture, are fitted to the retort. 'Vhen the reaction
appears to be terminated in the retort, the liquid which
is condensed in the receiver is withdrawn, and distilled
at two different times over an equal weight of chloride of
calcium. The liquid obtained i9'composed of aldehyde,
a small quantity of alcohol and water. and acetic and
formic ether. In order to obtain the aldehyde. it is
poured into ether saturated with ammoniacal gas, when
white crystals consisting of a combination of aldehyde
and ammonia, are separated. The crystals
are dissolved in their own weight of water, and the
solution is introduced into a retort furnished with a
receiver, cooled by a refrigerating mixture, while suI.
phuric acid diluted with its own volume of water is
poured through the tubulure. On' distilling it over a
water-bath. a liquid is obtained which, when distilled
over fused chloride of calcium, yields
Aldehyde is a colorless, very limpid liquid, of a
suffocating odor, and its density is 0.790 at 64.4, while
it boils at 71.3, the density of its vapor being 1.479. and
its equivalent therefore corresponding to two
volumes of vapor. It dissolves in all proportions in
water, alcohol, and ether, burns with a brown flame, and
has no action on vegetable colors. Aldehyde readily
absorbs oxygen from the air, particularly in the presence
of water, and is converted into acetic acid, which trans
formation is effected by all oxidizing agents; thus
oxide of silver is reduced by a solution of aldehyde. the
metallic silver adhering to the sides of the vessel and
covering them with a glittering coating; and nitrate of
DERIVATIVES OF ACETIC ACID. 123
silver produces the same effect, if a small quantity pf
ammonia be added. Alkalies decompose aldehyde,
forming, together with other products, a brown resinous
matter, which reaction is often indicated as being
characteristic of aldehyde.
Pure and anhydrous aldehyde, preserved for some
time in a tube hermetically closed, undergoes isomeric
modifications, differing according to the temperature.
At 32 it is convertible into a crystalline, colorless, and
transparent substance, which melts at 35.6 and boils at
201.2. The density of its vapor being three times
greater than that of aldehyde, its formula may be as-
sumed to be C
12
H
12
06. It has been called elaldehyde.
If, on the contrary, the external temperature ranges
from 59 to 68. elongated prismatic crystals, which
finally fill the tube, are developed in the aldehyde,
which volatilizes at 248 without melting. This second
isomeric modification of aldehyde is called metalde1lyde,
and the density of its vapor is unknown.
Aldehyde is also formed whenever alcohol is burned
imperfectly in contact with the air; for example, when
that liquid is dropped upon metallic plates heated to
482, or when a wick soaked in alcohol is ignited, and
extinguished as 800n as the greater portion of the alcohol
has evaporated; when the wick is carbonized, and the
small quantity of vapor of alcohol which comes in contact
with the ignited portions is imperfectly burned, it yields
aldehyde, which is known by its suffocating smell.
'Vhen chlorine is passed through diluted and cold
alcohol, hydrochloric acid and aldehyde are formed, the
chlorine then exerting an oxidizing agency on the
alcohol, by decomposing the water and combining with
its hydrogen, as represented thus:-
C ~ H 6 0 , HO + 2CI + HO - 2HCI + C ~ H ~ 0 2 .
124 HANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
ACETONE, C3R
3
0.
Alkaline acetates yield acetone when they are decom-
posed by heat. The best method of preparing it consists
in heating a mixture of 2 Ibs. of acetate of lead with
1 lb. of finely-powdered quicklime in an earthen retort,
the temperature being gradually raised to a dull red
heat. The liquor condensed in the receiver is rectified
over chloride of calcium, and allowed to rest for several
days on fused chloride of calcium; after which it is
distilled, the first three-fourths only of the product being
collected, as the other fourth contains, besides a still large
quantity of acetone, a considerable quantity of a peculiar
substance, boiling at 248, w h ~ c h has been called dumasin.
Acetone is a very mobile, colorless liquid, of a peculiar
odor; its density is 0.792, while it boils at 132.1; the
density of its vapor being 2.022; so that its equivalent
C
3
H
3
0 is represented by 2 volumes of vapor. It bums
with a brilliant flame, and is soluble in all proportions
in water, alcohol, and ether, while chloride of calcium
and caustic potassa readily abstract its water.
Acetone mixed with twice its weight of sulphuric acid,
disengages heat, and the mixture becomes brown. This
liquid diluted with water and saturated with carbonate
of baryta, produces insoluble sulphate of baryta and a
soluble crystalline salt, represented by 2BaO (C6HOO,
280
3
) + RO. Saturated with carbonate of lime, the acid
liquor forms a salt represented by 2CaO (C6HOO, 280
3
)
+ RO. If less sulphuric acid is used, for example, one
volume of acid to two of acetone, a soluble salt of baryta
is also formed, but it contains one-half of the sulphuric
acid of the preceding salt, and is represented by BaO
(C
6
HOO,80
3
) + HO.
By distilling two volumes of acetone and one volume
DERIVATIVES OF ACETIC ACID. 125
of sulphuric acid, two more products result, mesitylen,
ClIH" and mesitic ether, C
lI
H
6
0.
On passing hydrochloric acid gas through acetone, it
dissolves largely in it, and a brown oleaginous liquid
results, which must be digested for 50me time on litharge
to remove the free hydrochloric acid; it is then washed
several times with water and dried by means of chloride
of calcium. This is the chlorhydric ether of acetone,
C
ll
H6Cl. It can be better obtained by pouring into one
part of acetone, cooled by ice, two parts of perchloride of
phosphorus, PhCI
6
, added by small quantities at a time.
It is then treated with water, which separates the ether
in the form of a yellow oleaginous liquid.
Concentrated nitric acid acts powerfully on acetone,
forming several products not yet well studied.
From the nature of its compounds, acetone will be
seen to resemble alcohol, if its formula be written ClIHlI
0
2
But the acid C
6
H
6
0,2S0
3
, which may be assimi.
lated to sulphovinic acid, differs from it by saturating
two equiv. of base, while sulphovinic acid saturates only
one. Sulphoviriic and chlorhydric ether, and the com.
pound ethers of alcohol, reproduce alcohol when boiled
with alkaline liquids; while the corresponding products
of acetone do not yield acetone under the' same circum.
stances. When the vapor of alcohol is passed over by
hydrated potas8a heated to about 500
0
, acetate of potassa
is obtained, but under the same circumstances, acetone
does not yield an acid corresponding to acetic acid.
Lastly, no compound ether has hitherto been obtained
with acetone.
ACETIC E T H ~ R , C4H
6
0,C4H
3
U'.
This ether is formed by the direct reaction of acetic
acid on alcohol, but the combination is effected with
126 HANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
'\
difficulty, because it is necessary to use anhydrous
alcohol and acetic acid at the maximum of concentration,
and pour back into the retort the liquor which has
passed over in distillation; the formation of acetic ether
is much more rapid if or 15 per cent. of sulphuric
acid be added.
The best method of preparing this ether consists in
pouring a mixture of 7 parts of concentrated sulphuric
acid and 8 of absolute alcohol, or 10 of anhydrous acetate
of soda, or 20 parts of acetate of lead, into a retort, and
distilling as long as any ethereal liquor passes over, the
product being collected in a well-cooled receiver. The
liquor is poured upon dried pulverized carbonate of soda,
which abstracts the greater portion of water from the
acetic ether, and combines with the free acetic acid which
passes over during the distillation. The supernatant
liquid stratum is decanted, and distilled over chloride of
calcium, which takes up the alcohol; but the complete
purification of the ether is very difficult, because it
combines with chloride of calcium, and forms a crystal-
line compound, which is destroyed only by the addition
of water.
Acetic ether is a colorless, very mobile liquid, of an
agreeable ether-like smell, and of the densjty 0.907 at
32. It boils at 165.2, the density of its vapor is 2.920,
and its equivalent being therefore repre-
sented by four volumes of vapor. It mixes in all pro-
portions with alcohol and ether, and dissolves in seven
parts of water.
SULPHACBTIC ACID, CfH
4
0\2S0
s
.
By blinging in contact anhydrous sulphuric acid and
monohydrated acetic acid OfH
s
Q3,HO, the two combine
and form a compound acid. The liquid is next diluted
with water, and saturated with carbonate of baryta, it
METALLIC ACETATES. 127
forms an insoluble sulphate of baryta, and a soluble
sulphacetate of baryta. The liquors, when evaporated,
afford cry'tals represented by 2BaO (C4H
4
04,2S0
3
)+HO,
which part with their water without decomposition.
If the salt of baryta is decomposed by sulphuric acid,
an acid liquid results, which by evaporation yields
deliquescent crystals melting at 143.6, and solidifying
in a dry mass on cooling. At a more elevated tempera-
ture, the acid is decomposed.
Crystallized acid, placed in vacuo, over anhydrous
phosphoric acid, gives off one equivalent of water, and
then assumes the formula 2HO; the two
equivalents of water which it retains being basic.
CHAPTER IX.
ME'fALLIC ACETATES.
ACETATES-ACETATES OF POTASSA-SODA-AMMONIA-BA-
BYTA- STRONTIA-LIME- ALUMINA- kAGNESIA-MAN-
GANESE - IRON- ZINC- TIN- LEAD-ClOPPER-COPPER
AND LIME-MERCUBY-SILVEB-MINOR ACETATES.
ACETATES.
THE acetates are compounds formed of acetic acid,
with metallic oxides or organic bases. These salts are
nearly all soluble in water, and easily crystallize. The
acetates of molybdenum are insoluble; those of sub-
oxide of mercury and silver dissolve with great diffi-
culty. The oxygen in the acid is to that of the base as
3 to 1 in the neutral acetates. There are also some basic
acetates in which there are 16, 3, and 6 times as much
base as in the neutral acetates. The neutral acetates
128 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
are formed both by direct union and by soluble decom-
position; the basic by digesting the neutral with definite
quantities of the base. The acetates of the fixed
alkalies and alkaline earths, submitted to dry distilla-
tion, yield water and acetone, while a carbonate of the
base remains. The metallic acetates yield a mixture of
acetic acid and acetone, while the oxide, and sometimes
the reduced metal, remains in the distilling apparatus.
The solutions of alkaline acetates become mouldy after
a time.
The acetic acid m ~ be set free from its combinations
by sulphuric acid, ano is easily recognized by its charac-
teristic odor; its salts, in common with those of organic
acids, become black by the action of heat.
The acetates are chiefly employed in dyeing and calico
printing, the acetates of alumina, iron, and lead being
the most important.
The following table includes all the important ace-
tates. They may be represented by MO, + C
t
H3()3, or
MO + A (M standing for the metal).
Acetate of
Potassa .
Boda ..
Ammonia
Baryta .
Btrontia
Lime
Magnesia
Alumina
Manganese.
Zinc ...
Protoxide of iron
Besqui or peroxide of iron.
Cobalt . . .
FormuhB.
KO+A(C'H10I)
NaO+A+6HO
NHI+.A+HO
BaO+A+3 and 1HO
BrO+A+4 and iHO
CaO+A+HO
MgO+A
AI'O'+3A
MnO+A
ZnO+A+5HO
FeO+A
Fe
Y
O'+3.A.
CoO+.A.
EquivalllIlta.
98.20
136.31
77.00
151.7 and 136.7
138.8 and 107.3
88.00
71.00
204.40
86.70
115.30
87.00
233.00
80.50
METALLIC ACETATES. 129
Per cent.
52.16
47.84
241.6
118.0
459.0
259.0
167.0
Equivalents.
80.50
186.60
436.80
385.80
720.60 ' . ~
122.20
135.6 and 99.6
184.2
274.8
196.8
Formula!.
Acetate of
Nickel . . . NiO+A
Lead, nentral. . PbO+A+3HO
" sesqnibasic 3PbO+2A
" tribasic 3PbO+A
" eexbasic 6PbO+.A.
Bnboxide of copper. Oa'O+.A.
Oxide of copper, neotral 000+ A+5 and IHO
" "bibasic 20nO+A+6HO
" " .. sesqnibasic 3CuO+2A+6HO
" " " tribasic. 30uO+A+3HO
.. " .. hyperbasic 48CuO+A+12HO
Acetate of copper and lime OuO,A+CaO,.A.+8HO
Protoxide of tio. . SnO+.A.
Saboxide of mercury Hg'O+ A
Oxide of mercnry HgO+ A
Bilver . . . AgO+A
Acetate 01 Rtassa.
Formala, KO,A(C'Haoa).
Equivalent.
51.00
47.20
ComposHion.
1 eq. acetic acid
1" potash . . .
98.20 100.00
This salt was described for the first time by Raymond
Lully, in the thirteenth century. It is found in some
mineral waters. It is prepared by saturating acetic acid
with carbonate of potassa, and evaporating the solution
to dryness, taking care to have a slight excess of acid
present to replace that which is lost during the evapora-
tion, and without which the salt turns yellow or brown.
The yellowish color is removed by charcoal.
Another method for obtaining it is to precipitate ace.
tate of lead by an excess of carbonate of potassa, then
filter and saturate the free potassa with acetic acid. It
9
130 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
should be tested withsulphuretted hydrogen, to detect
the presence of lead, which may be removed by the same
reagent, and the product carE';fully evaporated to dryness.
It crystallizes with difficulty iIi laminre, when evapo-
rated to the consistency of honey, bU,t is generally ob-
tained in a soft, fibrous ma'ss, unctuous to the touch, and
it has a warm, pun'gent, sweetish, and saline taste. It
deliquesces in the atmosphere, and must be kept in closely
stoppered bottles. It is soluble in alcohol, and the solu-
tion is decomposed by a ,current of carbonic acid gas,
forming acetic ether, arid depositing bicarbonate of po-
tassa. At a boiling heat it dissolves a considerable
quantity of sulphate of lead, only part of which sepa-
rates on cooling. The aqueous solution of acetate of
potassa absorbs chlorine, and acquires powerful bleach-
ing properties. The dry salt distilled with arsenious
acid yields alcarsine.
This salt exists in the juice of many plants, and when
incinerated passes to the state of a carbonate.
A bi-acetate can be formed by evaporating a solution
of equal parts of acetate of potassa and acetic acid, in
vacuo, over sulphuric acid. It crystallizes in thin,
broad, transparent folia, and contains six equivalents of
water.
Acetate of potassa is used in medicine as a diuretic.
Acetate of Soda.
Formula,NaO,C
4
HsOs+6HO.
Composition.
1 eq. acetic acid
1 .. soda .
6 .. water.
Equivalent.
51.00
31.31
54.00
Per cent.
37.6-1
22.87
39.49
136.31 100.00
METALLIC ACETATES. 131
This salt is obtained in the greatest state of purity by
dissolving pure carbonate of soda in pure acetic acid,
and, after evaporation until the liquors have a specific
gravity of 1.50, allowing a slow crystallization. The
crystals are oblique rhombic prisms, soluble in nearly
three parts of water at 60, in their weight of boiling
water, and in five parts of alcohol.
Their taste is saline and cooling, and they effloresce
in dry air, except when they are contaminated with
acetate of potassa. Under the action of heat, crystals
of acetate of soda melt in their water of crystallization
with much frothing; if the temperature is raised still
.higher. but not above a low red heat, they melt without
decomposition, and, after cooling, the melted salt breaks
with a noise, and fragments fly in every direction. A too
high heat will finally transform the acetate into carbonate
of soda.
For use in the arts, acetate of soda is rarely obtained
by the above process, which is too expensive. A cheap
method for directly neutralizing the impure acetic acid
by soda would be to employ sulphide of sodium, which
can be prepared by the calcination of sulphate of soda
(salt cake) with charcoal, but there would be produced
such a quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen gas as to be
destructive to the metal parts of the apparatus, and a
nuisance to the neighborhood.
The usual method consists in decomposing the acetate
of lime by sulphate of soda, by which double reaction
acetate of soda and sulphate of lime are formed.
This may be done in different ways. Some manu-
facturers condense the vapors of distilled acetic or pyro-
ligneous acid in a closed copper vessel, in which the
proper proportions of lime and sulphate of soda have
been mixed, and which are kept agitated by a stirring
MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
apparatus. This method has the advantage of saving
the wood naphtha contained in pyroligneous acid, as this
substance does not condense in the hot mixture,
and is collected from a cooling worm connected with the
copper vessel.
The second method, most generally followed, consists
in mixing together a clear solution of acetate of lime,
specific gravity 1.116, with one of sulphate of soda,
specific gravity 1.250. There must be a sufficiency of
sulphate of soda, but not an excess, which will prove
troublesome in the subsequent operations.
When the sulphate of lime has subsided, the clear
solution of acetate of soda is decanted into the evapo-
rating-pans, made of iron, copper, or lead. The residual
sulphate of lime is carried upon a filtering-canvas, and
here washed with water. The weak solution of acetate
of soda thus formed is either evaporated, or kept for
dissolving the acetate of lime of the next operation.
There are different ways of evaporating and purifying
the acetate of soda, in the choice of which we must be
governed by the nature of the acetate of lime employed.
If the acetate of lime is very, dark and has not been
torrified (slightly calcined), it is better to evaporate the
solution of impure acetate of soda to dryness, then
to calcine the dry salt in a shallow pan, being very care-
ful to keep the temperature of the melted mass between
45UO to 470, and not above, otherwise there is imminent
danger of burning the whole and having left only car-
bonate of soda. During this calcination the mass must
be constantly stirred, and when it has acquired an oily
consistency, and when the frothing has subsided, the
operation is ended, the tarry matters having been suf-
ficiently decomposed to give clear liquors. The cal-
cined acetate of soda is projected into fresh water, and
METALUC ACETATES. 133
the solution is reduced by evaporation to a specific
gravity of 1.50, when it is ready to be drawn off into
shallow lead-lined crystallizing-pans. The charred sub-
stances are kept back, either by settling or by filtering
through a flannel bag. The crystals produced are gene-
rally pure enough for manufacturing purposes; but if a
very fine product is required, another crystallization is
necessary, sometimes even preceded by another calcina-
tion.
If the acetate of lime is pure, or comparatively so, a
pure acetate of soda may be obtained without the very
troublesome process of calcination, by evaporating and
crystallizing several times. Some manufacturers remove
the coloring substances by filtering the not too dense
solutions through bone black, and repeating the opera-
tion each time that the crystals are dissolved, if several
crystallizations are necessary.
The crystallization of the acetate of soda is impeded
by the presence of sulphate or acetate of lime in the
liquors, and, if an excess of sulphate of soda has been
added to the solution of acetate of lime, the resulting
acetate of soda will be contaminated by sulphate of
soda, which, however, may be partly fished out of the
evaporating-pans, as it crystallizes before the acetate
of soda. .
It is often difficult to adjust the proportions of acetate
of lime and sulphate of soda so as to obtain a complete
decomposition, because a double salt of acetate of soda
and sulphate of soda is formed under influences, not yet
well understood, of temperature, or of the excess of either
the solution of acetate of lime upon that of sulphate of
soda, or conversely, at the time of mixing.
134 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Acetate of Ammonia.
Formula, NHs, HO, 04HsQs.
Composition. Equivs.
1 eq. acetic acid. 51
1 " ammonia 17 }
1 II water 9
Per cent.
66.30
33.70
77 100.00
Acetate of ammonia, or spirit of Jfz:ndererus, is gene-
rally made by exactly neutralizing distilled vinegar with
carbonate of ammonia. As distilled vinegar, however,
varies much in strength, a better fotmula is to neutralize
6 parts of aqua ammonia, sp. grav. 0.96, with strong
acetic acid, and to add sufficient water to make 24 parts.
This solution is somewhat stronger than that of the
British Pharmacopreia.
The acetate is a clear liquid, of a slightly pungent
saline taste. It should react neither with red nor blue
litmus-paper; concentrated sulphuric acid decomposes
it and evolves acetic acid; lime or potassa evolves am-
monia; sulphuretted hydrogen should produce no color
in it; acetates of silver or baryta should produce no
precipitate; by heating, it should entirely volatilize;
the spec. grav. of the concentrated liquid is 1.04.
When equal weights of. chloride of ammonium and
a ~ e t a t e of potassa are distilled together, at a low tem-
perature, ammonia is at first eliminated. and afterwards
bi-acetate of ammonia distills over in the form of an
oily liquid.
2NHs, HOI + 2KO, C
4
H
s
os = NH3, HO
.
Ammonia.
.
Bi-acetate of ammonia.
'---.......---'
Chloride ammonium. Acetate of potassa.
+ NH3,HO,2C
4
HsOS
\
It concretes into acicular crystals, deliquescent and
soluble in all proportions by water and alcohol. Dry
, METALLIC ACETATES. 135
ammonia mixed with the fused bi-acetate, converts it
into the solid neutral acetate, which is a white in.
odorous salt, easily soluble in water and alcohol, and
converted by heat into ammonia and bi-acetate of am-
monia.
""------......------'
Bi-acetate of ammonia.
"-------....._-J
Ammonia.
0= 2NH
3
, HO, 04H
3
0
3
+ HO
, . ''--.----'
Neutral acetate. Water.
The bi-acetate of ammonia forms striated prisms,
fusible at 1 6 ~ 0 , and subliming unchanged at 248.
Acetate of Baryta,
Formula, BaO,04H
3
03 HO (and 3HO),
Is prepared by dissolving carbonate of baryta 01' Bul.
phuret of barium in' acetic acid, and evaporating the
filtered liquid. It forms large, transparent, oblique,
rhombic prisms, or irregular 8-sided prisms, when
allowed to evaporate spontaneously. These crystals con-
tain 11.5 per cent. or three equivs. water, BaO, A + 3HO,
and are efflorescent in the dry air, but retain their form.
It is soluble in 1.75 parts cold and 1.03 parts of boiling
water; 100 parts of cold alcohol dissolve one p'art, and 100
parts boiling take up 1~ part of the salt. When evapo-
rated at a temperature above 60, or when efiloresced, the
crystals contain only one equiv. water, 6.6 per cent. It is
used in analysis to precipitate sulphuric acid, where it
is desirable not to introduce nitric or muriatic acid.
It is completely decomposed by heat into carbonate of
baryta and acetone, thus:-
BaO,04H
3
0
3
.. BaO,OOi + C
3
H
3
0
~
Aoetone.
136 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Acetate of Strontia,
Formula, SrO, C'H
3
()S + 4HO (and LHO),
Is obtained like the above. At a temperature below
60, by spontaneous evaporation, it yields crystals, con-
taining 26 per cent. or four equivs. of water, which are
efflorescent and soluble in 2l parts of water. By effio-
rescence 01' by crystallization above 60, the crystals con-
tain 4.23 per cent. of water, or two equivalents dry salt
to one equivalent water.
Acetate of Lime.
Formula, CaO, C'Hs()3 + HO.
Composition.
1 eq. -of acetic acid
1 .. lime .
1 .. water
Equln.
51
28
9
88
Per eent.
57.59
82.22
10.19
100.00
The pure salt is made by neutralmng pure acetic acid
with pure lime; the crystals form white acicular prisms,
which effloresce in the air, and are soluble in water and
alcohol. They are decomposed by heat into acetone and
carbonate of lime, and have a bitter taste.
The dried salt contains 64.6 per cent. of acetic acid
and 35.4 of lime.
The commercial acetate of lime is either gray or brown,
the latter being the most impure; it is prepared by
directly neutralizing the crude pyroligneous acid by lime,
evaporating the solution, and drying the residue more
or less. A great portion of the tarry matters of the pyro-
ligneous acid remains in the brown acetate.
The gray acetate of lime is sometimes manufactured
from other kinds of vinegar than pyroligneous acid
METALLIC ACETATES. 137
(crude wood vinegar), but the latter acid is most gene-
rally employed. Its manufacture is conducted thus:-
The crude pyroligneous acid is distilled in a copper
still heated by a fire beneath, or better, by steam passing
through a coil of copper pipes. Most of the tarry sub-
stances remain in the still and the condensed acid is
saturated with carbonate of lime or slaked lime. If
common hard limestone were employed, the operation
would be very slow, therefore chalk is used, and the
saturation is finished with slaked lime. We think that
the latter is preferable, provided an excess is not em-
ployed, which will keep in solution part of the tarry
substances. When the saturation is correctly made,
most of the tar separates and may be skimmed off. A
temperature of about 150 aids the operation.
The clear liquors of acetate of lime are then evapo-
rated, a brisk ebullition is kept up, and all the floating
impurities are removed with a perforated copper skimmer.
As soon as the crystals of acetate of lime are formed,
they are taken off and put into baskets over the evapo-
rating-pans, which will receive the drained liquors.
In well-regulated factories the drying of these crystals
is performed in specially constructed ovens, in which
the temperature is maintained between 160 and 260.
The metallic plates of cast or wrought iron upon which
the acetate is spread, must not be subjected to the direct
radiating aetion of the heat, that is to say, they must be
heated by the products of the combustion kept at the
above-mentioned temperatures. A slow burning fuel,
like peat, is to be preferred, and all sparks coming in
contact with the acetate of lime are to be especially
avoided, as this salt catches fire and burns like tinder.
The acetate of lime manufactured and dried as we
have thus explained is the commercial gray acetate, but
138 MANUFAeTURE OF VINEGAR.
if a superior quality is desired, it is dissolved again in
water, filtered through bone black, evaporated, and dried.
Acetate of Alumina.
Formula, AI20S,3CtH
S
03.
Composition.
1 eq. alumina .
3 " acetic acid
Eqnivalents.
51.40
153.00
204.40
Per oent.
24.97
75.03
100.00
This salt is of great importance in calico-printing, and
is used as a mordant under the name of red liquor. It
is :very soluble in water, and will not crystallize.
A solution of acetate of alumina which is boiled with
sulphate of potassa, alum, chloride of sodium, &c., be-
comes turbid, but recovers its limpidity by cooling.
Hence, for dyeing, it is better not to heat this mordant.
'Valter Crum discovered that acetate of alumina,
heated for several days over a water-bath, loses its acetic
acid by a brisk ebullition, while the modified alumina
remains in solution, and may be obtained after evapo-
ration in the form of a gummy and soluble varnish, the
composition of which is AJ20s,2HO.
Acetic acid will dissolve alumina recently precipitated
from solutions of aluminate of soda by hydrochloric
acid; but we, several years ago, saw it stated in a Euro-
pean periodical, that alumina precipitated from alumi-
nate of soda by carbonic acid may be dissolved by acetic
acid under a certain pressure.
A pure acetate of alumina is made by the double de-
composition of acetate of baryta and sulphate of alumina,
by which insoluble sulphate of baryta is formed, which
is easily separated from the solution of acetate of alumina.
A similar decomposition takes place when acetate of
METALLIC ACETATES. 139
lime is decomposed by alum, in which case there is
formed the nearly insoluble sulphate of lime, and a
liquor containing acetate of alumina and sulphate of
ammonia or potassa, according to the alum employed.
The red liquors preferred by calico-printers vary in
their specific gravities according to the proportions of the
substances employed, although these substances are
nearly always acetate of lead, alum, and a small propor-
tion of carbonate of soda to saturate the free acid. The
rationale of the mutual decomposition is: insoluble.
sulphate of lead, and a solution containing acetate of
alumina, sulphate of ammonia or potassa, with the salt
of soda resulting from the saturation of the acid in
excess, and sometimes basic sulphate of alumina dis-
solved in acetic acid.
Instead of alum, sulphate of alumina is employed, and
is preferable only when it does not contain an excess of
sulphuric acid. We now ~ i v e a few receipts for the
manufacture of red liquors:-
I. 100 lbs. of acetate of lead, in fine powder, are
added to 100 lbs. of alum, already dissolved in 50 gallons
of boiling water.
II. 100 Ibs. alum, 50 gallons water, 5 lbs. of soda
crystals, and 50 lbs. of acetate of lead.
III. Alum 10 lbs., water 2 ~ gallons, crystals of soda
1, acetate oflead 7i.
IV. Alum 190 lbs., water 45 gallons, acetate of lead
129 Ibs.
Brown sugar of lead (impure acetate of lead) is gene-
rally employed for the manufacture of red liquors, and .
its proportion need not be above two-thirds of what is
necessary to make a pure acetate of alumina.
Crace Calvert recommends this formula :-
V. 453 lbs. of ammonia alum (01' 383 Ibs. of sulphate
140 HANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
of alumina, 1132 Ibs. of water, and 379 lbs. of acetate
of lead.
Acetate of Magnesia.
This is prepared in the same manner as the acetate
of lime, by dissolving the carbonate of magnesia in
acetic acid.
This salt is very soluble in water and alcohol, forms a
deliquescent gummy mass when concentrated, and crys-
tallizes with difficulty.
Acetate of J.lfanganese.
Formula, MnO,C
4
H
3
03.
Composition. Equivalents.
1 eq. acetic acid 51.00
1 .. protoxide manganeso 35.70
86.70
Per oent.
69.06
40.94
100.00
This salt crystallizes in rhombic tables or prisms of a
light pink color, and is soluble in alcohol and in' three
parts of water. It is prepared in laboratories by dis-
solving the carbonate of manganese in boiling acetic acid,
evaporating, and crystallizing.
In the arts, cheaper methods are employed. A solu-
tion of chloride of manganese may be decomposed by one
of acetate of lead, or sulphate of manganese by acetate of
lime. But, in the latter case, part of the sulphate of
manganese remains unacted upon, and requires a certain
proportion of acetate of lead to finish the decomposition.
Muspratt says that the best proportions for the manu-
facture of commercial acetate of manganese are: 4 parts
of sulphate of manganese in 3 of water, and 7 parts of
acetate of lead in 3 of water.
This salt is used for dyeing and calico-printing, since
METALLIC ACETATES. 141
the protoxide of the metal becomes brown by the
action of oxidizing agents.
Acetates of Iron.
There are two salts of acetate of iron, the acetate of
protoxide and that of sesquioxide. Both are soluble in
water, and will not crystallize. A mixture of the two
salts, known as P!lrolignite of iron, is obtained by COI'-
roding iron with weak acetic or pyroligneous acid, and
allowing free access of the air.
The acetates of iron are precipitated by sulphuretted
and Gay-Lussac has demonstrated that when
solutions of sulphate of iron and of acetate of potassa
are mixed together, acetate of iron is formed.
Proto-acetate of Iron.-The pure salt is prepared by
dissolving clean iron borings in concentrated acetic
acid in a closed vessel; hydrogen is evolved; or by
treating sulphide of iron by the same acid, in which case
the gas is sulphuretted h}'drogen, which must be entirely
expelled by boiling the liquor. The solution of acetate
of protoxide of iron must be kept in closed vessels,
otherwise it will become oxidized by the oxygen of the
air. As a precaution against oxidation, clean iron
borings are kept in the liquor.
In the arts, the so-called proto-acetate of iron is ob-
tained by covering old iron, as free as possible from rust,
with distilled pyroligneous acid in iron or wooden tanks,
and keeping the whole at a heat of about 150 for
several days, until the solution has a specific gravity of
1.09 to 1.10 at the temperature of 60.
The processes of double decomposition may be em-
ployed to obtain proto-acetate of iron, viz.: by mixing
together the solutions of suitable proportions of acetate
of baryta and proto-sulphate of iron, or of proto-sulphate
142 HANUFACTURE OF VINtGAB.
of iron and acetate of lime. In each case there is a
certain proportion of the sesquioxide salt produced,
which may be reduced to the state of protoxide by suI.
phuretted hydrogen gas.
The latter methods are seldom employed. The uses
of proto-acetate of iron in the arts are mostly for calico-
printing, or for mixing with the sesqui-acetate in various
proportions, in order to obtain different shades.
Se.'1qui-acetate of Iron.-In the laboratories, the pure
article is prepared by the solution of recently prepared
hydrate of sesquioxide of iron in acetic acid, or by the
double decomposition of sulphate of sesquioxide of iron
and acetate of baryta (or acetate of lead).
The solution of this salt becomes troubled by ebulli-
tion, when it contains a trace of an alkaline salt; sul.
phuric acid precipitates in it the iron in the state of
sub-sulphate. On the other hand, the acetate prepared
from the reaction of the acetate of lead upon sulphate
of sesquioxide of iron, may be heated without decom.
position, although, after five or six hours of ebullition
upon the water-bath, it is modified, inasmuch as it is no
longer precipitated in blue by the yellow prussiate of
potassa, its savor is only that of vinegar without inky
taste, and it is precipitated by concentrated hydrochloric
and nitric acids. This precipitate is soluble in water.
Acetate of sesquioxide of iron is seldom' employed
for calico-printing, but in such case it must be free from
proto-acetate. The dyers are the greatest consumers of
the commercial sesqui-acetate of iron, which always
contains a certain proportion of proto-acetate, and is
manufactured as follows:-
Wooden or cast-iron tanks are filled with old scrap
iron c o v e r e ~ with distilled, or sometimes crude, pyrolig.
neous acid, and the solution takes place without the aid
METALLIC ACETATES. 143
of heat. Indeed, the longer the operation, the more
complete is the oxidation. The tarry matters separated
from the acid are removed, otherwise they will cover
the iron and prevent its solution. It is well now and
then to stir the iron and the liquid.
The solution of sesqui-acetate of iron mixed with a
variable proportion of proto-acetate, is known under
various names, such as pyrolignite of iron, iron liquor,
black liquor, etc., and has a specific gravity of from 1.09
to 1.14. Its color is black by reflected light, and olive-
green when viewed in narrow bottles.
The dyeing property of sesqui.acetate of iron, is due
to the fact that it deposits insoluble basic salts when
heated. It serves as a mordant for madder, logwood, etc.
The presence of a part of the tarry matter of the
pyroligneous acid in iron liquor is not considered by
dyers as an impediment, but rather as an advantage,
since it allows a firm combination of the salt with the
textile fabric, before it is further acted upon by the
oxygen of the air.
Acetate of Zinc.
Formula, ZnO,C
4
H
3
03.
Composition.
1 eq. oxide of zinc
1 ~ . acetic acid
Eqnivalelll.s.
40.3
51.0
Per cent.
44.27
55.73
91.3 100.00
This salt crystallizes in thin six-sided tables, and is
very soluble in water. Deposited from cold solutions,
it contains three equivalents of water, and from hot con-
centrated liquors, one equivalent. When acetate of zinc
is heated up to 2120, it melts in its water of crystalliza-
tion, and this water evaporates, afterwards carrying off
a small proportion of acetic acid. The salt again
144: MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
becomes solid, and if the temperature be raised up to
374, it volatilizes and condenses in the form of anhy-
drous mother-of-pearl-like laminre.
Acetate of zinc is prepared b}" dissolving carb01:iate
of zinc, the metal or its oxide, in acetic acid, evaporating
and crystallizing. The sulphate of zinc may also be
decomposed by acetate of lime or lead.
Acetate of zinc is very little employed in the arts,
and gives a beautiful orange-yellow on silk and cotton
with murexide. It has some medical uses.
Acetate of TIn.
Acetate of protoxide of tin is used in calico-printing,
for making orange colors with garancine.
There are several processes for its manufacture, but
in every case it is better to prepare it just before use,
. because the solution is difficult to keep.
I. Put acetic acid upon the precipitate of muriate of
tin by carbonate of soda, and allow the whole to stand
for twenty-four hours.
II. Decompose 103 parts of tin crystals dissolyed in
water, by 190 parts of crystallized sugar of lead.
III. Decompose two pounds of crystals oftin dissolved
in one gallon of water, by two pounds of acetate of soda,
and use the whole mixture.
Acetate of Cobalt
Is prepared by dissolving oxide or carbonate of cobalt
in acetic acid. It is red in solution, blue when dry;
one part of oxide dissolved in acetic acid and mingled
with one-fourth of a part of common salt, forms a green
sympathetic ink, the writing being scarcely visible when
cold, and bluish-green when heated. Its formula is
CoO,C
4
H
3
Q3.
METALLIC ACETATES. 145
Acetate of Nickel
Is prepared as the preceding. It has the form of green
crystals, of sweetish taste, soluble in six parts of water,
insoluble in alcohol, and slightly efflorescent in the air.
The acetates, both of cobalt and nickel, when per-
fectly neutral, are entirely thrown down by sulphuretted
hydrogen as sulphurets of the metals.
Acetates of Lead.
There are several combinations of acetic acid with
oxide of lead, which we shall successively examine, but
the most important in the arts is the neutral acetate,
known also by the names of white sugar of lead, and salt
of Saturn when pure, and brown sugar of lead when
colored by a small proportion of tarry substances. The
latter is slightly basic.
Neutral Acetate of Lead, PbO,C'H
3
03,3HO.
Composition.
1 eq. oxide of lead
1 II acetic acid .
3 " water
Equivalents.
112
51
27
Per cent.
.' 58,95
26.84
14.21
Oxide of lead
Acetic acid
190 100.00
The anhydrous acetate, PbO,C'H
3
()3, by a similar
calculation, contains:-
Per cent.
68.71
31.29
100.00
This salt, according to the way the evaporation and
crystallization are conducted, crystallizes in needle-like
rhombic p r i s m s ~ or in flat quadrangular and hexahedral
prisms. Its taste is' at first sweet, and afterwards me-
10
146 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
talIic astringent. It is a poisonous compound, soluble
at 60 in 1 ~ part of water or 8 parts of alcohol, and
loses its water of crystallization by a gentle drying at
212. The aqueous solution of neutral acetate of lead
is partly decomposed by the carbonic acid of the air, and
there is formed an insoluble carbonate of lead, while a
corresponding proportion of acetic acid is liberated.
This free acetic acid prevents further action of the
carbonic acid. The same effect takes place with the
cryst:'als of acetate of lead.
The manufacture of white sugar of lead is carned on
in two different ways; but each requires a pure acetic
acid, otherwise a very small proportion of impurities
will produce a confused crystallization resembling cauli-
flowers in appearance.
1. Scraps, or any kind of pure lead in small fragments,
are put in stoneware pots or wooden tubs, placed one
above the other, so as to run the liquors from one
into the other. Acetic acid is then poured upon the
lead of the upper vessel, and after a certain time allowed
to run into the other vessels beneath. Under the influ-
ence of the acid and of the temperature of the room
(80
0
to 90), the lead becomes oxidized and partly car-
bonated. When the corrosion is judged sufficiently
advanced, the acid is again poured upon the lead and
dissolves the oxide and the carbonate. When the
solution is saturated, that is to say, slightly reddens
blue litmus-paper, it is ready for evaporation, crys-
tallization, &c., which operations are common to the
two methods, and will be described in the next one.
2. In this process, which is more rapid than the
former, oxide of lead or litharge is employed, which it
is advantageous to have ground very finely under water,
--
METALLIC ACETA.TES. 147
so as to make a kind of pulp more readily dissolved by
the acid than the fused litharge found in the trade.
The litharge is gradually added to the acid, put in a
wooden tub or a copper vessel, which may be moderately
heated, although this is not absolutely necessary, and
briskly mixed. The strength of the acid employed
being variable, it is impossible to indicate in this place
the proportions of litharge and acid, but the solution is
effected when blue litmus-paper is only slightly reddened
by it.
The solutions, after a few hours' standing, are decanted
into a copper boiler heated by fire underneath, or by a
coil of steam-pipes, and evaporated until their specific
gravity is about 1.500. All the impurities rising to the
surface of the liquid during the evaporation are skimmed
off. It is prudent to put in the boiler a few strips of
lead, which precipitate the copper dissolved by the free
acid; some manufacturers solder the lead to the copper.
When the proper specific gravity is reached, the fire
is withdrawn and the liquor is allowed to cool and settle
for a few hours, previous to syphoning it into crystal-
lizing-tubs.
It often occurs that two crystallizations are necessary,
in which case the first crystallization takes place in
wooden tubs of about 30 gallons capacity, and the second
in smaller vessels made of stoneware and holding about
3 gallons. These dimensions vary with each manu-
facturer, but small vessels will cool off liquors rapidly,
and produce needle-like crystals.
The crystals of the first crystallization are again dis-
solved in water, slightly acid, evaporated to proper den-
sity, and again allowed to crystallize in the smaller pans
which have been previously smeared over with a little
tallow, especially at the edges, in order to extract the
148
MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
crystals more easily, and prevent them from creeping
over.
The crystals, after sufficient draining, are spread over
shelves in a room heated by steam-pipes or by a stove,
and there dried and packed.
The mother liquors, if colorless or slightly colored,
are evaporated again with an additional portion of acid
to saturate the basic salt which may have formed, and
crystallized again. But if they are too impure to give
clear and neat crystals, it is better to reserve them for
brown sugar of lead.
The manufacture of .brown sugar of lead is like that
of the white article, carried on in different ways, of
which we shall describe the two most practical methods,
in either of which litharge and pyroligneous acid are
employed.
1. This process, set up for the first time at Strasburg,
consists in condensing vapors of pyroligneous acid in the
middle of an excess of litharge. The apparatus is made
as follows: A copper boiler in which crude pyroligneous
acid is distilled, is connected with the lower part, about
one-third the distance from the bottom, of a wooden tub
lined inside with copper, and containing several per-
forated shelves upon which is placed a layer of litharge
ground and mixed with water. If the litharge were dry,
it would soon be covered with a crust of dry acetate of
lead, preventing further action of the acetic acid upon
the oxide beneath, and the operation would be irregular.
The diaphragm tub is fitted with a movable copper cover,
which may be made tight to it with clamps or bolts, and
which communicates with a condensing-apparatus. The
latter may be a simple condensing-worm, or a flat boiler,
in which the liquors of acetate of lead are concentrated
by the heat of the aqueous vapors. It is now easy to
METALLIC A C E T A T E ~ 149
understand that the vapors of pyroligneous acid gene-
rated in the still, are obliged to pass upwards through
the openings of several diaphragms covered with litharge,
which unites with the acid, and that a solution of ace-
tate of lead drops to the bottom of the tub, while the
aqueous vapors pass away, and are condensed or utilized
for evaporating the solution of acetate of lead. The
solution of acetate of lead is run off by an opening at
the bottom of the diaphragm tub, and worked as we
shall explain in the next method.
2. In this process, we employ cold distilled pyrolig-
neous acid and pulp litharge. One or several wooden
tubs are filled with the acid, and the litharge is gradually
added, while constant stirring is going on. As soon as
the solution slightly blues the red litmus-paper, the
stirring is discontinued and the excess of litharge with
tarry matters is allowed to fall to the bottom. After
twelve hours, the liquors are clear enough to be drawn
off into the evaporating-pans, which may be of iron,
lead, or copper, as the solution in this case is not acid,
but rather basic. The evaporation is made by fire, or
preferably by steam, and the tarry matters are carefully
removed, and burned to recover the lead they contain.
As the brown acetate of lead is not sold in crystals,
but in solid blocks, the evaporation is continued until
the proper time. The last part of the operation is made
in a copper kettle heated by fire, and a brisk ebullition
kept up with frequent stirring, the more so as the liquor
becomes denser, and froths considerably. If too much
tarry matter remains in the liquor, a portion of it may
be removed by adding water, which renders the liquors
less dense and allows of the separation of the tar. The
evaporation is finished when the drops which fall from
150 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
\
a stick plunged in the liquor become somewhat stringy.
At this point the fire is nearly all removed, and the
contents of the kettle are poured into shallow iron
basins with bevelled edges, where they solidify in the
course of twelve to twenty-four hours.
'Vhite and brown sugars of lead are extensively used
for dyeing and calico-printing, and the manufacture of
colors and varnishes.
Bihasic Acetate of Lead, 2PbO,C'H
s
os,2HO. This
salt is obtained crystallized by boiling together in water
an equivalent of lead and one of neutral acetate of
lead finely pulverized.
Sesquihasic Acetate ofLead, 3PbO,2C4H
s
os, is made by
gently heating the neutral dry acetate of lead in a por-
celain capsule or retort, until the fluid mass congeals
into a porons white mass; it is then dissolved in water,
evaporated to a syrupy consistence, and set aside, when
it crystallizes in pearly six-sided scales in concentric
groups, unchangeable in air and in "acuo, very soluble
in water and alcohol, and with an alkaline reaction. Car-
bonic acid precipitates white-lead, rendering the salt
neutral; by digestion with litharge it yields tri. and
sexbasic acetate.
Tribasic Acetate of Lead, 3(PbO)C'H
S
OS, also called
subacetate of lead, is obtained, by mixing a well-
saturated solution of neutral acetate with one-fifth of its
volume of aqua ammonia, and setting it aside; when the
tri-acetate is deposited in long silky needles, which are
anhydrous, and very soluble in water. To obtain it in
solution, 7 parts of litharge are digested with frequent
agitation in a solution of 6 parts of sugar of lead in 30
of water, in a closed vessel, till the oxide which remains
undissolved has become quite white. If it contains
copper, this is precipitated by introducing pieces of
METALLIC ACETATES. 151
metallic lead, or, according to J eiseler, better by' pre-
viously freeing the litharge of copper by carbonate of
ammonia.
The solution, evaporated in a retort to exclude car-
bonic acid, which it rapidly absorbs, forms a white opaque
mass, consisting of minute needles, very soluble in water,
and insoluble in alcohol. The liquor of subacetate of
lead of the pharmacopreia is a solution of this salt
always containing some neutral and sesquibasic acetates,'
unless a large excess of litharge be employed.
Se:rbasic Acetate of Lead, 6(PbO),C'HsQs, is prepared
by adding any other acetate of lead in solution to an
excess of ammonia. It is a white crystalline precipi-
tate, somewhat soluble in boiling water, from which it '
separates in brilliant feathery crystals; loses all its
water in vacuo; does not blacken by heat, but yields
acetone and carbonic acid. It is always more or less
produced in the manufacture of the acetates of lead,
particularly where dilute acid is employed; it always
accompanies white-lead.
The above basic acetates are all found in the arts, the
last-named being generally an unintentional product.
There is a subacetate prepared by digesting one equiva-
lent acetate of lead with one equivalent of litharge, or,
better, 9 lbs. crystallized acetate and 6 Ibs. litharge.
The acetate is dissolved in water, and while steam is
run through, the litharge is gradually added; or it must
be stirred to prevent the adhering of the sexbasic salt
to the bottom, if heated over a fire in a copper vessel.
Strips of lead should be laid or soldered in the vessels
to prevent the solution of copper, and to remove what
copper may exist in the materials. This solution, which
is partly the tribasic acetate, but contains also neutral
and sesquibasic acetate, is an important salt in the art
152 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
of coloring, since by its combination with one equiva-
lent of bichromate of potassa, we get chrome yellow
directly; or with an equivalent of yellow chromate of
potassa we obtain chrome orange.
The basic acetate is also employed in making white-
lead by precipitation with carbonic acid.
Acetates of Copper.
There are several combinations of acetic acid with
oxide of copper, the most important of which are the
neutral acetate, or verdet, and the bibasic acetate, or
verdigris.
Neutral Acetate of Copper, or Verdet.
Formula, CuO,C4H
3
03+HO.
Composition.
1 eq. oxide of copper
1 " acetic acid
1 " water
Equivalents.
39.7
61.0
9.0
Per cent.
40
61
9
99.7 100
This salt is dark green, crystallizes in oblique rhombic
prisms, and is soluble in five parts boiling water, while
it is but slightly soluble in alcohol. If water, rendered
slightly acid by acetic acid, is satorated with this salt at
a gentle heat, and the solution allowed to cool at a low
temperature, a blue acetate is obtained, containing five
equivalents of water, and the formula of which is CuO,
C
4
H
3
0
3
+5HO.
Neutral acetate of copper, heated in contact with the
air, burns with a green flame. Distilled in a retort, it
prodoces glacial vinegar, and when the operation has
been conducted at a moderate heat, the upper parts of
the retort are covered with nacreous spangles or wool-
like white filaments, which are an acetate of suboxide
METALLIC A C E T A T ~ 153
of copper. Water decomposes this sublimed acetate
into metallic copper and neutral acetate.
Pure neutral acetate is prepared in laboratories by
dissolving hydrated oxide of copper in acetic acid,
evaporating, and crystallizing.
In the arts, sulphate of copper is decomposed by
equivalent proportions of acetates of lead, lime, or soda.
With the acetates of lead and lime, an insoluble or
scarcely soluble precipitate of sulphate of lead or lime
is produced, which is separated by decantation from the
solution of acetate 'of copper. With acetate of soda,
the sulphate of soda formed remains in the mother
liquors after the crystallization of the much less soluble
acetate of copper:
The oldest method, still practised, of preparing neutral
acetate of copper,consists in dissolving verdigris in strnng
acetic acid in a copper kettle, evaporating the clear solu-
tion until a pellicle is formed on the surface, and then
crystallizing in tinned copper pans, or stoneware pots,
into which dip a number of slender wooden rods.
This latter process is more expensive than the former
ones.
Neutral acetate of copper is employed for the manu-
facture of pigments, dyeing black on wool, and as a
resist in the indigo-bath.
Bibasic Acetate of Copper, or Verdigris. The chemical
formula of this salt is 2CUO,CiHsos+ 6HO, but the
composition of the verdigris found in the trade is not
always constant. For instance, we may represent the
composition of the verdigris of Montpellier by CuO,
C
i
H3()3+CuO,HO+5HO, and that of Grenoble by
3CuO,2CiHs03+3CuO,CiH
3
OS, which seems to indicate
a mixture of two kinds of acetates.
154 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Verdigris boiled in water gives a deposit of very
slightly soluble crystalline spangles of the formula
:3CuO,C
4
H
s
os, while a mixture of the acetates CuD,
C
4
H
s
03 and 3CuO,2C
4
Hsos remains in the solution.
We here give the composition of several kinds of
verdigris, compared with the centesimal analysis by
Berzelius of the bibasic acetate:-
EDglIRh EDglhh
Blba.la Fr.Dah ary.tRllIzed compreued
acetate. ....rdlgrl. ...rdlgrl .... rdlgrl .
Anhydrons aoetio acid 27.45 29.3 28.30 29.62
Oxide of oopper 43.24 43.5 43.25 44.25
Water 29.21 25.2 28.45 25.51
Impnrities 00.10 2.0 0.62
100.00 100.00 100.00
1(10.00
The greater part of the commercial verdigris is manu-
factured in the wine countries surrounding Montpellier,
Carcassonne, and Grenoble, by a process similar to the
manufacture of white-lead. The mash of grapes (stalks
and skins resulting from the pressing of wine) is broken
so as to occupy about twice its former volume, and
allowed to ferment. When its temperature has reached
about 100, and a plate of copper plqnged into it be-
comes covered with a green deposit, it is ready for use.
On the other hand, copper plates, about three inches
by six inches in size, are cut from old ship-sheathing
and smeared over with a concentrated solution of verdi-
gris. This greatly facilitates their further corrosion.
The corrosion takes place in stoneware jars about two
feet six inches high, in which are placed alternate layers
of fermented grape-mash and copper plates, just heated
over a bright fire until the hand cannot bear the heat.
A last layer of grape-mash forms the top, which is
covered with coarse straw matting.
The jars and their contents are then put into cellars,
80 as to preserve a regular temperature, the copper plate.s
lIETALLIC ACETATES. 155
become oxidized, and the vinegar from the fermented
grape-mash combines with it.
The corrosion requires generally from ten to twenty
days, sometimes a longer time; but when the grape-
mash becomes whitish, the jars are emptied of their
contents, and the copper plates are placed one against
the other, upright, to dry. After two or three days they
are plunged into water, allowed to dry again, and this
operation is performed six or seven times; sometimes a
small proportion of vinegar is added to the water. This
moistening causes the swelling of the incrustation, which
is then scraped off. The copper is used again and again,
until it is entirely corroded. The verdigris is carefully
kneaded, allowed to become nearly dry, and then com-
pressed in the packing form known in the trade.
At Grenoble some manufacturers expose sheets of
copper moistened with ,"inegar in hot stoves.
In other countries woollen cloths moistened' with
vinegar are placed alternately with copper plates in a
box, and the cloths are dipped four or five times in
vinegar at intervals of three days. The next operation
of moistening with water is performed as above.
Verdigris is more extensively used in the arts than
the neutral acetate, for calico-printing, paints, and pig-
ments, and by morocco-makers. A good verdigris should
not contain more than three per cent. of impurities, and
especially not too much moisture.
Sesquibasic Acetate of Copper, 3CuO,2C4H3Q3+6HO,
is obtained when verdigris is treated with warm water,
and the solution suffered to evaporate spontaneously, or
is mixed with alcohol. It is a blue amorphous mass, or
in crystalline scales from the alcoholic treatment, readily
soluble in hot, with difficulty in cold water, and insolu-
ble in alcohol. Heated at 212, it loses 10 per cent. of
156 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
water. A saturated solution heated to the boiling point
deposits a brownish powder, and becomes neutral. It
constitutes the principal part of the greener kinds of
verdigris. According to Liebig, they contain on an
average 46 to 50 per cent. oxide of copper.
Tribasic Acetate of Copper, 3CUO,C4Hsos+3HO.
This salt remains when verdigris is exhausted from its
soluble salts by water, or by digesting a solution of
neutral acetate with hydrated oxide of copper. It is a
light green powder, losing no water at 21z>, tasteless;
burning when heated, with a slight deflagration; unde-
composed by carbonic acid; by boiling water it becomes
brown, while the neutral salt is dissolved.
Hyperbasic Acetate of Copper, 48CuO,C4Hsos+I2HO,
is formed when any of the basic acetates of copper are
boiled for some time with water; the more water, the
less heat is required, so that even a very dilute solution
of the neutral salt deposits it. When in solution, it
has a liver-brown color; when dry, it is black, slightly
soluble in water, and deflagrates slightly when heated.
It contains 92.3 per cent. of oxide of copper.
Acetate of Copper and Lime, CuO,C
4
HsOs+CaO,
C4Hsos+8HO, is prepared by mingling together solu-
tions of acetate of copper and acetate of lime, and
evaporating to crystallization. It crystallizes in fine,
large, blue crystals, soluble in water, from which the
white acetate of lime efHoresces after some time. It was
formerly used in color-printing, but is inferior to the
acetates of copper alone. .
Acetates of Mercury.
Acetate of Suhoxide, Hg
2
0,C4Hsos. This combina-
tion was known in the seventeenth century.
It is obtained by dissolving pure suboxide or its car-
METALLIC ACETATES. 157
bonate in acetic acid, or by mingling hot solutions of
8ubnitrate of mercury and acetate of soda or potassa.
The pure subcarbonate of mercury is heated to boiling
with eight parts of water, and concentrated acetic acid
added until all is dissolved; the hot filtered liquid, free
from oxide, is allowed to cool. Or acidulated nitrate is
diluted with 6 to 8 parts of water, heated and mingled
with one equivalent of acetate of soda or potassa, dis-
solved in 8 parts of hot water containing a little free
acid, and cooled. The salt, when separated, is washed
with a little cold water, dried in the dark at a gentle
heat, and kept from the light in covered bottles.
It crystallizes in fine, white, silvery scales, flexible and
unctuous to the touch, with a nauseous metallic taste;
easily decomposed by light; decomposed and wholly
volatilized by heat; it is dissolved with difficulty in
cold water, requiring 33 parts at the ordinary tempera-
ture. It is partially decomposed by boiling water into
acid and basic salts of both oxides and metallic mercury.
Insoluble in cold alcohol, in hot it is decomposed, and
the suboxide separates.
It is used in pharmacy.
Acetate of Oxide of Mercury, HgO,C
4
H
3
0
3
, is pre-
pared by digesting red oxide of mercury in concentrated
acetic acid, with a gentle heat, and evaporating to dry-
ness, or partially to crystallization, or by spontaneous
evaporation. By the first process, it is a white saline
mass; by the second, it forms crystalline scales; and by
the third, four-sided plates, which are partly transparent,
partly pearly and translucent; anhydrous, of a nauseous
metallic taste; fusible without decomposition, solidifying
to a granular mass, but its point of decomposition is
near that of fusion. It dissolves in four parts of water.
at 50; in 2.75 at 66.2; and in one at 212, but by
158 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
boiling it is partly decomposed, with separation of red
oxide; even in the air its solution suffers the latter
change, and contains a basic salt. 'Vith free acetic
acid it is not decomposed. 100 parts of alcohol dissolve
51 of this salt, and this solution behaves like the aqueous
one. It generally contains, except when carefully crys-
tallized, some suboxide.
Acetate of Silver
Is represented by AgO,C
4
H
S
Os, and is obtained by dis-
solving the oxide or carbonate of silver in acetic acid, or
by mixing hot concentrated solutions of acetate of soda
or potassa and nitrate of silver, in nearly equivalent
quantities, the former rather predominating. It sepa-
rates in pearly, flexible, needle-shaped crystals, which
are light and voluminous; its taste is strongly metallic;
anhydrous; requires 100 parts of cold water for its solu-
tion. Easily decomposed by heat, pure acetic acid
distilling, and metallic silvoer remaining, which retains
the form of the crystals.
From the slight solubility of this salt, the nitrate of
silver is a convenient reagent to determine approxi-
mately the quantity of acetic acid in analytical work.
Salts of molybdena and tungsten are still better. Ace-
tate of silver is also a useful reagent for chlorohydric
acid, particularly with the acetates.
SACCHAROMETRY.
Table of the less important Acetates.
159
Names. Formul.,. Propertle8.
Acetate of-
Lithia. LiO,CIRI()8 DeliqueMllnt, gummy mass.
Olocioa Gli()3,3C'HI()8 Very soluule, gummy mass,
Yttria.
YO,CIH3(}'I
R08Y cry8tal8, permanent.
Zirconia Zi()3,3CIHI()8
White powder, deliquescent, soluble
in water and alcohol.
Thonna ThO,CiRIQ3 Whitl3, amorphous, forms dooble
salt.
Ceriom CeO,C4RI()8 Fine needles, permanent, very so-
luble In alcohol.
Cadmium CdOPR3Q3 Fine needles, permanent, very so-
luble in water.
Bismnth HiO,CIH3Q3 White scales similar to boracic acid.
Uranium. UiQJ,3C4H5()lI Topaz-yellow, right square prism.
Rhodium. Red solution.
Rhodium and soda Red salt, soluble in water, insoluble
in alcohol.
Platinum . PtO,C4RlI()S Greenish solution, dark brownish-
green when dry.
Antimony SbiQJ,3C' B3()3 Small white crystals, very soluble.
Proto. molybdena MoO,CIHI()8 Dark gray powder, black when dry,
insoluble.
Molybdena Mo()II,2C
4
HIQI Yellow solution, gelatinizes on cool-
ing.
Molybdic acid MoO',3C
l
H'OI Yellow powder, slightly solubl" in
water.
Vanadium VaO',2C4H'()3 Blue solution, dark green crystal,
soluble in water.
Chrome Crl()I,3C4HIQI Green, imperfectly crystalline, so-
luble.
CHAPTERX.
SACCHAROMETRY.
IT is important, as we have already said, for the
brewer to kuow the proportion of saccharine matter
contained in the worts, so as to determine the quantity
of water to obtain vinegar of a given strength.
Many instruments have been devised for the purpose,
which are really hydrometers, with different names and
graduations. '
160 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
The saccharometers mostly used in England, are
those of Bate, Dring, Fage, Long, Allan, and Casartelli.
They are made of metal or glass, with different floats to
suit various specific gravities of wort, and are generally
accompanied by tables giving rules for using them.
They indicate the quantity in pounds of solid malt-
extract per gallon or barrel of wort (English measures).
The indicative numbers are based on results of direct
experiments, or upon calculated specific gravities of
various mixtures of solid extracts with water. But, as
in direct experiments, the specific gravity of worts con-
taining the same amount of sugar may vary, on account
of the influence of foreign matters; and if in calculated
specific gravities the influence of condensation or con-
traction of volume after mixture is overlooked, it is not
to be wondered at that all these instruments do not
agree, and that want of care in their construction and
their use makes the discrepancies still greater.
Tizard, who took great pains in working this ques-
tion, gives the following tables, where the difference
in results obtained with the different saccharometers is
shown.
Weight of .olld el:tract to the Imperial goliaD.
Bpeclfte
gravily.
Bale.
I
LODg. T1urd. AllaD. DrlDg II: Fage.
1010 0.2997 0.2777 0.258 0.2583 0.2618
.1020 0.6053 0.5555 0.516 0.5194 0.5236
1030 0.9168 0.2333 0.775 0.7777 0.7854
1040 1.2343 1.1111 1.033 1.0388 1.0472
1050 1.5577 1.3888 1.293 1.3000 1.3090
1060 1.8870 1.6666
1.5:,2 Ui583 1.5708
1070 2.2223 1.9444 1.812 1.8194 1.8326
1080 2.5634 2.2222 2.071 2.0777 2.0944
1090 2.9105 2.5000 2.332 2.3388 2.3562
1100 3.2636 2.7777 2.593 2.6000 2.6180
1110 3.6226 3.0555 2.854 2.8583 2.8798
1120 3.987:; 3.3333 3.116 3.1194 3.1416
1130 4.3584 3.6] 11 3.378 3.3777 3.4034
1140 4.7352 3.8888 3.640 3.6388 3.6652
1150 li.1182 4.1666 3.903 3.9000 3.4270
SACCHAROMETRY. 161
Nevertheless, where accuracy is not needed, these
instruments may be employed as indicating how the
operation progresses.
The fact that there is a contraction of volume when
malt.extract is dissolved in water, was demonstrated by
Dr. Ure, who found that when solid malt-extract, sp. gr.
1.264, was dissolved in its own weight of water, the spe-
cific gravity of the mixture was found to be 1.216,
instead of 1.116, as determined by calculation.
Several examples of the specific gravity of various
mixtures of solid malt-extract with water are here
given (Dre).
"'\.extract +water. I)(all-extract III 100. I Bogar 10 100. Bpeclftc gra"itT.
600 +
600 50.00 47.00 1.216
6011+
900 40.00 37.00 1.167
600 + 1200 33.33 31.50 1.135
600 + 1500
28.57 26.75 1.113
600 + 1800 25.00 24.00 1.100
All the instruments are graduated for a temperature
of 60 Fahr.; but as the worts are generally tested at a
higher temperature, it becomes necessary to reduce the
indications- taken at the indicated temperature of the
worts, to that of 60.
In the absence of tables, which should be furnished
with the saccharometers, we take from Muspratt's
"Dictionary of Chemistry" two examples, calculated by
Bate and Tizard, and the rule of the latter for reducing
the specific gravity of hot worts, when tables are not at
hand.
According to Bate's tables, the allowance which
should be made for every 10, between the normal
points 60 and 150, is as follows:-
11
162 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
fu":'
.n:-
... -;
70 80 90 100 1100 120 130 140 1500
Sum.
at
llD
--
--------------------
10 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.8 17.0
50 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 3.0 18.6
100 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.6 2.7 2.9 3.2 20.3
160 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.7 2.9 3.2 3.4 22.2
The following table has been calculated by Tizard, and
if the corresponding degree is not found in it, an approxi-
mation may be had, by remembering that if the saccha-
rometer is plunged into a liquid (sp. gr. 1000 at 60)
heated at 78, it will sink two divisions below the true
gravity at 60, and four divisions if the heat is 93.
.:. Apparenl gravity slvlng lhe .ame d.Dllty allh. accompanying heau &llhe lint

vol nm. at 60.

Ap. gr. D.gre. Ap. gr. D.gree. Ap. gr. D.gr. Ap.gr. Degre...
llD
-
10()(l 998 79.00 996 93.00 994 105.00 992 115.50 990, 12:i.20
1010 1008 78.00 1006 92.00 1004 104.00 1002 114.50 1000' 124.00
1020 1018 78.00 1016 91.33 1014 103.00 1012 113.50 1010 122.80
1030 1028 77.33 1026 90.66 1024 102.60 1022 112.60 10201 ] 22.00
1040 1038 76.66 1036 90.00 1034 101.50 1032 111.50 1030
1
120.80
1050 1048 76.00 1046 89.33 1044 100.66 1042 111.00 1040 120.00
1060 1058 76.00 1056 88.66 1064 100.00 1062 110.00 1050 118.80
1070 1068 75.33 1066 88.00 1064 99.00 1062 109.00 10601118.00
1080 1078 74.66 1076 87.33 1074 98.00 1072 1070, 116.80
1(190 1088 74.66 1086 86.66 1084 97.50 1082 107.00 1080 1]6.00
1100 1098 74.00 1096 86.00 1094 96.50 1092 106.50 1090 114.80
1110 1108 74.00 1106 85.50 1104 96.00 1102 106.60 1100' 114.00
1120 1118 73.50 1116 85.00 1114 95.50 1112 104.50 1110' 113.20
1130 1128 73.33 1126 84.50 1124 94.60 1122 104.00 1120' 112.40
1140 1138 73.00 1136 84.00 1J34 94.00 1132 103.20
1130i 111.40
1150 1148 72.66 1146 83.50 1144 93.50 1142 104.40 1140 110.80
Tizard's rule: To unity, or 1, representing the par or
standard of water, add 0.1 for every 25 points of gravity
indicated by the instrument, and O.OIfor each degree of
temperature above 60, and multiply the sum by 10
times the latter number for the correction.
Example.-Let the apparent density be six, and the
temperature 92.
ALCOHOLOMETRY. 163
Tbns(1 +.32)X 3.2-4.224, which added to the original
6, gives 10.224.
Another, apparent gravity 27, temperature 124.
Here(l.1 +.64) x 6.4== l.74x 6.4-1l.136,and 11.136+
27-38.136. Results which agree with those of Bate.
We have already given Balling's saccharometer table
to be used with the instrument of the same name, and
have pointed out the inaccuracies resulting from the
presence of other substances in the liquid. As a proof,
we now give a table by Fehling.
Percentages of sugar found by experiment in grape-
juice of different specific gravities.
8peci1le Sugar Speclllc Sagar Speclllc Sagar Speclllc Sagar
gra'f1ly. per ceat. gr"Ylly. per cent. g",Ylly. per ceat. graYlly. per ceal.
--
1.059 12.0 1.074 16.6 1.083 18.2 1.0ll0 24.6
1.062 12.5 1.074 15.9 1.084 18.6 1.090 26.7
1.062 12.8 1.076 16.8 1.085 17.2 1.091 18.6
1.064 13.4 1.076 17.0 1.085 18.4 1.091 19.6
1.064 14.0 1.076 16.0 1.085 18.7 1.091 20.4
1.065 13.9 1.077 17.2 1.085 20.4 1.092 19.2
1.066 14.6 1.078 15.5 1.086 17.8 1.093 20.4
1.068 14.2 1.079 14.9 1.086 19.8 1.094 19.6
1.069 14.7 1.079 16.3 1.086 20.0 1.095 21.3
1.069 15.0 1.079 20.2 1.087 17.8 1.095 27.0
1.06!! 15.8 1.080 17.6 1.088 17.1 1.096 28.1
1.070 14.4 1.081 17.6 1.088 111.6 1.096 21.3
1.072 16.3 1.083 16.6 1.089 18.2 1.096 26.7
1.073 16.6 1.083 17.1 1.089 23.2 1.097 24.7
CHAPTER XI.
ALCOHOLOMETRY.
THIS is the determination of the quantity of pure
alcohol, or of a spirit of a certain strength taken as a
standard, present in any given sample of spirituous or
fermented liquors. The instruments used for this
164 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
purpose are called alcokolometers. Some, as those of
Baume, Cartier, etc., are simply hydrometers by which
the specific gravity of the sample is ascertained; others,
of a like construction, as those of Richter, Tralles, and
Gay.Lussac, have thE'ir stems so graduated as at once
to indicate the proportion of alcohol present, either by
weight or volume, at some standard temperature; while
a third class, as those of Brossard-Vidal, Field, etc., are
essentially thermometers, with scales which indicate the
boiling points of spirits of different strengths, instead of
the common thermometer degrees. A very conveniept
hydrometer for common purposes has lately been in-
vented. It is of the usual form, but its stem on one
side exhibits the percentage by volume, and on the other
the percentage by weight. Thus both results may be
obtained at one trial of the sample.
Methods of Alcoholometry.
1. Sykes' hydrometer is much used in England. It
consists of a stem about four inches long, divided into ten
parts, each of which contains ten subdivisions, and is
furnished with nine weights of different sizes, numbered
respectively 10, 20, 30, etc. to 90"by which it acquires a
range over 900 divisions. The instrument is so formed
as to give the specific gravity with almost perfect accu-
racy at 62. .
The mode of using it is as follows: a long glass tube
with a foot is filled with the sample for examination;
the thermometer is then placed in the liquor and stirred
for about one or two minutes, when it is withdrawn and
the temperature noted. The hydrometer is next im-
mersed in a similar manner, and gently pressed down
in the liquid to the 0 of the stem with the finger, having
been previously loaded with only one of the weights,
that will make it float on the surface of the spirit at
ALCOHOLOMETRY. 165
some point on the graduated part of the scale. The
indication at the point cut by the surface of the liquor,
added to the weight with which the float is loaded,
gives a number which must be sought in the book of
tables. In this book, at the page headed by the tem-
perature as observed by the thermometer, and against
the part of the column appropriated to the given indi-
cation (weight), will be found the strength per cent. in
whole numbers and decimal parts. In reading off the
indication, to insure accuracy, it is necessary to allow
for the convexity of the liquor at the part where it
immediately rests against the stem.
The above, as well as all other methods of alcoholometry
depending on the specific gravity, refer to unsweetened
spirits. The strength of sweetened spirits cannot be
detertnined by the common h)'drometer or the specific
gravity.
2. Sykes' hydrometer, 8S already stated, gives the
specific gravity with almost perfect accuracy at 62;
Baume's and Cartier's do the same at 60. Richter's
gives the per cent. of alcohol by weight, and Tralles' by
volume, also at the temperature of 60. Gay-Lussac's
alcoholometer for the most part resembles that of Tralles,
except being adjusted for the temperature of 59. When,
therefore, the spirit under examination is of any other
temperature than the normal one of the instrument,
certain corrections are necessary to render the results of
any value. Perfect accuracy requires that tables for every
variation of the thermometers, founded on actual experi-
ments, should accompany each instrument. For ordinary
purposes, in the absence of tables or nicer calculations, it
may be useful to know that 5 F.=l.OO per cent. of
alcohol, or 1.749 per cent. of proof spirit by volume;
and 0.794 per cent. of alcohol, or 1.620 per cent. of proof
166 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
spirit by weight. Thus, by making the proper additions
to the apparent strength per cent., when the observed
temperature is below the normal temperature of the
instrument, or a corresponding subtraction when it is
above it, the strength of the sample may be determined.
3. Weigh the sample to be examined in a phial ca-
pable of holding exactly 500 grains of distilled water.
The observed weight doubled will give the specific
gravity at the given temperature. If a thousand-grain
bottle be used, the result will be determined without cal-
culation. The specific gravity may next be sought in
one or other of the following tables, and the necessary
corrections made for temperature.
TABLE I.-Exhibiting the percentage of Alcohol by volume c0r-
responding to the given specific gravity. By Tralles.
8';

8::
t'
8';
t'
81!
t' ... :5 '0":
... :5
'0>
.


"e. .d! "e.
8:!
"e.
l!lf

.. :!
--

..
--

,,"
--

l!o'
...
0'0 -0'0
,,"
0'0
3.

8=
fg
1i
fO;


fil

.:ie.

.:ie.



...
-'"
;;6
-'" -'" ;;; -'"
:<is II: A A :<is
'"
A
'"
Q
--
--------------
0 .9991 00 26 .9689 11 52 .9295 20 78 .8685 27
1 .9976 15 27 .9679 10 53 .9275 20 79 .8658 27
2 .9961 15 28 .9668 11 54 .9254 21 80 .8631 27
3 .9947 14 29 .9657 11 55 .9234 20 81 .9603 28
4 .9933 14 30 .9646 11 56 .9213 21 82 .8575
28
5 .9919 14 31 .9634 12 57 .9192 21 83 .8547 28
6 .9906 13 32 .9622 12 58 .9170 22 84 .8518 29
7 .9893 13 33 .9609 13 59 .9148 22 85 .8488 30
8 .9881 12 34 .9596 13 60 .9126 22 86 .8458
3(\
9 .9869 12 35 .9583 13 61 .9104 22 87 .8428 30
10 .9857 12 36 .9570 13 62 .9082 22 88 .8397 31
11 .9845 12 37 '9556 14 63 .9059 23 89 .8365 32
12 .9834 11 38 .9541 15 64 .9036 23 90 .8332 3.1
13 .9823 11 39 .9526 15 65 .9013 23 91 .8299 33
14 .9812 11 40 .9510 16 66 .8989 24 92 .8265 34
15 .9802 10 41 .9494 16 67 .8965 24 93 .8230 35
16 .9791 11
42 .9478 16 68 .8941 24 94 .8194 36
17
.9781 10 43 .9461 17 69
.8917124
95 .8157 37
18 .9771 10 44 .9l44 17 70 .8892 25 96 .8118 39
19 .9761 10 45 .9427 17 71 .8867 25 97 .8077 41
20
.9751 10 46 .9409 18 72 .8842 25 98 .8034 43
21 .9741 10 47 .9391 18 73 .8817 25 99 .7988 46
22 .9731 10 48 .9373 18 74 .8i91 26 100 .7939 49
23 .9720 11 49 .9354 19 75 .8765 26
24 .9710 10 50 .9335 19 76 .8739 26
25 .9700 10 51 .9315 20 77 .8712 27
ALCOHOLOMETRY. 167
If the precise specific gravity sought cannot be found
in the table, the difference between it and the next
greater specific gravity must be taken for the numerator
of a fraction having for its denominator the number
found in the third column against the next greater spe-
cific gravity. This fraction added to the percentage of
alcohol in the first column of the table against the said
greater specific gravity, will give the true percentage
sought. Thus, if the specific gravity of a spirit be
0.9605, what is the alcohol content 1 .9605 is not in the
table, and the next greater number is .9609; the former
must therefore be deducted from the latter, and the
difference (4) put as the numerator of the fraction
having for its denominator the number (13) in the
column of differences against .9609. The fraction r\ so
found, added to the percentage against .9609 in the
fitst column, gives 33
1
\ as the true percentage of alcohol
in the given sampIe.
168 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
TABLE H.-Showing thp. Alcoholic contents per cent. by weight of
Spirit8 of different specific gravities. B!J Fownes. With an addi-
tional column, by Cooley.
'0

... .
.... ] t' .

....
t' '0.: .........

00> 00> ...... ...


... 0 g

... 00
0:

... 0 0
.:
Ill!
... og
0: .. e
-;:.a.
E,'
._"
to'
....


to' ::'"
"
Ci..a"ii
"
ii.c II ,,'"

.i
f .

,i
f .

f .
fi

....

" ...
t
f




2-
...
-- --

is-
",.
-- Ilo OIl Q Ilo OIl Q Ilo OIl Ilo lI:1
------
-
--
--
----
- -
---
0.5 .9991 00 26 .9638 14 52 .9135 25 78 .8533 24
1 .9981 10 27 .9623 15 53 .9113 22 79 .8508 25
2 .9965 16 28 .9609 14 54 .9090 23 80 .8483 25
3 .9947 18 29 .9593 16 55 .9069 21 81 .8449 24
4 .9930 17 30 .9578 15 56 .9047 22 82 .8434 25
5 .9914 16 31 .9560 18 57 .9025 22 83 .8408 26
6 .9898 16 32 .9546 16 58 .9001 24 84 .8382 26
7 .9884 14 33 .9528 16 59 .8979 22 85 .8357 25
8 .9869 15 34 .9511 17 60 .8956 23 86 .8331 25
9 .9855 14 35 .9490 21 61 .8932 24 87 .8305 26
10 .9841 14 36 .9470 20 62 .8908 24 88 .8279 26
11 .9828 13 37 .9452 18 63 .8886 22 89 .8254 25
12 .9815 13 38 .9434 18 64 .8863 23 90 .8228 26
13 .9802 13 39 .9416 18 65 .8840 23 91 .8199 29
14 .9789 13 40 .9396 20 66 .8816 24 92 .8172 27
15 .9778 11 41 .9376 20 67 .8793 23 93 .8145 27
16 .9766 12 42 .9356 20 68 .8769 24 94 .8118 27
17 .9753 13 43 .9335 21 69 .8745 24 95 .8089 29
18 .9741 12 44 .9314 21 70 .8721 24 96 .8061 28
19 .9728 13 45 .9292 22 71 .8696 25 97. .8031 30
20 .lI716 12 46 .9270 22 72 .8672 24 98 .8001 30
21 .:1704 12 47 .9249 21 73 .8649 23
. 99
.7969 3"J
22 .9691 13 48 ,9228 21 74 .8625 24 100 .7938 31
23 .9678 13 49 .9206 22 75 .8603 22
24 .9665 13 50 .9184 22 76 .8581 22
25 .9652 13 51 .9160 24 77 .8557 24
4. From the temperature of the vapor ascertained by
thrusting the bulb of a thermometer a piece
of vulcanized India-rubber into the head of the still or
other vessels containing it, and noting its temperature,
which must be sought in the following table. This
method is very good for the purpose of the distiller and
rectifier, and it is to be regretted that we are not in pos-
session of a more extensive table.
ALCOHOLOMETRY. 169
TA.BLE IlL-Showing the Alcoholic contents of boiling spirits jr01n
the temperature of their vapors. By Groning.
AleohoUc
Tperatur. Aleoholle COil- AlcohoUe Temperature contents of Alcoholic
ot v..por, tents of npor 000t80t& or of ",apor, nporby contents ot
Fahrenheit. by ..olume bolllng Uquld Fahreuhelt. 'l'olume boiling liquId
per eeul. per eeut. per Milt. per cent.
170.0 93 92 189.8 71 20
171.8 92 90 192.0 68 18
172.0 91 85 194.0 66 15
172.8 91
1
80 196.4
61
12
174.0 90 70 198.6 55 10
174.6 89 70 201.0 50 7
176.0 87 65 203.0 42 5
178.3 85 50 205.4 36 3
180.8 82 40 207.7 28 2
183.0 80 35 210.0 13 1
185.0 78 30 212.0 0 0
187.4 76 25
5. From the boiling point. For this purpose a simple
thermometer with a large bulb and a very narrow bore,
from about 180
0
to 2120, may be successfully employed.
The temperature of the commencement of full ebullition
being ascertained may be sought in one of the following
tables, against which the alcoholic contents of the liquor
will be found.
TABLE IV.-Showing the boiling paints of mixtures of alcohol and
water of gi'Vlln strength8. By Groning.
Alcohol Aleohcl Alcohol
per ceut. Bollilli pobt. per eeat. BoUlll1 polu!. per cent. Bollilli paint.
b,. yolume. by ..olume. by ..olume.
-----
Ii 205.34 40 183.38 75 176.54
10 199.22 45 182.12 80 175.46
15 195.80 60 18U8 85 174.92
?AJ 192.38 56 179.96 90 174.20
25 189.50 60 179.42 95 173.14
30 187.16 65 178.70 100 172.00
35 186.00 70 177.62
170 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
TABLE V.-Showing the boiling points of Under Preo! Spirits.
By Dr. Ure.
8pecUIo ,rnily. Percentage Itrength. Boilln, potnts.
.9200 ProoC 178.60
.9318 10 under proof 179.75
.9420 20
"
"
180.04
.9516 30
" "
182.00
.9600 40
.. ..
183.40
.9665 60
.. ..
186.60
.9729 60
.. ..
189.00
.9786 70
.. ..
191.80
.9850 80
.. ..
196.40
.9920 90
.. ..
202.00
6. Brande's Process.-Half fill a graduated tube with
the liquid to be examined, and add thereto about 12
or 15 per cent. of a strong solution of di-acetate of lead.
Agitate the mixture until the color is nearly removed.
Add dry carbonate of potassa in powder until it falls
down undissolved even after the continued shaking of
the liquid. On allowing the tube to repose for a short
time, the alcohol will be seen floating on the top of the
aqueous portion in a wellmarked stratum, and its quan-
tity may be read off by means of the graduations of the
tube. Gay-Lussac has prepared a simpler mode of ap-
plying this test. He agitates a little powdered litharge
with the sample until it is decolored and limpid, and
then saturates it with the carbonate of potassa as before.
The alcohol thus separated has a specific gravity of about
0.8117, and contains 3 or 4 per cent. of water. This
process answers well with spirits, cordials, wines, etc., but
requires some practice to make it succeed with weak
liquors.
7. Gay-Lussac'.<if Process.-Measure 300 parts of the
liquor to be tried in a ~ r a d u a t e d measure, place the
liquor in a still or retort, and carefully distill one-third,
using a graduated measure as a recipient, and stopping
HYDROMETERS. 171
the operation when the liquid reaches the hundredth
degree. Then ascertain the alcoholic strength of the
distilled liquor by any of t h ~ usual methods, and divide
the result by three, when the percentage of alcohol in
the original liquor will be obtained.
If, from want of attention, more than 100 parts should
be distilled over, the number which expresses the re-
lation of the volume of the distilled product to the
original bulk of the liquid tested must be employed as
the divisor. Thus, if 106 parts of liquor have distilled
over, containing 33 per cent. of alcohol, the 300 must
be divided by 106, which gives 2.83, and the 33 per cent.
by 2.83, which gives 11.66. The last number expresses
the percentage of alcohol in the liquor submitted to ex-
amination. The strength at proof may be calculated in
the same manner.
CHAPTER XII.
HYDROMETERS.
A HYDROMETER is a simple instrument which is often
used for ascertaining the specific gravities or densities
of liquids, and sometimes of solids. It is based upon
the hydrostatic law, that a floating body displaces its
own weight of the liquid in which it swims. Hence,
the more dense the liquid, the smaller will be the quantity
displaced, or the depth to which a hydrometer will sink
in it.
It is evident that by varying the weight required to
sink a body of given bulk, we may determine the spe-
cific gravities of liquids, as well as by measuring ihe
172
MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
A
Fig. 7.
relative volume displaced by one of invariable weight.
Hydrometers are, therefore, constructed upon each of
these principles, and they may be classified as those of
constant weight and those of constant volume.
Hydrometers of constant weight have been varied ca-
priciouslyand to an almost indefinite extent. They are
all made either of metal or glass, and
Fig, 8. nearly of the shape of the figures 7 and
8; in which A is the graduated stem, B
C, the bulb, and D a heavy counterpoise,
which is required to render the equi-
librium stable, and keep the instru-
ment always upright when in use.
We may, of course, divide a given
magnitude into an arbitrary number
of fractional parts; and if the scales
of hydrometers be graduated thus ca-
priciously, every country and every man may produce
a different instrument. It is in this manner that hy-
drometers have been multiplied to an extent which is
beyond all reason. We shall describe only those instru-
ments which -are founded upon natural bases, or which
have become generally known and used.
The stem may be divided so as to indicate specific
gravities directly. For this purpose, if we denote by to
the weight of the hydrometer, by v the volume of the
liquid displaced, and by d its density, we shall have
to ... dv
as the equation which will enable us to calculate the
volume displaced or immersed for any corresponding
density, and to graduate the stem accordingly. This
equation is that of the hyperbola; if, therefore, the
specific gravity be supposed to vary by equal differences,
the' corresponding volumes will vary unequally, or the
HYDROMETERS.
173
stem m\lst not be divided into equal parts, but into in-
tervals proportionate to the difference of consecutive
ordinates of the hyperbola. Such hydrometers are con-
sequently of rather difficult construction, and require
skill and intelligence on the part of the manufacturer.
Pure or freshly distilled water, at its maximum den-
sity, which occurs at the temperature of 39.6 nearly, is
the most natural and most generally accepted unit of
specific gravity. If, therefore, the volume immersed in
water of maximum density be divided and subdivided
decimally, such a system of graduation for hydrometers
may be considered the most natural and simple. One
of the great advantages of these instruments is, that
their indications may be very readily converted into the
corresponding specific gravities by simple and easy arith-
metical calculations.
That a hydrometer may be convenient, and useful in
the arts, it need not. and perhaps it should not, read
specific gravities, for these are usually expressed in deci-
mal fractions, and are therefore recollected with diffi-
cultyJ and liaple to cause mistakes. The manufacturer
has no need of them in his processes, and it is, for in-
stance, simpler, and more easy to remember, that an acid
or syrup has the density of 20 Baume, than that its
specific gravity is 1.166612, that of water being unity.
Baume"s Hydrometers. I
For fluids lighter than water, Baume invented his
pese-esprit (hydrometer for spirit); and for fluids heavier
than water, a single instrument called pese-acid, pese-sel,
or pese-syrop (acid, salt, or syrup measure). These
instruments are entirely distinct, and form no part of a
common system, for they are constructed on different
bases. The degrees of one are not equal to those of the
174: MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
other; and the zero point, which is determined for the
pese-esprit by a solution containing 10 per cent. of
common saIt, corresponds in the pese-acid to the density
of pure water. Hence we shall treat of them separately.
The pese-esprit is constructed by immersion in a solu-
tion of common salt, containing 10 per cent. to obtain
the zero point, and then by plunging it into water to
determine another point, which Baume calls 10. The
interval is Rraduated equally, and the scale extended by
laying off repeatedly, with a pair of dividers, the same
interval upon the stem.
The zero point of the pese-acid is given by the surface
of the distilled water in which it floats. Immersion in
a solution containing 15 per cent. of common salt fixes
the point, which is to be marked 15 upon the scale,
and degrees beyond 15 are determined by the same pro-
cess of extension employed for the pese-esprit.
It might at first be supposed that the degrees of these
instruments would constitute parts of a common scale;
but the densities of two solutions of 'common salt, con-
taining one 10 and the other 15 per cent., will not be
such as to correspond to equal degrees, 10 and 15,
reckoned from water as a common origin, and therefore
Baume's hydrometers belong to different scales.
The following are the complete tables of Baume.
HYDROMETERS. 175
Baume's Hydrometer Tablefor Liquids heavier than Water.
Temperature of Liquid 540.
0 1.000 19 1.152 38 1.359 1i7 1.656
1 1.007 20 1.161 39 1.372 58 1.676
2 1.014 21 1.171 40 1.384 59 1.695
3 1.022 22 1.180 41 1.398 60 1.714
4 1.029 23 1.190 42 1.412 61 1.736
5 1.036 24 1.199 43 1.426 62 1.758
6 1.044 25 1.210 44 1.440 63 1.779
7 1.052 26 1.221 45 1.454 64 1.801
8 1.060 27 1.231 46 1.470 65 1.823
9 1.067 28 1.242 47 1.485 66 1.847
10 1.075 29 1.252 48 1.501 67 1.872
11 1.083 30 1.261 49 1.516 68 1.897
12 1.091 31 1.275 50 1.532 69 1.921
13 1.100 32 1.286 51 1.549 70 1.946
14 1.106 33 1.298 52 1.566 71 1.974
15 1.116 34 1.309 53 1.583 72 2.002
16 1.125 35 1.321 54 1.601 73 2.0:n
17 1.134 36 1.334 55 1.618 74 2.059
18 1.143 37 1.346 56 1.637 75 2.087
Baume's Hydrometer Table for Liquids lighter than Water.
Temperature of Liquid 540.
60 0.744 47 0.795 34 0.856 21 0.929
59 0.748 45 0.799 33 0.862 20 0.935
58 0.752 46 0.803 32 0.867. 19 0.941
57 0.756 44 0.606 31 0.872 18 0.941'
56 0.760 43 0.812 30 0.877
I
17 0.953
55 0.764 42 0.817 29 0.882 16 0.959
54 0.768 41 0.821 28 0.888 15 0.966
53 0.772 40 0.826 27 0.893 14 0973
52 0'776 39 0.831 26 0.899 13 0.979
51 0.780 38 0.836 25 0.906 12 0.986
50 0.784 37 0.841 24 0.911 11 0.993
49 0.788 36 0.846 23 0.917 10 1.000
48 0.792 35 0.851 22 0.923
Saccharometer.
This instrument is described in the chapter on sac-
charometry.
Alcoholometers.
The alcoholometers are based on the principle, that
the more concentrated the alcohol, the lighter is it, and
176 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
less able to support the instrument, which sinks lower
as the liquor is richer in alcohol; but as caloric dilates
all the liquids, the temperature of the alcohol must be
accounted for; for it is well demonstrated that these
liquids thus dilated occupy a greater volume, and thus
diminish the specific gravity, and it is evident that the
instrument will sink lower if the temperature is elevated,
even though its strength in spirits were greater.
The following tables give the correction for the dif.
ferent temperatures.
Table of Correctionsfor Temperatures below 12.5 RbJumur-
tiOO.l Fahr.
. Number of de!'".... Number of deSTPe.
1Depe
Kumber of d....-
tor whtch ODe per ror wblcb oue per for wbleh ODe per
De!'"e""
ceol. of alcohol muol negr_ cenl. of alcohol mu.1 ceat. of alcohol ....&
of be added. of he added. of be added.
Tralle. TraU... TraU...
Rfaumu. Fah. Rbumur. Fah. R6aumur Fah
-------- --
--- --
--
--- ---
40 2.0 4.5 60
- -
79
- -
41 2.1 4.7 61 2.4 5.4 80
- -
42
-
-
62
-
-
81 2.9 6.5
43
- -
63
2.5 5.6 82
- -
44
- -
64
- -
83
3.0 6.7
45 2.2 4.9" 65
- -
84
-
-
46 2.2 4.9 66 2.5 5.6 85
-
-
47
- -
67
-
-
86 3.0 6.7
48
- -
68 2.6 5.8 87 3.1 7.0
49
-
-
69
- -
88 3.2 7.2
50
- -
70
-
-
89 3.3 7.4
51 2.3 5.2 71 2.6 58 90 3.4 7.6
52
-
-
72
-
-
91 3.5 7.8
53
- -
73
- -
92 3.6 8.1
54
- -
74 2.7 6.1 93 3.7 8.3
55
- -
75
-
-
94 3.9 8.7
56 2.3 5.2 76
2.7 6.1 95 4.0 9.0
57 2.4 5.4 77
- -
96 4.2 9.4
58
-
-
78 2.8 6.3 97 4.5 10.1
59
- -
HYDROMETERS. 177
Table of Corrections for Temperature above 120.5 R. = 60.1 F.
Number of degree. I
I Number or degree.I,1
:lamber of degr
tor whlcb olle perl (or which oue JH'r, ror which ODe J><'
et'Dt. or alcobol muAt cent. or a.lcohol must, cent. or alcohol mUI
Trail.. be lubtracted. Tralle. lbe lubtracted. I Tralle. be luhtracted.
d ~ . degree... degreel.
lU'aumnr. Fabr. Rhumur. Fabr. Rhumur. Fabr.
--
------ --
------
--
----
40 2.0 4.5 61 2.3 5.2 81 2.7 6.1
41 2.0 4.5 62
- - 82
- -
42 - -
63
- - 83 2.8 6.3
43
- -
64
-
-
84
- -
44 - -
65
- -
85
- -
45 - -
66 2.4 5.4 86 2.9 6.5
46 2.0 4.5 67
-
-
87
- -
47 2.1 4.7 68
-
-
813
- -
48 -
-
69 2.5 5.6 89 3.0 6.7
49
- --
70
- - 90 3.1 7.0
50
- -
71 2.5 5.6 91 3.1 7.0
51 2.1 4.7 72
- -
92 3.3 7.4
52
- -
73
- -
93
- -
53 22 4.9 74
- - 94 3.4 7.6
54
- -
75 2.6 5.8 95
- -
55
-
-
76 2.6 5.8
I
96 3.6 1'.1
56 2.3 5.2 77
- - 97 - -
f,7
- -
78
- - 98 3.7 8.3
58
- -
79 2.7 6.1
I
99 4.2 !J.4
59
- -
80
- - 100 4.4 9.9
60
-
-
-------- --"
If the thermometer of Reaumur is used, for each 3
below the normal temperature, add 1 per cent. of alco-
hol to the quantity found; if the thermometer of Fahr-
enheit is employed, add 1 per cent. of alcohol for every
6.7 below 60.1. If the temperature is above the nol'-
mal temperature, subtract 1 per cent. of alcohol for each
3 above 1 ~ 0 . 5 Reaumur, and for each 6.7 above 60\1
Fahr.
The following table gives the strength of alcoholic
solutions, the specific gravity being determined with
the hydrometer or the specific gravity bottle.
12
178
MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Table of Specific Gravities of Mixtures of Alcohol and Water by
Weight and Volume. Temperature 60.1 F.
Per root. 1 8perille graTlt)' tor
Per eeot
8pec111r graYlt)' tor
ot
or
ablolole
ablOlole
Illeohol. .Volume pereeot. Welsht per coot.
alrohol. Volome per reDl Welshl per ra.t.
___1____
----
I 0.9985 .0.9981 51 0.9323 0.9160
2 0.9970
0.9965 52 0.9303 0.913.'i
3 0.9956
0.9947 53 0.9283 0.9113
4 0.9942
0.9930 54 0.9262 0.9090
5 0.9928
0.9913 55 0.9242 0.9069
6 0.9915
0.9898 56 0.9221 0.9047
7 0.9902
0.9884 57 0.9200 0.9025
8 0.9890
0.9869 58 0.9178 0.9001
9 0.9878
0.9B55 59 0.9156 0.8979
10 0.9866
0.!l841 60 0.9134 0.8956
11 0.9854
0.9828 61 0.9112 0.8932
12 0.9843
0.9815 62 0.9090
0.89118
13 0.9832
0.9802 63 0.9067 0.8886
14 0.9821
0.9789
I
64 0.9044 0.8863
15 0.9811
0.9778 65 '0.9021 0.8840
16 0.9800 0.9.66 66 0.8997 0.8816
17 0.9790
0.9753 67 0.8973 0.8793
18 0.9780 0.9741 68 0.8949 0.8769
19 0.9710
0.9728 69 0.8925 0.8743
20 0.9760
0.9716 70 0.8900 0.8721
21 0.9750
0.9704 71 0.8875 &.8i96
22
0.9740 0.9691 72 0.8850 0.86.2
23 0.9729 0.9678 73 0.8825
0.8649
24 0.9719
0.9665 74 0.8799
0.8625
25 0.9709
0.9652 75 0.8773 0.8603
26 0.9698
0.9638 76 0.8747 0.8581
27
0.9688 0.9623 77 0.8720 0.8557
28 0.9677
0.9609 78 0.8693 0.8533
29 0.9666
0.9593 79 0.8665 0.8508
30
0.9655 0.9578 80 0.8639 0.8483
31
0.9643 0.9560 81 0.8611 0.H459
32 0.9631 0.9M4 82 0.8583 0.8434
33 0.9618
0.9a28 83 0.85f>5 0.8408
34
0.9605 0.9511 84 0.8526 0.8382
35 0.9592
0.9490 85 0.8496 0.8357
36 0.9579 0.9470 86 0.8466 0.8331
37
0.9565 0.9452 87 0.8436 0.8305
38 0.9550
0.9434 88 0.8405 0.82.9
39 0.9535 0.9416 89 0.8373 0.8254
40 0.9519 0.9396 90 0.8339 0.8228
41 0.9503 0.9376 91 0.8306 0.8199
42 0.9487 0.9356 92 0.8272 0.8172
43 0.9470 0.9335 93 0.8237 0.8145
44 0.9452 0.9314 94 0.8201 0.8118
45 0.943.'> 0.9292 95 0.8164 0.8089
46 0.9417 0.9270 96 0.8125 0.8061
47 0.9399 0.9249 97 0.8084 0.8031
48 0.9381 0.9228 98 0.8041 0.8001
49
0.9362 0.9206 99 0.7995 0.7969
50 0.9343 0.9184 100
0.7946 0.7938
HYDROMETERS. 179
To change the percentage in volume into weight,
multiply the volume per cent. by 0.794 (spec. gray. of
absolute' alcohol), and divide by the spec. gray. of t h ~
volume per cent.
If the alcohol marks 89 per cent. in volume, how much
will it be in weight 1
80XO.794 7352 .. h
0.8639 = . per cent. In welg t.
To change the percentage in weight into volume,
multiply the weight per cent. by its corresponding spec.
grav., and divide by 0.794, spec. grav. of absolute alcohol.
What is the per cent. in volume of alcohol marking
74 per cent. in weight 1
74XO.8625 8038 t' I
o -..per cen . In vO urne.
.794
The following tables give the calculation already made
for the manufacturer of vinegar:-
Vol. per cent.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
II
12
TABLE I.
Weil!ht I Weight
per cent. percent.
0.80 1
1.60 2
2.40 3
8.20 4
4.00 5
4.80 6
5.60 7
6.40 8
7.24 9
8.03 10
8.88
9.70
TABLE II.
Vol. per cent.
1.25
2.50
3.75
5.00
6.25
7.50
8.70
9.56
11.20
. 12.40
The following table serves to indicate how to procure
a weaker alcohol from a stronger. The upper horizon-
tal column contains the per cent. of the stronger alcohol,
.
180 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
and the vertical column below, the volumes of water
which are to be added to 100 volumes of it, in order to
produce spirit of the strength indicated in the left-hand
column:-
100 Volumes of Alcohol of per cent. by Volume.
;)
9
Dlred
86
Btrenglh 90 86 80 71i 70 80 Iili 50
per cent.
-----
--------------
85 6.51>
80 13.79 6.83
75 21.89 14.48 7.20
.
70 31.05 23.14 15.25 7.64
65 4153 33.03 24.66 16.37 8.15
60 53.65 44.48 35.44 26.47 17.58 8.76
55 67.87 57.90 48.07 38.32 28.6a 19.02 9.47
50 84.71 73.90 63.04 52.43 41.73 31.25 20.47 10.35
45 105.34 93.30 81.38 69.54 57.78 46.09 34.46 22.90 11.41
40 130.80 117.34 104.01 90.76 77.58 64.48 51.43 38.46
25.5-
35 163.28 148.01 132.88 117.82 102.84 87.93 73.08 58.:n 43.5
30 206.22 188.57 171.05 153.61136.04 118.94 101.71 84.54 67.45
25 266.12 245.15 224.30 203.531182.83 162.21 141.65 121.16 100.73
20 355.80 329.84 304.01 278.26
1
252.58 226.98 201.43 175.96 150.55
Hi 505.27 471.00
436.85 402.81\368.83
334.91 301.07 267.29 233.64
10 804.54 753.65 702.891652.21 601.60 551.06 500.59 450.19 399.85
SECTION II.
WINE AND CIDER VINEGARS.
CHAPTER XIII.
GENERALITIES ON THE FABRICATION OF VINEGAR.
VINEGAR is made both by the quick and the slow
processes.
The quick process, by which vinegar is made in as
many days as months are often required by the slow
process, consists in passing alcoholic liquors through
beech-shavings, whose porosity and enormous surface
present a constant conta'ct, and aid the oxidizing action
of the air which circulates upwards, while .at the same
time, according to Pasteur, they support the mycoderma.
The advantages of this method are the saving of capital
in apparatus and buildings, and the comparatively small
amount of stock in course of manufacture; but a cer-
tain proportion of alcohol is lost by evaporation, and
clear liquors are necessary.
On the other hand, the slow process is better adapted
to those alcoholic washes containing a large amount of
nitrogenous, gummy, and coloring substances, such as
malt-washes and highly-colored wines, whose impurities
will soon clog the pores of the shavings, and thus prevent
their action. The slow process is generally conducted
in barrels or casks kept in buildings where the tempera-
182 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
ture remains constant. The acetification is very slow,
as there is but little contact with the air.
The particulars of these methods will pe explained
further on, and we shall only state here the principal
conditions for the successful manufacture of vinegar.
We have already seen that acetic acid proceeds from
the oxidation of alcohol under the influence of the oxy-
gen of the air alone or aided by a ferment. Therefore
we may say that the greater the proportion of alcohol,
the stronger will be the vinegar; the greater the amount
of ferment, the quicker will the transformation be
effected; and the greater the surface of contact with the
air, the more rapid the operation.
Nevertheless, the golden rule of moderation must be
followed in every case. Too much alcohol will retard
the a.cetification, and a part will remain unacted upon in
the vinegar, and another portion be lost in the form of
aldehyde, or evaporated. An excess of ferment will impair
the savor, flavor, and keeping of the vinegar, and will aid
in the production of those animalcula called mnegar-eels.
Too much ai!, especially if its temperature be too high,
will cause the evaporation of a part of the alcohol, and
of the ethers which give a pleasant flavor to vinegars.
Here we will remark that fusel oil, which is so disagree-
able in liquors for drinking, is transformed into those
ethers during the process of acetification.
Vinegars of various strengths are to be found in the
market. Some are so weak as to taste as a mere wash;
others are fit for pickling; but, in our opinion, a table
vinegar should not contain less than four to five per cent.
of monohydrated acetic acid.
If a vinegar be difficult to keep, it is often advanta-
geous to add a small proportion of alcohol.
If washes are thought to be too weak in alcohol, a
certain proportion of saccharine substances may be added
GENERALITIES ON THE FABRICATION OF VINEGAR. 183
to them, not just before acetification, as some manufac-
turers do, but before or during the alcoholic fermentation.
An item of great importance in the manufacture of
vinegar is the water. The purest is the best. It must
be free from organic substances which will tend to
putrefy the vinegar. Inorganic mud, although it will
settle in time in the store-room, is objectionable because
it closes the pores of the shavings and impairs their
action.
A few qualitative tests will show the saline impurities
generally found in water:-
The infusions of nutgalls will produce a black color
if iron salts are present in the water.
Oxalate of ammonia will give a white precipitate
with lime salts. The water should be moderately hot,
and allowed to stand for awhile after the addition of the
reagent.
Carbonate of soda will form white precipitates with
lime and magnesia salts. .
Nitrate of silver will show the presence of common
salt and chlorides of calcium and magnesium.
Chloride of barium precipitates the sulphates or free
sulphuric acid in solution.
A general test, to show the relative proportions of
impurities in different samples of water, is a clear
solution of white soap in a mixture of alcohol and water.
If equal quantities of this solution are shaken with other
equal but larger volumes of a different water, in a glass
graduated tube, the greater the amount of froth, the
greater the proportion of impurities.
Some kinds of clear water contain carbonates of lime,
of magnesia, and iron, held in solution by an excess of
free carbonic acid. A long exposure to the air or
ebullition will cause these impurities to precipitate by
evaporating the free carbonic acid.
184 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Therefore, if unhappily the vinegar-maker has not
good water at his command, he may considerably im-
prove that which he is obliged to use by heating it,
allowing it to settle, and then filtering it through filters
made of alternate layers of gravel and charcoal, with
always a few inches of sand on top.
The boiling will eliminate the carbonic acid, and the
carbonates soluble when it was present will settle at the
bottom of the tank; and, lastly, the compound filter
will separate the light floating portions, and the charcoal
will absorb the organic compounds.
The general fabrication of vinegar depends upon four
principal points:-
1. A temperature of from 68 to 86.
2. A good alcoholic liquor.
3. A sufficient quantity of yeast for ferment.
4. A great surface for the contact of the liquors with
the air.
FERMENTS.
We have already explained the theory of acetous fer-
mentation, as well as the influence exercised by fer-
ments in its progress. The best ferments for acetifica-
tion are-I, that substance which is formed in vinegars,
and known by the name of mother; 2, brewer's yeast; 3,
yeast, etc. etc.
Preparation of the Yeast.-As ferment plays the prin-
cipal part in establishing fermentation, it is well to make
its preparation known, as it may be impossible to obtain
the skum which rises from beer or other liquors made
with malt.
Mix flour with two quarts of water until it becomes
of the consistency of syrup. ,Boil it for half an hour,
and, when the substance is nearly cold, add to it eight
GENERALITIES ON THE FABRICATION OF VINEGAR. 185
ounces of sugar and four spoonfuls of good yeast. Ex-
pose the whole to a gentle heat in an earthen jar. When
the fermentation is complete, it is ready for use. An-
other way is to mix in six quarts of water two handfuls
of wheat and barley flour, and to evaporate to two-thirds;
after cooling, add a mixture of two drachms of carbon.
ate of potassa and one drachm of powdered cream of
tartar. A very good yeast is thus obtained, which,
however, must be washed to carry off its alkaline taste.
In this country ferments are prepared in cakes. Three
ounces of ground hops are boiled for half an hour in
two gallons of water, and then three and a half pounds
of rice flour are stirred in it. 'Vhen the mixture has
cooled to 77, add one quart of good yeast. Next day,
while the fermentation is going on, incorporate into it
seven pounds of Indian.meal; beat the paste and malie
it into cakes about one inch thick; dry them in the sun.
They should be kept in a dry place. .
M. Colin has published in the Annales de Chimie et de
Physique, vols. xxviii. and xxx., a very interesting paper
on the fermentation of sugar, from which it appears that
the presence of nitrogen would be necessary and suffi-
cient to produce spirituous fermentation. M. Colin has
produced it with fresh and well-washed gluten, with the
yeast of flour-paste, with fresh beef-meat, with the white
of egg, etc. etc. This chemist has also examined
brewer's yeast and wine yeast. He found them com-
posed of soluble and insoluble parts. In the first prin-
cipally resides the fermentable virtue, while the insolu.
ble matter converts the oxygen of the air into carbonic
acid. " Yeasts," he sayR, "do not require the help of
oxygen to produce alcoholic fermentation in sugar; but
if their soluble part is separated from the insoluble, any
of these will excite the fermentation without the presence
186
MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
of the oxygen, the soluble part then acts very quickly in
a few hours, while the other is very slow."
Air.-The presence of air is necessary for the acetifi-
cation; the more the liquid is in contact with it, the
sooner it is accomplished. It is easy to ascertain from
this how useful it is to expel the carbonic acid gas which
is produced, and which, on account of its specific gravity,
forms a thick layer above the liquor and prevents the
contact of air. According to this, the insufRation of the
air in the barrels, and the agitation of the liquor to submit
all the parts to its action, are important; it is better also
to fill the barrels only about two-thirds, so as to have a
larger surface. As for the insufRation of the air, it ought
to be performed with large bellows, not by the bung,
because only a part of the carbonic acid would be ex-
pelled. It is better to make lateral openings in the
barrel, a little above the level of the liquor, for the passage
of the nozzle of the bellows. The air, thus exercising a
pressme from the bottom to the top, obliges the carbonic
acid to escape by the bung and the other lateral openings.
TemptJl'ature.-A temperature of 68 to 86 is the most
convenient for the transformation of the alcohol into
acetic acid. However, we must not conclude from this
that acetification cannot be established below this point;
here experience has the advantage of theory, for very
good vinegar is obtained in the cellars of the south of
France, where the temperature is constantly at 50.
.VINEGAR MOTHER OR FERMENT. 187
CHAPTER XIV.
VINEGAR MOTHER, OR FERMENT.
THE vinegar ferment-mycoderma aceti-has been very
well described by Mulder, of Utrecht, and we can not
do better than to quote the paper of this celebrated
chemist:-
"It is self-evident," says Mulder, " that the origin of
organized beings from non-organized substances, must
depend upon a transmutation. Researches for the pur-
pose of explaining this point must evidently proceed
from the most simple case; such a case is the formation
of the so-called vinegar mother, a plant originating in
the vinegar, and, in fact, at the expense of its constitu-
ents. This cryptogamous vegetable may justly be
regarded as one of the most simple vegetable forma-
tions, and belongs rather to the fungi than to the algre.
Fruit-bearing organs with globular sporidia would never
be detected in this species which grows in the vinegar-
mycoderma vini and mycoderma cerevis'if, which probably
constitute one species. It does not originate in wood
vinegar, but always in wine and grain vinegars, causing
whole vats to pass into water. The vinegar mother is
also often found in vinegar in which organic substances
have been preserved; however, these substances con-
tribute nothing to the development of the mould plant,
* l\Iospratt's Dictionary of Chemistry.
IMS MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
they only further the origin of a germ, or cell, which
separates from the mass, and now, as a germ, forms a
plant from the elements of the acetic acid.
"From wine vinegar, in which totally different sub-
stances have been preserved, the very same species of
mycoderma was developed, the same Ol"ganized structure,
the same mould plant, identical in form, and in chemical
composition.
"The principal constituents of the wine vinegars are,
acetic acid C
4
H
3
03, and water HO. They contain also
some salts, a small quantity of sugar, gum, and extrac-
tive substance, and, above all, some protein derived from
the albumen of the grapes, dissolved in the acetic acid.
In vinegar in which vegetable substances-for instance,
gherkins, cherries, etc.-have been preserved, the quanti ty
of the protein may be increased from these vegetables;
but that this is not requisite is evident from the forma-
tion of the vinegar mother in pure wine or grain vinegar.
The aliments of this vegetable mould are, therefore,
C4H
3
03HO and C40H31N
6
0
1
2
, Now, these constituents are found to be grouped in a
very simple manner in the plant, while both protein arid
acetic acid disappear from the liquid; moreover, the
plant contains nothing else, and we are, able to
follow chemically the transformation of acetic acid and
protein into a plant.
" It is not less remarkable, that the plant has always
the same chemical composition, and the organization
consequently requires a definite propOl"tion of acetic acid
and protein, the latter of which remains unaltered; while
the former a cellular substance under absorption
of water. The new product of the acetic acid combines
in atomic proportions, just as well as the formation of
gypsum from carbonate of lime and sulphuric acid."
VINEGAR MOTHER OR FERMENT. 189
The vegetable mould examined by Mulder was taken
from vinegar in which certain substances had been kept.
Though it was all wine vinegar, the samples were of
various origin, and had preserved the following:-
No. 1. Currants.
No.2. Cucumbers.
No.3. Gherkins.
In the last it formed very rapidly. The first traces of it
were observed five days after placing the substance in
the vinegar; on removing the first crust, the second
formed in the course of a week, and so on {or the five
succeeding weeks, always a new one, although the vessel
was well closed. The strength of the acetic acid decreased
more and more, until, at last, only water remained: all
these crusts had the same properties. The species of
m!Jcoderma examined always formed a coriaceous mem-
brane, more or less elastic, saturated with vinegar, and
of a white color, except that from the vinegar of the cur-
rants, which was reddish. By kneading and pressing,
the membrane loses its smell and taste. Neither water
nor alcohol dissolves anything from it by boiling. On
incineration, it does not leave the slightest trace of ash;
submitted to destructive distillation, it affords much car-
bon, and an acid liquid distills over, from which potassa
disengages ammonia. It is not altered by cold strong
sulphuric acid; but heated, it first becomes red, then,
under decomposition of the sulphuric acid, brown, and
lastly, black. Concentrated nitric acid colors it yellow,
and on the application of heat, it dissolves very slowly;
hydl'Ochloric acid has no sensible action upon it; strong
acetic acid, when boiled with it, takes up some protein,
the presence of which can be demonstrated by fen'ocy-
anide of potassium.
When well purified with water and alcohol, it ceases
190 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
AnaIy-
Theory.
46.60
6.40
8.96
43.0(
III.
46.89
6.50
8.87
42.74
II.
46.89
6.52
Oarbon .
Hydrogm
Nitrogen
Oxygm .
to lose any more weight at from 248 to 275.
ses of the thl'ee kinds gave:-
I.
46.75
6.51
100.00 100.00
By long digestion with potassa and continued boiling
with acetic acid, the whole of the protein may be ex-
. hausted, leaving pure cellulose, which is not combined
with any other body. This cellulose, which was examined
by Payen, has the formula C
24
H21021, or that of the solid
modification of inulin, which Rose obtained as a white
precipitate during the cooling of a strong decoction of
elecampane root. Payen obtained it from the grated
root of the dahlia.
By following the mode of formation of the plant from
the vinegar, the first thing observed is that the protein
was present in the vinegar, as albumen from the
grape, passes {rom the dissolved state into a solid
synchronously, assuming an organic form. When em-
ploying wood vinegar, the protein must be furnished by
the vegetable substances which had been preserved in it;
but, as above stated, pure wine vinegar also produces
vinegar mother; the cellulose, therefore, can have origi-
nated solely from the acetic acid.
CtH
a
03 X
?oJ ' ".. '
Acetio acid. CelllllOle.
-
WINE.
CHAPTER XV.
WINE.
191
,
GRAPE-JUICE-ANALYSES OF WINE-:-DlFFERENT WINES.
AFTER the culture of cereals, the grape-vine is the
vegetable which presents the most interest for its utility
and its different applications in industry and medicine.
It is almost impossible to fix the time when its cultiva-
tion commenced. Nearly nIl historians attribute it to
Noah, from this passage from the Bible: C(J!pitque Noe
mr agricola exercere terram et plantavit vineam; it is on
the same foundation that they look upon him as the
inventor of the fabrication of wine.
Athenreus pretends that Orestes, the son of Deucalion,
came to reign in Ethna, and planted there the grape-vine;
historians agree in regarding Noah as the first who made
wine in Illyria; Saturn in Crete; Bacchus in India;
Osiris in Egypt; and Gerion in SpRin.
According to the testimony of those same historians,
the Phcenicians transported the culture of the grape-vine
from Asia into the Archipelago, in Greece, Sicily, Italy,
and when they came to reside on the coast of Provence
they planted it in the neighborhood of Marseilles.
Whatever may be the origin of" the grape-vine, Spain is
regarded as one of the countries in which it was the
most anciently cultivated.
That culture was so greatly extended there, that
towards the year 92 of the Christian era, the Emperor
192 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Domitian, a short time before his death, issued an edict
forbidding new plantations, so as to prevent famines
in that country. He had also all the grape-vines of the
Gaul torn down, and it was only after two hundred
years that Probus permitted the Gauls to plant them
agam.
In this country the grape-vine begins to be an im-
portant culture; and we cannot do better, in order to
give the reader an idea of its importance, than to extract
from the report of the Census of 1860 what is said on
this subject :-.
"In the first settlements on this continent, the grape-
vines found indigenous were esteemed a m o n ~ the most
valuable productions. In Force's Collection of HistlFrical
Tracts-1620 to 167D-frequent allusion is made by the
writers to our native grapes and to the wine made from
them. According to Sir John Hawkins, wine was made
in Florida in 1564. A vineyard was established in
Virginia in 1620, also in 1647. In 1651 premiums
were offered in Virglv.ia for the production of wine. In
1664 a vineyard was planted near New York by Paul
Richards, and in 1683 and 1685 attempts were made at
Philadelphia, but failed. At a later period, Mr. Tasker,
of Maryland, and Mr. Antil, of New Jersey, were more
successful. These, however, were mere experiments.
There is no evidence that wine was pl'oduced in any
quantity worth naming until the close of the last and
the beginning of the present century. About this period
vineyards were planted in various parts of the Union,
near the cities of New York and Philadelphia; near
Lexington and Glasgow, Kentucky; Cincinnati, Ohio;
* Agriculture of the United States in 1'860. Compiled from the
original returns of the eighth censos, by Joseph C. G. Kennedy,
Superintendent of the Census.
WINE.
.... ,.
193
Vevay, Indiana; York and Harmony,
Baltimore, Maryland; and in some parts of North and
South Carolina, and Virginia. These plantings
were generally in small vineyards of one to five acres,
and, unfortuna,tely, most of them with foreign grapes,
which, proving to be unsuited to our climate, resulted in
failures. Those who planted with native grapes, did
better. In North and South Carolina the Scuppernong
trine, from a native grape, soon became famous, and
was praised as a home production worthy of American
patronage. .
"At Vevay, Indiana, Dufour and his Swiss settlers
adopted the Schuylkill Muscadel, a Pennsylvania grape,
then erroneously called the Cape. This gl'ape was found
to suit the climate, and made a red wine, that soon
acquired a fair reputation, and laid the foundation for
wine-growing in the west, with the better varieties that
succeeded it.
"The celebrated traveller, Volney, 'tasted wine made
from native grapes, at Gallipolis, Ohio, in 1796,' and
Dufour, in 1799, 'found a Frenchman at Marietta, Ohio,
'Who made a few barrels of wine every year from grapes
.collected in the woods, equal to the wine made near
Paris.' Dufourfurtherremarks: 'None of the different
and numerous trials which were made in several parts
of the United States that I visited in 1794 were found
worthy the name of vineyards.' 'I went to see all the
vines growing that I could hear of, even as far as Kas-
kaskia, on the Mississippi, where I was informed the
Jesuits had planted a vineyard shortly after the first
settlement of the country, but that the French govern-
ment had ordered it to be destroyed, for fear that vine-
culture might spread in America, and hUl't the wine
trade of France.' 'I found only the spot where that
13
194
JlANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
vineyard had been planted, in a well-selected place on
the side of a hill, under a cliff, to the northeast of the
town. No good grapes were found there, or in any gar-
dens of the country.'
"Dr. Daniel Drake, in' an address on 'The early phy-
sicians, scenery and society of Cincinnati,' states that
'Third Street running near the brow of the upper plain,
was on as high a level as Fifth Street is now. The gra-
velly slope of that plain stretched almost to Pearl Street.
On this slope, between Main and Walnut, a French
political exile, M. Mennesieur, planted, in the latter
part of the last century, a small vineyard. This was
the beginning of that cultivation for which the environs
of that city have since become so distinguished. I sup-
pose this was the first vineyard cultivation in the valley
of the Ohio.'
"The well-known naturalist, F. A. Michaux, in his
travels through the United States in 1802, 'visited the
vineyard near Lexington, and found but one variety of
grape-a native, doing well, the foreign mildewed.' The
foregoing extracts afford a fair sample of the pioneer
efforts in vineyard culture in the west; they were much
like those in the east, and wherever foreign vines were
planted, disappointment and loss resulted. In the south,
owing to its genial climate, the experiments were more
successful, but most so with native vines. In 1812, I
was first cheered by the sight of a vineyard. It was on
the south side of a hill at Rapp's German settlement
of Harmony. in Butler County, Pennsylvania. The
grapes planted were principally native varieties. the
most of them 'Schuylkill.' Five years later, I visited
the vineyard of the Swiss colony, at Vevay, Indiana,
where the same grape was the favorite. At the former,
the vines were planted in 1808; at the latter, in 1806.
WINE. 195
The product was a red wine, resembling claret, but
rather too harsh for the American palate. Still it was
received with favor as a home production, giving promise
of great results in the future.
"I now come to a period when the second class of
pioneers in this cultivation were more fortunate than
their predecessors, and, with other grapes, produced bet-
ter wines. Abeut the year 1820, Major John Adlum, of
Georgetown, D. C., first brought the Catawba into notice
all a wine grape; and Thomas McCall, of Georgia, Mr.
Herbemont, and other gentlemen of the south, the War-
ren, Herbemont, Madeira, and other varieties which have
since proved so valuable.
"To Major Adlum belongs the honor of introducing
the Catawba, and so high was his appreciation of this
grape, that he wrote to Mr. Longworth, of Cincinnati,
that he believed he had conferred a greater favor on his
country than if he had paid off the national debt; in
which, after a trial of the grape for wine, Mr. Long-
worth agreed with him.
"The memory of the late Nicholas Longworth, of
Cincinnati, will ever be held in the highest esteem by
the wine-growers of our country, as he was the father
of successful vine-culture in the west. By a large ex-
penditure in money in his various experiments with both
foreign and native grapes, during a period of forty-three
years, he at last succeeded in producing sparkling and still
wines highly creditable to himself and the country, and
the practical knowledge he acquired from year to year
was liberally made known through the public prints, for
the benefit of all.
"The late John J. Dufour, of Vevay, Indiana, is also
entitled to the grateful remembrance of the people of the
United States for his early and persevering efforts in
196 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGA.R.
the cultivation of the vine in this country of his adop-
tion. For thirty years succeeding the introduction of
, the Catawba grape, the large emigration of Germans
into the Ohio valley, many of them from the wine dis-
tricts on the Rhine, furnished 'practised and willing vine-
dressers, who were glad to have' the opportunity of trying
their skill in this new country with a grape so promising.
Numerous vineyards were planted in the western States,
in localities supposed to be favorable, especially in the
vicinity of Cincinnati, and in 1850 Catawba wine, pro-
duced in hundreds of thousands of gallons, had acquired
a high reputation as a rival of Rhenish wine, and became
an article of export to our eastern cities. The cultiva-
tion had spread over all t h ~ western and southwestern
States, and we thought then, as we do now, that wine-
growing would eventually be ranked amongst our most
important agricultural interests.
"Vineyard culture in the United States may now be
considered as fairly established. Wine is made in thirty
States of the Union, of different qualities of course, and
with varied success. As to its future production in
quantity, I should name first California; second, the
mountainous districts of the southern States, as most
favorable on account of the climate; third, the Ohio and
Mississippi valleys; fourth, the middle States; and
lastly, the eastern States. As to quality, the best sam-
ples have been found in Georgia and the Ohio valley.
The impression is, that in the middle and eastern States
the climate is too cold to elaborate sufficient saccharine
,
matter in the grape to make a wine that will keep with-
out the addition of sugar. But this may prove a mistake
-new varieties may yet be produced to suit each section
of our country where the grape is grown. They are
now numbered by hundreds, and new hybrids are annu-
WINE. 197
ally added to the lists. After all our experience during
the last seventy years, vine-culture in the United States
is yet in its infancy, and we have much to learn. The
few millions of gallons which we produce annually are
as nothing when compared to the 900 millions of France,
or the 3000 millions of all Europe. The vineyards of
Europe are estimated at 12 millions of acres. We have
far more Krape territory than that in the United States;
but our climate, with the exception of California, is less
equable. In California alone, it is stated, there are 5
millions of acres well adapted to grape-culture. Here
is something to reflect upon, and to give hope for the
future"t
Grape-Juice.
This juice contains sugar, the proportion of which
varies according to the species of grape, the country
where the vine is cultivated, and to its exposure. It
contains also a little mucilage, a peculiar substance very
soluble in water, gelatin, gluten, tannin, bitartl'ate of
potassa, tartrate of lime, chloride of 80djum, sulphate of
potassa, &c.
* In 1860 the prodoetion of wine in the States and territories
amounted to 1,627,2.2 gallons.
t It is not natural resources of which we stand in need in this
blessed land, but limply the brainl to arail ourlelve, of tho,e we already
!lave. Our so-calledfree-trader,-the men who would place the entire
burden of taxation upon our own producers, and let the foreign trader
go free-would have us disregard countless free gifts of the Almighty,
while running in debt for commodities which a million of idle hands at
home stand ready and anxious to produce, either with or without the
aid of steam. These false free-traders would have us held in perpetual
fiuancial bondage to countries without the resources of our own, and
which, but for them, we should long ere this have distanced iu the
great race for industrial development and national power, and in the
civilization which would inevitably flow from them. H. C. B.

198
MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Juices are more or less rich in saccharine principles,
and also in the principles causing fermentation. Seve-
ral chemists have thought that the ferment existed ready
formed in the juice, but it is an error; the ferment is
composed of albuminoid 8ubstanceswhich are found in
nearly all the vegetables, and no direct experiment has
isolated it. .
The production of the ferment has been attributed to
a peculiar substance in the juice, very soluble in water,
which, by uniting with the oxygen of the air, is trans-
formed into ferment. The quantity of saccharine matter
in the poorest juices marks only 9 to 11 of the areo-
meter.
All the species of grapes in the same vine-growing
district are not equally rich in saccharine principle;
they present variations which sometimes amount to
three degrees. It has also been ascertained that some
contain larger proportions of ferment; and that the fer-
mentation is as much quicker as this last principle is
more abundant.
Constituent Principles of the Juice.
Saccharine matter from 12 to 26 per cent.
Gummy "
Mucons "
Coloring "
Extractive II
Alhuminoid " or ferment.
Vegetable albumen.
Malic and citric acids.
Bitartrate of potassa and tartrate of lime, chloride of
sodium, sulphate of potassa, and water.
Such are the substances indicated by several chemists,
and it is evident that their number is larger, since Bra-
connot ascertained that 100 parts of dried wine-lees
contain the following substances :-
WINE.
Vegetable albumen
Chlorophyl
Waxy matter
Phosphate of lime
Tartrate .. "
" " magnesia
Bitartrate of potassa
Sulphate and phosphate of potassa
Coloring-matter, gum, silica, and tannin,
M. John found in the red tartar:-
Tartar
Boft resin soluble in ether.
Resinous matter (oxygenated)
Gum
Saccharine matter
Ligneous matter
199
20.70
1.50
0.50
6.00
3.25
0.40
60.15
2.80
Unknown quantity.
90
1
2
2
1
4
Ana{ysis of the Juice of Ripe Grapes.
Crystallizable and nncrystallizable sngar.
Extractive matter.
Glutinous matter.
Gum.
Malic acid.
Sulphuric acid.
Tartar. (Pronst.)
Another.
Odoriferous principle.
Sugar
Gum.
Glutinous matter.
Malic acid
.Malate of lime
Acid tartrate of lime and potass&. (Berard.)
WINE.
Wine is too well known for it to be necessary to
study its properties here. We must eonsider it only
200 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
as being the product of the fermentation of the juice,
and being the liquor which by a new. fermentation is
converted into vinegar.
Wines differ in their proportions of alcohol, saccha-
rine matter, carbonic acid, taste, etc.
The wines which are richest in alcohol are called
generous wines by the French.
The name of cordial u:ines has been given to those
which contain an excess of saccharine matter, which has
not yet experienced the effects of the fermentation, on
account of the insufficiency of the proportion of the
ferment.
The gaseous wines are those which are more or less
saturated with carbonic acid.
Analysis of Wine.
As yet, more attention has been given to ascertaining
the alcoholic richness of wines than to determine the
number and quantity of their constituent principles;
however, some chemists have made a special study of it,
but those results are not yet very complete.
From their investigations, it is ascertained that wine
contains :-
Alcohol at 20, from 10 to 26 per cent.; unfermented
saccharine matter; extractive matter; gummy matter;
blue coloring-matter, turned red by the acids of the
wine; yellow coloring-matter; tannin; citric, malic, tar-
taric acids, and acetic acid when a part of the alcohol
has begun to experience the acetic fermentation; car-
bonic acid; bitartrate of potassa; tartrate of lime; tar-
trate of alumina and potassa (principally in German
wines); chloride ofsodium; sulphate of potassa ; ammonia.
In Trommsdorf's Journal we find the following ana-
lysis of wine:-
WINE. 201
Alcohol; volatile oil; coloring matter; extractive
matter (tannin and bitter principle); sugar; mucilage;
albuminoid matters; acetic acid; malic and tartaric acids;
bitartrate of potassa; tartrate of lime; carbonic acid;
water.
The quantity of absolute alcohol in weak Rhine wine
is 7 per cent.
As it cannot but be of interest for the vinegar-m"aker
to know the amount of alcohol contained in different
liquors, we append the following:-
TABLE.
Results obtained by BRANDE in his researches on the
quantities of alcohol contained in different fermented
liquors. The density of the alcohol obtained being of
825 at 60.
Hock
do.
Grave
Frontignan
Gooseberry
Elderberry
Cider
Perry
Red beer
Ale
Rum
Holland Gin
100 parts of Give In volume
Port 25.R3
Madeira 25.. 2
Xeres . 19.83
Claret* 16.32
Lisbon '. 18.94
Malaga. 17.26
Red Madeira. 18.40
Madeira 16.66
Mnscat 25.87
do. 17.26
Cote Rotie n.32
Ronssillon 19.26
Madeira (of the Cape) 18.11
Muscat do. 18.25
Constance 19.75
Syracuse 15.18
Nice U.63
Tokay . 9.88
Currant 20.58
100 parts of Give In volume
Red Champagne 11.30
White do. 12.80
Burgundy U.53
do. 11.95
White Ermitage 17.43
do. 12.32
14.38
8.88
12.80
12.79
11.84
9.87
9.87
9.81
6.80
8.83
53.68
51.60
* These first four wines were very likely ,trengt/iened.-Editor.

202
MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
TABLE.
Quantitie, of ..4.kohol in tJariOUl ..4.koholic Liquor,.
By M. J. DB FONTEN1CJ.LJ:.
100 parts of Give In volume 100 parts of Give in volume
Currant 11.60 Brown beer, French 5.40
Orange 11.26 Ordinary 5.00
Cider, 1st qual. 11.63 Average 5.50
/I 2d /I 9.16 London smallbeer 1. 28
Ie 3d u 7.10 Porter. 4.20
Average 9.34 Burton ale 8.88
Perry, 1st qual. 11.36 Edinburgh ale 6.20
/I infer. .. 7.46 Dorchester ale 5.56
Average 9.41 Hydromel 10.40
Brown beer, Eng. 6.80 do. 8.60
.. /I French 6.10 do. 7.10
We may observe that all these analyses do not exactly
determine the proportions of alcohol in the .wines of a
locality, because, as we have before said, the wines of the
same vineyard vary according to the quality of the plant,
its age, exposure, season, etc.
CHAPTER XIV.
DIFFERENT MODES OF MANUFACTURING VINEGAR.
BOERHAAVE'S METHOD-FLEMISH METHOD
-HOUSEHOLD METHOD-METHOD OF THE NORTH OF FRANCE
-SPANISH METHOD-PARISIAN METHOD-IMPROVED FRENCH
METHOD.
Boerhaave's Method.
THE plan of this chemist is to have, in a suitable room,
two vats of oak placed vertically on posts, at about
ORe foot from the ground; at the distance of one foot
-- -
-.. .

DIFFERENT )lODES OF MANUFACTURING VINEGAR. 203
from the bottom of each place a wooden grate, on which
a layer of young branches of vines with their leaves is
spread; fill the vats with the stems of grapes, being care-
ful to leave an empty space of one foot at the upper part.
The apparatus being ready, fill one (1) of the vats with
wine, and the other (2) half full. Towards the second
ot third day, according to the temperature, the fermenta-
tion begins in the vat (2) half full, and when it is well
established, which takes place in about twenty-four hours,
fill this vat with wine from the full vat (1 ), and every day
fill the one that has remained half full with a part of the
wine of the other. By this means we transfer daily half
of the contents of a vat into the other, and thus the
vinous liquid is brought in contact, with the air, until
the acetification is completed. During the summer in
France, Italy, or Spain, the first acetic fermentation lasts
about fifteen days. When it is very warm, and the fer-
mentation is well established, the loss of a part of the
alcohol is prevented by covering the vat which is half
full with a wooden cover. When the temperature is
not very high, or the wine is very rich in alcohol, its
transformation into vinegar is more or less retarded.
Flemish Method.
This method differs but slightly from the above.
Dispose on posts, at one foot and a half from the ground,
casks in each of which is placed a movable false bottom,
at a third of the height of the casks. On that false
bottom, which is pierced with many holes, put the resi-
duum of the preparation of wine, acrid plants, such as
horse-radish, and then fill the casks with wine. Next
day draw it off, by means of a cock placed at the lower
part of the cask, into an empty one, and pour it back
into the cask used for the acetification; repeat the
204: MANUFAGTURE OF VINEGAR.
operation twice a day, until the wine is well acidified; it
is then transferred to another cask to settle. To hasten
clarification, introduce beech-wood shavings, which ac-
celerate the fermentation, and help to separate the solid
matters.
Orleans Method.
It is well known that the Odeans vinel{ar is of a
superior quality. It was natural to believe that the
manufacturers possessed a better process, and that it was
a secret. It is not so; the superiority of that vinegar ,
results from the choice of the wines.
The manufacturers reject the sick and sulphuretted
wines, choose the clearest, and when they are not suffi-
ciently clear, filter them on beech shavings. The manu-
facture is very simple. In a large cellar are placed two
rows of barrels, having an opening of about one inch in
diameter in the upper end. There are also a few mea-
sures of about gallons capacity. The barrels are filled
to half their capacity with very good vinegar, and to
each are added 2i gallons of good wine; eight days after,
add again 2i gallons of wine; and continue thus every
eight days until the barrels are entirely full. It must
be observed that if the operation is performed during the
great heat of summer, we may add every time five
gallons of wine. The opening in the upper end must
always remain open, for the air to have free access.
As soon as all the wine is acidified, draw off half of
the vinegar, and begin the operation anew with more
wine. It is easy to see that this method is very simple.
This process is capable of which would
accelerate the conversion of the wine into vinegar. The
first consists in making- the opening at the bottom twice
as large; the second is to blow air into the barrels. by
DIFFERENT MODES OF MANUFACTURING VINEGAR. 205
means of a blower, through that hole. During the
acetification a large quantity of carbonic acid gas is
formed. As this gas is heavier than the air, it forms a
denser atmosphere at the surface of the liquid, which
prevents the contact of the air, and consequently retards
the operation. It is easy to see that by blowing air into
the barrels, this gas is driven off.
Household Process.
We have said that wine contains naturally all that is
necessary for its transformation into vinegar. 'Vine not
well corked is converted into vinegar, and the residuum
of grapes, which rises at the top of fermenting-vats, is
often entirely acidified. The vinegar exhausted from it
by pressure is used in households. F ~ r m e r s and vine-
yard proprietors keep in their cellars several barrels of
about twenty to twenty-five gallons capacity, in which
they deposit the lees of their wines, and then they add
the remains of wine in bottles, in a word, a l ~ the wines
unfit to drink. They follow no regular operation, and
draw off vinegar every time they want it; and while
the cellars are constantly at a temperature of 50, the
vinegar thus. obtained is very strong. It is the only
process used in the south of France and in Spain, where
there are no manufacturers of vinegar. The reason for
this is that it is more advantageous to distill the bad
wines to extract the alcohol, than to convert them into
vinegar.
Method of the North of France.
The process followed !n several northern cities of
France is 'very simple. Long barrels are constructed,
the circumference of which decreases towards each end,
forming a kind of double truncated cone. These barrels
...
206 YANUFACTURE or VINEGAR.
..
have a capacity varying from fifteen to twenty-five
gallons. They are placed on two parallel bars, united
together by strong posts, and so fixed as to make a
quarter of a circle; this kind of apparatus is from six
to seven and a half feet long. Place one barrel on each
of these apparatus; fill it to three-fourths of its capacity
with two parts of wine and one of vinegar; close the
barrel, and draw it in front, so as to bring it to one end
of the curve; then push it, and it will roll from one
end to the other and finally stop at the lower place;
repeat the operation three or four times every twenty-
four hours, for five or six days. After this, leave the
barrels to rest for the same length of time, and decant
two-thirds of the vinegar into smaller barrels.
Spanish Method.
In Spain, as in the south of France, they extract the
vinegar from the acidified residuum of grapes, or they
mix in barrels containing vinegar the remains of damaged
wines. In households they draw off the vinegar as fast
as wanted, and pour into the barrels an equal quantity
of warm water, with pepper and other condiments, which
give a sharp taste to the weakened vinegar.
Parisian Method.
The manner of manufacturing wine vinegar in Paris
is very defective, because, instead of using good wines,
the manufacturers employ wines of inferior quality, on
account of their low price. They use barrels with false
bottoms, as in the Flemish method; on these bottoms
they put acrid substances, over which are poured prin-
cipally the drainings of wine-lees. As soon as the vine-
gar becomes muddy they add what is called the bread of
the vinegar-makers, formed with pimento, long pepper,
DIFFERENT KODES or MANUFACTURING VINEGAR. 207
white pepper, cubebs, and ginger; the dose of which is
from one-half to one ounce per quart. 'Vhen the liquor
becomes clear, the vinegar is drawn off.
This vinegar quickly alters, and has to be sold imme-
diately.
Inlproved l7rench llfethod.
This method is followed pl'incipally at Orleans and its
vicinity, where a great deal of wine is manufactured
which is considered of second quality in regard to flavor,
but which is rich in alcohol, and produces a vinegar
of excellent keeping qualities and taste.
Large, dry cellars, or low-roofed buildings with a
southern exposure, are so constructed as to regulate the
temperature and ventilation according to the weather.
A temperat.ure of 86 is considered the best, although
it may be raised somewhat higher when the acetification
is too slow.
The vessels employed are strong oaken casks, with a
capacity of from 50 to 100 gallons, which rest upon
long wooden sleepers, raised one to two feet above the
ground by stone or brick pillars, so as to facilitate the
filling of barrels from above, and to avoid the damp-
ness of the ground. Indeed, the nearer the ceiling the
fermenting-casks are, the more rapid is the acetification.
New casks are washed several times with boiling
water, and then filled to one-third of their capacity with
strong boiling vinegar; then they are ready for their
work of acetification. The work-room is therefore filled
with several parallel rows of casks which do not touch
each other, and between each row is an alley f01" the
men to add the wine and siphon the vinegar. The
upper part of the cask-head fronting the alley has two
holes bored in it-a small one for the entrance of air,
208 KANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR
and alarger one for introducing the wine, and siphoning
off the vinegar.
The operation is conducted in this manner: every
week or eight days ten litres (about 10 quarts) of wine
are added until the cask is two-thirds full at most, when
the vinegar produced is sil'honed off, leaving always
enough vinegar to keep the cask one-third full. Some-
times as much vinegar is removed at each operation as
there is wine to be added, but in this case the cask
should remain always half filled.
'Vhen the acetification is too slow, the temperature
of the room may be raised; but if this produces no
change, it is better to empty the cask, fill it with fresh
boiling vinegar, and proceed as before. Wines poor in
tannin have a tendency to become ropy in the casks, in
which 'case it is necessary to filter the ropy vinegar
through shavings of beech-wood, or through pressed
grape-mash (skins and stalks).
The wines used may be either white or red, but they
must always be clear, and if they are not, they must be
filtered as above indicated. They do not give the same
results according to their age or richness in alcohol; the
best wines are those one year old, as newer wines con-
taining a certain proportion of sugar unconverted into
alcohol do not acidify so readily. Wines too rich in
alcohol are difficult to work; hence they must be diluted
either with water or weaker wines till they contain about
10 per cent. of alcohol in volume. Wines too much di-
luted are quickly acidified, but they give a weak vinegar.
The vinegar in the casks is considered ready to be
siphoned off when a white stick, being plunged into it
and drawn off as horizontally as possible, is covered with
a white froth. If, on the' other hand, this froth is
brown or reddish, the acidification must be allowed to
go on.
CIDER VINEGAR.
CHAPTER XVII.
CIDER VINEGAR.
209
ALL natural 'spirituous liquors are capable of being
transformed into vinegar, and it is not astonishing to
see cider, perry, and other similar liquids employed in
the preparation of vinegar.
The acetification of cider and similar liquids is very
simple; it is effected by one of the methods we have
described for wine, but the products thus obtained,
being more loaded with extractive matters, require
more care for their clarification. When describing the
quick process for making vinegar, we shall indicate the
process of treating, clarifying, and fermenting cider.
In large cities, where the establishments of wine and
cider merchants are near each other, the fabrication of
vinegar is similar to that we have described. This indus-
try utilizes all the residua of wine or cider left in the
bottoms of barrels. All these liquids are carefully mixed
together, filtered on shavings to separate the mucilagi-
nous and s01id matters; they are then diluted with water,
or concentrated with alcohol, until they contain 10 per
cent. in volume of that substance. They are then acetified
by one of the methods already described, or by the quick
process.
14
210 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
CHAPTER XVIII.
FABRICATION OF VINEGAR WITH ALCOHOL AND
WHISKEY.
A FEW years ago all the vinegar made in this country
was manufactured from cider, alcohol, whiskey, or other
spirituous liquors; but since heavy taxes have been put
on most of these substances, manufacturers have had re-
course to other processes, and grains have been proposed
instead of alcohol. The author himself was the first to
introduce the preparation of vinegar by corn alone. This
preparation will be described hereafter. This process
possessed great advantages, but unhappily the manufac-
turer does not now derive any more benefit from using it
than if he were using alcohol. The reader at first will
be surprised, but the taxes on alcohol have been so
modified that the manufacture of vinegar from corn
or other grains must cease. Indeed, the law reads
thus:-
"And no person shall use spirits or alcohol or any
vapor of alcoholic spirits in manufacturing. vinegar or
any other article, or in any process of manufacture
whatever, unless the spirits or alcohol so used shall have
been produced in an authorized distillery, and the tax
thereon paid."-See sec. 4, An act imposing taxes on
distilled spirits and tobacco, and for other purposts,
approved July 20th, 1868, as amended by act approved
April 10th, 1869.
* One of the special aims of this clause is to prerent the manufac-
ture of vinegar direct from corn.
VINEGAR WITH ALCOHOL AND WHISKEY. 211
After reading such a law, we cannot help thinking
that never, in our experience and in any country we have
visited, have we seen such a prohibition placed upon
science and industry. We have no objection to a tax
on alcohol and whiskey; the ~ o v e r n m e n t must be sup-
ported; but that chemical reactions should be taxed out
of existence, is a most extraordinary proceeding.
Let us demonstrate the absurdity of the law, and how
it prevents the progress of science.
In 1864 a large chemical manufacturer and the author
discovered a new process for manufacturing ether directly
from a mash, and at large expense fitted up apparatus.
They were just beginning to start in a good shape,
when the revenue department interfered, on the pre-
tence that they were distilling. All the apparatus, ma-
chinery, even the secrecy of the process, were explained
to them, but it was impossible to make them understand.
The case was referred ~ Washington, and the result
was, "that all chemical works say that to make ether, alcohol
has to be used, and consequently the inventors must pay tax
on the quantity of alcohol which would have been necessar:1J
to produce the ether obtained." At that time ether made
by the known process was worth $1 25; by their new
process they could produce it for forty or fifty cents per
pound; but, thanks to the ignorance and stupidity of
officials and of the law, a new industry was stopped and
an improvement in science was prevented.-
The author knows a vinegar manufacturer in Illinois,
who built his factory to make thirty barrels daily from
corn alone. This man is very intelligent, but entirely
ignorant of the principles of chemistry. Four weeks
after starting he was stopped by the revenue department,
* The clause in the new law, subsequently passed, relative to ether,
was purposely inserted against tile inventors.
2 1 ~ MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
on the ground that because he was mashing grain, he
ought to pay a distiller's license, and a tax on the
quantity of spirit that that mash would have produced.
Vainly did he state that he was not making alcohol (not
a single distilling-apparatus was in his manufactory), but
vinegar; it was of no use, he had to stop.
Weare not politicians, and do not enter here into a
political question-we only try to defend the interests
of the people and manufacturers at large, without any
question of party; but we cannot help saying that this
state of things will last while the people are blind
enough to fill the halls of congress with lawyers and
politicians who are ignorant of the business and the
wants of the people and the country. Let districts elect
agriculturists, manufacturers, merchants, and financial
men, and then they will work for the interests of the
country. These law.makers are all the time' boasting
of their patriotism, and denopncing France, England,
and other countries* as countries of despotism, and at
the same time at home make the fortunes of the foreign
manufacturers, by imposing upon our own manufacturers
such arbitrary prohibitions that it is cheaper for the
community to purchase imported goods than to use those
of home manufacture.
The author is in daily communication with manufac-
turers all over the country, and the same complaint is
constantly made to him.
A new administration has come into power, and with
it a new congress, and we hope this shameful law will
be repealed; we trust that no tax will be placed on the
intelligence and ingenuity of men. It is not a reason
* In those countries industrial and scientific discoveries are re-
warded i here they are taxed, often, as in this case, out of existence.
VINEGAR WITH ALCOHOL AND WHISKEY. 213
that because a product has been made in a certain way
for a hundred years, that a new process shall be taxed
upon the material which would have been used by the
old process. Could anything exhibit a more concen-
trated combination of ignorance and absurdity 1 The
way for a nation to become rich is to protect the in-
dustry of its own people, and not by absurd taxes to
gi ve a bounty to foreign countries.
As we expect to see these ridiculous laws abolished, we
will here give the process of making vinegar with alcohol
and whiskey, begging the reader to excuse the above
little economical digression:-
The casks are arranged in tiers, with a hole in each
for the ventilation, and a wooden faucet to draw off the
vinegar. The room is heated either by steam or by a
stove, so as to keep the temperature between 75 and 85.
If the fermenting-casks are new, they are treated in
a manner similar to that which we have described in the
French process followed at Orleans for wine, that is to
say, they are washed several times with boiling water,
and finally with hot strong vinegar. Some put a small
quantity of alcohol into them before they are used.
They are then filled about two-thirds with the mixture
of alcohol (or whiskey) and water necessary to obtain a
vinegar of desired strength. We shall give at the end
of this process the manner of calculating the proper
amounts of alcohol and water, but we now repeat what
has already been stated, that in practical operations, about
one-fifth of the alcohol employed does not become vinegar,
either from evaporation, or because it escapes the trans-
formation into acid. Therefore, one-fifth more alcohol
should be added to that calculated for making a vinegar
of a certain strength.
The alcoholic mixtnre should have a temperature of
90 to 100 before filling the casks. After a few days'
214 KANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
rest, the transformation into vinegar begins, and the room
is filled with an agreeable acid smell, which continues
until the operation is ended. A regular and gradual
lowering of the temperature in the fermenting-easks is
another indication of a complete acetification.
Nevertheless, everything does not always go on so
smoothly, and a great deal of attention is required to see
if every cask works properly. If one appears lazy, this
may arise from its being in a cool place, and by changing
its place or adding a certain proportion of alcohol and
hot "inegar, its activity may be restored. On other
occasions this laziness may be due to the putrid fermen-
tation being ready to begin, in which case it is neces-
sary to remove rapidly casks and contents, otherwise the
sickness may attack the other casks.
There is no practical remedy for this accident, although
some persons recommend burning sulphur, &c.; the best
is to throw out the contents, then wash the cask tho-
roughly with boiling water, and allow it to dry in another
part of the works. As a greater precaution, the scouring
water may be acidified with hydrochloric acid, or sulphur
may be burned in the cask. Common salt and ash Iyes
are 1\180 employed to destroy the putrid ferment. But
before the cask is used again, it must be finally scoured
in boiling water and hot vinegar.
When all the contents of the cask have been trans-
formed into vinegar, this is decanted carefully into other
vessels for storing in a cold room or cellar. The mother
of vinegar is restored to the casks for the next operation,
and, before filling the barrels for sale, it is a good pre-
caution to filter the vinegar through beech shavings or
grape mash, as has been explained in the process used
at Orleans for making wine vinegar. A small propor-
tion of tannin is said to aid the keeping of vinegar.
Instead ofremoving at once all the contents of the casks,
VINEGAR WITH ALCOHOL AND WHISKEY. 215
the manufacture of vinegar may proceed as at Orleans,
that is to say, the casks are kept one third or half full o(
vinegar, and, at regular intervals of eight to ten days,
a certain proportion of alcoholic mixture is added, while
a corresponding quantity of vinegar has been drawn off.
The temperature of the room where the acetification
takes place has a great influence on the rapidity of the
operation. Otto gives a few striking examples:-
Tempolratnre of room.
100_95 F.
95-86
86_80
80-73
below 73
Weeks reqnlred.
,to 6
6 to 10
10 to 12
12 to 20
8 to 10 months.
The same author calculates that, with the high tem
perature in the rooms necessary to finish the operation in
four weeks of six days each, 96 fermenting-casks will pro-
duce one forty-gallon barrel per day, or 24 barrels during
the four weeks. Therefore, if it is thought preferable
to keep the temperature of the rooms between 80
0
and
~ 6 , the production of one barrel of vinegar per day
will require t h r ~ e times more fermenting-casks, or
96 X3=288 casks.
We now pass to the manner of calculating the propor-
tions of water to be added to the alcohol. or whiskey
bought by the vinegar-maker, in order to obtain an acid
of desired strength.
E.rample.-How many gallons of water and of alcohol
at 84 per cent. are to be mixed in order to have 100
gallons of mixture containing 4 gallons of absolute
alcohol t
Rule.-Multiply the number of gallons of the desired
mixture by its percentage of alcohol in volume, and di.
vide by the number which indicates the percentage of
the alcohol used.
216 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
100x4
We have (1) -M = 4.76 gallons of alcohol.
95.24 .. "water.
(2) 100-4.76=1-00-.00 II "
mlxtore.
If we desire to know how many gallons of a given
mixture will be produced by 1 gallon of alcohol (or
whiskey), we divide the percentage in pure alcohol of the
spirits employed by the desired per cent. of the mixture.
Example.-l gallon of spirit marking 84 per cent. of
pure alcohol will produce 21 gallons of a mixture con-
taining 4 per cent. in volume of absolute alcohol, because
8
4
4=21.
If, instead of 21 gallons of mixture, we desire 60,
we have the rule of three by which 1 : 21 : x: 60, or
21 : 1 : : 60 : x.
'Vhence x=H=2.86 gallons of spirits at 84 per cent.
The above rules may be employed for mixtures by
weight; the spirits must then be weighed the 8ame as the
water, and the per cent. of absolute alcohol transformed
into per cent. in weight, as has been already explained.
The following tables give ready-made calculations,
but, as the numbers are theoretical results, there must be
added to them the practical loss of about -l of alcohol.
For weights per cent. of Alcohol.
Vinegar mixture or Yield.
I
Per cenl"", or
IEqnalo Tlnepr. anhydro,," acId
Alcohol. Water.
Anhydrous I
Water. In .Inesar.
acellc acid.
-----
1 99 1.108 99.587 100.6:15 1.100
2 98 2.216 99.174
. 101.390 2.185
3 97 3.324 98.761 102.085 3.251
4 li6 4.432 98.348 102.780 4.312
5 95 5.540 97.935 103.475 5.354
6 94 6.648 97.522 104.170 6.382
7 93 7.756 97.109 104.865 7.397
8 92 8.864 96.696 105.560 8.399
9 91 9.9i2 96.283 106.255 9.385
10 90 11.080 95.876 106.950 10.360
VINEGAR WITH ALCOHOL AND WHISKEY. 217
If the alcoholic mixture contains five per cent. in
weight of alcohol, one hundred pounds of it will be
transformed into 103.475 lbs. of a vinegar whose com-
position is 5.540 of anhydrous acid and 97.935 of water.
The percentage of this vinegar in anhydrous acetic acid
will be 5.354.
FOT volume per cent. of Alcohol.
A mixtore
.ontalnlng Ie oompoe.d by .....Ight of And yI.lds
Tolal Percentage
the follo.... ing
percentage of
Tloegar. of anhydrous
&1rohol by
Alcobol. Water. Acetic acid Waler.
acetic acid.
volume
1 0.795 99.205 0.881 99.671 100.552 0.876
2 1.592 98.408 1.764 99.342 101.106 1.744
3 2.392 97.608 2.650 99.012 101.662 2.607
4 3.195 96.805 3.540 98.680 102.220 3.4ti3
5 3.995 96.005 4.426 98.350 102.766 4.306
6 4.804 95.196 5.323 98.066 103.389 5.147
7 5.613 94.387 6.219 97.681 103.900 5.985
8 6.422 93.578 7.115 97.348 104.463 6.811
9 7 92.766 8.015 97.012 105.027 7.631
10 8.047 8.916 96.676 105.592 8.4:39
11 8.865 91.135 9.822 96.338 106.160 9.252
12 9.680 . 90.320 10.725 96.002 106.727 10.049
If the mixture contains five cent. of absolute
alcohol in volume, one hundred pounds of it will pro-
duce 102.766 lbs. of vinegar with a percentage of
of anhydrous acetic acid.
As some persons calculate the per cent. in anhydrous
acid, and others in monohydrated acid, we shall state here
that the equivalent of anhydrous acetic acid (C
4
H
3
03) is
51, while that of the monohydrated (C
4
H
3
03,HO) is 60.
Therefore, fifty-one parts in weight of anhydrous acid
are equal to sixty parts of the' monohydrated one.

SECTION III.
MALT VINEGAR.
WE call malt, barley in which germination has
developed a certain quantity of diastase. We have
already described the different phenomena which occur.
rrreated a(terwards with water at different temperatures,
the grain is much modified, the starch is transformed
into glucose, then into alcohol.
This kind of vinegar is much used in England and
Germany, and begins to be employed here since the
heavy taxes on spirits prevent the manufacture of
vinegar with that substance. This fabrication comprises
two operations: the preparation of the fermented liquors,
and its transformation into vinegar. We shall describe
the process with some care.

CHAPTER XIX.
PREPARATION OF THE FERMENTED LIQUOR.
WE have already examIned at length the processes of
malting and of alcoholic fermentation. We shall, there-
fore. in this chapter speak briefly of the principal
operations relating to the fabrication of the malt wort
which is to be transformed into malt vinegar.
PREPARATION OF THE FERMENTED LIQUOR. 219
We shall use here only good barley malt. The dry
malt, as.it comes from the m,alt-house, is stored in rooms
or bins, whence it is taken to be ground into meal by
means of crushers or grindstones. The meal is then put
into the mash-tuns, where it is stirred with water at
160 at the first mash, and subsequently, to deprive it
of all its saccharine contents, with one or two additions
of water at 1 ! : ~ 0 . A good proportion for vinegar-makers
has been found to be six bushels of malt and one hundred
gallons of water, used in three portions, forty, thirty, and
thirty gallons. The wort, or liquor containing the ex-
tractive portions of malt, is allowed to stand in the mash-
tun after each mash, so as to allow the settling of the
insoluble parts, and then drawn off into under-tanks,
from whence it passes through pipes cooled externally
by fresh water.
When the clear wort has been cooled down to about
75, it is thoroughly mixed with about four per cent. in
volume of beer yeast, when the alcoholic fermentation
is allowed to proceed, and is carefully watched.
In large establishments there are the' appropriate
apparatus for cooling rapidly, pumping the liquors from
one portion to all other parts of the works, which give
a nice field to the constructor of such works to show
engineering ability and judgment in appliances for
saving labor and working properly, but here we confine
ourselves to the chemical part.
When the alcoholic fermentation, that is to say, the
transformation of the saccharine matter into alcohol, is
finished, the alcoholic mixture or wash is transferred to'
large casks, where it cleanses itself of any remaining
impurities, and is ready to be transformed into vinegar.
220 lU.NUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
CHAPTER XX.
TRANSFORMATION OF THE FERMENTED LIQUOR INTO
VINEGAR.
WE may here again refer to the description of the
process followed at Orleans for the manufacture of wine
vmegar:-
The fermented malt wort is run into oaken casks up
to two-thirds of their contents, and there the acidifica-
tion takes place.
The casks are ranged in parallel rows, rpsting upon
long wooden beams elevated about eightp.en inches from
the ground, and have their bungs uppermost, while a
small hole on top of the front head of each causes the
circulation of the air.
If the operation takes place in the yard (fielding), it
generally begins during spring and continues' during the
summer. For the remainder of the year it is better to
operate in apartments c a l l ~ d stoves, since they are heated
by stoves or steam, at a temperature ranging from 70
to 80. We have already seen that the acetification
proceeds much more rapidly in heated places than at the
ordinary temperature, and that if there is an expense in
fuel, the capital invested in space and apparatus, casks,
etc., is considerably less.
In large establishments, and, indeed, in small ones, a
large saving of labor will be effected by connecting ele-
. vated tanks, holding the fermented wort, with pipes
and movable flexible hose which will allow of the rapid
TRANSFORMATION OF LIQUOR INTO VINEGAR. 221
and easy filling of the casks. The vinegar produced is
siphoned off into inclined troughs, which deliver it to
a central underground tank, from which it is pumped
into the storing-tanks.
A store-room should be cold, and have all the appli-
ances necessary for filtering the vinegar, coopering the
barrels, &c. .
Malt vinegar generally contains a great deal of muci-
laginous matter difficult to settle. preventing its keeping,
while giving nourishment to vinegar-eels. It is therefore
necessary to filter it, and the best substance as a filtering
medium is still the grape mash, which probably acts
mechanically and, at the same time, chemically by its
tannin.
Where there is power, and a large quantity of vine-
gar is manufactured, the filterinR is effected under a
considerable hydrostatic pressure. The stalks and skins
of the pressed grapes are placed in a closed vessel,
between two false perforated bottoms. A circuit of
pipes is connected at the lower and upper part of the
vessel, and; by means of a pump, the vinegar is made
to pass again and again through the grape. This pro-
cess allows the filtering medium to be quite compact,
and no impurities can pass with the vinegar..
Household Process for Malt V'inegar.
Malt is crushed, then mashed with water, and the
wort, with an addition of yeast, is poured into an up-
right cask, with a perforated false bottom, one foot dis-
tant from the lower head. The cask, above the perforated
bottom, is filled with grape mash. The alcoholic fer-
mentation takes place there, and after twenty-four hours,
the contents are cleansed into another barrel. When the

222
MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
liquor has become clear, it is decanted into another cask,
where the acetification takes place at a temperature of
about 70. Sometimes from one.half to two per cent.
of argol is added to the worts, in imitation of the tartar
found in true wine vinegar.
SECTION IV.
QUICK PROCESS.
THERE is no chemical difference in the reactions which
take place during the manufacture of vinegar by the
slow or by the quick process. In either case, the alco-
hol of the wash is transformed into acetic acid by the
oxidizing action of the air, aided by the mother of vine-
gar. In the slow process, the alcoholic mixture of the
fermenting-easks has only its upper sUlface in contact
with the air; in the quick process, the same mixture
offers an enormous surface to the action of the air, since
it is diffused through the pores and the surface of wood
shavings, or of pieces of charcoal, or of pumice-stone.
Indeed, it has been calculated that one gallon of alco-
holic mixture, diffused through beech shavings, offers a
surface of about 100 square yards.
We may understand, therefore, how it is possible to
produce, by this method, vinegar in forty-eight hours, .
while, by the slow process, three or four months would
be necessary.
CHAPTER XXI.
OLD METHODS.
I
Boer/wave's Process.-We have already described this
process in preceding pages, relating to the manufacture
of wine vinegar by the slow process. As devised by
224
,
MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Boerhaave, the method was comparativply.slow, although
more rapid than the old modes. But by employing
the ,jame apparatus, we may work it more rapidly, by
drawing part of the contents several times a day, and
throwing it into the other cask. Boerhaave!s method is
an intermediate step between the slow and quick pro-
cess; this is the reason why we mention it under both
methods.
Doebereiner's process has also been mentioned as being
based on the oxidation of alcohol by the air in glass
rooms under the influence of platinum black, also called
platinum sponge. It is a quick process if a very large
quantity of platinum is employed; but then we require
a considerable capital, which, added to the necessity of
using a heavily taxed alcohol, renders the method im-
practicable in such conditions. 'Ve must, therefore,
wait until we have cheap platinum, and cheap alcohol.
CHAPTER XXII.
APPARATUS.
THE apparatuses required by the manufacturers of
vinegar by the quick ptocess are quite simple in their
construction, and their number varies with the impor-
tance of the fabrication.
. The generator, in which the oxidation of the alcohol
takes place, is sometimes of enormous dimensions, in
which case, power is employed for injecting the air
through the PIass, and pumping the alcoholic wash over
and over again through the porous contents, until the
transformation into vinegar is complete.
APPARATUS.
,
225
As most generally employed, a generator consists of a
wooden tun (oak, beech, or white pine) having the shape
of an inverted truncated cone. Although this forlll is
troublesome for keeping the outside hoops (wooden or
iron) tight, it is generally adopted, under the belief that
the liquid falling from the larger diameter will be sure
to moisten equally the whole contents. The lower
diameter is 3 feet 6 inches, and the upper one 4 feet,
corresponding to a height of 8 feet.
Fig. 9.
The generator A (Fig. 9) r ~ s t s upon supports, d ~ d,
elevated so as to give room for filling a cask, barrel, or
tub, H, in which the vinegar is received. B is the hoop
corresponding to the height (about 18 in.) of a perforated
false bottom, which supports the beech shavings. This
15

c Coogle
226 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.

false bottom rests upon a strong hoop fastened inside the


tun. About two inches above, eight or ten holes, c, c, c,
equidistant from each other, and 1 to 1~ inch in diam-
eter, are bored through the stave in a downward direc-
tion, 80 as to prevent the liquid from running outside.
Theie holes are intended 'for the entrance of ah, and
should be more numerous than what is strictly necessary
for the purpose, since we remember that an insufficiency
of air will transform the alcohol into aldehyde, instead of
acetic acid. If the influx of air is too great, the aperture
of the holes may be diminished by a cork or a wooden
wedge. Sometimes these holes are bored below the false
bottom instead of above. E is a siphon outlet made
of glass, which prevents the liquid collected under the
false bottom from running out unless the quantity is
above the level of the upper bend of the siphon. "By
this arrangement a certain body of hot vinegar always
Fig. 10.
remains in the tun. and aids to preserve the proper
temperature. A spigot fixed at the lower part of the
bottom allows, when necessary, the complete draining
of the contents of the tun or generator..
,tile' byGoogIe
APPARATUS. 227
At one foot from the top is the delivering appa-
ratus, D (Fig. 10), which rests upon a strong hoop or
cleats, and consists of a shallow tub with a level bottom
perforated with a quantity of small holes 1 inch apart,
and from l ' ~ to t inch in diameter. The outside of the
delivering tub is packed air-tight against the inside of
the generator, and the small holes are partly filled with
pieces of pack-thread with a knot on top, which prevents
their falling from the holes. The liquors which fill the
small tub are therefore obliged to percolate between the
hole and the thread, and fall equally upon the whole sur-
face of the shavings. Four holes, about 1i inch in diam-
eter, receive the air-chimneys, of glass or wood, fixed
tight in them, and which project nine inches above and
two or three inches belowthe bottomof the delivering-tub.
The generator is further protected against dust, &c.,
by a loose cover, C (Fig. 9), in the centre of which is a
funnel, serving at the same time for ventilation and for
filling the delivering-tub.
Fig. 11.
Instead of a glass siphon, E (Fig. 9), which is too
liable to breakage, a bent wooden tube may be made to
Bcrew on to toe end of the spigot F (Fig. 11).
,tile' byGoogIe
228 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Pieces of charcoal and of pumice-stone washed in
'" hydrochloric acid, and well rinsed in water, have been
used for the porous material with which the generator
is filled; pumice-stone, especially, has the advantage of
being easily cleaned by water aud by fire, when the
liquors, such as those from fruits, contain a great deal
of mucilaginous and albuminous substances, which will
rapidly accumulate and prevent the proper working of
beech.wood shavings. But beech wood is nearlyevery-
where employed. Indeed, it presents many advantages:
it can be had easily, and cheap; it curls well, and stands
well without breaking for a length of time. White
woods will curl as well, but they will not stand 80 long
as beech wood; resinous woods are not porous enough.
and their resin is objectionable, as it may partly dissolve
in the vinegar; oak wood does not curl so well, is not so
elastic, and in common with other dark woods, contains
too much coloring-matter and tannin. We may say.
therefore, that beech wood is the best known wood for
the purpose, when clear liquors are employed.
The shavings are generally made in the vinegar works
by means. of a simple instrument. A strong piece of
wood is raised at arm's height by four legs, and has a
longitudinal hole about 11 inch wide and 121 inches
long mortised through it. The piece of beech board to
be shaved is 1 foot long, 6 inches wide, 1 inch thick, and
is put through this hole, while it is pressed upwards by
a counterweight under the bench. A heavy plane, sliding
between guides, takes off ~ h e shavings, and in order that
they may curl well, the plane has a double iron which
may be adjusted until the desired result is obtained.
The other tools are spouts to carry the liquors to the
pump, or from the pump to the generators; vessels and
furnaces for heating the water or the vinew, &c.
GENERAL DETAILS OF THE OPERATION. 229
Wooden pumps are the best for the purpose, since
certain sorts of India-rubber may impart an unpleasant
taste to the liquid.
The generators are placed contiguously to each other,
leaving space enough to cooper them when needed, and
for tightening the hoops. .
The vinegar-room needs a constant temperature from
75 to 86; therefore it must not be too high, and the
openings for ventilation must be made so as to be regu-
lated at will.
CHAPTER XXIII.
GENERAL DETAILS OF THE OPERATION.
BRINGING THE GENERATORS INTO ACTION-PREPARATION OF
THE VINEGAR WITH ALCOHOL-PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN
DURING THE QUICK PROCESS.
Bringing the Generators into Action.
IF the weather be cool, the vinegar-rooms and utensils
are brought up to a-temperature of 75 to 80 by means of
artificial heat. The beech-wood shavings, which have
been soaked several times in warm water, in order to dis-
solve certain extractive matters, and have been allowed to
dry, are then introduced into the generators and gently
pressed in even layers by a flat board at the end of a pole,
until theyreach to about six or eight inches from the bottom
of the delivering-tub, also called a sieve. This sieve is then
packed in its place, the knotted strings are passed through
the holes, and the top cover put in place. In order to
facilitate the air-draft, it is prudent to loosen with a
stick the shl,vings near the air- holes. The temperature

230 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.


inside of the generator is indicated by a thermometer
passing through a hole about one foot below the bottom
of the delivering-tub.
During two days or more, and for generators of eight
feet in height and three to four feet diameter, about forty
gallons of middling warm strong vinegar are allowed to
percolate gradually and at regular intervals every twenty-
four hours. This operation is to be continued until the
thermometer marks about 100, when a wash composed
of alcohol. water, and vinegar at a temperature of 80 is
poured, as before explained, upon the shavings. The
composition of the wash is slowly and gradually changed,
increasing the proportion of alcohol and diminishing
that of vinegar uutil it becomes the normal mixture,
and then the generators are in regular working order.
Instead of washing the shavings with water, they are
sometimes steeped in hot vinegar, and then introduced
into the generators. This operation saves time, but
causes a loss of vinegar, and requires for its performance
heating apparatus which are not corroded by the acid.
Cast-iron kettles with inside enamel glazing are best for
the purpose when the glazing is of good quality. 'Vooden
tubs, the contents of which are heated by steam, may also
be employed. Some manufacturers employ stoneware,
porcelain, or glass vessels, heated in a water-bath which
communicates with the stove.
We have spoken of the treatment of beech-wood
shavings. which are the best for moderate-sized genera-
tors, and clear liquors of alcohol, or whiskey and water;
but other substances, such as wooden chips, twigs, perfo-
rated wooden cubes, corn-cobs, pumice-stone, charcoal,
etc. etc., may be employed successfully for very large
apparatus or liquors full of mucilaginous and nitroge-
nous matters, which choke up the pores of beech
GENERAL DETAILS OF THE OPERATION. 231
shavings, and are dregs, instead of mothers, as they are
often and wrongly called.
Preparation of the Vinegar with Alcohol (or Whiskey).
Vinegar may be made with one generator. but one
passage of the wash through it will not be sufficient for
its transformation into acid, and, therefore, two or three
successive percolations will be necessary. It is in every
respect more satisfactory to have several generators i ~
which. the wash will pass from one into the other, and
experience has indicated that two generators will do for
average table vinegar, three for strong table vinegar, and
four for strong pickling vinegar, which may also be used
in chemical operations.
Au alcoholic mixture containing already a certain
proportion of vinegar will be more easily transformed
into vinegar than one without it, and a good proportion
of vinegar has been found to be one.eighth of the wash
with weak vinegar and one-tenth with strong vinegar.
Now, let us suppose that we make strong table vinegar
from whiskey with three generators, and that forty gal-
lons are the daily production. We calculate by the
method already indicated the proportion of whiskey to
make a vinegar of Ii certain strength, and we find, let us
say, five gallons. Therefore, the wash will be com-
posed of:-
One-tenth strong vinegar
Whiskey
Water
Wash.
4 gallons.
5 ..
31 II
40
But we must not put all the whiskey at once into the
mixture, as we have previously explained that too much
alcohol hinders the acetic fermentation, and that weak
232

VANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
alcoholic liquors are rapidly transformed into vinegar.
We will, therefore, put a portion of the whiskey (or
alcohol) at each passage through the generators (three
in this case), and experience has taught us that a proper
distribution will be i! of the whiskey (or alcohol) for
the first passage, -h for the second, and 71% for the third.
Another arrangement may be 11f' T%' and -h for the sake
of more easily remembered numbers.
Therefore, taking the latter figures, we find our five
gallons of whiskey distributed as follows:-
1ST WASH.
Gallo....
Water ==31
Vinegar = 4
Whiskey!uor5= 2.
2D WAJlH.
Gallon.
Wash No.1 - 3 7 ~
Whiskey ! ~ or 5- 1.
89
3D .....all.
Oallrm.
Wul1 No.2 - 39
Whiskey 1\ or 5 - 1
37'
This method of graduating the liquors being well
understood, the operator begins by heating the first wash
to about tmO, and charging with it the sieve of the first
generator. The liquor passes along the knotted threads,
falls upon and percolates slowly through the shavings, .
where, under the influence of the air and the vinegar-
mother which coats the shavings, the alcohol becomes
oxidized and gradually transformed into vinegar. When
the liquors reach the bottom of the generator, the excess
of liquor above the level of the bend of the siphon or
goose's neck, runs ip.to a proper vessel large enough to
hold the contents of a day's work. These liquors, with
the addition of whiskey (or alcohol), form the second
wash, which is heated to 80 and run through the second
generator, whence it goes out to form, with another
addition of spirit, the third wash. This last wash is
again heated, and, after passing through the third and
last generator, is allowed to run out as vinegar.
GENERAL DETAILS OF THE OPERATION. 233
This method is the continuous method which is open
to the inconvenience of heating the wash of each pas-
sage, and of an irregular delivery of the liquors through
the top sieve. Indeed, on account of the warping of the
bottom of the sieve, the irregularity in the apertures,
their filling up by dregs or mother, it is found nearly
impossible to cause the liquors to fall equally upon the
shavings. Many devices have been employed to remedy
this defect, without success, except in certain large estab-
lishments where distributors are moved by power.
The method of Otto, by periodical pouring, obviates
these difficulties and the ,trouble of heating the wash.
It consists in pouring into the n e ~ t generator, every hour
or half hour, the liquors which run from a generator
during this lapse of time. For instance, if a day's work
is only ten hours, and there is a pouring every hour, a
generator furnishing forty gallons in ten hours will run
four gallons every hour, which will be collected and poured
into the next generator with. an addition of one-tenth of
the quantity of spirits calculated for each wash during
one day's work. This latter method of working has
been found preferable to the former continuous one.
Precautions to be taken during tke Process.--The quick
process requires more care and attention from the ope-
rator than the slow process. He may by chemical tests
ascertain the constancy of the gradually increasing
strength of the vinegar as it flows from the generators,
but the thermometer will give him not less useful indica-
tions. We may say that the temperature should average
100 F., and fluctuate between 104
0
at the first genera-
tor and 96 at the last. Indeed, the greater proportion
of alcohol is in the first wash, and the chemical action
being greater, the temperature increases accordingly.
234 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Above 104 there is a loss of alcohol by evaporation, and
the vinegar of course becomes weaker. This increase of
temperature may be due to an excess of air, when the
aperture of the air-holes or of the draft must be dimin-
ished. If the room or liquors are too hot, the remedy
is to cool one or the other. The best temperature for
the room is between 75 and 80. On the other hand,
if the temperature falls below 96 in the generator, the
room or washes must be heated, or the draft chimney
closed for a certain length of time, and this is resorted
to when the gene;rators do not work during the night. .
The proportion of ferment is also to be considered,
as an excess of it calfses an increase of temperature,
and the vinegar is not clear. The remedy is to clear the
shavings of the excess of mother by pouring upon them
several bucketfuls of strong tepid vinegar. If, on the
contrary, the proportion of ferment is too little, the tem-
perature falls, since the oxidation of the alcohol is too
slow, and it becomes necessary to restore the action of
the shavings by additions of tepid vinegar, as is done for
bringing the generators into action.
During the night, when the generators stand idle, the
shavirigs have a tendency to become coated with an excess
of mother; indeed, the ferment may be considered as
a plant which grows. Otto recommends the use of a
little oil of cloves or of alcoholic tincture of cloves in
the last wash poured npon the shavings. The growth
of ferments, in general, is arrested and even destroyed
by essential oils, antiseptics, &c.
P
L2
FABRICATION OF VINEGAR WITH GRAIN AND MALT. 235
CHAPTER XXIV.
FABRICATION OF VINEGAR WITH GRAIN AND MALT.
ALL the liquors we have mentioned in describing the
slow process, and, indeed, all alcoholic liquors, can be
converted into vinegar by the quick process. In the
process we shall now describe, the wine malt (wash) for
charging the generators is made from wheat, corn, or
any other grain and barley malt. We shall not enter
upon much detail, but refer the reader to the chapter
on brewing.
The mixture is made in the proportions of forty pounds
ofgrains to eighty pounds of mal t: the whole, well ground,
is saturated with forty gallons of water at 120. After
the subsidence of the solid parts, the clear liquid is drawn
off, the residue is washed with water at 160, agitated
and drawn off as before; a third washing is made at
200
0
to 212. The whole of the washings should not
exceed 110 gallons.
The solution is filtered through the filter described
below, and cooled to 75; it is then mixed with fifteen
pounds of good yeast, and the whole is allowed to ferment
at 80 for five or six days; it is then filtered again, and
is ready for the generators, where the same precautions
are observed as if it were pure spirit.
Description of the Filler.-This filter is represented in
the following figure :-
236 Jl:ANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Fig. 12.
A A A A. Large wooden box fourteen feet long, four
feet wide, and four feet deep.
B B. Iron pipe two inches in diameter fixed at about
four inches from the bottom of the box.
C C C. Filters three feet two inches square. These
filters are connected by small iron pipes D D D, one-half
an inch in diameter, with the main pipe B B.
E. Cock adjusted on the main pipe B B, by which the
filtered liquor is drawn off.
F. Cock to draw off materials from the box while
cleaning it.
Description of the Filtering-fl'ames.-A filtering-frame
. is represented in the following figure.
It (C C C C) is of wood, three feet two inches square.
From the top to the bottom are fixed pieces of iron or
wood, a a a a, as a grate. These are of the same width
as the sides of the frames; their object is to keep the
filtering-cloth straight. At the bottom of the frame is
an iron pipe b, one-half inch in diameter, which is
,tile' byGoogIe
FABRICATION OF VINEGAR WITH GRAIN AND MALT. 237
screwed in b on the main pipe B B. The whole of the
frame is surrounded by cotton or woollen cloth, like R
bag, but tightly fixed on the frame, leaving the pipe Db
projecting.
Fig. IS.
Working of tke Filter.-Place the frames C C C on the
main pipe B B in the box A A A A, and close the cocks
EF.
Fill the box with the liquid to be filtered, and let it
rest half an hour.
The liquid passes through the cloth, and by the pipe
D is carried into the main pipe B B, while the solid
matters remain in the box. Open the cock E, and if
the liquor does not pass clear, put it back into the box
until it becomes clear.
When the whole has passed over, shut the cock E,
and throw water into the box so as to wash the re-
siduum well, let it rest a few minutes, open the cock
E, and let it run. Continue the operation until all the
strength is exhausted.*
., The filter can be placed above the generator, and the liquid let
to run slowly on it.
,tile' byGoogIe
238 HANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
When the filtration is completed, shut the cock E,
and open the cock :F, let all the solid matters run out by
pouring water into the box; next take off the frames
C C C, wash them well with water, nnd dry them quickly.
Wash the box, and ifit is to be some time without using,
keep it filled with water.
With such a filter, the editor has been able to filter
in one night eight hundred gallons of mash; the liquor
was as clear and limpid as water.
CHAPTER XXV.
FABRICATION OF VINEGAR WITH GRAIN ALONE.
THIS process is founded on the property that starch
or any amylaceous matter possesses of being transformed
into dextrin and glucose under the influence of diluted
acids. This' process, much used in. Europe, is now
introduced into this country. In Germany, starch is
employed, and the author is the first, 'he believes, who
had the idea of using corn to produce glucose for the
fabrication of vinegar. In this chapter we shall describe
the preparation of the glucose from grain, and its trans-
formation into vinegar.
The first step is to proceed to the saccharification, by
the reaction of sulphuric acid, diluted with thirty-three
parts of water, heated, and kept at the temperature of
212, and then gradually to throw into the boiling acid
liquid the grain, which forms about one-fifth of the total
weight of the liquid..
The saccharification is effected in strong wooden vats
of a capacity of about three thousand gallons. In one
of these vats is a lead pipe bent in a circular form near

FABRICATION OF VINEGAR WITH GRAIN ALONE. 239


the bottom, and within the circle the tube is pierced
with small holes. The vat, filled about two-thirds with
acidulated water, is heated by steam brought by the
circular pipe which is in communication with the
boiler. During the operation the vat is covered, and
the "Vapor which arises is directed towards a chimney,
from which it escapes into the air.
In an apparatus thus disposed, if we propose to treat
4000 pounds of corn, the grain is reduced to meal and
successively diluted by portions of 200 pounds in a tub
with 38 gallons of water. In the large vat there have
been previously introduced 1250 gallons of water, with
180 pounds of sulphuric acid. A current of steam is
introduced into the vat, so as to bring the mixture to
2120, then the diluted corn is introduced by a kind of
funnel, in quantities of about five gallons at a time, until
the 4000 pounds have been used; the whole is then
permitted to boil until the transformation is complete,
which is readily known by taking a few drops of the
fluid mixture in a glass, then adding a drop of a solution
of iodine, which must produce no violet coloration if the
reaction is complete. If it produces a blue color, con-
tinue the ebul!ition until the decomposition is finished.
The steam is then stopped, and the sulphuric acid is
saturated with carbonate of lime. At each addition of
the carbonate, the carbonic acid is disengaged, and there
is formed an insoluble compound of sulphate of lime
which is precipitated. For 180 pounds of acid, use
from 171 to 193 pounds of chalk. The carbonate is
added gradually with much care, so as to avoid a too
quick effervetjcence. Too much carbonate of lime will
prevent the liquor from becoming clear. It is easy to
ascertain when the saturation is complete, by means of
240

IIANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
litmus-paper, which remains blue if all the acid has
been saturated.
As soon as the saturation is completed, the whole is
introduced into the filter above described, and permitted
to run; when all the liquid has passed over, the residue
is washed two or three times with hot water.
If the manufacturer intends to transform the glucose
immediately into vinegar, he evaporates all the liquors
to a syrupy consistence, and allows the syrup to rest for
a few days, so as to permit the deposit of the sulphate of
lime. This syrup is then diluted with warm water till
it marks 12 on the saccharometer; it is fermented, with
the precautions indicated, filtered anew, and is then
ready for the generators.
If, on the contrary, he preparel the glucose for sale
or for keeping, all the liquors are evaporated until they
mark 27. The syrup thus obtained, after resting two
or three days to allow the sulphate of lime to deposit, is
decanted and introduced into barrels.
If he proposes to manufacture solid glucose, the syrup
is concentrated to 34 while boiling, then poured into
crystallizers, where it deposits in the form of a granular
mass; the mother syrup is decanted, and the mass is left
to dry.
If the syrup has to be transported a long distance, it
can be manufactured under a less weight and volume;
for this purpose the syrup, having deposited three days,
and marking while cold 33, is evaporated anew until it
marks 40 while boiling. It is poured into barrels be-
fore it is entirely cold, for then it is very thick and can-
not be weighed with the saccharometer.
When this syrup or sugar is to be used for making
vinegar, it is diluted with water and treated in the same
manner as directed above.
DIFFERENT KISDS OP VINEGARS. 2H
Any kind of grain, starchy vegetables, starch, pota-
toes, etc., can be used in the same manner as corn, and
will produce glucose, which is advantageously used for
making vinegar.
Instead of heating the corn in open vats, it can be done
in a close vat under pressure at a temperature of 240
0
to 250. The operation is much quicker, and requires
less water.
But few manufacturers are using this process now,
but we have not the least doubt that in a few years it
will be more general.
CHAPTER XXVI.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF VINEGARS.
WITH ALCOHOL-SUGAR-STARCH-WINE OF SUGAij-
HONEY-MOLASSES- CIDER- BEETS- FRUITS-RAGS-
BEER-FUCUS, ETC.
IN the following processes either the slow or the quick
method may be employed, but in the latter case the
liquors must be clear and free from those mucilaginous
substances which will cover the shavings with their dregs
and prevent their action, often even favoring a putrid
fermentation.
The only remedy in this case is to wash the shavings,
inside or outside of the generator, with an abundance
of warm water, and to begin the operation afresh by
saturating them with hot strong vinegar. It is, there-
fore, preferable to filter the alcoholic mixtures, which are
thick and cloudy, before they are allowed to pass through
16
242 MANUFACTURE OF V I N ~ A R .
the shavings. The filtration may be performl'd in the
apparatus which we have described in speaking of
vinl'gar from grain.
Vinegar of German Brandy.
Mitscherlich declares that in many cities of Germany
they manufacture a vinegar in the following manner:-
Alcohol at 5,0 1 part;
Water 9 parts.
A little yeast or extract of potatoes. Mix them, and
pour the liquor slowly by means of a hemp rope into
closed barrels provided with tubes through which passes
an uninterrupted current of air. The absorption of the
oxygen is so rapid that the temperature quickly rises
from 50 to 86; but 68 is best for the operation, and
is maintained by closing a part of the tubes.
This vinegar is very hard, and sugar is always added
to it. Mr. Colin-Mackenzie has published a series of
experiments on the subjfct, which we shall quote.
1. Sugar, Alcohol, Water, and Yeast.-Take 10 oz.
sugar, 10 oz, alcohol, 9 pints of water, and It oz. of
yeast. This mixture will begin to ferment the same day,
and is completed on the twelfth. Four ounces of this
vinegar saturate 60 grains of potash.
2. Sugar, Water, Alcohol, and Yeast.-Take 10 oz.
sugar, 5 oz, alcohol, 4i pints of water, and 6 drms. of
yeast. Fermentation commences on the second day, and
continues for eight days. One quart of this vinegar
gives It drm. of alcohol by distillation.
Fabrication of Vinegar by Alcohol and Water, by MJL
Riviere and Durand. -1. Make a tepid mixture of
100 quarts of water with 20 quarts of alcohol at 95,
for e,"ery 210 quarts of vinegal' to be made.
* One ThoUSBud Eireriments ou Chemistry.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF VINEGARS. 24.3
2. Pour this liquor into barrels containing the proper
quantity of water to form the number of barrels of vinegar
required; stir the water when the hot liquor is poured in.
3. Put this liquor by equal portions into a mixture com-
posed of residuum of grapes, 8 pounds ginger, 8 pounds
. g a l a n ~ a , 8 pounds red pepper, 8 pounds black pepper, and
M pounds pyrethrum, which is spread in thin layers
every nine inches, in the mass of grape mash, which
. fills the cask.
4. Let the liquor macerate six days, in order to be-
come acidified; but it is necessary each day to decant
the liquor into another cask containing the above mix-
ture.
5. After six days, draw off the liquor and pour it by
equal portions into casks containing vinegar-mothers
already formed, and into which have been put six spoon-
fuls of .red pepper and pyrethrum.
6. To keep these vinegar casks in the same state of
strength, add to them .every three months a little red
pepper and pyrethrum.
7. The room must be constantly heated between 64
and 86.
8. In the beginning of the work the liquor remains
three months in the casks; after this it can be drawn
off every month, and clarified on beech shavings in four
days.
Vinegar of Sligar.
1. Sugar, Water, and Yeast.-If we take 10 ounces
of sugar, 4t pints of water, and 2 ounces of yeast, the
fermentation begins in five or six hours, and "Continues
for twelve days. 4 ounces of this vinegar' will saturate
60 grains of potash. Dr. Ure assures us that a very good
vinegar can be made with 1 pound of sugar and 3 quarts
of water.
244 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
2. Sugar in excess.-Instead of the above proportions,
if we take 1 pound of sugar, 4i pints of water, and 6
drachms of yeast, the fermentation begins the same day,
and 4 ounces of the vinegar will saturate 120 grains of
potash. It contains one-eighth of 8ugar not acidified.
3. Sugar with excess of Yeast -Add to the above
proportions of sugar and water, I! ounce of yeast; the
fermentation begins the first day, and lasts ten days; 4
ounces of this vinegar will saturate 120 grains of potash.
It contains one-sixteenth of sugar not acidified.
4. Proportions f()r a good Vinegar.-Take 1 pound
iUgar, 1 ounce yeast, and 7 pinta of water; the fermenta-
tion lasts twelve days, and the vinegar is very strong,
agreeable, and without an excess of sugar; 4 ounces
will saturate 180 grains of potash.
5. Proportions to 1lIake a good Vinegar toith Sugar
and Alcohol.-Take:-
Sugar
Alcohol
Yeast .
Water at 86 F.
6 pounds.
2 ..
12i ounce
14 quarts..
This vinegar gives only traces of alcohol, and 4 ounces
saturate 150 grains of potash.
Vinegar of Sugar, by Cadet-Gassicourt.-This chemist
advises the fermentation together of 124 parts of sugar,
868 parts of water, and 80 of yeast, and to filter after
one month.
Another formula:-
Sugar
Gum
W a t ~ r
Yeut at the temperatnre of 68
245
61
~ 1 4 5
20
The fermentation begins the same day, and is compIpted
in fifteen; it gh'es a strong vinegar.
Another:-
DIFFERENT KINDS OF VINEGARS.
Sogar
Mucilage
Water
Yeast
245
80R
12.25
2145
20 to 22
8 pounds.
3 II
12 ounces.
80 pounds.
The fermentation lasts twenty-two days, and the vinegar
obtained is very strong.
Vinegar of Grape Sugar.-Grape sugar by fermenta-
tion gives a very good vinegar; the proportions to use
are the following:-
Grape sugar
Alcohol
Yeast .
Water.
The fermentation is quicker than with cane sugar; 4:
ounces saturate 155 grains of potash.
If, instead of the sugar, syrup is used, we should employ
3 pounds 2 ounces of syrup for every 2 pounds of sugar.
Starch Vinegar.
If we take 7 ounces of flour, and by boiling form a
clear paste with 3i pints of water, then add t an ounce
of yeast, the quantity of vinegar produced after one day
saturates 1 ounce of potash. If we substitute starch for
flour, and let" it ferment thirty-five days, the vinegar
obtained will saturate 1i ounce of pptash.
There is, however, a more advantageous process. This
is the same which we described in the preparation of
vinegar with grains alone, that is, the conversion of
starch into sugar. Boil for thirty-six hours 4: pounds of
starch with 16 pounds of water and It ounce of sulphuric
acid at 66. When all the starch has disappeared, the
liquor is treated exactly in the same manner as the grain.
The syrup obtained is fermented and transformed into
vinegar; 100 parts of starch give 110 parts of starch
Bugar.
246 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Vinegar made of Sweet llTaters, Raisins, Fecula, etc.,
by MM. Quenay ~ Houel.-The substances which enter
into the composition are: the sweet waters froJIl sugar
refinflries, dry raisins, the syrup of fecula, and generally
sweet substances of all kinds.
To make 55 gallons of vinegar, take a hogshead of
100 gallons, in which are beech shavings; the bottom
should be pierced with small holes. Pour on the shav-
ings 60 gallons of a sugar-water, prepared as we shall
hereafter indicate.
When the water is very clear, put it in a fermenting-
tub with 50 pounds of raisins, 14 pounds of yeast, at a
temperature of 60 to 68.
When the product obtained by this process, which we
will call wine, is fully made, let it undergo an insensible
fermentation for twelve hours, filter it, and keep it in a
cask for future use.
Into a cask of 75 gallons introduce 7 quarts of good
hot vinegar (not boiling); then add, every ten days, 7
quarts of the above wine, also warm.
When the cask is filled, three-fourths of the con-
tents are drawn off, and filtered on cotton and animal
black. The liquor thus obtained is a good vinegar.
What remains in the barrel is the mother, which
must be kept there.
When three-quarters of the vinegar haye been drawn
off, fill the barrel anew, in the same manner.
Fabrication of Vinegar with Cane Sugar.
M. Henry has announced a process for the fabrication
of vinegar with wine of sugar. He thus describes his
process:-
* Tecbilologiste, vol. xix. p 303.
easily
Con-
D I F F E R E ~ T KINDS OF VINEGARS. 247
The substances employed to produce the vinegar are
the alcoholic liquids resulting from the fermentation of
the cane-sugar molasses.
This molasses is dissolved in water, heated at 104 to
122, and poured into a fermenting-vat, at a tempera-
ture of 60 to 6!'0; by the addition of yeast, fermenta-
tion is developed, which lasts four or five da)'s in sum-
mer, and seven or eight days in winter; the liquor thus
obtained furnishes, when tested, 11 per cent. of alcohol.
The liquid is then filtered and passed several times
through generators, when it is completely transformed
. into vinegar.
Vinegar with Honey.
Honey diluted with a certain quantity of water, and
submitted to fermentation, gives a liquor of a very
agreeablo- taste, called hydromel. When exposed to the
air, it quickly acidifies. The proportions to use are:,-
Honey. 20 pounds.
Alcohol 6 If
Water. 60 ..
Yeast . . 13 ounces.
The fermentation is quick, and the vinegar produced IS
very strong and of good quality.
Vinegar of Molasses.
It is a well-known fact that molasses will not
ferment without the addition of yeast and water.
sequently, if we take-
Molasses
Wa\er
Yeast
12 pounds,
'i gallons,
7 ounces,
and this mixture is exposed to a temperature of about
77, the fermentation soon commences. If this liquor
248 IIANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
is exposed to the contact of the air, or passed through
generators, it is converted into a good vinegar.
If there is too much molasses, the liquor is slow in
acidifying.
Vinegar of Beer.
Beer can be transformed into vinegar in the same
manner as wine; the vinegar it produces is very weak,
and has not a very agreeable taste. It can be rendered
stronger by adding to it three per cent. of molasses or
four of alcohol at 23. At Gand, good beer vinegar is
made with 920 pounds of malt, 342 of wheat, 245 of buck-
wheat; after grinding them, they are boiled three hours
in 13i barrels of water, and 9 of good beer for vinegar
are obtained.
Ale Vinegar.
According to Mackenzie, the following proportions

are the best:-


Malt.
Hops
Sugar
55! quarts.
2 pounds.
S u
Ale, after experiencing a new fermentation. and by
the addition of about 5 quarts of yeast for 100 quarts
of liquid, gives a very good vinegar.
Cider Vinegar.
Every one knows that cider is a sparkling liquid which
is prepared by fermenting the juice of apples ground in
a mill. This juice is more or less rich in saccharine mat-
ter, according to the quality and ripeness of the apples.
The cider obtained. for a similar cause, varies in alco-
holic principles. The apples used in this manufacture
are divided into three classes:-
DIFFERENT KINDS OF VINEGAR. 249
Early apples are generally collected in the middle of
September. The juice they give marks only from 4 to
1)0; it is very acid, ferments well, and is easily clarified;
it does not keep well, and gives only one.fifteenth of its
volume in proof spirit.
Intermediary apples are collected in the middle of
October, and are pressed only one month after being
collectfJd. The juice is less acid than the above, and
marks about 7. The cider they give is very agreeable
to the taste, keeps well, and gives nearly one-tenth in
volume of proof spirit.
Late apples are the most esteemed for the operation;
they are collected the last, after white frost has occurred.
They are put in heaps under sheds, where they grow
warm, sweat, and ripen. The juice they give marks
then from 9 to 12. The cider they give is superior in
quality, but less agreeable to the taste than that of the
intermediary apples. It keeps very well, and gives from
one-tenth to one-eighth of its volume of proof spirit.
To prepare the cider, the apples are well ground in a
mill, and are afterwards submitted to the press; water
is added to the residuum, about the third of the weight
of the apples, pressed again, the two liquors are mixed,
and the fermentation begins quicker and at a lower
temperature than that of the grape-juice. The fermen-
tation is the more rapid as the quantity of the sugar is
less.
After what we have said of the apples, the density of
their juice, and the comparative degree of alcoholization
of the ciders, it is evident that the vinegars obtained
are more or less strong according to the use of the early,
intermediary, or late apples. The first are quickly con-
verted into vinE'gar, without any addition of yeast. The
second are less disposed to that conversion; they are,
250 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
however, transformed in lelis than twelve days by the
addition of yeast. It is not so with ciders from late
apples. particularly if they have been prepared by the
addition of water.
These ciders are very sweet, and very slow to ferment;
hot water and a sufficient quantity of yeast must be added
to them. The process of making vinegar is ver.y simple;
after the apple juice has completely fermentEti, it is
filtered in the filter already described, and then passed
through the generators.
We have spoken of the residuum of the apples, which
is ground and pressed twice, and then thrown away.
We think it would be better to submit it again to the
action of the mill, to add a sufficient quantity of water
at 12:l, and press it. This liquor may be added to a
new residuum, and when it marks 10 or 12 of the
areometer, a good vinegar can be prepared by adding to
it the quarter of its weight of sour residuum.
Perry Yinegar.-All that we have said of the vinegar
prepared from apples may be applied to that prepared
with pears. The juice of pears has a density about equal
to that of apples, b u ~ the liquor is less colored, and more
ready to be clarified.
American Yinegar Generator.*
"The process, &c., which I have invented for making
vinegar on scientific principles, involves no new princi-
ples. All that is necessary to make vinegar from any
properly constructed vinegar fluid is a certain degree of
heat, and a supply of oxygen, which, uniting with the
* Patented Dec. 14, 1869, reissued Jau. 28, 1870: A. D. Stroug,
Ashtabula, Ohio.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF VINEGAR. 251
alcohol of the vinegar fluid, changes it to acetic acid or
vinegar.
.. In the use of any generator, or making v i n ~ a r by
any plan, except from distilled spirits, the putrefaction
of the albuminous substances, etc., which exist in them,
frequently destroys the product. It is this which ren-
ders the making of vinegar from anything but alcohol
by t h ~ German generator nearly
impossible. This azotized sub- Fig. H.
stance gathers on the shavings,
etc., with which generators are
filled, and, from some cause, be-
gins to decompose, rapidly spread-
ing until it becomes insufferable,
and the vinegar is ruined. Hence,
in the use of the American Vine-
gar Generator, it will be necessary
to wash the shelves and keep the
distributors clean, and not permit
the putrefaction to begin.
"With weU-madecideritwill not
be necessary to wash off the snelves, .
etc., oftener than once in from
three to four weeks. S.hould your
cider or other vinegar fluid con-
tain a large amount of albuminous and other similar
matter, the shelves may require washing before they get
warm.
" Description of the AmericanVinegal' Generator.-Make
a tight box of an)" dimensions you choose. Have one
side so arranged that it can be taken off and put on
securely. Inside of this box, on pins to hold them, fit
first your distributor. then the shelves and gatherer.'
" The distributor is made by taking a square stick a
,tile' byGoogIe
252 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
little shorter than the width of the box on its open side,
say one Rnd a half inch square. In this gouge out a
trough with an inch gouge, and say of an
inch deep, but closed at the ends. Now, with a three-
eighth inch bit, bore boles through the bottom of this
trough, and fit in pins loosely and passing through
the bottom, one to about each inch. The shelves are
about of the same length as the distributor, and one-
half inch narrower than the box measures in depth.
Near one edge of the shelf, as convenient, and in it
make a distributor as above described, only it is not
necessary to be so deep. Across the ends with a small
gouge cut a channel, so that from no cause will the fluid
run off except through the distributor. All the shelves
are made alike if the box is rectangular.
"Half-inch shelves are thick enough, and I think it
best to have the fluid run across the grain. Do not
dress the shelves, and make all distributors: except the
first, in the shelves. Use soft wood square pins.
"The gatherer is made just like the first distributor,
only no holes except one, if the fluid is to be carried
through the bottom of the box to the receiver below;
and .longer than the distributor, with one end open, if to
pass out through the side.
"The distributor will be most convenient for future
use if put within about two inches of the top of the
generator, and as close to the front of the box as the
closed door will permit.
" Put in your first shelf, distributor to the back side,
and the front edge directly under the distributor, and so
that the closed door will just touch it. This and each
other shelf must have just fall enough towards its dis-
tributor to make the fluid run into it as it falls off the
ends of the pins of the distributor above, which I find
,
DIFFERENT KINDS OF VINEGAR. 253
to be about one-half inch to the foot. Put in the
second shelf, distributor to the front side, and push it
against the back side of the box. The third shelf is put
in just as the first; the fourth just as the second, and so
on until all are in. By this arrangement you willl'eadily
see that tke side of each shelf on u-hieA the distributor is
does not come within one-half of an inch of either the
back side or door of the generator. Put the gatherer
under the last distributor, and carry off the fluid either
through the side or bottom. of the generator, as you
choose. Bore one one-inch hole for every foot of sur-
face in a shelf through the bottom of the generator, and
the same number through the top. This, with the
arrllngement of the shelves, gives a draft of air (oxygen)
over each shelf with its thin stream (1) of fluid spread
out on it.
"Now you are ready. Let in a small stream of pure
vinegar into the middle of the distributor. Loosen or
tighten the pins, as you may see necessary, to make the
fluid drop evenly on to the shelf below. So on down,
arranging each distributor so that the flow over the
shelf shall be as uniform as practicablE', i. e., wet all the
time. Put in the door, and let it run. Keep the room
at say 75 to bOO Fahr;, and in from six hours to six
days a thermometer, held at one of the holes in the top
of the generator, will indicate 95 to 100 Fahr. Keep
passing the same fluid through, adding a small quantity
of cider each time, say one-eighth. When it is hot, you
are ready to start your manufacture.
"The firstgpnerator of this kind that I built was five
feet eight inches high, in which I put twenty-seven
shelves, six and three-fourth inches wide, and seventeen
inches long. This in my vinegar room would make
from three to four barrels of very fine vinegar in twenty-
254 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
four hours, from old cider without diluting. The weaker
your vinegar fluid is, the sooner it will become vinegar.
Hence, in making large quantities, it is thought best to
make it quite weak, and store in large tanks, on the
bottom of which keep a bed of thick molasses. Do not
stir it up. If kept in a warm room, 75 to 90 Fahr.,
it will improve rapidly. If you are not in haste for re-
turns, I think this plan will suit you best.
"' My generator, like the German, is increased in effi-
ciency as its height is increased You can make it as
short 8.8 you choose, to suit your room, but you can make
it so short as to make it necessary to run the fluid
through several times. Again, you can make it so high
that a small stream will be destroyed in passing through,
and be "dead" vinegar. To remedy any trouble of this
kind, increase the size of the stream. It mav trouble
you somewhat, but it is not so bad to manage as a reaper.
.. With each deed or license I will send special private
instructions, so that with the generator all the various
kinds of vinegar sold in the market can be made. This,
to the person unacquainted with the secrets of
manufacturers and the theory of vinegar-making, will
be of some value.
.. Terms.-To put the Vinegar Generator
within the reach of all who want pure vinegar, I grant
licenses to make and use various sizes, as follows:-
:, square feet of shelf surface $ 3 00
10
" " "
5 00
20
" "
"
10 00
30
..
" "
15 00
0
"
..
"
20 00
50
..
" "
25 00
.. The first size is large enough for family use, and,
well managed, would do for a small retailer. The ex-
DIFFERENT KINDS OF VINEGAR. 255
pense of making is but a trifle, and they can be used
by the side of a stove in any apartment. The best form,
if circumstances will permit, for this size, I think is
twenty-seven shelves, '6 in. by 6 in.'
"As the size increases, the efficiency also increases
more than in proportion to the size. Thus, one with 40
square feet of shelf surface will make more than double
the amount of one with 20."
Fabrication of Beet Vinegar.
This fabrication is divided into two operations: 1st,
treatment of the root to obtain the vinous liquor; 2d,
conversion of that liquor into vinpgar.
There are two processes for preparing fermented juice
from the beet. The operation can be executed with or
without defecation; but the most advantageous process is
the one with defecation, which is operated as follows :-
The beets are carefully washed, grated, and rapidly
submitted to the action of the press. The juioe which
pscapes from the pulp, submitted to the press, is received
into a kettle in which is maintained a temperature of
1H5 to 194, and which is provided with a cock to draw
off the juice after being submitted to the proper treat-
ment. The defecation is generally produced by means
of lime, which is indispensable to have the operation
perfect; but, as for this purpose it is sufficient to have
the defecation partial, tannin is used, which eliminates
the nitrogenized substances, and leaves the salts. A
solution of tannin is added at a temperature of 46, in
the proportion of 10 fluidounces for 25 gallons of juice;
this is poured in just as it runs from the press. After
the arlditionof tannin, and while the juice is boiling, add
from 2} to 21 drachms of sulphuric acid at 66 diluted
with 7 ounces 'of water, the whole for twenty-five gal-
256 MANUFACTURE OF VWEGAR.
Ions of juice. The sulphuric acid combines with the
saline bases contained in the juice, and forms salts favor-
able to the fermentation and the preservation of the
vinous liquid. After the juice has been skimmed off,
add a small quantity of carbonate of lime and water.
The filtering is performed in our filter: then the juice
passes into a kettle to bring it to the required degree of
density, and the evaporation is stopped when it marks
10 or 11 Baume. Filter a second, time and cool the
liquid in the same manner as we have indicated for beer.
When the liquor has reached the temperature of 68 to
70, add to it 100 grains oftartarie acid. Introduce it into
a fermenting-vat of about 1500 gallons capacity, and pour
in 12 pounds of yeast well mixed in a little warm water.
The second process is done without defecation:-
The washing, grating, and pressingare performed in the
same manner as in the first process, and the juice obtained
is fermented with a little yeast. The fermentation once
developed, add new quantities of juice, but not enough
to disturb the movement which is going on. When the
vat is sufficiently filled, decant half the liquor into a
second vat: when that vat is full, pass half of it into a
third; lastly, repeat the operation on the third vat, and
when the juice reaches the fourth it is in a complete
state of fermentation. When the fermentation stops,
and there is remaining but a small quantity of sugar to
be converted into alcohol, decant the vinous liquor, and
let it settle until ready to be transformed into vinegar.
These two processes give good results, but their com-
bination produces superior products.
Let us speak now of the acetification of the vinous
liquor. To make vinegar with beets without deft'cation,
the temperature must not be above 75
0
or 71. Under
the influence of a high temperature, the liquor grows
DIFFERENT KINDS OF VINEGAR. 257
warm, deteriorates, and does not become transformed
into vinegar. As fast as the acetification proceeds, the
taste of the beet disappears. The best place for the
acetic fermentation is a cellar with thick walls, where
the temperature is kept between 77Q, and 86. The air
lIlust be renewed slowly.
The juice must at least pass three times through the
generators, the operator being careful to take all the
precautions indicated in the general process.
Messrs. Neale and Duyck, of London, in 1841, pat-
ented a process for the mannfacture of vinegar from beet
Toot. Their method is the following: The tops and
shoots of the beet are cut off, and the roots, after being
thoroughly washed, are rasped into a fine pulp, which is
placed in strong cloth bags. These bags are fixed in a
powerful press, with a board or hurdle between every
two, and subjected to pressure till the whole of the juice
is extracted from the pulp. The strength of the juice
will vary from 7 to 9 of the hydrometer, and must be
reduced by the addition of water, to 5, and then boiled
for a short time. The liquid, or wort, is now removed
to the coolers, in which it remains until the temperature
falls to 60. It is then conveyed to the fermenting-vat,
adding onehalf gallon of yeast to every 100 gallons of
the wort. When the fermentation is ended, the fer-
mented wash is pumppd into the acidifying vessel, and
is there converted into vinegar.
The acidifying vessel consists of a strong vat, capable
of containing 24,000 gallons, in the centre of which, a
short distance above the bottom, a small inverted dome
is fixed, pierced with numerous small holes, and com-
municating by a pipe with a blowing apparatus. Upon
the bottom of the vat a steam-worm lies, one end of
Muspratt's Dictionary of Chemistry.
17
258 MANUFA.CTURE OF VINEGAR.
which is connected with a steam-boiler, and furnished
with a steam-cock, the other end being open to the
atmosphere.
The interior of the vat is divided into several com-
partments by means of diaphragms, or perforated false
bottoms, and the cover of the vat is provided with a
valve which opens outwards upon a very slight pressure
from within. The vat is likewise furnished with a ther-
mometer, the bulb of which is immersed in the liquid,
by which the temperature of the liquid is known.
The wash is converted into vinegar as follows: Two
thousand gallons of vinegar are first .let into the vat, to
serve as mother to an equal quantity of fermented wash
which is introduced at the same time; and a little yeast
being added, the whole enters quickly into the acetous
fermentation. After the action commences, air is forced
into the apparatus by the blowing machine; the air, in
its passage through the small holes in the false bottoms,
is brought into intimate contact with the liquid, impart-
ing to it a portion of its oxygen; the deoxidized air
and carbonic acid evolved from the vinous fermentation,
being expelled through the valve in t h ~ door, by the
force of the current.
. When the temperature as indicated by the thermom-
eter, falls below 70, a current of steam is admitted into
the worm by turning the cock, so as to maintain the
heat of the vat between 70 and 80. By this means,
the liquid in a few days will be converted into vinegar,
and when that is effected, four thousand gallons more
of the fermented wash are introduced, and the process
is coutinued; the whole eight thousand gallons will, in
a short time, be converted into vinegar.
Fresh charges are added and acidified as just men-
tioned, till the vat contains twenty-four thousand gallons
DIFFERENT KINDS OF VINEGAR. 259
of vinegar; and when the acetous fermentation of the
last charge has ceased, eight thousand gallons of vinegar
are drawn off, and fresh wort added, and drawn off alter-
nately, always keeping 'about sixteen thousand gallons
of made vinegar in the vat.
Lepla!l's Process.-M. Leplay has invented a peculiar
mode of fermentation and alcoholic distillation of the
beet, cut into small slices, without previous extraction of
juice. By this process, the sugar is transformed into
alcohol in the cells of the root itself, while in a state of
extreme subdivision.
When we expose to the open air, in heaps, slices of
beets thus fermented, we observe that much heat is
soon developed in the middle of the mass, and a strong
odor of vinegar is disengaged, while the alcohol grad-
ually diminishes, and is substituted by acetic acid.
M. Leplay uses this property to manufacture, very
economically, vinegar from beets. His method varies
according to the degree of purity and acidity of the
products to be obtained, and the uses to which they are
destined.
The fermentation of the slices of beets is accomplished
by dipping the slices in beet-juice already fermented.
When the alcoholic fermentation is achieved, the fer-
mented liquid is drawn off by a cock placed at the
lower part of the vat, until it no longer contains any
liquid.
The vat is filled anew, but all the interstices between
the slices, which before were filled with fermented juice,
are now filled with air. In this state the absorption of
the oxygen of the air which produces the acetification
takes place with much rapidity.
To render the access of the air more easy and the
operation quicker, dampers are placed at the lower part
260 JUNUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
of the vat, or still better in a wooden chimney, fixed on
a wooden cover which hermetically closes the vat.
A register placed in the chimney is nsed to regulate
the draught at will. After a certain length of time,
which varies with the volume of the mass, the alcohol
is transformed into acetic acid, in the cells of the vat.
Extraction of the Acetic Acidfrom the Fermented Slict!8
of Beet.-The slices of beet having been fermented, as
'\Ve have said, can be used to prepare vinegar by two
different methods. In the first process, the slices of
beet, removed from the vats after the acetic fermenta-
tion, are placed iu a distilling apparatus invented by
M. Leplay, and submitted to a current of steam, pro-
ducing a distilled vinegar of a very agreeable odor and
taste, very pure, and which can be used as well on the
table as in the arts. The strength of the acid is greater
when the amount of steam is reduced and the distilla-
tion is slow.
Iu the second process, when the acetification is com-
plete in the slices, close the air openings in the lower
part of the vat, and let fall, at the upper part of the
vat, water like rain, which, by passing through a sieve,
divides into drops.
The water penetrates little by little into the cells,
displaciug the acid, which runs into the lower part of
the vat, in a more or less concentrated state.
When the liquid which runs into the lower part of
the vat becomes very weak, close the cock, and fill the
vat with water until all the slices are covered; after
maceration, draw off the liquid, which is poured in a
shower on new acid slices in other vats. The action
of the water is continued 011 the slices until they are
completely deprived of acid.
The slicE'S can also be methodically washed by the
DIFFERENT KINDS OF VINEGAR. 261
ordinary method of maceration used in the manufacture
of beet sugar, that is, by the method of displacement. .
Transformation of Beet-Juice into Vinegar.-The trans-
formation of fermented beet-juice into vinegar can also
be performed very easily by the following method:-
When the acetification is completed in the slices
placed in the vat, as indicated above, let fall on a dia-
phragm pierced with holes, placed at the upper part of
the vat, fermented beet-juice, which penetrates each cell
of the acidified slices, and meets there all the conditions
for a quick and energetic fermentation.
It is necessary to observe regularity in the operation,
80 that the fermented juice percolates through the vat
in a state of complete division, and in such quantity that
the circulation of the air is not interrupted.
The running of the fermented juice is regulated so
that the liquid which falls to the bottom of the vat is
entirely converted into vinegar.
When it is necessary to increase the strength of the
vinegar, it is sufficient to add to the beet-juice fromone
to four or five per cent. of alcohol, which experiences
the acid transformation, and thus increases the strength
of the vinegar obtained.
The slices of acidified beet act as a very energetic
acid ferment, which has the property of transforming
diluted alcohol into vinegar more rapidly than by the
ordinary methods.
The slices of fermented beets can be used to prepare
the acetates of copper, and of other metals, as is done
with the residuum of grapes, only the operation is lUore
rapid, and the products are purer.
Other vegetables, such as carrots, turnips, sweet pota-
toes, etc. etc., can be used to prepare vinegar in the same
manner as beets.
262 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
The above methods present over the ordinary processes
the following advantages;-
1. To obtain a complete and more rapid transforma-
tion into acetic acid with less loss in alcohol.
2. To avoid, during the acid fermentation, the putrid
fermentation which destroys the quality.of the products.
3. To obtain products of a variablt: purity and
strength, according to the wants of alimentation and of
industry.
4. Lastly, to avoid all the ordinary manipulations-all
the operations taking place in the same apparatus.
Fabrication of Yinegm' with Beet Juice and Rtsiduum.
By MM. Ruez-Delsaux and VanfCormhoude.-l. The beet
is grated, pressed, or macerated according to the different
processes, and the juice is collected in fermenting-vats.
'l'here it is rapidly transformed into alcohol by fermen-
tation, and this operation finished, the wine obtained is
passed through generators, which we shall describe here-
after.
2. Take the natural pulp as fresh as possible from the
press; macerate it either at the ordinary or an elevated
temperature, or displace the juice by a methodical wash-
ing; bring this juice to 3 or 4; let it ferment, and
pass it through the generators.
3. The fresh pulp is collected, spread in a drying
room where the largest possible quantity of water is
extracted by desiccation. It is kept in pressed heaps,
in perfectly dry and closed store-rooms; when required
for use, it is moistened with eight or ten times its weight
of water, and directly thrown into the fermenting-nt,
and the fermented juice is extracted, either by displace-
ment or by pressure, and passed through the generator.
The saccharine juice may also be first extracted, and
fermented afterwards.
DIFFERENT K.INDS OF VINEGAR. 263
We must remark, ~ h a t to obtain a good vinegar, one
which marks from twenty-two to twenty-four divisions
of the acetometer, it is necessary to have a good alcoholic
fermentation, and the wine must contain from eight to ten
per cen.t. of alcohol. When the juice is not rich enough
in sugar, Rnd consequently the wine is too weak, this
juice is concentrated before fermentation.
Fig. 15. Fig. 16.
Fig. n. Fig. 18.
The generator, as represented in the figures 15, 16,
17, 18, may work in a continuous or intermittent way:
in this last case, at least two generators are required
for a regular operation.
Fig. 15. Vertical Section. Fig. 16. Elevation.
,tile' byGoogIe
264 XANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
. A A, acetifying column; B, pipe to introduce the
liquor; C, pipe through which are disengaged the vola-
tile parts formed during the operation; this pipe com-
municates with a stoneware refrigerator, where the whole
condenses; D, tubulated box for the escape of the gases; E,
box for the insufflation of the oxygen gas or the air, by
a pipe I I, which communicates with a pump or blowing
machine P, Fig. .. The blast passes through a small
barrel, x or in which is bar}"ta, which has been
heated to a red heat, and which is cooled under the effect
of the cnrrent. Exhaust alternately in x and x', until
the complete cooling of the baryta.
00, boxes for the insumation between the diaphragms;
L L, window-glasReS fixed on a frame and luted during
the operation; K K, diaphragms on which are spread
beech shavings, saturated with acetic acid; N N, pipe
making the communication between the blowing ma-
chine, and the baryta; a, cock to empty; r, safety-cock
to empty the box 1), in case of too much liquor passing
out by the column; s S s, pieces of cloth, along which
drops the liquor; these pieces are folded, and kept be-
tween the joints of the as seeu in Fig. 17.
This generator is therefore composed of a vertical
cylinder A A, divided into 8, 10, or 12 partitions, by
floors or diaphragms MK; the joints left between the
floors are of about of an inch, and in these joints a
fine cloth is fixed, having the form of a bag which hangs
in S S S below each fioor, to about i of the height of the
partitions.
On each spread beech shavings saturated
with acetic acid. The cylinder thus fixed is composed
of several floors MM, with their joints of bags, as is seen
in Fig. 16 and in Fig. 17 in s s s.
In the air-box E, we remark the inside boxes 00,
made in such a manner as not to let the liquid con-
tained between the flOOfS run over, and to keep open the
passage for the circulation of the air or oxygen injected
below each floor.
Near the generator is a pump or blowing machine, P,
Fig. 18, which. takes the air by a pipe with a double elbow,
N N N ; at each end of this pipe is a cast.iron barrel, x and
x'. under which a little furnace should be placed. Into
these barrels a few pounds of baryta have been intro-
duced; lastly, between the pump P, and the barrels, are
interposed slides v and V'.
Such dispositions are made as to aspire the air alter-
nately througoh the barrels x and x', by the opening or
the shutting of the slides v or V'.
Let us suppose now that the barrel x is heated to red-
ness, the baryta it contains absorbs the oxygen of the air
with which it is in contact. If, a short time afterwards, the
slide v is opened, the aspiration causes a current of cold
air to pass through the baryta, which, under the impres-
Bion of the cold, abandons the oxygen it has absorbed.
This mixture of air and oxygen is forced into the box
E, from which it is distributed by 00 inside each floor to
escape at the other side in T. This gas thus traverses
all the bags hanging in the middle of the cnrrent from
o in T; while, by the pipe B, descends a stream of alco-
holic liquor which spreads from floor to floor by those
bags; the liquid is all the time in contact with a current
of air continually renewed, and the oxidation takes place
very quickly. Lastly, when the liquid arrives in R, it is
seen if the vinegar has the required strength. The run-
ning of the liquor in B is hastened or slackened, accord-
ing to the rapidity of the oxidization, and when the vine-
gar has reached the required strength, it is put into
barrels.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF VINEGA.R. 265
266' lIANurACTURE OF VINEGAR.
If the acetification is not perfect in R, pass the vinegar
through a second generator.
To hasten the oxidization, place on the diaphragms,
by the window-glasses L, a layer of beech shavings soaked
in good vinegar; the liquid surface thus divided, helps
the action of the air.
Fruit Vinegar.
Currant. Vinegar.-Take ripe currants, crush them
and add three times their weight of water; stir, and
after twenty.four hours pass through a cloth; then
introduce into the liquor one.eighth of brown sugar.
When the fermentation is completed, a vinegar is ob-
tained which has a very agreeable taste and odor.
Raspberry Vinegar is prepared in the same manner as
the above, only that raspberries are used instead of cur-
rants.
Primrose Vinegar.-In fifteen quarts of boiling water
dissolve six pounds of brown sugar; skim off, and add
to the liquor a handful of primrose flowers with suffi-
cient yeast.
Almost any kind of fruit can be treated in the essen-
tially same mat)ner.
Vinegar of Rags.
This process is based on the action of sulphuric acid
upon cellulose, and its transformation into a sugar, which
is very similar to grape sugar. To bring this conversion
about, take six drachms of rags; cut into small pieces,
stir them in a glass mortar, while pouring on them little
by little one ounce of concentrated sulphuric acid.
After fifteen minutes, grind the mixture well; the cloth
disappears, and forms a mucilaginous mass, homoge-
neous, slightly colored, tenacious, and almost entirely
DIFFERENT KINDS OF VINEGAR. . 267
soluble in water. By boiling this substance for ten
hours with water, it is almost completely converted into
a sugar similar to grape sugar; the acid is saturated
with chalk, and the filtered liquor evaporated to a syrupy
consistency. Crystallization soon begins, and in a few
days the whole is formed into a mass. It may be used
in that state for making vinegar in the same way that
we have indicated for ordinary sugar.
20 parts of rags give 23.3 parts of sugar.
Seaweeds (Fuc-us) as a Source of Acetic Acid, by M. J.
Stenhouse.-YVe thus condense the author's report:
"During the course of a series of experiments on sea-
weeds wbich I made known to the Royal Society of Lon-
don, at its meeting of April 28, 1850, I had frequent
occasion to observe that when a mass of these plants is
exposed in heaps, fermentation quickly takes place. As
no one has yet studied the nature of the acids generated
during this fermentation, I have examined this subject
more attentively.
At the ordinary temperature, in Scotland, even
during the summer months, the fermentation of sea-
weeds is very slow, and requires from three to four
months to be complete; but if those plants are kept at
a temperature of 90 to 96, the operation is completed
in two or three weeks.
"1. Six pounds of freshfucus tJesiculosus in a damp
state, were introduced into an earthen jar, with a little
quicklime, and sufficient water to cover them, and were
kept three weeks at 96; small quantities of lime were
added from time to time. When the fermentation was
completed, the liquid portion, which contained a large
quantity of mucilage and a little acetate of ammonia,
was thrown upon a cloth, and the filtered liquor evapo-
Technologist, vol. xii., page 305.
268 MA.NUFACTURE OF VINEGA.R.
rated to dryness, then carefully heated so as not to de
compose the brown acetate of lime, while nearly all the
mucilaginous matter was rendered insoluble.
"The brown mass digested with a little water, fi.l.
tered anew, and the clear solution evaporated to dry-
ness, has given four and a quarter ounces of acetate of
lime. That acetate of lime distilled with hydrochloric
acid, has given twenty-nine ounces of pure vinegar, but
weak, one ounce causing twenty-four grains of carbo-
nate of soda to be saturated.
"Six hundred and sixty-two grains of a!lhydrous car-
bonate of soda require for their saturation 650 grains of
anhydrous acetic acid; then 1 grain of anhydrous car-
bonate of soda is nearly equivalent to 1 grain of anhy-
drous acid. The 29 ounces of the above vinegar would
contain 24 X1X29=696 grains of anhydrous acetic
acid, and, consequently, the 6 pounds have given 1.65
per cent. of anhydrous acetic acid, as the product of the
damp sea.weeds.
"II. Twenty-four pounds of fucus nodoS'US, in a moist
state, have been fermented with lime, at a temperature
of 96, for about five weeks; 20 ounces of crude acetate
of lime have been obtained, which, distilled with hydro-
chloric acid, have furnished 57 ounces of a vinegar, an
ounce of which saturates 43 grains of carbonate of soda.
The total productioq. of acetic acid has been 2451 grains
=1.45 per cent. of the moist fucus nodosus.
"III. Four pounds of fucus vesiculosus have been left
to the open air, with quicklime, at the ordinary tem-
perature, from the 18th June to the 1st of September.
The filtered solution of acetate of lime, after being
evaporated to dryness and distilled with hydrochloric
acid, has furnished 46 ounces of a weak vinegar. an
ounce of which saturated 7 grains of carbonate of soda,
IMPROVEHENTS IN THE QUICK PROCESS. 269
or a total of 322 grains=1.15 per cent. of the moist sea-
weeds.
"It is then evident that, if the sea-weeds are fer-
mented at the ordinary tempernture, the operation is
very slow,and gives a less product than at 90
0

"The vinegar obtained with the fucus contained a


small quantity of butyric acid. When saturated with
carbonate of soda, evaporated to dryness, and kept some
time in a damp atmosphere, a small quantity deli-
quesced. The liquid portion separated from the solid salt
was evaporated to dryness. It formed a saponaceous mass,
having the odor of the butyrates, and digested with
a mixture of alcohol and suiphuric.acid, it gave butyric
ether. By analysis it was found to have the composi-
tion of butyric R.cid."
CHAPTER XXVII.
IMPROVEMENTS IN THE QUICK PROCESS.
PROCESSES OF URE-HAH-DINGLER-ANTBON-KNAPP.
NEW GENERATOR OF DR. SPITALER, BY HB. SCHWEINBERG. j
PASTEUR'S PROCE58-TILDEN'S IHPROVEKENT IN THE GEN-
ERATOR-THE AUTHOR'S PROCESS.
Ure's Process.
One very large generator is employed, instead of sev-
eral small ones. With an equality of stave surface, the
cubic contents are much increased; and in a stone or
brick building, the heat remains so constant in the gen-
erator, that stoves are not required. A vinegar manu-
factory in London employs generators of the following
dimensions: diameter at top, 15 feet; diameter at bot-
270 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
tom, 14 feet; height, 13 feet. The false bottom stands
about 26 feet from the true bottom, and under it, and
above the liquid surface, is the pipe for the extraction
of the air, which therefore has a downward motion.
The generator is too high for the employment of beech
shavings, which would be crushed, and is filled with
wooden chips. The distribution of the liquor over the
chips is made in a very satisfactory manner by a vertical
tube ended by a horizontal cross pipe, closed at the ends,
and perforated with a number of small holes. These
tubes are made to revolve slowly by machinery, hence
there is more regularity in the flow of the liquors than
by any other process. These tubes receive the alcoholic
wash in their centl"e from a reservoir above, the flow of
which is regulated by a stopcock. A cover is fixed
above the horizontal distributing pipe, with space
enough for the passage of the hollow central axis, and
of the air necessary for oxidization.
A pump constantly brings to the upper reservoir the
wash which has fallen to the bottom of the generator,
and the air is exhausted by means of an exhauster com-
posed of two small gas-holders, one of which is raised,
while the other is lowered into tuns filled with water.
The portions of alcohol volatilized or mechanically car-
ried by the air are condensed in the water, which is used
for making the wash for another operation.
The supply of air can be regulated at will, and the
operation is considered in good progress when a piece of
twine saturated with sugar of lead, dried, and ignited,
is when dipped into a bottle filled with the
exhausted air. It has been found by analysis that the
air leaving vinegar generators in good working order,
has lost as much as one-fourth of its proportion of
ox-ygen.
I.HPROVE.HENTS IN THE QUICK PROCESS. 271
Ham's Process.
Mr. Ham, of Bristol, obtained a patent for an appa-
ratus of large dimensions, very similar in its operation
to the preceding one. The difference consists in the
use of birch twigs inl!tead of chips, and in a revolving
pump with several perforated shoots, instead of revolv-
ing pipes, for the delivery of the liquors upon the
twigs. The air has an upward motion, which is prefer-
able, and is admitted from holes under the false bottom.
The pump works the wash over and over again from the
bottom, until the whole is transformed into vinegar. The
twigs seem to allow the employment of liquors quite
rich in mucilagillous substances. The temperature is
kept at about 100.
Process for preparing strong Vinegar economicallJl in 48
Hours; by M. Dingler.
Take brandy at 18 or 19 (Cartier, Holland proof)
A room is provided with casks of a capacity of 125 to
150' gallons filled with beech shavings prepared with
vinegar. Early in the morning, heat the room to 9bo
or 103
0
; pour into each barrel, with a watering-pot, a
mixture of one quart of ferment, as much brandy, and
eighteen quarts of water at the temperll.ture of about
71. Immediately close the barrel with its cover, and
when the temperature of the room has fallen down to
90, bring it back to 98 and keep it thus.'
Twelve hours after, draw off the liquid, which is at
the bottom of the barrels; p8br it over again, and cover
the barrels.
Next morning, after carrying the temperature of the
room at 99 to 104, water the shavings with a new
mixture made with Ii quart of brand)', and as much
272 JUNUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
ferment; draw off the liquor, and pour it back on the
shavings. In the evening renew the drawing and pour-
ing, and next morning the vinegar is made; then draw
off and begin a new acetification.
The room can be heated by a stove, and the shavings
and generators fixed as we have indicated in the gene-
ral process.
Improvement in the Quick Process, by M. C. F. Anthon.
The apparatus consists of a box, the dimensions of
which are regulated according to the quantity of vine-
gar to be made, but which ought gemrally to be from 6
to 9 feet long and wide, ami 3 to 4i feet deep. Inside
the box, spread a doth disposed in the same manner
as those of a drying.room, that is, the cloth is supported
upon successive rollers, from one end of the box to the
other, with the difference. however, that in fixing the
cloth, we must give to each breadth an inclination in
the contrary direction, so that the liquid destined to
make the vinegar which runs first on the upper breadth,
runs over it slowly, then covers' the second breadth,
inclined in the contrary way. on which it proceeds
slowly to the third &c., until it has reached the end of
the cloth.
The front part of the box is provided with a door,
which can be hermetically closed. On the upper part
is a vessel containing the liquid to be acetified. The
vessel has in the bottom many little holes, in which
are fixed small glass tubes, which penetrate the box by
an opening in its cover. 'the diameter of these tubes
is such, that the liquor runs only in a very small
stream.
In the box itself near its bottom, and at the end of
the last breadth of the cloth, is placed a receiver about
IHPROVEKENTS IN THE QUICK PROCESS. 273
10 to 12 inches high, into which dips a glass tube curved
like a syphon, which passes through one of the sides
of the box, and by which the vinegar runs over. On
the same side as the receiver, there is pierced in the
box, at about 12 inches from the bottom, a series of
small conical holes as in ordinary generators. At the
upper part of the box, bot on the opposite side from the
receiver, is a draught chimney, in the middle of which
passes the pipe of a stove placed in the factory. The
object of this disposition is to produce a current of air
in the apparatus.
The advantages of this apparatus are evident. While
in an ordinary generator the liquid to be acidified runs
from 1i to 9 feet, in such a box as "we have just de-
scribed it runs from 75 to 108 feet; besides, the liquid
is under more favorable conditions for acidification, as
it runs better on cloth than it can on the shavings.
Thus we see that with this disposition the air is
constantly in contact with the liquor, which is not" the
case in the tuns in which the air passes imperfectly
through the s ~ a v i n g s .
Quick Process for making Vinegar. The Losses which are
experienced, alld their Cttuses; by M. F. Knapp.
Among all the processes for making vinegar, that of
Schutzenbach, or the quick method, is the most ele-
gant. There are very few cases in which we have
succeeded so well in establishing the theory of a chemical
art, and put it in harmony with the technical processes.
Whilst the action of the oxygen of the air on alcohol
was known for a long time at least in its definitive
result, that is, the formation of acetic acid, it is not less
true that the knowledge of the fundamental principles
of the metamorphosis that alcohol experiences by the
18
274 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
oxidization dates only from the discovery and study of
aldehyde by Liebig, and the indication of the happy
applications which can be made in the practice of the
truths that he has discovered. But, as far advanced as
is our chemical knowledge on this subject, there are
yet some points in the practical process which deserve
to be taken into consideration.
As in practice we cannot give the materials exactly,
the quantity of air necessary to transform the alcohol
into acetic acid, and, on the contrary, under ordinary
circumstances, a great excess of air passes, it is inter-
esting for the manufacturer to know the composition of
that excess. This effect is, indeed, not only useless
for the oxidization, but directly noxious by the heat it
absorbs, and by the vapor of alcohol it carries with it.
The measure of this noxious influence is the object
of the following researches.
All the experiments were made in a manufactory
where they work with six generators 'disposed in the
ordinary manner. As in that locality the vinegar used
is only at 3 or 4 per cent. of acid; the ordinary mixture
is:-
Water
Alcohol at HO or 45 Tral1et1
Vinegar at 3.6 pro ct. of acid
360 litres.
40 ..
13 II
which gives 406 to 408 litres of vinegar.
As a starting-point for the solution of the principal
question, it was important to measure the absolute quan-
tity of air which must pass through the generator to
transform a given weight of the mixture into vinegar of
a determined strength. Since \re know the diameter of
the air-holes, we need only to determine the speed
with which the air is introduced, to calculate the quan-
IMPROVEMENTS IN THE QUICK PROCESS. 275
tity which passes in one second, one minute, one hour;
but.all the means proposed until now present serious
objections as to their exactness; M. Knapp has used
a peculiar process based on the quantity of acetic acid
formed, which we shall describe in full.
Researches on the Strength of Vinegar. - The usual
method by which the strength of vinegar is measured,
by saturating it with ammonia, is not sufficient for this
purpose. He has determined the quantity of acid at
the time it left the generator, by means of pure car-
bonate of lime. To a certain weight of vinegar he adds
finely-powdered carbonate, the whole is kept for some
time at a moderate heat, and the residuum, after the
saturation is completed, is weighed.
Seven experiments made on vinegar at the time it was
drawn from the generator after 48 hours of work, have
given an average of 2.608 pro ct. of hydrated acetic acid.
This vinegar still contains a little alcohol, which
must be included in the calculation. It is determined
by distilling the vinegar perfectly neutralized, and the
alcohol passes in the distillation.
According to the different determinations, lOf}--parts
of vinegar drawn off from the generator were formed of
Water
Hydrated acetic acid
Alcohol
96.4
2.6
1.0
100.0
Researches on the Air disengaged from the Generator.-
It is demonstrated that the air, in passing through the
generator, is imperfectly deprived of its oxygen, by the
fact that a lighted match continues to burn in it. To
determine the remaining portion of oxygen, the method
of Gay-Lussac has been employed.
276 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
In the following examinations it has been considered
that the intensity with which the transformatioIltof a
given quantity of alcohol is accomplished varies with the
time of the operation, and it has been difficult to find
a mean point. Consequently, the acetification of 413
litres has been followed step by step, as well as making
an analysis of the air at different periods of the opera-
tion in the generator.
Expt. I.-Specimen taken in generator No.1, at the
time the mixture began to run, temperature 77.
Eorpt. 2.-1n generator No.6, the temperature was
at 81.8.
Eorpt. 3.-In generator No.1, half an hour after the
first drawing, temperature 72.4.
Expt. 4.-After a second drawing in the generator
No.1, temperature 72.4, after four hours.
Expt. 5.-The same in generator No.1, and a little
after four hours, temperature 84.2.
Eorpt. 6.-The same in generator No.6, temperature
80.6, at the same time as the fifth.
Expt. 7.-After the eighth drawing, and after twenty-
four hours, temperature 93.2.
Expt. S.-After the ninth drawing from the generator
No.1, after thirty hours' work, temperature 86.
Expt. 9.-Same as for generator No.6, temperature
89.6.
Eorpt. 10.-After the twelfth drawing, after thirty-
five hours in generator No.1, temperature 80.8.
Expt. n.-Same in generator No.6, temp. 80.8.
The following table will show the analytical results
from the different experiments.
IMPROVEKENTS IN THE QUICK PROCESS. 277
Kamber of lhe Analyled air In Oxypn ablorbed RemalDIDg altropn In 100 parI.
..:periment cab. ceal. In cnb. c.nl. In cnb. ceDI. of the air aaalyd.
----
I 31.44 6.42 25.02 20.61
2 30.04 6.07 24.97 20.21
3 32.54 4.45 18.09 19.74
4 32.05 6.51 26.54 17.19
5 33.59 5.63 27.96 16.78
6 32.15 6.29 25.86 1956
7 32.15 5.75 26.78 17.62
7 32.80 6.11 26.69 18.63
8 33.52 6.34 27.18 18.94
9 32.90 6.31 26.59 19.18
10 33.20 6.40 26.80 19.26
10 33.50 6.59 26.96 19.67
11 33.90 6.60 27.30 19.47
11 31.54 6.08 25.46 19.28
Verillealloll.
Meau.
19.10
12 27.01 5.79 21.22 21.43
These results show that in the operation of the gene-
rator there is only one-tenth of the oxygen absorbed,
while nine-tenths pass without alteration; and further,
that the oxygenation, and consequently the acetification,
proceed with an intensity which remains about the
same, while the temperature of the generator varies
greatly; lastly, that this temperature cannot be con
sidered as a guide to the regular operation of the process,
and that we are not forced to admit that the absorption
of the oxygen by alcohol produces in the generator free
heat, which is manifested by an elevation of temperature.
The examinations show that the average proportion
of oxygen in 100 parts in volume of the air which
. 19 10 h . h . f 19.10 1
escapes IS ., t at IS t e proportion 0
Then, as the mixture indicated above--that is, 413
lit res-gives 412 kilogrammes of vinegar, which, at 2.6
per cent. of acid, contained 10.71 of hydrated acetic
acid, it results that for the formation of 10.71
of acid are required 20.95 cubic metres of this air, the
temperature of the room being at 79. 4.37 cubic metres
278 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
are absorbed as oxygen, and 16.58 cubic metres are dis-
engaged in the form of nitrogen by the upper openings of
the generator. By supposing in these calculations that
100 kilogrammes of hydrated acetic acid require 53
. kilogrammes of oxygen, or 253 kilogrammes of air,
equal to 196 cubic metres, it would result that the mass
of air which passes without any alteration is, at 79,
from 164 to 16S cubic metres of nitrogen, and that from
180 to 1135 cubic metres of air pass through the gene-
rator which are wholly inactive.
The diameter of the air-holes being known, 35 milli-
metres, and the number of those which are opened be-
ing four, it results that the speed of the air must be of
22 millimetres each second in a work of forty-eight
hours.
Now, as the theory indicates that for 1 kilogramme
of acetic acid we need 1 kilogramme 96 of air, hav-
ing a volume of 1.60 cubic metre, and that in reality,
for the 10.71 kilogrammes of acetic acid, there have
been consumed at least 180 cubic metres of air-that is,
more than ten times as much-we conceive how this
excess must be disadvantageous, and exercise a noxious
influence upon the pl'oduction by the heat it takes, and
the alcohol it canies off. The amount of the loss is
easily calculated.
The mixture employed each time is 360 litres of
water and 40 of alcohol (specific gravity 0.943, corre-
sponding to 35.5 per cent. in weight), and 13 litres of
vinegar (at 3.5 per cent.) in weight. If we do not cal-
culate the vinegar employed as ferment, we have:-
Water .
Alcohol at 90
Kilogrammes.
360
37.75
391.15
IMPROVEMENTS IN THE QUICK PROCESS. 279
On the other hand. the quantity of vinegar produced
in reality is 412 litres, which, after deducting 13
litres of vinegar already made, added as ferment, cor-
responds to:-
Water .
Hydrated acetic acid
Alcohol at 90
Kllogrammes.
377.25
10.50
11.25
399.00
The final result of the process in the generators is
then limited to the formation of 10.50 kilog. of hydrated
acetic acid. or to the oxidization of a corresponding
quantity of alcohol, viz: 22.65 kilog., of alcohol at 45.
But we have exposed 37.75 kilog. to the action of
the air, from which we found again 11.25 kilog. in the.
vinegar which have experienced no change; then, there
have disappeared 37.75-11.25=26.50 kilog. in the gen-
erator. These 26.50 kilog. should be found in the acetic
acid,.which is not the case; only 22.50 kilog., which are
represented by 10.50 kilog. of acetic acid, are found;
then the balance, 26.50-22.50=4 kilog., have been lost
during the fabrication, or about 10 per cent. of the alcohol
used.
We see that, in consequence of the imperfection of the
process, there is not only a diminution in the strength,
but also in the absolute quantity of the product, which,
according to the theory. ought to be more considerable.
'Vhen there is no account kept of the vinegar added as
a ferment, the mixture consists of:-
Water
Alcohol
Kllogrammes.
360.00
37.75
397.75
280 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Then, as 4 kilog. of alcohol are lost, there remain in
the mixture for the formation of the vinegar:-
Water
Alcohol
Kllogl'Rmmell.
360.00
83.75
398.75
According to what has been said above, there are
only 22.6 kilog. which have experienced the oxygenation
by absorbing 5.40 kilog. of oxygen, the balance has
experienced no alteration. According to the calcula-
tion, the 393.75 of mixture consists of 393.75+5.50=
399.25 kilog. of vinegar, the loss in alcohol being de-
ducted. The product obtained in practice is 406 to
408 litres, or, after deducting the 13 litres of vinegar
added, 393 to 395 litres weighing 393 to 395 kilog.,
that is, from 3 to 4 kilog. less than by calculation.
An interesting point was to establish by experiment,
under similar circumstances, what degree of dilution of
the alcoholic mixture influences the loss, or, which is
the same, if there is more 'advantage for the manufac-
turer, to immediately produce ordinary vinegar, or a
stronger vinegar which should be diluted with water.
To resolve this question, it was sufficient to repeat the
above experiments with a mixture richer in alcohol.
The above mixture contained one-ninth of alcohol; the
next was stronger, containing 360 litres of water and 76
litres of alcohol at 45, which was added in two suc-
cessive portions.
This mixture of 360 l i t r ~ s of water and 76 litres
of alcohol with 5.40 kilog. of vinegar, weighing 430
kilog., has remained 48 hours at work, during which
time we have submitted the escaping air to the follow-
ing experiments :-
UIPROVEHENTS IN THE QUICK PROCESS. 281
Expt. I.-Generator No. 1. Temperature of the
generator 86; of the room 84.2. This mixture con-
tained 38 litres of alcohol at the time of the first draw-
Ing.
E.xpt. 2.-At the time of the second drawing in gene-
rator No. 1. Temperature the same as above.
E.xpt. 3.-Generator No. 1 after the whole quantity
of alcohol had been added, and at the third drawing.
Temperature of the generator and the room 84.2.
Expt. 4.-Generator No.1 after the fourth drawing.
Temperature as in the first experiment.
Expt. 5.-Generator No.1 after the seventh drawing.
Temperature of the generator 91.4; of the room 84.4.
E.xpt. 6.-Generator No. 1. Temperature of the gene-
rator 91.4; of the room 84.2.
E.xpt. 7.-Generator No.6. Temperature of the gene-
rator 91.4; of the room 84.2, after the eleventh drawing.
The following table gives the results of the analyses
during the 7 experiments.
1I'amber ot lbe Air analYled In Oxygen aboorbod Nllrogen remaining Oxygen In 100 part.
es:perlmenta. cub. cent. In cnb.ent. In cnb. conL or air analYled.
----
I 33.10 6.25 26.85 18.88
2
31.40 5.86 25.54 18.66
3 27.60 5.20 22.40 18.84
4 32.02 6.07 26.95 18.33
5 32.13 5.87 26.26 18.27
6 33.88 5.48 27.40 16.67
7 32.30 6.21 26.09 19.22
Experlmont ot
Hean.
...rllcatlon.
18.41
8 313.36 66.7 246.69 21.26
The strength of the vinegar is from three experiments,
of 2.63 in the first, 2.84 in the second, and 2.76 in the
third, and consequently an average of 2.74 per cent. in
monohydrated acetic acid.
We see that by a more considerable addition of alco-
hol, the absorption of the oxygen has not sensibly in-
2 8 ~ MANUFAOTURE OF VINEGAR.
creased, nor the loss diminished. Hence it is indifferent
to the manufacturer to make with 40 litres of alcohol
vinegar at 2.6 per cent. either by operating on a stronger
mixture which is afterwards diluted, or by immediately
preparing it.
The above facts permit conclusions which are not with-
out importance for the manufacturer.
There is no doubt that the loss of ten per cent. in the
alcohol will be less when the air which goes out from
the generator is immediately conducted outside by pipes,
preventing its mixture with the atmosphere of the room.
The loss is diminished by this disposition, but is not
entirely avoided; for, according to experience, and as
Liebig has demonstrated, the loss never reaches below
seven or eight per cent. of the quantity of vinegar which,
according to calculation, should be obtained.
The causes of the loss of alcohol are not due to the
nature of the operation itself. and are not entirely un-
avoidable. There are three principal points which can
be considered as a base for improvement. First, the
diminution of the air introduced, and consequently a
more complete absorption of the oxygen; secondly, a
better economy of the heat which is developed in the
formation of the vinegar; and thirdly, the adoption of a
process proper to condense the vapor, without stopping
the work in the graduator.
The first point presents some serious difficulties; in-
deed, the subdivision of the acetic mixture, or, which is
the same, its surface with which the air is in contact, is
not so great in the ordinary generators as it is supposed
from their dispositions. The reason is that the upper
part pierced with holes, serving to divide the liquid,
does not, on account of obstructions, uniformly divide the
mixture in the whole horizontal section of the generator,
so that instead of letting it fall in a continuous shower, it
UlPROVEKENTS IN THE QUICK PROCESS. 283
runs by intermitting streams on the shavings. Conse-
quently, there must be occasions when the air cannot
exercise all its action on the mass, and others in which
there is not enough mixture for the oxidization.
It is a demonstrated fact that the heat which is dis-
engaged by the oxidization of the alcohol is sufficient to
keep a mixture at the temperature necessary for acidifi-
cation. The heating of the room is merely to replace
that portion of heat which has been lost.
The smalhlr the quantity of liquor worked at once, the
greater is the loss of heat. The manufacturers of vine-
gar by the quick process have this disadvantage, that
the product is obtained by fractional portions in a cer-
tain nnmber of generators, which occasions too much
cooling, and preents the preservation of the heat.
The means of collecting the alcoholic vapors by con-
densation have not until now particularly attracted the
attention of the manufacturer.
The English have surmounted with success the diffi-
culties which are encountered in the quick process, and
we must say a few words of the manufacture as prac-
tised in that country.
It is known that the immediate preparation of vine-
gar by alcohol is impossible in England, on account of
the high taxes on this article. The quick process, ac-
cording to the English mode, rests on the modificaiions
that starch experiences from the acids, and the trans-
formation of that substance into sugar. They do not
start, as in other countries, from the acetification of
alcohol, but from the saccharification of the starch,
which makes two steps more to take-transformation
into sugar, then into alcohol, and lastly into acetic acid.
If the product were distilled, the manufacturer would
have to pay the tax, and the best plan was not to elimi-
284: HANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
nate the sulphuric acid, but to leave it in the liquor;
and when the vinegar was made, to separate the sul-
phuric acid by distillation. The method employed for
making the vinegar is the same as the ordinary one, but
with the following modifications.
A very large tun, sliKhtly conical, having a diameter
..at the bottom of about 13 feet, and at the top of 14:
feet, and 12 feet high, gives daily as much vinegar as 6
tuns 8 feet high, and 31 feet in diameter. We may at
first state the advantages of such a generator, and its
capacity compared with its outside surface; the surface
of this vessel would be the same as the 6 tuns taken
together (the English tun has 588 sq. feet, and the 6
tuns together 584: sq. feet of outside surface); but the
capacity of the first being 2084 cubic feet, is nearly 3.7
times more considerable than that of the 6 others,
which is only about 565 cubic feet; a necessary conse-
quence of that disposition is a more perfect preservation
of the heat; and, indeed, the temperature which is
spontaneously developed in the English tun is 80 great
that there is no necessity for heating the room.-
This large tun is divided into two compartments by
a false bottom, placed about two feet from the bottom.
The upper space is filled with beech shavings, and the
lower is destined to receive the mixture.
At a certain height above the generator a reservoir
for the liquid is placed; a pipe descends from this per-
pendicularly to the generator, where it enters by a large
opening pierced in its cover, below which it divides
into two branches a little shorter than the diameter of
the tun, and running horizontally at about an inch
* In the chapter on making vinegar from grain we have given the
details of the manipulation.
IMPROVEMENTS IN THE QUICK PROCESS. 285
above the surface of the shavings. The ends of these two
branches are closed, and the mixture escapes through
a number of little openings pierced at"' the lower part.
This apparatus moves In the upper receiver, and is
made to revolve slowly by power applied to the vertical
axis of this system of pipes.
By this method the juice runs in a very small stream
through the openings of the branches, and gradually
covers the entire surface of the shavings.
The renewal of the air is not made according to the
same principle as that of the chimneys, but in a con-
trary direction, that is, from top to bottom, by means of
an hydraulic apparatus; as for the introduction of the
air, it is done by the same opening in the cover through
which the liquid runs, and which, being larger than the
pipe, leaves an empty space all around it, by which the
air can penetrate. The air apparatus consists princi-
pally of two vessels, dipped in two reservoirs of water,
which by steam power are alternately raised or low-
ered in those reservoirs. When they ascend they pump
in the air, which afterwards escapes by the pressure when
they are lowered.
Immediately below the false bottom and on the side, a
pipe enters which reaches to the centre of the generator.
And so that the effect of the suction may be equal
through all the section, there is placed above the open-
ing of the pipe, and parallel to the bottom, a wooden
disk of about 3t feet diameter, which prevents the
acidified liquor from running into the pipe.
The part of this pipe outside of the generator is
curved to fit itself to the aspirating apparatus, and
divides into two branches, each one of which goes to one
of the two vessels, where it penetrates by an" opening
286 :MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
provided with a valve which opens inwardly. Near
this valve there is another, but o p e n i n ~ in a contrary
direction, and disposed in such a way that it opens
only when it is below the level of the water. This
mechanism is easy to understand, since when the aspi-
rators are raised, the air passes into the pipe and :fills
them, and when they are lowered, the air escapes throuKh
the water by the second valve. While the second aspi-
rator is filling with air, the first becomes empty, so that
the apparatus is always in action.
The advantage of these dispositions is easy to under-
stand; first, the heat produced by the transformation is
more thoroughly kept; the division of the mixture is
also more uniform and without interruption; lastly, the
ventilation not depending upon the temperature, can
be regulated more easily and in a ratio with the running
of the mi:ltture.
The alcoholic vapors are also condensed in the water
where the aspirators dip, which water is afterwards
used to prepare a new mixture, and in this way the loss
in alcohol is very small.
The vinegar is completely prepared in the generator,
that is, it is brought to the required strength of 5.5
per cent. of hydrated acid, and is sold to the trade with-
out further preparation.
New Generator of Dr. Spitaler,. by M. Schwein.sberg.
The generator of Spitaler, which can be used for
family purposes, is a glass cylinder filled with small
pieces of charcoal; it is about one foot long, six inches
in diameter, and of a capacity to hold five or six quarts
of liquid. This cylinder is closed at the top by a
glass disk, but in such a manner as to permit the in-
troduction of the air. In the bottom there is an opening
IMPROVEMENTS IN THE QUICK PROCESS. 287
for the drawing off of the vinegar. At a temperature
of 59 to 68, it furnishes every day 5 ounces of a
limpid, colorless vinegar, very acid, and neutralizing Ii
ounce of anhydrous carbonate of potassa.
Every evening add 5 ounces of a mixture consisting
of 1 part alcohol at 34 Baume and 11 parts of water,
let it run in a small stream so as to divide it well over
the charcoal, close the generator, and next day the
vinegar is collected. .
Independently of its agreeable taste and its limpidity,
this vinegar keeps very well and experiences no altera-
tion. It does not become muddy, or mouldy, but be-
haves like a mixture of pure acetic acid and water.
New Industrial Process for the Fabrication of Vinegar;
by M. L. Pasteu.r.
oM. Pasteur has made known the property possessed
by the mycoderma, principally those of wine and vine-
gar, to be used as a means for transferring the oxygen
of the air to a multitude of organic substances, and
for determining their combustion with a surprising
rapidity. M. Pasteur has thus described his process
before the Chemical Society of Paris:-
"I spread the m!lcoderma aceti, or mother of vinegar,
on the surface of a liquid formed with ordinary water
containing 2 pro ct. of its volume of alcohol, Rnd one pro
ct. of acetic acid from a preceding operation, and besides
a few ten-thousandths of alkaline and earthy phosphates.
The small plant develops itself, and soon covers the
surface of the liquid without leaving an empty space.
At the same time the alcohol acetifies. When the ope-
ration goes on well, when half, for instance, of the alcohol
is transformed into acetic acid, add every day alcohol in
288 I [ ' ~ N U F ACTURE OF VINEGAR.
small quantities, or wine, until the liquid has received
alcohol enough to make the vinegar of the required
strength. As long as the plant continues to produce
the acetification, add alcohol. When its action begins
to weakpn, let the acetification finish in what remains.
Draw off all the liquor, then put aside the plant, which,
by washing, will gh"e a liquid slightly acid and nitrogen-
ized, capable of further service.
"The vat is then put to work anew. It is indis-
pensable not to let the plant need alcohol, because its
power of transferring oxygen would be applied, on one
hand, on the acetic acid, which would be transformed
into water and carbonic acid, and on the other, to some
volatile principles bardly determined, the subtraction of
which renders tbe vinegar insipid and without aroma.
Besides, tbe plant deprived of its babit of acetification,
regains it only with a less energy. Another precaution,
Dot less necessary, is not to allow a too great develop-
ment of the plant; for its activity would increase beyond
measure, and the acetic acid would be partially trans-
formed into water and carbonic acid, even if there was
an excess of alcohol in the liquid. A vat with a surface
of ten square feet, containing 50 to 100 qts. of liquid,
gives every day 5 or 6 qts. of vinegar. A thermometer
giving the tenth of degrees, dipped in the liquor, permits
us readily to follow the progress of the operation.
"The best vessels to employ are round or square
wooden vats, shallow, similar to those used in breweries
to cool the beer, and provided with covers. At the ends
are two openings of small dimensions to permit the air
to enter. Two tubes of gutta percha, fixed on the bot-
tom of the vat, and pierced with small holes, are em-
ployed to add the alcoholic liquid, without it being
necessary to raise the cover or disturb the plant.
llIPROVEKENTS IN THE QUICK PROCESS. 289
"The largest vats I have tried had a surface of about
ten square feet, and were eight inches deep. I may add,
that the advantages of the process have been much more
appreciable- when I have employed vats of larger dimen-
sions, and have operated at a lower temperature.
" I ha.ve said that the liquid on the surface of which I
have spread the plant, ought to contain some phosphates
in solution. These are indispensable. They are the
mineral elements of the plant. Further, if to the num-
ber of these phosphates we add that of ammonia, the
plant borrows of the base of this salt all the nitrogen it
requires, in such a way that we can produce the com-
plete acetification of the alcoholic liquor, containing
about one ten-thousandth of each of the following salts:
"Phosphates of ammonia, potassa, and magnesia, the latter
being dissolved in a small quantity of acetic acid, which
furnishes, at the same time, with the alcohol, all the
carbon necessary to the plant.
"What are the advantages of this new process 1
Before indicating them, I must remark that there arp.
two industrial processes for making vinegar. One known
by the name of the Orleans process, can be applied only
to wine. Another is known as the German or quick
process. This is very rapid, but cannot be applied
to wine or beer direct, and its products are of an
inferior quality, particularly if prepared from alcohol
not rectified. The price of wine vinegar is twice as
high as that of the alcohol vinegars. This process
causes, also, considerable loss of material, because the
alcoholic liquid, in a state of great division, is always
* Here M Pasteur describes the process; 88 we have already
spoken of it, we shall omit it.
19
290 KANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
submitted to a current of air, heated by the acetification
itself.
" I must remark that the superiority of wine vinegars
is not entirely due, as many believe, to the fact that they
are manufactured with wine, but principally to their
mode of fabrication, which preserves in the vinegar cer-
tain undetermined volatile principles, with an agreeable
odor, and which. are lost by the other processes. On
account of these principles, wine vinegars seem stronger
to the taste and smell than alcohol vinegar, even if the
proportion of acid is the same.
"But it is useful that I should enter into some details
on a very singular inconvenience in the wine process,
and which has hitherto been unnoticed. This inconveni-
ence is due to the preaellce in the acetifying casks of
vint>gar-eels.
"All the casks, without exception, in the Orleans
system of fabrication, are full of them, and as they are
never taken out but partially, since from 100 quarts
of vinegar they draw, only 10 quarts every eight days,
their number is sometimes prodigious. These animals,
to live, need some air. My experiments prove that the
acetification is produced only at the surface of the
liquid. in a thin veil of m!Jcoderma aceti, which is con-
stantly renewed. Let us suppose that this veil is in
process of active acetification, then all the oxygen which
comes to the surface of the liquid is used, the whole of
it by the plant, and none is left to the eels. These,
then, being deprived of the possibility of breathing,
and guided by a marvellous instinct, retire to the
sides of the barrel, where they form a damp, white
layer, nearly one inch thick. But it is easy to under-
stand that these eeltJ do not readily give place to the
mycoderma. I have many times assisted in the fight

IMPROVEMENTS IN THE QUICK PROCESS. 291


which took place between them. As fast as the plant,
according to the laws of its development, spread, little
by little, over the surface, the eels ass'mbled below it,
and often, by packs, tried to make it fall into the liquor
in the form of torn rags. In that state it can no ionger
injure them, for I have demonstrated that once the
plant is submerged, its power is almost, if not entirely
lost. I have no doubt that nearly all the irregularities
in the working of the Orleans process are due to the
and that they slacken, and often stop, the acetification.
" By this statement the advantages of the process that
I havp. communicated to the academy can be foreseen. I
operate in vats provided with covers, and at a low tem-
perature. Th'se are generally the conditions of the
Orleans process; but I direct the fabrication at my will.
There is only one which acetifies in the Orleans
process; it is the veil at the surface of the liquid.
Then I develop it under conditions which I determine
and master. I have no e'ls, because if they took
birth they would have no time to multiply, since each
vat is renewed after the plant has acted. Thus the
acetification is at least three or four times more rapid
than in the ordinary process.
"Relatively to the ordinary quick process the advan-
tages are, on one hand, in the conservation of the princi-
ples which give taste to the vim'gar, because the acetifi-
cation takes place at a low temperature; and, on the
other hand, because the evaporation is very small, from
a liquid placed in a covered vat. Lastly, this new pT().
cess can be applied to all alcoholic liquids."
This process is now worked on a large scale at Or-
leans. They manufacture daily 375 gallons of vinegar,
and the time is one-fifth that required by the old method;
.and at the same time the labor is much less costly.

292 JlANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.


Tilden's Improvement in Generators.
This improvement, pa.tented in October 1868, has- the
advantage of permitting the operation at aU seasons
and in a cold room; and the introduction of air into
the generator at any temperature, at the will of the
operator.
Mr. H. A. Tilden, of New Lebanon, New York, thus
describes his process:-
u The object of this invention is to make vinegar from
com or other vegetable materials in a rapid and reliable
manner, and at the same time to produce a very supe-
rior article.
u I make a syrup from corn as described in my patent
of July, 1865, and then dilute the same with the de-
sired quantity of water, and allow the same to remain
in proper vats until sufficiently fermented to become
slightly acid. I then filter the same through a filter of
sand and charcoal or animal black, and the liquid is
ready for being converted into vinegar in the apparatus
next described.
"I remark that the filtration may be performed after
the vinegar has been made; but I prefer to filter the
liquid previously, and if, in the process of fermenting
the syrup, it is desired to end the operation by chemi.
cal ingredients or otherwise, it may be done.
"My apparatus is especially adapted to making vine-
gar from corn syrup as aforesaid, but it will operate
upon any ordinary alcoholic liquid used in the produc-
tion of vinegar.
"Heretofore it has been usual to place the vat con-
taining shavings in a building or room, and to keep
that room at the desired temperature for acidif)'ing the
liquid. This involves considerable expenditure of fuel,
IMPROVBMENTS IN THE QUICK PROCESS. 293
particularly in cold weather, and it is difficult to pro-
perly regulate such temperature.
"The nature of my present invention consists in means
for regulating the temperature of the air in the acidify-
ing vat, by the introduction of currents of warm air near
the bottom thereof, and allowing the same to escape
near the top, so that the proper heat is maintair.ed for
producing vinegar, and the contact of the air with the
liquid facilitates the operation and concentrates the
vinegar by its evaporation.
Fig. 19.
"In the figure, a represents a vat of any df'sired size
or shape; b is a partition therein that is perforated, and
supports the mass of shavings or similar materials o\"p,r
which the liquid trickles from the cistern c, the bottom
,tile' byGoogIe
294 KANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
of which is perforated, and provided with strainers of
cotton wicking or similar material, introduced in the
openings at d. .
"e is a chamber below the partition b, into which the
vinegar runs, and from which it is to be drawn off by
any suitable pipe or faucet.
"Around the vat a is a jacket f, in the bottom of
which are holes 2 2: and from which jacket holes 3 3
pass into the chamber e. These holes 3 3 are to be in-
clined upwards from the inside, to prevent the vinegar
running out of the vat a.
" Within the jacket f, I place a steam coil g, so that
the heat of the air that passes through the holes 2 and
3 may be regulated as desired.
"Openings are allowed for the escape of the warm
air. For this purpose I have shown the holes at 4 4.
" It will be understood that the quantity of vinegar
produced will depend upon the size of the apparatus,
and the thoroughness of its conversion will be according
to the time it is exposed to the action of the air.
" A very pure and uniform quality of vinegar will be
made by my means before described."
The writer has repeatedly tried this apparatus, and
found it to work very well.
The Author's Process.
In this new process, which. is not yet entirely per-
fected, the author has endeavored to ascertain if, instead
of passing through the generators a current of air, oxy-
gen gas in a native state was substituted, the method
would be accelerated, and the vinegar be of a superior
quality.
The processes generally known for making oxygen
r ---
IJlPROVEKENTS IN THE QUICK. PROCESS. 295
gas are too costly to be advantageously employed. and
the apparatus to produce it and pass it through the
generators are too complicated. The author thought to
produce it directly in the generator, and for this pur-
pose he takes advantage of that property of acidified
water to be easily decomposed by electricity into its two
elements, hydrogen and' oxygen; and in that case the
oxygen is much more powerful, since it is in the nascent
state.
Two kinds of apparatus are employed. The first is
the ordinary generator, in the bottom of which is a layer
of vinegar already made. In the liquor are placed two
coils of platinum communicating with the two poles of a
battery. When all is ready, the battery is put in action,
and the alcoholic liquid is allowed to trickle down.
The liquid, in a very divided state. descending, meets
the oxygen gas ascending in the generator, and is rapidly
oxidized and transformed into vinegar. If the action is
too rapid, cold air is let in by the air-holes. During
the process, pure hydrogen escapes, and it is shown that
the acetification is complete when oxygen passes with
hydrogen by the chimney at the top of the generator.
The author's apparatus is more costly; it consists in
a long vat having the form of a generator, but much
narrower. The inside is filled with a double coil of
platinum wire having the shape of a grate; this double
coil communicates with the two poles of a battery. In
the bottom of the vat is a layer of vinegar; the battery
is put in action, and the liquor allowed to drop in the
(orm of rain. As each drop falls on the platinum wires,
a little of the water is decomposed into hydrogen and
oxygen, while at the same time the apparatus is filled
with oxygen due to the decomposition of the water at
the bottom. Hence the acetification takes place more
296 JlANUFACTURE or VINEGAR.
rapidly than with the shavings, 'and is so complete that
not a drop of alcohol is found in the liquid.
The advantages of this process are that a complete oxi-
dization of the alcohol is produced in a very short time,
and the author has proved that one generator in one day
can produce the same amount of vinegar as five ordinary
generators, and the vinegar is of a superior quality.
We do Dot pretend to give this process yet as a com-
plete one. Many points have to be determined; the
force of the electric current, the reduction of the tem-
'perature, etc. etc.; but we can predict beforehand, that
it will be superior to anyone we have ever employed.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
IMPROVING VINEGAR,
IN order to suit the wants of the trade, vinegar must
be of variable strength, color, flavor, and odor. It is
diffi.cult to make an alcohol or malt vinegar resemble
exactly in flavor the true wine or vinegar, but
they may be considerably improved in limpidity,
flavor, and odor by a few simple processes, which are
cheap and not injurious.
Decolnrizing.
The dark and alcoholic wines of Spain and of the
Bouth of France give a very strong and highly colored
vinegar, which will acquire an amber tint by being
roughly mixed with 4 or 5 per cent. of hot milk. The
casein coagulates and precipitates most of the coloring
substances.
IKPBOVING VINEGAR. 297
Bone-black, so much employed by sugar refiners, will
absorb the color of vinegar; but, as acetic acid will dis-
solve the lime and the phosphate of lime of this sub-
stance, the bone-black must be previously carefully
washed with weak hydrochloric acid and rinsed in fresh
water.
Coloring.
There are many ways of coloring a white vinegar,
whether by/mixing it 'with a dark one, or by adding to
it a small proportion of burnt sugar, burnt onion, chicory,
coffee, and the juice of blackberries, black mulberries,
or elderberries.
Malt vinegar will acquire the desired coloration by
the employment of brown malt. ...
Black tea will darken a vinegar, and impart to it a
tannin taste, which will aid in its presenation.
'White vinegar boiled or infused with the skins of
pressed grapes will be improved in color and taste, if
the seeds have not been bruised.
Clearing.
A vinegar which is not clear will not keep well. It
is therefore always advantageous to clear it. This may
be done, as for wine, by the employment of isinglass,
eggs, &c., or by filtration through grape mash, skins
and stalks.
Oharcoal filters, with or without paper pulp, are also
employed. If the paper pulp is desired, a thin layer of
about one inch is sandwiched between two layers of
charcoal. Sometimes unsized and blotting paper torn
in small fragments is stirred with the vinegar, and the
whole filtered through a pocket of felted material.
298 HANUFAOTURE or VINEGAR.
Flavor and Otlm.
True wine vinegar contains from one-half to two per
cent. of cream t a r t ~ r , acetic ether, a little tannin, &c.
Therefore these substances are used for the imitation of
this vinegar.
A very small proportion of fusel oil, we have already
said, may be added to the wash during the manufacture
of vinegar, when it is" transformed into an agreeable
ether.. Its addition after the vinegar is made will pro-
duce a bad odor.
On the other hand, acetic ether, essences of pear,
apple, banana, pineapple, alone or mixed, are added to
the finished viqegar.
The general tendency is to put too much of these
flavoring extracts, and the best method to judge of their
smell, when alone or mixed, is to dilute them with
alcohol (one-tenth of pure essence, and nine-tenths of
refined alcohol), and then to try the result of a few
counted drops in a gallon of vinegar.
SECTION v.
WOOD VINEGAR.
AMONG the numerous organic substances which by
distillation in closed vessels give rise to acid products,
wood is employed in the arts for the manufacture of
acetic acid. Wood vinegar, or acetic acid from wood,
is also known when impure under the name" of pyrolig-
neous acid.
If we consider the elementary composition of wood,
we observe that its principal component parts are water,
cellulose, incrustating matter, and salts, which after com-
bustion produce ashes. The incrustating matters and
cellulose have a nearly identical composition, which may
be represented by the formula CIIH
9
09.
This formula enables us to explain the various phe-
nomena which take place when wood is distilled in
closed vessels. The first effect of the heat is to expel
the water of hydration; then the cellulose is decom-
posed, and its elements, hydrogen and oxygen, escape
in the form of water; -but soon, as the heat increases, a
part of these elements combine in the nascent state with
a portion ~ f the carbon, and form various products, the
most important of which is acetic acid, C'H
3
0\ HO.
lf the temperature is raised still higher, various kinds
of gases, hydrocarbons, and tar are produced at the same
300 KANurACTURE or VINEGAR.
time with acetic acid, and are condensed in the refrige-
rators.
The vR.rious species of wood do not produce the same
quantity of vinegar. Thus the experiments of Payen
have indicated that the more incrustating matter and
the less cellulose in wood, the greater is its yield in
acid. For instance, oak, beech, elm, and other hard
woods will produce vinegar with 4 to 5 per cent. of hy-
drated acid, while that from 80ft wood, like poplar, will
yield only 3.5 per cent.
In the course of the manufacture, however, the per-
centage obtained is not so high, as part of the acid
remains combined with the tar. Theoretically, 100 parts
of dry wood will give by distillation in closed vessels, at
a proper temperature, 28 parts of charcoal, 39 of gases,
and 33 of acid and water.
Since the first trials by Lebon, and the improver:nents
by Mollerat, the manufacture of pyroligneous acid is
based upon the same principles, that is to say, distil-
lation of the wood in closed vessels, and at a tempera-
ture which is gradually raised; but never above an
incipient red heat. . A greater heat will result in an
increase of gases and tarry 8 u b 8 t a n ~ e 8 at the expense of
the acid.
Of woods of the same species, those will give a greater
percentage of acid which have had a slow but healthy
growth.
'Vood is not generally distilled in the green state,
because the acid will be too much diluted, and the char.
coal inferior.
r
PROCESSES FOR DISTILLING WOOD. 301
CHAPTER XXIX.
DIFFERENT PROCESSES FOR DISTILLING WOOD.
GENERALITIES--ENGLISH AnARATUS--FRENCH APPARATUS
-REICHENBACH'S APPARATUS--APPARATUS TO EXTRACT
PYROLIGNEOUS ACID FROM: SAWDUST-DIFFERENT MODIFI-
CATIONS - PROPORTIONS OF ACID AND CHARCOAL IN
VARIOUS KINDS OF WOOD.
Generalities.
THE distillation of wood is carried on in closed ves-
sels, either metallic or made of brick. The heat is
applied on the outside or inside of the vessel; but by
far the greater proportion of pyroligneous -acid is ex-
tracted from wood distilled in cast or wrought iron
vessels heated externally.
Wrought iron, and especially cast iron, are little
affected by the vapors of pyroligneous acid when the
metal is _well heated; on the other hand, these metals,
when cold, are rapidly corroded. Copper is the metal
to be preferred for condensing the vapors, and for the
metallic outside pieces which conuect the retorts with
the refrigerators.
The condensation of the vapors is made in some works
in long pipes cooled by the air; this is defective, inas-
much as a greater length of pipes is necessary, the vola-
tile wood naphtha is not perfectly condensed, and the
tarry portious becoming hardened, form crusts, which
necessitates a frequent cleaning of the pipes. The best
302 JUNUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.

method is therefore to cool the pipes in a tank with


plenty of water, and to have the refrigerating apparatus
as near as possible to the retorts.
The retorts are of various sizes, which vary greatly,
from 1i foot to 4 feet in diameter, and from 3 to 9 feet
in length. We may say that the smaller the diameter,
the more rapid the distillation; and this is easily under-
stood when we know that wood and charcoal are bad
conductors of heat. Experience has shown that a dia-
meter of 4 feet is a maximum for such retorts.
'The length is principally regulated by the length of
the sticks of wood fonnd in the trade. The length of
the retorts is generally equal to one or two lengths of
sticks as they come from the forest. The diameter of
the sticks varies from three to six inches, and larger
logs should be split. Branches less than three inches in
diameter are seldom distilled, as their charcoal is too
small; their yield in acid is also inferior, as the wood
is younger.
The length of time for distilling wood in metallic re-
torts varies from eight to forty-eight hours; but, on an
average, twelve hours for small retorts and twenty-four
hours for large ones is sufficient, and includes the time
for charging the wood, the distillation proper, and the
extraction of the charcoal. For instance, suppose that
large retorts of three to four feet in diameter, and eight
to nine feet in length, are used.; the operation begins in
the morning by raking the charcoal out into the proper
receivers, which takes about one-quarter of an hour;
then the charging of the wood and luting the door will
make one hour. The distillation begins immediately,
and the heat is gradually increased to an incipient red
heat, when after eighteen or twenty hours from the time
the charcoal has been taken out, there is little gas es-
PROCESSES FOR DISTILLING WOOD. 303
caping, and only a few drops of acid liquor falling from
the condenser. The remainder of the twenty-four hours
is spent.in allowing the retort to cool off sufficiently
for rendering the work of extracting the charcoal and
charging the wood not too heavy for the men.
The extraction of the charcoal is made by raking it
out with iron rakes or hooks; but the best method con-
sists in placing, previous to charging the wood, an iron
shield at the end of the retort, connected with a chain
reaching to the front. The whole, shield and charcoal,
may then be drawn out rapidly.
The charcoal is too hot to be allowed to cool in the
air; it is therefore received either in metallic coolers
with covers which can be luted on, or into brick cham-
bers immediately below the opening of the retort, and
which are covered. with iron plates, upon which is spread
a layer of ashes or sand, so as to prevent the access of
the air.
The above remarks apply to all the metallic retorts
generally in use, and we shall now examine some of the
apparatus.
English Apparatus.
The figure represents a furnace in which are set four
cast;.iron retorts three to four feet in diameter and about
four feet in length, for one length of the sticks of wood.
These retorts are built like those used for the manu-
facture of hydrochloric acid, with a fireplace for each
or for two retorts. The flame may come in direct con-
tact with the upper portions of the retort, but its bot-
tom is protected by a brick arch.
The gases and vapors escape at the back of the retort
through elbow pipes communicating with the first re-
ceivers R R, made of cast-iron, the tops of which may be
304: ](ANUFACTURE or VINEGAR.
raised, but which are luted with clay during the opera-
tion. These receivers become so hot that little of the
Fig. 20.
aqueous acid vapors and volatile hydrocarbons condense
in them, only the heavy tar remains t ~ e r e and falls into
the barrels T T underneath. The gases and uncon
densed acid vapors escape by the copper pipes S S, and
are condensed in the cooling worm and tub C, whence
they flow into the receiver T, to be run out when wanted.
A certain quantity of liquid is always left in T so as to
make a water-joint, and force the gases to escape through
the tubes U U to the fireplace, where they are burned.
We will point out h e r ~ in the apparatus, as repre-
sented by the cut, a few defects which may be remedied.
The back part of the retort should be protected against
condensation and loss of heat by a covering of bricks.
The receivers R R do not completely separate the tar
from the acid liquors; a certain proportion of acid runs
out with the tar, and the latter dries and chokes up the
receiver and elbow pipes, which must be frequently
cleaned.
A single condensing worm, C, is open to the objection
that if two of the retorts do not work, the gases may
,tile' byGoogIe
PROCESSES FOR DISTILLING WOOD. 305
go back to these retorts and produce explosions and
general inconvenience. We think that it is preferable
to do away with the receivers R, R, and to condense the
acid liquors and tar directly and immediately in a
cooling worm, and afterwards to separate them in the
receiving tanks.
The retort front, which is opened and closed at each
. operation, requires our attention. We cannot protect
it against cooling and condensation by a brick wall, as at
the back end. The best way is to make the front of
the retort in the form of 8 truncated cone for a length
of four to six inches. The smaller diameter, near the
wood, is closed with a circular cast-iron plate fastened
with clamps, and luted all around with clay. The
second or outer door may be fixed in the same manner,
or fastened on the retort by strong iron hinges. Ashes
may be introduced between the two doors; but if the
front one fits right, this is not necessary.
It is easily understood that the same arrangement
may be applied to retorts double the above length, to
8uit for two lengths of wood, in which case the means
of condensation must also be proportionally increased.
French Apparatus.
Fig. 21 represents the distilling apparatus employed
by the brothers Mollerat. Its peculiarity consists in
its being made of strong sheet-iron, and in beingmova-
ble, so that when the distillation is finished, the re-
tort is taken out of the furnace, a new one inserted in
its place, and the charcoal is allowed to cool off inside
of the vessel. The advantages of this system are: A
saving of time, since two and three operations may be
made in twenty-four hours; a saving of coolers for the
charcoal; and a saving of fuel, since there is no slacken-
20
306
IlANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
ing of the fire to allow the retorts to cool off. The dis-
advantage is a retort more expensive than one of cast-
iron, and which wears out rapidly from the rapid changes
of heat and cold to which it is subjected.
F i ~ . 21.
C is the wrought-iron retort, about six feet deep, and
holding two cubic metres (nearly seventy-one cubic
feet). It is closed at the top by an iron cover bolted or
clamped and luted, and bears on the side a short. coni-
cal pipe which is connected with the cooling apparatus
by means of another conical pipe sliding upon the former,
and which is pushed into the condenser. These pip>s
are made tight by a clay luting. The sliding pipe is
connected with the condenser only when most of the
water of hydration has escaped from the wood, and the
acid begins to distill, that is to say, when the vapor ill
accompanied by a yellowish-brown smoke.
The furnace itself is closed by a cover K, raised in the
same way as the retort. by a crane. t, t
'
, r, are the copper
pipes in which the liquors are condensed, and are fixed
inside of large cast-iron pipes T, T', T". in which water,
,tile' byGoogIe
PROCESSES FOR DISTILLING WOOD. 307
coming from E, escapes by E' in a direction opposite to
the flow of condensed liquors. The pipe t" dips into a
small tub closed at the top, which delivers its contents,
through the dipping pipe m, into the closed receiver R.
The combustible gases escape by the pipe S, and are
burned under the fireplace.
Another apparatus (Fig. 22), not movable, is that of
Mr. C. Kestner, and is in extensiye use in France. It
allows of the employment of wood of short dimensions
more readily than the apparatus.
22.
A is the retort made of cast-iron plates firmly ceml:'nted
and bolted together, and holds 3 cubic metres, or about
106 cubic feet. The flame of the fireplace c circulates
around it through the flues e, e, e.
The vapors are condensed in the copper pipes 9,9,9,
as in the preceding apparatus, and fall through the pipe
q into the receiver r, while the gases go to the
. fireplace through the pipe s. The cast-iron pipes m, m,
m, m, are filled with ruilDing water coming from K and
,tile' byGoogIe
309 JUNUF.\CrURE or VINEGAR.
escaping at t. 0, 0 are smaller connecting pipes to bring
the fresh water to tN. til, m.
The retort is charged with wood by removing its top
cover, and the charcoal is taken out at the bottom through
an opening which is not seen in the cut.
Reichenbach's Apparatus.
This is a system in which the wood is piled in ovens
made of refractory materials, and is heated inwardly.
There is a saving in the cost of construction, possibly so
in the fuel, but there is a loss in the time necessary to
cool off the charcoal before it can be raked out, and the
condensation of the ,"olatile products is not so perfect
as with the preceding apparatuses.
Fig. 23.
Fig. 23, borrowed from Muspratt's Dictionary ofChem-
istry, represents Reichenbach's Apparatus.
The inside of the oven is made of fire-brick, and the
outside of common bricks or stone, and between the two
is a lining of sand, ashes, and a certain proportion of
clay. The furnace is filled with wood, which is heated
,tile' byGoogIe .
- _-,-,--ti" z __
PROCESSES FOR DISTILLING WOOD. . 309
by the castiron pipes, abc d, mn 0 p, whose diameter is
two feet at the places a and p, but not seen iri the cut,
gradually decreasing to one foot at the extremities d
and m. A wood fire is kindled at a and p, and the pipes
act as flues transmitting their heat to the mass of wood
in the oven. The gases and vapors escape by the open-
ings 3.', y, and go to the condensing apparatus through
the pipes g, A, i, k. Doors have been arranged for charg-
ing the wood and extracting the cold charcoal.
Apparatus to extract Pyroligneous Acid from Sawdust.
If sawdust, thin shavings, spent bark,and spent dye
woods were distilled in the apparatuses we have exam
ined, the portion of wood in contact with the retort
would be rapidly carbonized, but this first layer of char-
coal would transmit the heat so slowly in the inside,
that, after days of heati.ng, the central portions would
remain scarcely decomposed.
Mr. A. P. Halliday, of England, obtained a patent
for an apparatus which obviates this inconvenience, since
the wood-dust is stirred, and each portion comes into
contact with the metallic portions of the retorts.
The annexed cuts represent the apparatus. Fig. ~ 4
is a front view; Fig. 25 is a section in the width of the
furnace passing through one retort; and Fig. 26 is a back
view. The general arrangement is similar to that of gas
retorts.
The sawdust, or spent dye wood, &c., is put into the
hopper a, in which it is pushed downwards by the ver
tical screw a, b. The hoppers are kept constantly filled
with the wood-dust, which acts there as a joint to pre-
vent the escape of the gases and acid vapors.
As soon as the wood reaches the horizontal screw e, e,
it is driven towards the back of the retort, and during
310
MANUFACTURE'OF VINEGAR.
Fil!'.24
. FieI'. 25.
the revolutions of the screw it comes in contact with the
retort, and is- therefore carbonized. The charcoal falls
,tile' byGoogIe
PROCESSES FOR DISTILUNG WOOD. 311
Fig. 26.
by the pipe i into a tank I{, filled with water; or if
watt>r is dispensed with, into an air-tight vessel, from
which it is removed when cold. The gases, acid vapors,
and tar escape through the pipes f, connecting with a
main pipe, g, from whence they go to the condensing
apparatus.
The motion is imparted to the vertical and horizontal
screws by means of angle and worm gears, m, n, x, w.
According to statements of Messrs. Hadfield & Co.,
and Messrs. Halliday & Co., sawdust from resinous
woods gives as much pyroligneous acid in twenty-four
hours with eight of their retorts fourteen inches in
diameter, as with sixteen retorts three feet in diameter.
As this statement does not indicate the length of the
retorts, we will suppose that those of the two systems
are of equal length.
In another cOJ:nparison of the two systems, eight Hal-
liday retorts, consuming twenty-two tons of sawdust
weekly,
,tile' byGoogIe
312
.
JU.NU.FACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Pyroligneous acid, 10 Twaddle, sp. gr. 1.05=249. gallons.
Tar 240 "
While a ton of oak (2240 pounds) carbonized in
large retorts, gives:-
Pyroligneous acid, 6 Twaddle, sp. gr. 1.08-1277 pounds.
Charcoal 600 "
To make the comparison more satisfactory, it would
have been necessary to state the kind of gallon employed,
and the percentage of real acid in the pyroligneous acid,
since hydrometers and sp. gr. give indications of very
little value in this case.
Our experience is that dry resinous woods will not be
much below dry hard wood in yield in bulk of pyrolig-
neous acid, but that they are inferior if we consider the
real percentage of acetic acid.
Different Modifications.
Several of the preceding apparatuses have been well
tested in the arts, but there have been many modifica-
tions and many patents obtained, some of which we will
examine briefly. In order to make the charging of the
wood more rapid, the sticks or logs have been put into
small wagons or iron cages and pushed into the retort.
Some retorts have been made very long, and divided
into several compartments, which can be closed and
opened at will, so as to allow the charcoal to become
cool in the last portions before it is extracted.
Super-heated steam directly injected into the mass of
wood has been employed instead of fire; the carboniza-
tion is effected rapidly, the pyroligneous acid is very
clean, but much diluted from its admixture with the
condensed steam, and the charcoal may be employed
for the manufacture of powder. This process is more
expensive than the others, and cannot be profitably
PROCESSES FOR DISTILUNG WOOD. 313
employed, unless the heat of the vapors is used for eva-
porating the condensed acid neutralized with lime.
A portion of the acid, produced during the carboni-
zatioh of the wood in meilers or pits, as is done in the
forests, may be saved by introducing small pipes into the
draft holes of the piles, and conducting the vapors
through a series of wooden casks filled with carbonate
of lime or quicklime. An acetate of lime is thus pro-
duced which is quite dry, since the temperature in the
barrels rises high e n o u ~ h to allow the water to escape
as steam.
By another method, proposed by Schwartz, the wood
is carbonized in brick ovens by means of several small
fireplaces, which send the products of the combustion
directly into the mass of wood. It is therefore neces-
sary to keep the fireplaces always supplied with an
excess of fuel, so that no oxygen can enter the oven and
burn the wood. When, from the color of the escaping
gases, it is judged that the carbonization is effected, all
the openings are carefully walled up and luted, and the
whole allowed to cool off. The escape and condensation
of the volatile products are effected in a manner similar
to that of the Reichenbach's apparatus.
P1oportions of Acid and Charcoal in Various Kinds
o/Wood.
'Ve have already said that the quantity of acid to be
expected from the distillation of wood varies, not only
with their species, but also with their age, health, dry-
ness, and the soil in which they have grown.
It is therefore difficult to gi ve exact numbers; never-
theless, sufficient indications may be had by the perusal
of tables of laboratory and factory experiments which
we borrow from Stolze and Muspratt.
314 )U.NUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
ODe OUbce or
One ponnd or wood. Acid "cld neutral- Emp:rreu- Cbar-
produced. 1..0 or pure matlc 011. c",,1.
carbo or pota.
-----------
Ouncu. Gral....
OM"....
I)"""'"
White birch. Belula alba........ ............
7.
65
11 Sf
Red beeoh, Fagu8 .Nilatiea..... ............
7
64
Ii

Large-leaved Linden, Tilia plataphylla.
6t
52
It
Oak, Quereu. rohllr.... ........................
6t
60
Ii 4.
Common ash, FroxinHl ucel.ior.... ......
H
44
H
3t
Horse-chestnut. Ai:.cullUl Hippocaalanum
H
41
3t
Lombardy poplar, PopulHl dilalala....... 40
3t
White poplar, Populus alba........... ...... 39
I! 3t
Bird oherry, Prw".. Padu................... 7 37
l! 3t
Basket willow, Salix................... ......
71
85
It 3t
Bnokthorn. Rhamnus..........................
H
34
U
3}
Logwood, Hemaloxylon CampechianUln... 35
1.
2
Alder, Alnus... .................................
71
30
It

Jnnlper, Juniperu. communi.................

29
It
White flr, Pinu. .................. ...... 29
2. 31
Common pine, Pinus .ylvel/ri......... ......
6t
28
It

Common savlne, Juniperus Sabina.. ......
7 27
It
Red flr, Abies peclinala... .....................
61
25
2! 3t
IlI,bt:r-fonr ponnd.
of wood.
1
"
.c
'-'
,;
",0
-Ug.
<:=
a .-
. -
'" u
go>"
0-""
u..o 0

------1----------------
Hiroh .
Elm .
Willow ..
Beeoh, low temp.
.. high"
Lahnrnum .
Ash .
Alder .
Hawthorn .
Young oak ..
23 31.33
21t 28.66
18 24.00
24 32.00
20 26.64
20 26.64
23 30.68
20 26.64
20 211.64
28 37.33
46 1.046 1.080 70
45t 1.036 1.075 83
49 1.029 1.045 29
46 1.039 1.090 115
47 1.034 1.067 90
46 1.030 1.055 75
48 1.035 1.078 92
48 1.030 1.065 70
27 1.040 1.100 140
39 1.038 1.085 115
15 1.86
17t 2.26
17 0.77
14 3.06
17 2.40
18 2.00
13 2.45
16 1.86
37 3.73
14 3.06
..
..;
..
8!..

0 0
.;
;; .
Tbree bUDdred aDd
..
'!-' "
.:= 0 g .
- ...
<1'

tblrl:r-.lx lb. of ...ood.
S
....
:= f:! .:

"S"
:;

:!i!
",uo
oO;_" :i
....::"g
""
.c
c3 :.'O!
= ..
'-'
OCSl6oClC. Qo,,"
---
Beeoh...................... 84 28.00 180 1.029
9f
25
Walnut.................... 72 24.00 150 1.018 7 14.
Birch, cut three years 70 23.33 120 1.031 11 13
Oak........................ 91 30.33 190 1.022 8 24
Ash........................ 90 80.00 190 1.024 8 22
Apple...................... 70 23.33 200 1.017 6 18
Wych elm................ 70 23.33 180 1.018 8 16
Maple...................... 77 25.66 145 1.018 6 20
PURIFICATION OF PRODUCTS OF DISTILLATION. 315
The entire operations of three works in the neighbor-
hood of Paris showed the following average products
from 4000 lbs. of wood, beech and oak:-
.
Charcoal IOU Ibs.
Acid liquor, 2335 Ibs. sp. gr. 1.027-416 Ibs. dry acetate of lime.
Tar 330
The following products were obtained at the works
of Mollerat at Nuits. From 5120 cwt. of wood:-
Charcoal
Pyroligneous acid
Acetic acid
Acetate of lead
1280 ewt.
850 "
54 ..
152 "
In a well-conducted est.ablishment in England, the
annexed were the quantities of crude acid liquor ob-
tained by the distillation of 1634 cords of wood, each
cord weighing 512 cwt., according to the longer or
shorter time allowed to intervene between the cutting
and the using of the wood.
174 cords produced 23.923 gals. of about 10 Ibs. each.
160 .. .. 27.720 .. .. .. ..
252 .. .. 30.42t .. " .. ..
S18 .. II 40.584 II .. .. "
330 .. .. 55.900 .. .. .. ..
400 .. " 60.700 .. .. II "
CHAPTER XXX.
PURIFICATION OF THE PRo6uCTS OF THE DISTILLATION.
WOOD NAPHTHA-PURIFICATION OF WOOD VINEGAR.
THE products of the distillation are very complex in
their nature. Besides the acetic acid, there are dif-
ferent hydrocarbons forming the tar, while other hydro-
316 JlANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
carbons, such as wood naphtha, acetone, and eupion, will
be found in the acid liquors. In the arts, tar, pyro-
ligneous acid, and wood naphtha are the only substances
separated.
The first operation is to pump the condensed liquors
into large tanks, where they are allowed to settle ; the
greater part of the tar goes to the bottom, while a
certain proportion, rendered lighter by a quantity of air-
bubbles, forms a skum at the surface. The intermediate
space in the tank is occupied by the crude pyroligneous
acid and naphtha.
By sufficient settling and careful decantation, the
acid liquor may be obtained clear, although of a dark
appearance, and may still be improved by a filtration
through layers of sand or charcoal. It is from this
liquor that wood naphtha and wood vinegar are ex-
tracted, beginning with the former.
The tar may be used as fuel, or distilled. The pro-.
ducts of the distillation of wood tar are little known. If I
the tar is washed with water so as to remove the acid it
contains, and afterwards melted with one-fifth of its
weight of resin, it may be used by ship-builders. But
for this latter purpose, tar from resinous woods is to be
preferred.
JVood Naphtha.
This hydrocarbon is also called wood spirit, pyroxylic
spirit, ether, and alcohol, and also methylic alcohol.
For the chemist, it is the hydrate of oxide of methyl,
C
2
H
8
0,HO, and is isomorphous in its behavior with
wine alcohol, or hydrate of oxide of ethyl. Indeed,
like the latter, it contracts when mixed with water, and
the maximum of contraction takes place when the
mixture contains 45.75 per cent. of water.
PURIFICATION OF PRODUCTS OF DISTILLATION. 317
Wood naphtha is a colorless, very fluid liquid, of sp.
gr. 0.798 when chemically pure, and whose
varies between 150 and 160. The sp. gr. of its vapor
is 1.11. It burns like alcohol, but its flame is paler. It
is soluble in all proportions in water, ether, and alcohol,
and is a solvent for resins and gunis, especially when it
(:ontains a small proportion of acetone.
It is used for the manufacture of varnishes, for labor-
atory lamps, &c., and, in certain cases, in medicine.
The specific gravity of the purest wood naphtha found
in the trade is 0.812, instead of 0.798, which is due to
the presence of certain impurities which it would be too
expensive to remove.
Wood naphtha may be separated from the acid liquors
of the distillation of wood, either directly, or after they
have been saturated with lime. The latter process will
give the greater yield of spirit, but the acetate of lime
being made from undistilled pyroligneous acid, is of l\
darker color than that from the distilled acid. We will
therefore suppose that we separate naphtha from the
acid liquors, without neutralization by an alkali.
These liquors are put into a copper still., heated by
fire or by steam, and one-fifth of the contents are care-
fully distilled and condensed. Nearly all the naphtha is
obtained in this manner, mixed with a great deal of
water and acid. These first distillates from pyroligneous
acid are submitted to several rectifications over quick-
lime, which saturates the acid, and absorbs the excess
of water, in copper vessels, heated by steam or by a
water-bath.
These several rectifications will give a product quite
free from water, but still colored and of a strong em-
pyreumatic odor. It is then necessary to submit the
318 MANUI' ACTURE OF VINEGAR.
crude naphtha to a chemical treatment which will destroy
these impurities. Several processes are in use.
1. From two to four ounces of bichromate of potassa
or permanganate of potassa, in fine powder, to each gal-
lon of crude naphtha, are stirred with it several times a
day. The operation will go on more rapidly if the light
of the 'sun has access to the mixture: and for this pur-
pose the vessels are tightly covered with glass. The
impurities are oxidized, and a last distillation will give
a colorless product.
2. The preceding method requires nearly one month
for its operation. This one is much more rapid, as it
liberates the chromic acid, which immediately oxidizes
the foreign matters, while it is itself transformed into
sesquioxide of chromium. We, therefore, decompose
three equivalents of bichromate of potassa by three of
hydrochloric or sulphuric acid; the reactions are seen
in the following formulre:-
3 (KO 2 Cr0
3
)+3 HCJ=3 CIK+3 HO+6Cras.
3 (KO 2 Cr0
3
)+3 80
3
=3 KO 80
3
+6CrOS.
3. Crude naphtha may also be purified like petroleum
by concentrated sulphuric acid. A proportion of oil
of vitriol, variable with the impurity of the spirit, is
thoroughly stirred with the naphtha and then allowed to
settle. The acid and impurities go to the bottom, and
the supernatant spirit is distilled over a small propor-
tion of quicklime, which neutralizes the small quantity
of acid and water retained by the wood naphtha.
According to the care and temperature employed for
distilling the wood and making the various rectifications,
the crude pyroligneous acid from a ton of dry hard wood.
will produce from one to three gallons of wood uaphtha.
Dr. Ure has calculated tables giving the percentage
PURIFICATION OF PRODUCTS OF DISTILLATION. 819
of real naphtha and water corresponding to certain spe-
cific gravities of commercial naphthas. The trials to be
made at 60, and supposing a specific gravity of 0.813
for pure commercial wood naphtha.
8p. I!'&ylt,.. Bcal oplrlt 8p. llrult,.. Bcaloplrlt
ISP'llrnlt,..
. Bcal oplrle
per ccnt. per ccnt. per ccnt.
I
.J...-__
0.8136 100.00 0.8820 77.00
- 1---0.924"2
58.82
0.8216 98.00 0.884:.1 75.76
I
0.9266 57.73
0.8256 96.11 0.8876 74.63 09296 56.18
0.8320 94.34 0.8918 73.53 0.9344 li3.70
0.8384 92.22 0.89:-10 72.46 0.9386 5l.54
0.8418 90.90 0.8950
. 71.43
0.9414 50.00
0.8470 83.90 0.8984 70.42 0.9448 47.62
0.8514 87.7:.1 0.9008 69.44 0.9484 46.00
0.8564 86.20 0.903:.1 68.50 0.9518 43.48
08596 84.75 0.9060 67.56 0.9540 41.66
0.1"642 83.33 0.9070 66.66 0.9564 40.00
0.8674 82.00 0.9116 65.00 0.9584 38.46
0.8712 80.64 0.9154 63.aO 0.9600 37.11
O.H742 79.36 0.9184 61.7a 0.9620 35.71
0.8784 78.13 0.9218 60.24
!
The next table has been made by St. Claire Deville,
and is for a temperature of 48.5 :Fahrenheit.
Quautity of water.
00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
95
..
Specillo gravity.
0.8070
0.8371
0.86.9
0.8873
0.9072
0 . 9 ~ 8 2
0.9429
0 . 9 5 ~
0.9700
0.9751
0.9851
Purification of Wood Vinegar.
In the article 011 wood naphtha we have seen that
one-fifth of the crude pyroligneous acid in the still is
distilled over to obtain the spirit. The distillation is
320
JUNUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
continued with the remainder until nothing but tar
remains in the still.
The rectified pyroligneous acid is then saturated with
lime, the solution evaporated, the crystals of acetate of
lime separated, drained, and dried at about 250
0
to
300
0
and sometimes more, when the acetate of lime is
in form to be sold as gray acetate, or used in the factory
for the manufacture of acetic acid.
All the details of the operations for the manufacture
of acetate of 'lime and acetate of soda having been fully
explained in the chapter on .. acetates," we refer the
reader to that part of the work, since this chapter is in-
tended for the extraction and purification of wood vine-
gar, and for modifications in the process not already
explained.
Wood vinegar is extracted in the factories from ace-
tate of lime or acetate of soda by means of sulphuric
and hydrochloric acids, and the latter acid presents so
many advantages over the former, that, although more
expensive in first cost (in America, but not in Europe),
it begins to be generally preferred for this purpose.
Acetate of soda is still preferred in some establish-
ments where the wood vinegar manufactured is intended
for table vinegar or pharmaceutical uses. As this ace-
tate of soda must be pure, the gray calcined acetate of
lime is dissolved in water, and the solution filtered to
separate the charred portions, before it is decomposed
by about four times its weight of crystallized sulphate
of soda. This large proportion of sulphate of soda is
intended to remedy the'loss of vinegar which, as we have
noticed, comes from the formation of a double salt, con-
taining acetic acid. Here, also, a double insoluble salt
of sulphate of lime and soda is formed; but the loss
bears on the sulphate of soda, while all the acetic acid
PURIFICATION OF PRODUCTS OF DISTILLATION. 321
remains in solution combined with soda. The reaction
which takes place is represented as follows :-
CaOC'HSOI+2(NaOSOS)=NaOC4HIOS+CaOSOINaOSOI.
Although soda ash is more expensive than sulphate
of soda, some manufacturers use it to saturate the pyro-
ligneous acid directly; they save, therefore, the cost of
lime, sulphate of soda, fuel, and labor attending the
evaporation of the acetate of lime, its calcination, &c.
The crude acetate of soda produced by either 'method
must be purified by crystallization, drying at about 450,
&c., as explained in the chapter on acetates, and when
rendered pure, it is ready for the manufacture of acetic
acid.
For this purpose the pure acetate of soda is decom-
posed by sulphuric acid, which seizes the soda, and the
acetic acid is set free. The crystals of acetate of soda
are put into a copper still with a thick bottom, and about
thirty-five per cent. of their weight of concentrated oil
of vitriol is poured at once into a cavity made in the
salt. If the acid is gradually mixed, by small por-
tions at a time, the men will be troubled by the great
quantity of acrid fumes disengaged. The whole mass
is immediately stirred with a wooden rod, the still is
closed, and the distillation proceeds.
The condensed acid is colorless until towards the end
of the operation, when it will run slightly yellowish and
with an empyreumatic odor, due to an excess of heat
necessary to expel the acid from the mass of solidified
sulphate of soda remaining in the still. The acid which
is colored, and has an unpleasant smell, is kept apart to
be further purified.
The stills may be heated directly over a fire, but it is
preferable to employ pressure steam in a jacket, or to
21
322 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
rest the still in a sand, oil, or tallow bath. The head
and cooling-worm of the still may be of copper if the
acid is intended for chemical uses, as, for instance, the
manufacture of white sugar of lead; but for table vine-
gar, silver or stoneware heads and worms must be em-
ployed.
In some manufactories, instead of decomposing the
acetate of soda by oil of vitriol in the still, the operation
is made in large stoneware vessels kept in a cool place.
The acetic acid, after the settling of the sulphate of soda,
is decanted and distilled, and therefore the solid resi-
duum in the still it not very considerable. As the sul-
phate of soda of the jars retains asensible amount of
acetic acid, it is washed with a small proportion of cold
water, and the washings are added to the acid in the
still. This mode of working ill desirable when the still
is directly over a fire, but is of less consequence when
pressure steam, or oil-baths are employed.
When the wood vinegar (acetic acid) collected is but
slightly colored, or empyreumatic in smell, it may be
purified by a filtration through charcoal or bone- black
previously washed with weak h)'drochloric acid, and
rinsed in water, or through beech shavings.
If, on the other hand, the still is not clean, or the
acetate contains small portions of h)'drocarbons, these
impurities will be decomposed by t.he heat and the sul-
phuric acid, and the yinegar will run colored and with
a bad smell, due to empyreuma or sulphurous acid, or
sulphuretted hydrogen, or the whole combined. Another
rectification is therefore necessary after the addition of
substances which will destroy and remove the impurities.
Bichromate of potassa and binoxide of manganese
alone, or with the addition of a small proportion of acid,
will oxidize and decompose the coloring and cmp)'reu-
PURIFICATION OF PRODUCTS OF DISTILLATION. 323
matic matters, and transform the sulphurous into sul-
phuric acid, which will unite with the potassa or the
oxide of chromium of the bichromate, or with the manga-
nese of the oxide. The proportions of these purifying
agents vary, of course, with the amount of impurities,
and range from one-half to three per cent. of the acetic
acid.
Another distillation after the addition of a sufficient
proportion of bichromate of potassa or binoxide of man-
ganese will give a wood vinegar perfectly white, clear,
and free from any empyreumatic smell.
When the acetic acid does not need to be entirely
pure, acetate of lime is decomposed by sulphuric or hy-
drochloric acid.
The decomposition by the sulphuric acid is effected
either outside or inside of the still, and the proportions
are, on an average, 100 parts of acetate of lime for 60
of oil of vitriol. Large stoneware jars, and sometimes
leaden and wooden tubs, are employed, into which the
acetate of lime is first put, and the sulphuric acid is
poured into a cavity made in it. It has been found
advantageous to use the oil of vitriol, previously diluted
with about its volume of water, since the sulphate of
lime produced settles more easily in a granular form. It
is washed afterwards with water, and the washings are
added to the contents of the still, which in this case may
be of copper.
On the other hand, if the decomposition of the ace-
tate of lime by oil of vitriol is directly effected in the
still, this ought to be made of cast-iron at the bottom
and of copper at the top. The oil of vitriol is not
diluted. The heat necessary to expel all the acid from
the sulphate of lime is such as to cause the production
of a vinegar highly colored and empyreumatic, which
324 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
needs a further purification by distillation over binoxide
of manganese or bichromate of potassa.
The heat is greater, as there is a thicker deposit of
sulphate of lime in the still, and in order to obviate this
difficulty, the following apparatus has been devised.
The acetate of lime is thoroughly mixed with the oil of
vitriol (not diluted) in a closed cast-iron cylinder with a
revolving central shaft armed with blades doing the
work of stirring. Cast-iron is not much corroded by
very concentrated sulphuric or acetic acid. The magma
produced is then received in shallow cast-iron trays two
inches deep, which are inclosed in a cast-iron retort
directly heated over a fire. Notwithstanding these pre-
cautions, the acetic acid condensed is still colored and
very empyreumatic.
A much better article will be obtained by decomposing
the acetate of lime by hydrochloric acid directly, in a
still built of strong copper. The relative proportions
are, on an average, 100 of acetate of lime, and 90 to 95
of hydrochloric acid, sp. gr. 1.15; and it is always bet-
ter, on account of the variable composition and strength
of both substances, to determine the true proportions by
a trial on a small scale. As long as the distillate be-
comes only slightly cloudy by the addition of a few
drops of nitrate of silver, the hydrochloric acid is not
in excess. If the acetic acid is to be used without fur-
ther purification, just enough hydrochloric acid is added
to decompose the acetate of lime; but if the acid is to
be purified by the addition of bichromate of potassa and
another distillation, it is preferable to add a little more
hydrochloric acid, which will be seized by, and will aid
the decomposition of the bichromate of potassa. When
hydrochloric acid is used, it is preferable to employ
bichromate of potassa, instead of binoxide of manganese,
PURIFICATION OF PRODUCTS OF DISTILLATION. 325
since the latter will cause a disengagement of chlorine,
part of which will go into the distillate.
The advantage of hydrochloric over sulphuric acid for
the decomposition of impure acetates is, that it only
separates, and does not destroy, the tarry matters. If the
acetic acid is conta.minated with empyreuma, it is due to
the action of the fire, and not to that of hydrochloric
acid. Indeed, gray calcined acetate of lime, dissolved
in a minimum of water and filtered, will, by treatment
with hydrochloric and one distillation, give a colorless
acid which may be employed for most chemical uses. If
it is distilled again over a small proportion of bichro-
mate of potassa in a copper still heated by steam, and
with the head and worm of silver or earthenware, it will
be equal to the acetic acid made from pure acetate of
soda decomposecl by sulphuric acid.
If the manufacturer of wood vinegar does not buy the
acetate of lime, but makes it himself, he will find hydro-
chloric acid useful again in the preparation of this' salt,
and will save the cost and waste of a first distillation
of the crude pyroligneous acid. This is the modus ope-
randi :-The clear crude pyroligneous acid is saturated
with quicklime slacked, or in the form of a thick magma.
During the operation, and the settling afterwards, a great
deal of tarry matter separates and floats on the surface
or falls to the bottom of the vessel. This is separated
and washed, and the w a s h i n ~ s are added to the former
liquors. The settled and clear, but very dark, solution
of acetate of lime is then evaporated in iron or copper
pans, two to three feet deep, and the floating impurities
are carefully skimmed off. When the contents of the
pan have been reduced by evaporation to about one-half
of their bulk, from one to three per cent. o( hydrochloric
acid is added, that is, until the liquors present an acid
326 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
reaction with litmus-paper. The proportion of hydro-
chloric acid is of course variable with the amount of
impurities, but in this case the addition of the hydro-
chloric acid is to decompose the compounds of lime with
acid tarry substances; the hydrochloric acid seizes the
lime, while the acid tar floats at the surface and is skimmed
off. The liquor, which was of a dark brown color, be-
comes yellowish-brown. The remainder of the operation
consists in evaporating the liquors to dryness, and cal-
cining with proper care the acetate of lime produced, so
as to destroy the remaining tarry matters. This acetate,
dissolved in a small bulk of water, filtered, treated by
hydrochloric acid and distilled, gives immediately a cl>ar,
colorless acetic acid, with a slight empyreumatic odor,
which can be removed in the manner already indicated.
It will be found more easy to obtain a clear and good-
smelling article, if the acid in the still has been diluted
with a certain proportion of water.
Commercial acetic acid No. ~ contains from 25 to 30
per cent. of real acid.
SECTION VI.
APPLICATIONS OF VINEGAR.
THESE are well known, since vinegar is used in domes-
tic economy, medicine, perfumery, several chemical
arts, and principally for preserving alimentary substances.
We shall enumerate these different applications.
CHAPTER XXXI.
AROMATIC VINEGAR AND HIGHLY CONCENTRATED
VINEGAR.
AROKATIC vinegar is a highly concentrated acetic acid,
with a pleasant smell due to small proportions of ace-
tone, caJIlphor, and essential oils added to it. It may
be prepared by the distillation of the acetates of copper,
lead, silver, etc.; but the first is generally emplo)'ed in
the arts.
The neutral acetate of copper is carefully dried and
distilled, at a gradually raised heat, in an earthenware
retort communicating by means of an adapter with two
or three tubulated receivers, the last one of which has
a safety-tube plunging into a bottle of water. The acid
which distills and condenses in the receivers, cooled in
water, has a greenish-blue color due to a certain quantity
328 KANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
of acetate of copper distilled over. Its sp. gr. is about
1.061, and it amounts to one-half of the acetate em-
ployed.
The impure acid is distilled again in a glass retort
heated by a sand-bath. The first condensed portions,
which are weak, and have a sp. gr. of 1.072, are collected
apart, and mixed with the last portions, which have an
empyreumatic odor. These two are distilled over, and
mixed with the intermediate acid, whose sp. gr. is 1.084.
The acid made in this manner contains a small propor-
tion of acetone.
Concentrated acetic acid is to be found in the trade,
containing 40 per cent. of real acid. This degree of
concentration is desirable when the acid is to be sent to
a distance, and the cost of transportation is an item of
importance. This acid is generally obtained by the dis-
tillation of pure and dry acetate of soda decomposed by
concentrated acetic acid.
If a still more concentrated acid is desired, the distil-
lation must be repeated several times over fused chloride
of calcium, and the first portions of the distillate, which
are too weak, should be removed. The strong acid col-
lected is put into ice, when the monohydrated acid crys-
tallizes. The liquid parts are removed, the crystals'dis-
tilled again, and the distillate divided and congealed
as before. The liquid acid portions are then drained
from the crystals, which may be considered as monohy-
drated acetic acid of specific gravity 1.063. 'Ve will
remark here that monohydrated acetic acid has a sp. gr.
inferior to the acid diluted up to a certain point, when
the sp. gr. decreases with the amount of diIi.ltion.
Crystallizable acetic acid, as used in the arts, is not
entirely monohydrated acid. It is manufactured by
the Melsen's process of biacetate of potassa, already ex-
COMPOUND VINEGARS. 329
plained, or by the decomposition of a pure dry acetate
by an excess of concentrated oil of vitriol, so as to make
sure that no acetone will be produced.
A good process consists in carefully drying white sugar
of lead and mixing its powder thoroughly with concen-
trated sulphuric acid, in a proportion more than sufficient
to combine with the oxide of lead. By distillation an
acid is obtained, which will readily congeal in a cold
mixture. The liquid parts are drained off.
CHAPTER XXXII.
COMPOUND VINEGARS.
TABLE VINEGARS-AROMATIC VINEGARS-TOILET VINEGARS
MEDICINAL VINEGARS.
Table Vinegars.
VARIOUS table vinegars are obtained by digesting cer-
tain quantities of the following respective articles in one
pint of good strong vinegar. This is placed in mace-
ration for fourteen days, and strained. These materials
are:-
Black pepper,
Celery seed,
Garlic,
Onion,
White pepper,
Red pepper,
Chilli,
Ginger,
Shallot,
Caper,
Cress seed,
Horseradish,
Trome,
Etc.
The vinegars made from :-
Basil,
CherviJIe,
Bornet,
Tarragon,
Celery,
Etc.,
330 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
are obtained by digesting two or three ounces of the
above leaves with a pint of vinegar, leaving it to macerate
fourteen days, and then straining.
Vinegar of Anchovies.-Take 1 pound of anchovies,
which are boned and reduced to a pulp in a mortar, and
passed through a cleun hair sieve; the bones and parts
which do not pass through the sieve are boiled for fifteen
minutes in a pint of water, and strained. To the strained
liquor add 2t ounces of salt and 2l ounces of flour,
together with the pulped anchovies; the whole is sim-
mered for three or four minutes; as soon as the mixture
is cold, add to it t of a pint of strong vinegar.
Vinegar of Celery.
Celery seed
Vinegar .
Digest 14 days ; filter.
Vinegar of Cloves.
Cloves
Vinegar
Digest 7 days; strain.
Vinegar of Lovage.
Lovage root
Lovage seeds
Vinegar
Digest 1 week; filter.
Vinegar of Mustard.
Black mustard seed
Vinegar
D i ~ e s t a week; filter.
.1 OUDces.
1 piut.
31ouDces.
1 piut.
20Dnces.
1 onnce.
10 ounces.
2 ounces.
1 pint.
-
- ..--
COMPOUND VINEGA.RS.
.--
331
Yinegar Of Savory Spices.
Black pepper 3 onnces.
AJlspice It ounce.
Nutmegs . t "
Burnt sogar t "
Cloves 1 drachm.
Cassia 1 "
Coriander 1 "
Caraway seeds I "
Vinegar I pint.
Macerate 14 days, and filter.
VinegaJ' of Herbs.
12onnces.
II
.. II
2 "
2 quarts.
Lemon thyme
Winter savory
Sweet marjoram
Sweet basil
Lemon peel
Escbalots
Celery seeds
Vinegar
Macerate 14 days, and strain.
Tarragon Vinegar.
Tarragon herb
Vinegar
Digest 14 days; filter.
Yinaigre aua' Fines Herbes.
Tarragon berb
Basil.
Laurel leaves
S}JaJlots
Vinegar
Macerate a week; filter.
lonnce.
I "
1 "
I "
t "
i ..
t "
I pint.
1 ponnd.
2 quarts.
332 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Vinaigre ala RalJigotte.
Tarragon
Laurel leaves
Anchovies.
Shallots
Vinegar
Macerate a week; filter.
12 ounces.
6 "
6 "
4 "
2 quarts.
1 pound.
AROMATIC DISTILLED VINEGARS.
Lavender Vinegar.
Lavender flowers
Viuegar, enougbto cover the flowers.
Let it macerate several days; introduce it into an
alembic, and distill until three-quarters of the vinegar
is obtained. .
All distilled vinegars with flowers or plants can be
obtained by the same method.
For more details on this subject we refer the reader
to one of our last works, Guide for the Perfumer.-
TOILET VINEGARS.
The following formulre are taken from the work already
named.
Rose Vinegar.
Pale roses.
White vinegar
Rhodium wood
Tincture of benzoin
Macerate 2 weeks, and distill.
4 pounds.
4 quarts.
8 ounces.
8 II
* Published by H. C. Baird, Philadelphia.
COMPOUND VINEGARS.
Aromatic Vinegar of the Regent.
Alcohol, at 90 2 pounds.
MeliBSe water I pound.
Cologne . I "
Tincture of balsam of Toln 3t ounces.
" benzoi n . 2 "
" musked amber 4 drachms.
Oil of lavender 2 ounces.
" cloves 4t drachms.
" cinuamon It drachm.
333
After dissolving the oils in alcohol, let it stand a few
hours, and add 31 ounces acetic acid; color with archil,
and filter.
Bullis Vinegar.
Water 7 quarts.
Alcohol
8t
"
Oil of bergamot 1 ounce.
"
lemou I
"
"
Portugal 8 drachms.
"
rosemary 6
"
"
lavender 1 drachm.
"
seroH I
"
Alcoholate of melisse I pint.
Macerate 24 hours, and add-
Tincture of benzoin
" Tolu .
" stOI'llX
" cloves
Stir, and add-
Distilled vinegar
Acetic acid .
Filter.
2 ounces.
2 "
2 "
2 "
2 quarts.
8ouuces.
334 MANUFAOTURE OF VINEGAR.
Toilet Vinegar.
Alcohol, at 900
White vinegar.
Cologne water
Extract of benzoin
.. storax
Pure vinegar
Oil of lavender
" cinnamon
" cloves
Ammonia
8 quarts.
2 "
1 pint.
60 quarts.
60 "
125 "
45 ounces.
4 "
4 "
4 "
Macerate the alcohol and the oils for one week, then
add the other substances; color with archil, and filter.
Vinegar of the Hygienic Society.
A l ~ o h o l , at 90 100 quarts.
Spirit of meliss8 15
"
"
lavender 10
"
"
rosemary. 10
"
Oil of bergamot 2 pounds.
"
bitter orange 20 ounces.
"
lemou . 18
"
"
orange 12
"
"
neroli 7
"
II
mint
I)
"
"
thyme
I)
"
II
cloves 2
"
"
cinnamon 1 ounce.
"
vervain I) ounces.
Macerate the whole, and distill 126 quarts. Macerate
one month, in 42 quarts of this distillate, 30 pounds of
orris and 4 pounds of the balsam of Tolu. Filter; mix
with the balance of the distillate; add 15 quarts of
acetic acid at 80; after 24 hours filter.
COMPOUND VINEGARS.
MEDICINAL VINEGARS.
335
Antiseptic Vinegar of the Four Thieves.
Dry tops of wormwood 121 drachms.
"rosemary 121 "
II sage 121 II
II mint 121 "
" rue 12i "
Dry flowers of lavender 2 ounces.
Garlic . 2 drachms.
Calamus 2 "
Cinnamon 2 II
Cloves 2 "
Nutmegs 2 "
Red vinegar 8 pounds.
Spirits of camphor 4 drachms.
Macerate all these substances two weeks in the.vinegar.
Pass through a cloth, express and distill; add the cam
phorated alcohol to the distillate, and keep ,in ground.
stoppered bottles. '
Antiscorbutic Vinegar.
Fresh cochlearia
.
Gentian root
Bitter orange peel
White Tinegar
2 onnces.
Ii ounce.
4 ounces.
1 ounce.
8 pounds.
Macerate 20 days; decant, and add 2 ounces of spirit
of cochlearia.
Camphorated Vinegar.
Camphor.
Alcohol
Vinegar
6 drachms.
2 ounces.
1 pint.
336
MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Colchicum Vinegar.
Vinegar, at 3
Colchicum root
Alcohol .
121ounces.
1 ouuce.
6 ounces.
Macerate 8 days in the vinegar; filter; add the alcohol.
Squill Vinegar.
Squills
Red vinegar
Alcohol, at 220
Macerate 15 days;
1 pound.
12 pounds.
1 pound.
decant, press, and filter.
Opium
Vinegar
Nutmegs
Saffron
Black-Drop Vinegar.
8 ounces.
3 pounds.
Ii ounce.
l "
Heat over a water-bath until it is reduced to half its
volume, and add 4 ounces of sugar. Let it macerate 7
weeks; expose it to the air until of a syrupy consist-
ency, and pass it through a sieve.
Syrup of Vinegar.
Vinegar 1 ponnd.
White sugar 2 pounds.
Dissolve over a water-bath, and pass through a flannel.
We could have given more formulre, but we prefer to
refer the reader to the United States Pharmacopreia, the
United States Dispensatory, and the different works on
perfumery published by the author. .

PRESERVATION OF ALIKENTARY SUBSTANCES. 337


CHAPTER XXXIII.
PRESERVATION OF ALIMENTARY SUBSTANCES.
THE preservative properties of vinegar have been
known for a very l o n ~ time, principally for the preser-
vation of vegetable substances. To complete this work,
we shall offer some few examples.
Preservation of Animal Substances.
Mackenzie believes that impure pyroligneous acid will
ultimately become the agent most employed to preserve
animal substances. It is known, indeed, that acids are
e x c e ~ l e n t to prevent putridity, and that vinegar has been
used from remote ages to preserve meats for a longer or
shorter time. Pyroligneous acid, which is very cheap,
and which communicates to meat the peculiar taste of
smoky acid, like that of hams and herrings, is preferred
to vinegar. It acts on animal substances like the smoke
of wood. There are, however, some differences in the
way of operation. For meats, the reaction takes place
during the distillation of the acid; but the fish is dipped
into the acid already prepared.
Houston, in Texas, made some experiments on the
preservation of meats by pyroligneous acid. He salted
six pieces 9f beef weighing fifteen pounds each; put
them in brine for a few weeks, and then hung them up
for one day. After this time he moistened them with a
brush dipped in pyroligneous acid. Five days after that
the meat had all the appearances of smoked beef, and
especially its taste and odor. Tongues and hams thus
22
338 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
prepared succeeded equally well. As to its economy,
Houston affirms that the use of this acid is cheaper than
the fumigation, which costs forty cents per hundred, while
by pyroligneous acid it is not higher than ten cents. It
is well to observe that by fumigation the meat loses one-
third of its weight, while by the acid there is no loss,
and it retains all its juice. Herring and salmon can be
preserved in the same manner.
Preservation of Vegetable Substances.
Since it is well ascertained that vinegar prevents the
putrefaction of animal substances for a greater or less
time, it is very evident it ought to produce the same
effect on vegetables, the decomposition of which is not
so quick. This knowledge has given birth to the in.
dustry of the preservation of alimentary substances.
Our purpose here is not to enumerate them aU: but
merely to give some of the principal ones.
Capers.-This preparation is very simple. Take green
. capers; introduce them into good vinegar, with a little
salt and tarragon. They can be kept thus. for several
years.
Cucumbers.-Take good cucumbers; rub them slightly
on the surface, and put them into a good vinegar, with a
little salt, tarragon, capers, and other substances which
can be preserved for the same length of time.
Onions.-Choose small white onions, which must be
carefully peeled and preserved in good vinegar, to which
are added a little salt and tarragon. Little melons cut
in slices, and peas, pimento, etc., can be prepared in the'
same manner.
Red and White-heart Cherries.-Choose them when
they begin to ripen; take off the stems and dip in boil.
PRESERVATION OF ALIMENTARY SUBSTANCES. 339
ing water; drain them i and, when dry, introduce them
into good vinegar with salt and tarragon.
Tomatoes.-Choose good tomatoes and expose them a
few days to the sun; clean them and introduce them
into a strong brine. After a few days take them out, and
put them in a jar full of good vinegar.
Green Beans.-Choose green beans of a medium
size i prick them carefully; blanch them by throwing
them in boiling water; let them drain, and, when nearly
dry, introduce them into a jar containing salt. Take
them out next day, and put them into a new jar con-
taining two-thirds of water and one-third of vinegar,
with a handful of salt for each quart; cover the liquid
with oil, or, better, with fresh butter. To use them,
soak them a few hours in fresh water before cooking.
Asparagus can be preserved in the same manner.
Many persons are accustomed to boil the vinegar a
few days after the substances have been immersed in it;
others object to that method, without gIving any reasons.
It is a fact that weak vinegar abandoned to itself, par-
ticularly if it contains substances liable to ferment,
readily moulds and decomposes. Then, if we use for
the preservation of alimentary substances a weak vine-
gar, and if these substances are rich in vegetation water,
it is evident that the will take a part of it,
as also the constituent elements of the ferment, and will
soon decompose. The contrary takes place if very
strong vinegar is used, or, which is the same, if we boil
the liquor after the immersion in it, during a few days,
of the alimentary substances, since acetic acid,
less volatile than water, concentrates by ebullition,
while the extractive matters are decomposed.
By filtering the vinegar thus reduced to two-thirds or
half of its volume, the decomposition is not to be feared.
340 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.

~
We must also observe that when a large quantity of
mould is remarked in the jars, it is a proof that the
alteration of the vinegar is much advanced; and if the
substances in it have to be kept, very strong vinegar must
be substituted. We need not say that all the jars must
be well closed, for it is well knowQ that vinegar, even
alone, when exposed to the contact of the air without
being covered, but principally in summer, develops a
kind of eels, which are sometimes large enough to be
seen without the microscope.
SECTION VII.
.A.CETOMETRY.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
ACETOMETRY.
DEGREE OF CONCENTRATION OF VINEGARS, AND MEANS OF
ASCERTAINING IT-ACETOMETER OF THE PARISIAN MER-
CHANTS-DESCROIZILLES' ACETOMETER-FRESENIUS AND
WILL'S PROCESS-OTTO'S PROCESS-H. FLECK'S PROCESS
-SALLERON AND REVElL'S PROCESS-J. J. POHL'S PRO-
CESS-PROCESS BY CARBONATED ALKALIES.
Degree of Concentration of Vinegars, and Means of
Ascertaining it. .
VINEGARS obtained either by the acetic fermentation
or by the distillation of wood have a degree of strength
which is relative to the quantity of saccharine matter
contained in the fermented liquor, or inversely to the
quantity of water with which the sulphuric acid, which
is made to act on the acetate of soda, is diluted. The
means by which to ascertain the. strength of the acid
would be very easy, if the density of acetic acid would
increase or decrease by subtraction or addition of water.
It has been shown by M. Mollerat (Annales de CMmie,
vol. lxviii.) that the density of acetic acid is not a proof
of its strength. Thus, two qualities of acetic acid,
numbered respectively one and two, equally marked 9
of the areometer of Baume, at the temperature of 54.5,
342 lU.NUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
and their specific gravity was 1.0630. However, not-
withstanding their similarity, No.1 was composed 'of-
Acetic acid. 87.125
Water 12.875
100.000
100 parts saturated 250 parts of' crystallized car-
bonate of soda. That acid crystallized between 50 and
52, and melted with difficulty even at 64.5. No. 2
was composed of-
Acid 41.275
Water 08.725
Spec. graY. Areometer. Water added.
Grammt,.
100.000
100 parts saturated 118 parts of crystallized carbonate
of soda. It did not crystallize at several degrees be-
low the freezing point.
It is easy to see that by examining the acetic acid
with the areometer alone, the two specimens indicate
the same strength, while the latter is a compound of 100
parts of the No.1, and 112.2 of water. If the quantity
of water is less, the density of the acid increases. The
maximum sp. gr. is 1.080, and the acid contains then a
little more than a third in weight of water.
Table of Experimenll made on 110 Gramm" of Acetic Acid No.1,
marlcing 90 of the Areometer,' Specific Gravity 1. 068. III Power
of Saturation being 250 of Cry,tallized Carbonate of Soda for 100
of Acid.
1
10 10.6 1.0742
2
12 11 1.0720
3
10 11.3 1.0791

10.5 10.9 1.0763


5 12 10.6 1.0742
6 11.5 10.4 1.0728
7
31 9.4 1.0658
8
11 9 1.0637
9 37 9 1.0630
ACETOMETRY. 343
Each addition of water to the mixture raised the
temperature, which at each experiment was allowed to
fall dQwn to 54.5..
Mollerat has ascertained that-
1. The ascension of the areometer indicates the
strength of the acetic acid until the mixture is formed of
Acid . 67.25614
Water 32.74386
This term is marked on the areometer by 11.3 at the
temperature of 54.5, and the specific gravity is 1.0791.
2. The strength of that same acid from 11.3, is
ascertained by the regular sinking of the areometer in
the mixture.
In England they use a glass acetometer. which is
..
composed of a bulb of about 3 inches in diameter, below
which is another small one, loaded with mercury or lead.
The first bulb is surmounted bY'a ghiss tube about 3
inches long, containing a band of paper, in the middle
of which is traced a transverse line. This line is sur-
mounted with a little cup to receive the w e ~ h t s .
Taylor's acetometer has for its basis the degrees of
strength of a proof acid, called by this manufacturer
No. 24.
SpeoUlo gruity.
1.0085
1. 0170
1.0257
1.0320
1.0470
1.0580
Real aoid in 100 parts.
5
10
15
20
30
40
Acetometer of the Parisian Merchants.
This instrument is composed of two bulbs; the lower
one, which is the smallest, is loaded with mercury; the
upper one is cylindrical, and is about 1 ~ inch long, and 2
344 JUNUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
inches in circumference. It is surmounted by a very thin
tube about 3! inches long. This acetometer contains
only the first four degrees of the Bal;lme hydrometer for
acids; the 0 on tho top illdicates water; the figure I,
one degree of the acid areometer; it is the same for the
2d, 3d, and 4th figures. ,
These four degrees are each divided into tenths
(which, consequently, are tenths of a degree of the
areometer for acids); thus, for example, if it falls in
the vinegar to 2 plus 5 suhdivisions, it is said that
vinegar weighs 2 degrees 5 tenths. As table vinegars
vary but little in their degrees of concentration, this in-
strument is used for approximative results.
The specific gravity of wood vinegar used as an ali.
ment is 1.009; in that state, its degree of acidity is the
same as that of wine vinegar of 1.014. These vinegars,
uuder the same' speoific gravity, contain each 5 hun-
dredths of acetic acid and 95 of water.
According to what we have said above, the acetic acid
areometers are not accurate in determining the acid
strength 0/ vinegars; and to obtain it, processes similar
to those used for alkalies must be employed. We shall
now examine each one particularly.
Descroizilles' Acetometer.
The details on which Descroizilles had entered to de-
scribe his acetometer not being susceptible of analysis,
we shall give them as they are mentioned in his notice
of the polymetre chimique.
The acetometer is a glass tube 8 to 9 inches long, and
about ! of an inch in diameter. It is closed at the
lower end, and supported by a foot.
It presents a scale having 48 divisions, every other one
being numbered, and subdivided each into halves, with-
ACETOMETRY. 345
out including the space between its lower end and the
bottom of the tube. The capacity up to the upper
end, marked 0, is of 50 millilitres, or 100 half thou-
sandths of a litre. Besides, we see opposite the 4th de-
gree of the descending scale, a circular line, between
which and the bottom of the vessel, the space shows the
capacity of a centilitre, which is marked, because, as we
shall see, it is a fixed volume for the test of the vinegar,
and for the previous test of the acetometric liquor.
To use this instrument, two things are necessary, viz.,
a solution of litmus and one of caustic soda, which is
the acetometric liquor.
Acetometric Liquor.-To render the soda caustic, heat
about 4 decilitres of water, or 8 measures of 50 millili-
tree each; the water, being warm, is taken from the fire,
and 50 grammee of quicklime, recently burned, are in-
troduced very carefully. When the lime is slacked and
reduced to a milk, add 4 decilitres of water, and 200
grammes of sal soda, stir well, and let it cool; filter
through a cloth, and wash the residuum with wat.er,
being careful to use only a decilitre at a time.
Generally of 8 decilitres, first put with t.he lime and
the soda, only 4 pass over; then, to obtain 8, we must
add 4 more, one after the other. After this, the resi-
duum should be entirely exhausted; but 2 decilitres
more may be passed over and kept for a new operation.
On the other hand, have a standard acid liquor com-
posed of sulphuric acid and water, and pour the same
into th.e tube, as far as the circular line, then pour this
quantity of acid liquor into a glass, wash the tube with
an equal quantity of water, and mix the ~ w o liquids.
The tube is then filled with the solution of caustic soda,
and is used to saturate the acid. The saturation takes
346 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
place without effervescence, and the operator must give
great attention.
Let the lye fall slowly into the glass, and stir the mix-
ture with a little glass rod, with which from time to
time you touch drops of the solution of litmus. Imme-
diately the fine blue color of the litmus turns red, and
this will take place as long as free acid is present; but
as soon as it is saturated, the litmus will retain its blue
color. Then observe in the instrument how many milli-
litres of lye have been used. This will be indicated by
the acetometric scale.
. We suppose that, by this first test, we have used 11
millilitres of the alkaline lye for 10 of the acid liquor,
and we desire this alkaline liquor diluted in a quantity
of water so that instead of 11 millilitres, it requires 20.
Therefore we need only to make a mixture of 11 parts
of lye and 9 of pure water; for this, fill the graduated
tube to the top of the scale, then empty it into a bottle.
Put again 5 millilitres of lye into the tube; then add to
it pure water until the 50 millilitres are full, pour this
mixture with the 5U others, mix, and we then have 100
millilitres of acetometric liquor in the required propor-
tion, for 55: 100: : 11: 20. However, try again with
this mixture a new saturation, to be sure of the exact-
ness of the partial mixture, so as to proceed to the mix-
ture of all the lye with 9 twentieths, or 45 hundredths
of water.
We have supposed that 11 twentieths of the first lye
would be necessary; it is certain, then, that we must add
9 centilitres of water; but in case 7 twentieths of the
first lye are sufficient to saturate, we have to add 13
twentieths of water. The proportions of water to be
.added vary according to the strength of the first lye.
The liquor must be kept in a bottle, well corked, avoid-
ACETOHETRY. 347
ing the contact of the air, and its strength must be tried
every time a test is made with it.
To try a vinegar, begin first by disseminating round
a plate drops of a solution of litmus; then introduce
into the acetometer 1 centilitre of the vinegar to be tried,
and pour it into a glass; wash the acetometer with as
much water, and mix that water with the vinegar.
Proceed. to the saturation by slowly pouring the alka-
liinetric liquor, and helping its combination by stirring
with a little glass rod. From time to time touch with
the rod a drop of litmus, which will redden while vine-
gar is free, and the operation is achieved as soon as the
litmus remains blue. Then we ascertain the degree
obtained. This degree for ordinary good vinegars
varies from 10 to 15, that is, that 10 millilitres of ordi.
nary vinegar require for their saturation 10 to 15 milli-
litres of alkalimetric liquor.
Descroizilles has tried the strength of the acids ob-
tained from wood by distillation in closed vessels, and
obtained the following results:-
Pyroligneons acid purified once 15 degrees.
II II II a second time 12"
Acid pnrified and concentrated by the pro-
cesses which give radical vinegar 132"
This last acid marked 10 of the areometer of Baume.
and Will's Process.
The process of Messrs. Fresenius and Will is based
on the loss in weight that the bicarbonate of soda ex-
periences, fvhen dipped into acetic acid or vinegar, by the
disengagement of its carbonic acid, and its transforma-
tion into acetate of soda. This process is very simple,
and requires only an exact scale.
The apparatus is composed of two bottles, A, B. The
348 KANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
first has a capacity of 60 to 70 cubic centimetres, and
the second of 50 to 60. Both are provided with good
corks, pierced with two holes, through which pass the
tubes a, c, d. The lower end of the tube a descends
Fig. 2T.
almost to the bottom of the bottle A, and its upper end
is closed by a little ball of wax, b; c is a tube twice
curved at a right angle, one end of which passes a little
below the cork of the bottle A, but the other descends
nearly to the bottom of the bottle B. The tube d of
this last bottle pas@es but little beyond the cork.
To test acetic acid or vinegar, proceed as follows:-
Introduce sulphuric acid into the bottle B ~ n t i l it is
about half full, then pour into the bottle A the quantity
of acetic acid to be examined, which has beeu exactly
weighed-for instance, 0.751 gramme of the acetic acid
supposed anhydrous. Water is added until fie bottle A
is about half full.
Introduce into a test-tube a quantity of bicarbonate
of soda sufficient to saturate the weight of the acetic
acid contained in the bottle A; and suspend it above
the acid with a thread kept by the cork.
,tile' byGoogIe
ACETOHETRY. 349
-i
Thus prepared, the whole is weighed as exactly as
possible, and as soon as weighed, the thread is let free.
The tube full of bicarbonate of soda falls into the acid;
the cork is then replaced without loss of time.
Immediately carbonic acid is disengaged, because the
bicarbonate is decomposed, acetate of soda is formed,
and the carbonic acid gas is set free. This gas passes
by the tube c, and is thence brought into the concen-
trated sulphuric acid in the bottle B, where it loses all
its dampness, and finally escapes by the tube d.
When the effervescence ceases, the operator, by ex-
ercising with the mouth on the d a kind of suctian,
withdraws all the carbonic acid gas which fills the appa-
ratus, and substitutes atmospheric air, which penetrates
by the tube a. If the apparatus has become a little
warm, let it cool, and weigh it again; the loss in weight
indicates the centesimal proportion of the real acid
present in the acid submitted to the trial.
Otto's Process.
. Otto employs ammonia as a test solution, and a grad-
uated tube that he calls an acetometer.
This acetometer is a cylindrical glass tube one foot
long and one-half an inch of bore, and is closed at one
end (Fig. 28). a is the level point of exactly one gramme
of water. (4 and b it contains ten grammes of
water, and between a and x, 5 grammes of water.
The volumes b c, cd, de, etc., are each equal to that
occupied by 2.08 of water, if the acetometer
indicates the percentage of monohydrated acetic acid,
and 2.447 grammes if it indicates anhydrous acid.
For monohydrated acetic acid, the volume of 2.08
grammes of water corresponds to the volume of 2.07
grammes of the ammoniacal test solution. For anhy-
350 IIANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
drous acid, the volume of 2.447 grammes of water
corresponds to that of 2.435 grammes of test solution.
In either caRe, the ammonia test solution contains 1.369
per cent. of ammonia, and the quantity necessary to fill
Fill. 28.
each division, be. cd, &c., will saturate one decigramme
(one-tenth gramme) of monohydrated or of anh)'drous
acetic acid, according to the graduation of the instru-
ment.
The use of this acetometer requires a solution of lit-
mus and a test solution of ammonia prepared as follows:
Take one pound of the purest commercial ammonia,
and to be able to dilute it to the required strength for
testing, that is, u ~ t i l it contains 1.369 per cent. of am-
monia, its density is ascertained with a hydrometer
which indicates the specific gravity between 0.951
and 0.978. The specific gravity being ascertained,
the mixture of aqua ammonia and water is easily deter-
mined by using the following table.
ACETOHETRY. 351
Aqna ammonia
To make 1000 part. by ..olghl or a 101110lnllon
oo.. talnlog 1.869 por cenl. or ammonia, lako,
Which contalnllho tol- R... Iho rollowlng
lowlllg porconlal" or lpocilc gravlliOI. Aqna ammonia. Waler.
ammonia,
12.000 0.9517 114.8 885.2
11.875 0.9521 115.3 884.7
11.750 0.9526 116.5 883.5
11.625 0.9531 117.8 882.2
11.500 0.9536 119.0 881.0
11.375 0.9540 120.0 880.0
11.250 0.9545 121.7 878.3
11.125 0.9550 123.0 877.0
11.000 0.9555 124.5 875.5
10.954 0.9556 125.0 875.0
10.875 0.9559 126.0 874.0
10.750 0.9564 127.3 872.7
10.625 0.9569 129.0 871.0
10.500 0.9574 130.4 869.6
10.375 0.9578 132.0 868.0
10.250 0.9583 133.5 866.5
10.125 0.9589 135.0 865.0
10.000 0.9593 137.0 863.0
9.875 0.9597 138.6 861.4
9.750 0.9602 140.4 859.1f
9.625 0.9607 142.2 857.8
9.500 0.9612 144.0 856.0
9.375 0.9616 146.0 854.0
9.250 0.9621 148.0 81\2.0
9.125 0.9626 150.0 8511.0
9.000 0.9631 lS2.0
,
848.0
8.875 0.9636 1lI4.0 846.0
8.750 0.9641 156.4 843.6
8.625 0.9645 158.7
841.3
8.500 0.9650 161.0 839.0
8.375 0.9654 i63.5 836.5
8.250 9.9659 166.0 834.0
8.125 0.9664 168.5 831.5
8.000 0.9669 171.0 829.0
7.875 0.9673 173.8
826.2
'1.750 0.9678 176.6
823.4
7.625 0.9683 179.5 820.5
7.500 0.9688 182.5 817.5
7.375 0.9692 185.6 814.4
7.21\0 0.9697 188.8 811.2
7.125 09702 192.0 808.0
7.000 0.9707 195.6 804.4
6875 0.9711 199.0 801.0
6.71\0 0.9il6 202.8 797.2
6.625 0.9721 206.6 793.4
6.500 0.9726 210.6 78&.5
6.375 0.9730 214.7 781\.3
6.250 0.9735 219.0 781.0
6.125 0.9740 223.5 776.5
6.000 0.9745 228.0 772.0
5.875 0.9749
. 233.0 767.0
5.750 0.9754 238.0 762.0
5.625 0.9759 243.4 756.6
5.500 0.9764 249.0 751.0
5.375 0.9768 254.7 745.3
5.250 0.9773 260.8 739.2
5.125 0.9778 267.0 73i.0
5.000 0.9783 273.8 726.2

352 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.


For instance, if we have ascertained by the specific
gravity bottle or by the hydrometer that the specific
gravity of the strong ammonia is 0.9626 at 60
0
, we fol-
low the corresponding line in the table, and find in the
third and fourth columns that we must take 150 parts by
weight of the strong ammonia, and dilute them with 850
parts of pure water.
The testing operation is made as follows:-
1. Fill exactly to level a with the litmus solution,
and if too much liquid has been poured in, remove the
excess by means of a small glass tube' drawn out to a
fine point.
2. Then fill the space a b exactly with the vinegar to
be analyzed. The litmus solution becomes red.
3. Pour drop by drop from a bottle, or, still better,
from a burette or 8 pipette, the standard test ammonia-
cal solution, and stir the contents by reversing the tube,.
after having closed its aperture with the thumb or a
cork. The operation is finished when the litmus has
acquired a decided blue color. But before reading
the percentage, allow,the tube to stand a little while,
until the liquors have run down from the sides of the
glass.
As each numbered division above h is equal to 1 per
cent. of acetic acid, monohydrated or anhydrous, accord.
ing to the graduation of the tube; if the liquor reaches
41 divisions above h, we Bay that the vinegar contains
4i per cent. of real acid.
The tube is generally graduated for 12 per cent. of
real acid; for an acid whose strength varies between 12
and 24 per ~ e n t . it is necessary to act differently. Pour
then the strong acid up to t h ~ level x = 5 grammes.
after having previously added the litmus solation up to
a. The space x h is filled with distilled water, and the
"
ACETOHETRY.
353
ammonia solution added as previously, and the percent-
age read is doubled.
For still stronger vinegars, containing, let us say. 30
to 40 per cent. of real acetic acid, mix in a separate
glass 1 volume of the strong acid with 2 or 3 equal
volumes of water, and then fill the space a b with this
diluted vinegar. The readings of the percentage after
the addition of the ammonia solution must therefore be
multiplied by 3 or by 4.
On the other hand, very weak vinegars require a
weak ammonia solution. The standard ammonia solu-
tion is then diluted with an equal volume of water, the
space a b of the test-tube is filled with the vinegar, and
the reading of the percentage is divided by 2.
H. Fleck's Process.
The methods proposed by Gay-Lussac to test chemi-
cal compounds, and by which we determine quanti-
tatively their constituent parts, not by the weight but
by the measure of the reagents employed, have given to
chemical analysis a direction which in its results has
singularly simplified the analytical process.
It has also been proposed, and already m ~ t h o d s of
this kind have been adopted in acidimetry, principally
in acetometry, to weigh the vinegar, and to determine,
with an exactness more or less great, its richness per
cent. in pure acetic acid.
Berzelius first directed attention to liquid ammonia as
the reagent proper to determine quantitatively free acetic
acid. Otto, as we have seen, has proposed a mode of
testing which, whilst not very accurate, may be adopted
in practice.
Otto's process met in its application to general use
some obstacles, principally due to the difficulty of pre-
23
354 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
paring- a test-liquor as rigorously definite as required by
.that method. A source of error which is not without
importance, independently of the unexact determination
of the specific gravity of the ammoniacal liquor, con-
sists in the loss of strength of the ammonia test liquor,
by being kept, too long, 'by imperfect closing of the
bottle, or by frequent opening; so that after six months
the liquor has been found to contain only 1.164 per cent.
of ammonia, instead of 1.369; and a vinegar which con-
tains exactly 5.528 per cent. of hydrated acetic acid,
will mark then 6.5 by Otto's acetometer.
M. Fleck, in place of ammonia, employs lime-water,
which is made by sInking good lime, and treating the
paste obtained with water. The liquor decanted and fil-
tered is the lime-water.
It is known that the solubility of the lime diminishes
as the temperature increases; so that, according to Dal-
ton, 1 part of lime dissolves in 1270 parts of water at
212, and, as M. Fleck has shown, in 736.5 parts at
39.2. But between the temperatures of 39.2 to 77,
the difference of solubility is so small, that in the
present acetometric process it is of no practical account.
The lime, dissolved in water to form lime-water, presents
between those degrees of temperature a degree of s o ~ u
bility as follows:-
At 39.2
64.fj
69
64.4
77
Solubility.
1 : 736.6
1: 767.0
1 : 778.4
1 : 783.3
1 : 789A
Spec. graT. of lime-water.
1.00221
1.00206
1.00203
1.00200
1.00173
As a normal temperature for these tests, 59 has
been adopted, and 100 cubic centimeters of that lime-
water have been neutralized by 7.2 cubic centimeters of
hydrochloAc acid, the richness of which in acid had .
ACETOHETRY. 355
been determined by a solution of soda titrated by tartaric
acid, showing that 100 cubic centimeters contained
2.326 grammes of anhydrous hydrochloric acid. There-
fore 7.2 cubic centimeters of that normal acid correspond
to 0.167472 gramme of pure hydrochloric acid, and this
acid saturated by 100 cubic centimeters of lime-water
corresponds to 0.12846 gramme of lime. This quan-
tity of lime requires 0.27527 gramme of hydrated acetic
acid (radical vinegar) for its saturation; consequently,
also, 2.75 c. c. of vinegar containing 10 per cent. of
acetic acid. Then, since 100 cubic centimeters of lime-
water correspond to 2.75 c. c. of vinegar, at 10 per cent.
of acid, it is evident that the centesimal proportion of
acetic acid in the vinegar is determined by the quantity
of lime-water employed for its neutralization, if we
divide the number of cubic centimeters of the latter
which has been used, by the number 10; since each 10
cubic centimeters represent 1 per cent. of radical vine-
gar in the vinegar.
The small difference which results of a slightly higher
specific gravity of the vinegar, cannot, relatively to the
quantity of 2.75 cubic centimeters which are employed,
be taken into consideration in such a test, since, for
each increase of one per cent. in richness, it hardly
amounts to 0.002. The differences in the power of
saturation of the lime-water from the temperature of
39.2 to 77 ~ a v e no more importance, for we find in
100 cubic centimeters of lime-water at
39.2 0.13511 gramme of lime. { DiITerences
. 59 0.12846"" 0.00725
77 0.12668 II " 0.00178
Hence it results that between 39.2 and 59 the differ-
ence of the acetic acid saturated by the excess of lime
amounts to 0.01553 gramme, and for 1C .. 1.8 Ft. to
356 JUNUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
0.00141 gramme of radical vinegar =0.51 cubic centi-
meter of lime-water, or 0.051 per cent. of acetic acid
in the vinegar; and that between 59 and 77, the quan-
tity of acetic acid which corresponds to the difference
in lime amounts, at the most, to 0.00381 gramme, which
makes for 1C = 1.8 Ft., 0.13 cubic centimeter of lime-
water=0.013 per cent. of acetic acid in the vinegar. It
is necessary for those tests which require much exact-
ness, for each 1.8 of the thermometer below 59 to add
0.051 per cent. of acetic acid, and for each 1.8 above
59, to deduct 0.013 per cent. from the amount indicated
by the acetometer. For example, we have tried a
vinegar at 66.2, and have found 5.350 per cent. for
the richness in acid, the quantity is really 5.350-
(4 X0.013)=5.298 per cent.; on the other hand, if the
test of the vinegar has been made at 50 and has given
5.250 per cent., then the vinegar contains 5.250+
(5 X0.051)=5.505 per cent. of hydrated acetic aciq.
The acetometer with which these assays are made is a
graduated tube, which contains from the bottom to the last
mark 103.25 cubic centimeters of water at the tempera-
ture of 59. The narrower space from the bottom of the
tube to a certain height contains 0.5 cubic centimeter,
and is filled with a litmus solution. Above this space
there is a capacity of 2.75 cubic centimeters, which is
filled with the vinegar to be tesfed, and which reddens
the solution of litmus. If we try a vinegar containing
more than 10 per cent. of acetic acid, fill only half the
free space, and complete it with distilled water, it is
evident, in this case, that the number of cubic centi-
meters of lime-water must be multiplied by two before
dividing by ten. The tube, above the space for litmus
and vinegar, presents a capacity of 100 cubic centimeters,
,which are numbered by tens, with the notation of tenths
ACETOIlETRY. 357
only, so that there is no necessity to divide by 10, that
is to say, these numbers represent not cubic centimeters,
but the per cent.
It is in this space that the lime-water is poured until
the last drop turns the red color of the litmus blue.
The reaction is favored by quickly shaking the tube.
The lime-water must be perfectly clear and limpid.
If the vinegar to be tested is much colored, as often
happens with wood vinegar, from time to time pour a
drop of the liquid of the acetometer on red litmus-paper,
till it begins to turn blue, a phenomenon which indicates
the close of the reaction.
This acetometer gives a sure way to test the liquors
furnished by vinegar-makers, and immediately to deter-
mine their richness in real acid.
It is not impossible to modify this process, in this, that
a determined volume of lime.water can be taken and
neutralized by a known volume of the vinegar. This
manner of considering the problem will permit the
making of another scale, which will also give very
good results, and will render possible the testing in
volume of highly concentrated vinegars. As 100 c. c.
of lime-water correspond to 0.275 gramme of hydrated
acetic acid, we see that 0.5 gramme of that hydrated
acetic acid requires 181.81 c. c. of lime-water for its
saturation. If we saturate the acetic acid in a vessel,
in the very narrow neck of which we mark or introduce
the scale, so as to read correctly the quantity of v i ~ e g a r
used, that scale will be divided as follows:-
358 KANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Pr.d. Cub.ut. Pr.L Cub. cout.
100 Acetic acid = 0./100 13 Acetic acid = 3.833
90
.. ..
0.1155 12
.. ..
4.166
80
II II
0.625 11
"
II
4.11.11
70
.. II
0.714 10
II II
/1.000
60
II II
0.833 9
II
"
/1.11115
60
II ..
1.000 8
II ..
6.250
c. c. c. c.
40
"
..
1.2110
= 181.81
7
"
II
7.142
=181.81
30
" "
1.333
lime-water.
6
"
"
8.333
lime-water.
20
"
II
2.500 /I
"
II
10.000
19
II
"
2.632 4
"
II
12.500
18
" "
2.777 3
II II
16.666
17
"
"
2.941 2
II II
25.000
16
II II
8.125 1
"
II
60.000
16
"
II
3.333 0.5
"
II
100.000
14
II II
3.571
Salleron and Reveil's Process.
This method is based on the neutralization of borate
of filoda by the acid contained in the vinegar; but as it
may happen that the liquor contains other acids besides
acetic acid, it is necessary to try it with reagents to
ascertain the presence of these acids.
'Vhen it is certain that the vinegar does not contain
mineral acids, we have to examine for the quantity of
real acetic acid. The use of carbonate of soda produces
a too long disengagement of carbonic acid. Caustic
soda is too quickly carbonated by contact with the air.
These reasons have determined MM. Salleron and Reveil
to use the solution of borax, the decomposition of which
takes place without the disengagement of gas.
The test or acetometric liquor is formed by an aque-
ous solution of borate of soda, colored dark blue by
litmus. It is formed in such a manner that 20 cubic
centimeters of this solution will exactly neutralize 4
cubic centimeters of the alkalimetric liquor of Gay-
Lussac.
The composition of that liquor is well known. It is
* Traite theorique et pratique de Ia Fermentation, by M. N. Bassett,
page 546.
ACETOMETRY. 359
formed of 100 gramrnes of monohydrated sulphuric
acid (S03HO=1.8427 sp. gr.) diluted with distilled
water so as to occupy 1 litre in volume.
The test liquor for the acetometer contains 45 grammes
of borax for each litre, plus a sufficient quantity of lit-
mus. To bring it to the condition we have indicated,
measure 4 cubic centimeters of sulphuric liquor in a
graduated tube, and pour on it the acetometric liquor
until the violet blue has disappeared, after the pass-
age of the red shade. If the quantity of test liquor
which produces the result is less than 20 cubic centi-
meters, add water to the liquor so that the quantity of
20 cubic centimeters exactly neutralizes 4 cubic centi-
meters of acid liquor of Gay-Lussac. In a contrary
case, add a little caustic soda, so as to obtain an exact
proportion.
The graduated probe and the pipette of Salleron's
acetometer can be advantageously used to titrate the
test liquor, the probe having lines engraved on it which
indicate 4 cubic centimeters for the acid, and other di-
visions by centimeters for the solution of borax.
The liquor thus prepared may be employed to test any
kind of vinegar.
The acetometer is composed as follows:-
1. A glass tube, closed at one end, and having at its
lower part a first line marked O. Below that first line
is engraved the word vinegar, so as to indicate the
quantity of vinegar to employ. Above 0 are engraved
divisions 1, 2, 3, etc., which represent the richness of
the vinegar in real acid.
2. A little sponge fixed at the end of a whalebone, to
wipe the inside of the tube after each test.
3. A pipette carrying a single line marked 4 cubic

360 HANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.

centimeters, used to measure with precision the quantity


of vinegar necessary for each assay.
4. A bottle, which contains the ti trated solution of
borax.
To use this apparatus, dip the pipette into the vessel
containing the vinegar, and draw up some until it ex-
actly reaches the mark 4: cubic centimeters. Then in-
troduce the pipette into the acetometer, and let the vine-
gar run in.
The level in the acetometer is exactly to the line O.
Pour then on the vinegar the acetometric liquor. Imme-
diately the mixture is colored red. That red color be-
comes more and more dark. We remark that, after a
certain addition of liquor, the upper layers of the liquid
remain blue, while the lower layers are yet red.
Shake the mixture well. After agitation, the general
shade of the mixture is uniform, but it becomes slightly
violet after a new addition of liquor. Lastly, there
comes a moment when a few drops more bring the vio-
let-blue shade, a sign by which the complete neutral-
ization of the acid contained in the vinegar is ascer-
tained. The division marked on the tube indicates the
quantity of pure acetic acid the vinegar contains. Thus
8 degrees show that 100 litres of vinegar contain 8
litres of pure acetic acid.
By pure acetic acid we understand the crystallizable
monohydrated acetic acid C
4
H
3
03, HO, with a density
of 1.063, that is, the most concentrated which has yet
been obtained (85 anhydrous acid, and 15 of water).
The acetometer has only 25 degrees, and, conse-
quently, cannot be used for a vinegar containing more
than 25 per cent. of acid. Thus, if we have to t e ~ t a
vinegar, the acidity of which is supposed to be above
25, it must be diluted with one, two, or three parts of
ACETOJlETRY.
361
water, and multiplying by 2, 3, or 4 the degree indicated
by the instrument, we find the richness of the liquid.
J. J. PoM's Process.
The analysis of diluted acetic acid by Fresenius
and Will's process has been lately substituted by the
process that Mohr has made known in his book on
analytical methods by titrated liquors, and which gives
a surer and quicker result.
M. Pohl has endeavored in his process to avoid the
weighing, and has invented the following method, which
is distinguished by a sufficient exactness and by the sim-
plicity of its application, and does not require any com-
plicated calculations.
A pipette contains, to a certain line a, enough liquid
to let exactly 5 cubic centimeters run at the tempera-
ture of 59. The 5 cubic centimeters are allowed to
run into a glass, and to this volume add 5 or 6 drops of
a litmus solution; then titrate by the ordinary method
with a graduated burette divided into fifths of cubic
centimeters. Lastly, with an areometer for liquids
heavier than water, where the 0 indicates the density
of water at 59, the density of the vinegar is ascertained.
It is with the numerical data thus obtained that we may
use the following table, calculated by the equation:-
=5.1.C=102
C
P 5D . D
In which p is the centesimal proportion of anhydrous
acetic acid to be ascertained, C the number of cubic
centimeters of the normal solution of soda used to neu-
tralize, and D the density of the vinegar.
The first vertical column represents the densities, and
the first horizontal one the number of cubic centimeters
362 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
of soda, and immediately the proportion of anhydrous
acid is found.
The table by Pohl extends from 0.1 to 90 cubic
centimeters of a of soda; in the table below we
have reduced them from 10 to 90 c. c., because it is
sufficient to displace the comma, or one figure for quan-
tities of solution from 1 to 9, and two figures for quan-
tities from 0.1 to 0.9 cubic centimeters.
Table fo MeaBUre the Richness of Vinegars.
enblc centlmete...
eDilly.

10 40 10 80 70 80 90
--
1.005 10.1Ii 20.:S0 30.45 40.60 50.75 60.90 71.04 81.20 91.34
1.010 10.10 20.20 30.30 40.40 50.50 60.60 70.70 80.80 90.90
1.015 10.05 20.10 30.15 40.20 50.25 60.29 70.34 80.39 90.44
1.020 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.ro 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00 90.00
1.025 9.95 19.90 29.85 39.80 49.76 59.71 69.66 79.61 89.56
1.030 9.90 1981 29.71 39.61 49.52 59.42 69.32 79.22 89.13
1.035 9.86 19.71 29.57 39.42 49.28 59.13 69.00 78.84 88.70
1.040 9.81 19.62 29.42 39.23 49.04 58.85 68.66 78.46 88.27
1.045 9.76 19.52 29.28 39.04 48.81 58.57 68.33 78.09 87.85
1.050 9.il 19.43 29.14 38.86 48.57 58.28 68.00 77.71 87.43
1.055 9.67 19.36 29.00 38.67 48.34 58.01 67.68 77.34 87.01
1.060 9.62 19.25 28.87 38.49 48.12 57.74 67.36 76.98 86.61
1.065 9.58 19.15 28.73 38.31 47.89 67.46 67.04 76.62 86.19
1.070 9.53 19.07 28.60 38.13 47.67 57.20 66.73 76.26 85.85
1.075 949 18.98 28.46 37.95 47.44 56.93 66.42 75.94 85.39
1.080 9.44 18.89 28.33 37.78 47.22 56.66 66.11 75.55 85.00
1.085 9.40 18.80 28.20 37.60 47.01 56.41 65.81 75.21 84.61
1.090 9.:i6 18.72 28.07 37.43 46.79 56.15 65.61 74.86 84.22
1.095 9.32 18.63 27.95 37.26 46.58 55.89 65.21 74.52 83.84
1.100 9.27 18.55 27.82 37.09 46.37 55.64 6491 74.18 83.46
D
To leave no obscurity in the use of the table, we shall
present the following examples:-
1. Let us suppose 5 cubic centimeters of a vinegar of
a density 1.055, and which has been saturated with 30
cubic centimeters of a test liquor of soda. In the first
column of the table we look for the density 1.055, then
in the column of the cubic centimeters the number 30,
and at the of the lines with the column we find
the number 29.00, which at once indicates the centesimal
ACETOHETRY.
363
- .,.
For 20 cubic centimeters
"6" "
." 0.'" "
richness in anhydrous acetic acid of the vinegar ex-
amined.
2. The product submitted to the experiment has a
density of 1.040, and has required for its neutralization
26.4 cubic centimeters of a normal solution of soda.
The table gives:-
19.62
5.88
0.39
25.89
That is, it contains 25.89 per cent. of anhydrous acetic
acid.
We see by this table that differences of 0.005 in sp.
gr. are sufficient for weak vinegars. For acids which
are over 50 per cent., there may nevertheless be an error
of 0.4 per cent. Then, for such tests, it is necessary,
in order to obtain more precise results, to read with the
greatest attention the densities marked by the areometer,
and to proceed to an interpretation, which is easily exe-
cuted by means of the difference between two consecu-
tive numbers, and which corresponds to decimals in the
required density.
Until now we have supposed the experiments to take
place at the temperature of 59, but it may be necessary
to operate at a different temperature. It has been
ascertained that the densities for acetic acids of a rich-
ness of 5 to 65 per cent., determined by the glass areo-
meter, vary on an average for each 1.8 'of 0.000555.
To make the desired correction, multiply 0.000555 by
the number of times 1.8 is contained between the
observed and the normal temperature, and add the pro-
duct to the density found, when the observed tempera-
ture is above 59. Below this point, subtract the pro-
duct.
364
MANUFA.CTURE OF VINEGA.R.
Process with Carbonated Alkalies (the Alkaline Solution
is measured).
Carbonates ofpotassa or ofsoda are generally employed,
but carbonate of soda is to be preferred, since it is easily
obtained pure, and does not attract the dampness of the
atmosphere. 53 parts (1 equivalent) of dry carbonate
of soda saturate 51 parts (1 equivalent) of anhydrous,
or 60 parts of monohydrated acetic acid. We therefore
dissolve, if we use grain weights, 53 grains of drycar-
bonate of soda in as much water as necessary to fill an
alkalimeter tube graduated into 100 parts. On the other
hand, we take 51 or 60 grains of the vinegar to be
tested, according to our desire to test the per cent. of .
anhydrous or monohydrated acetic acid, and we proceed
to the operation.
If the vinegar is white and clear, a few drops of lit-
mus solution may be added to it, but it is useless to do
so if the vinegar is ,dark. Then pour the alkaline solu-
tion into the vinegar as long as a strong effervescence
takes place, stir the liquid with a glass rod, and test it
with blue litmus-paper. which should turn red. The
alkaline solution is at this time added very slowly, and
tested with the litmus-paper. When the effervescence
is slow, it is time to heat the liquor, so as to expel the
carbonic acid. which imparts a pink color to
blue litmus-paper. If. after heating, the litmus con-
tinues red, alkali is added, drop by drop, until a
piece of red litmus-paper becomes blue. If then we
read on the alkalimeter the number of divisions of liquor
poured out, and find 6, or 22, we say that the vinegar
contains 6, 8l. or 22 per cent. of real acid.
In many cases the custom is to indicate the strength
of vinegar by the number of grains of alkali (1) neces-
sary to saturate one ounce (1) of vinegar. But as it is
ACETOHETRY. 365
not specified whether the alkali is carbonate of soda, car-
bonate of potassa, or the bicarbonates of those bases, dry,
crystallized, or wet, which have each different saturating
power; and whether the ounce is troy or avoirdupois,
fluid and measured in measures generally incorrect, or
weighing 437 or 480 grains; it follows that the most
delightful confusion exists as to the results announced.
Nevertheless, we may employ this method of testing,
by dissolving one grain of dry carbonate of soda for each
division of the alkalimeter employed, and conducting
the operation as before, except that we use one ounce
of "inegar. The number of divisions of liquor poured
out of the alkalimeter will indicate the number of grains
of dry carbonate of soda necessary to saturate one ounce
of the "inegar. But, in order to know the meaning of
the value of this test, it is absolutely necessary to indi-
cate the kind of alkali and of ounce used.
The following numbers will explain the difference in
saturating power of different alkalies, and it will be al-
ways more satisfactory to know the percentage ofreal acid.
51 parts of anhydrous or 60 parts of monohydrated
acetic acid saturate-
63 parts of dry carbonate of soda,
84: II II " bicarbonate of soda,
143 "" crystallized carbonate of soda,
69.11 II .. dry carbonate of potassa,
100.11 II II bicarbonate of potassa.
Carbonate of potassa is so hygrometric, that its use
should be avoided.
Method by Weighing the Alkaline Solutions.-In this
method the definite solutions of alkaline carbonates are
weighed. One part in weight of crystallized carbonate
of soda, or of dry carbonate of p o ~ a s s a , is dissolved in
3 parts in weight of distilled water; the solution then
contains one-fourth part in weight of the salt.
366 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Two ounces of vinegar are weighed, and the solution
of carbonated alkalies is poured in until saturated, then
that solution is weighed again, and the difference is the
quantity of alkali employed to neutralize the acid. The
following tables give the percentage of acid in a vinegar
thus tried.
Table I. Table II.
III 2 oUllee. (980 grallll) villegar. III 2 oUllce. (980 grallll) TIDegar.
Oralu. emplo"ed of .olllllou Orallll emplo,.ed of .olllllon
cOlltallllng t ...It.
Percelllaga of
cOlllallll.., t ...1t.

Pereelllage
IDr,. carboDate
of b"draled
Cr,.. carbo Cr,.. carbo
ID.,. carboDate
acetic acid.
ladll. I of pota..... loda. of potu....
---------
108 62 1.00 91 44 1.00
136 66 1.26 114 65 1.26
162 78 1.60 137 66 1.60
189 91 1.76 159
77 1.75
216 104 2.00 182 88 2.00
243 117 2.25 205 99 2.25
270 130 250 228 110 2.60
297 143 2.75 251 121 2.75
314 156 3.00 278 132 3.00
351 169 3.25 296 143 3.2)
378 182 3.50 319 164 3.50
405 195 3.75 342 165 3.75
432 208 4.00 365 176 4.00
459 221 4.25 387 187 4.25
486 2:34 4.50 410 198 4.50
513 247 4.75 432 209 4.75
540 260 6.00 455 220 5.00
567 273 5.25 478 231 5.21)
694 5.50 500 242 5.50
621 299 5.75 513 253 5.75
648 312 6.00 546 264 6.00
675 325 6.25 569 275 6.26
702 338 6.50 592 286 6.50
729 351 6.75 614 297 6.75
756 364 7.00 637 308 7.00
783 377 7.25 660 319 7.25
810 390 7.50 683 330 7.50
837 403 7.75 706 341 7.75
864 416 8.00 728 352 8.00

429 8.25 751 363 8.25
918 442 8.60 774 374 8.60
945 455 8.75 797 385 8.75
972 468 9.00 820 396 9.00
999 481 9.25 842 407 9.25
1026 494 9.50 866 418 9.50
1053 507 9.75 88H 429 9.76
1080 510 10.00 911 440 10.00
Table IlL
ACETOHETRY.
Table IV,
367
Iu 60 Jl'&mm.. TInept'.
In 60 Jl'&mme. vinegar.
.
Gramm.. or tbe lolnllon Grammel of tbe oolnllon
employed containing! nil.
Pereeutage ofl
employed containing! 1&11.
Percenlase of
anhydroUB
I
bydrated
Cry. carbo Dry carbo acid. Cry. carbo Dr,. ...rb. acellc acid.
loda. pol....... loda. polaaoa.
5.6 2.7 1.00
4.7 2.3
1.00
7.0 3.4 1.25
5.9 2.8
l.25
8.4 4.0 UiO
7.1 8.4
1.50
9.8 4.7 1.75 8.3 3.9 1.75
11.2 5.4 2.00 9.5 4.5
2.00
12.6 6.1 2.25 10.7 5.0 2.25
14.0 6.7 2.50 11.9 5.6 2.50
16.4 7.4 2.75 13.1 6.2 2.75
16.8 8.1 3.00 14.3 6.8 3.00
18.2 8.8 3.25
15.4 7.4
3.25
19.6 9.4 3.50 16.6 8.0 3.50
21.0 10.1 8.76 17.8 8.6 3.75
22.4 10.8 4.00 19.0 9.1 4.00
23.8 lUI 4.25 20.2 9.7 4.25
25.2 12.2 4.50 21,4 10.2 4.50
26.6 12.8 4.75 22.6 10.8 4.76
28.0 13.5 5.00 23.8 11.4 5.00
29.4 14.2 25.0 12.0 5.25
30.8 14.9 5.50 26.2 12.6 5.50
32.2 15.5 6.75 27.3 13.1 5.75
33.6 16.2 6.00
I
28.5 13.7 6.00
35.0 16.9 6.25 29.7 14.3 6.25
36.4 17.6 6.60 30.9 14.8 6.50
37.8 18.2 6.75 32.1 15.4 6.75
39.2 18.9 7.00 33.3 16.0 7.00
40.6 19.6 7.25 34.6 16.6 7.25
42.0 20.3 7.50 35.7 17.2 7.50
43.4 21.0 7.75 36.9 17.7 7.75
44.8 21.6 8.00 38.1 18.3 8.00
46.2 22.3 8.25 89.2 18.9 8.25
47.6 23.0 8.50 40.4 19.5 8.5.0
49.0 23.7 8.75 41.6 20.0 8.75
50.4 24.3 9.00 42.8 20.6 9.00
51.8 25.0 9.25 44.0 21.2 9.25
53.2 25.7 9.50 45.2 21.8 9.50
54.6 26.4 9.75 46.4 22.4 9.75
56.0 27.0 10.00 47.6 23.0 10.00
Suppose that 756 grains of the solution of crystallized
carbonate of soda are required to neutralize the acetic
acid in two ounces of vinegar. According to Table I.
this contains 7 per cent. of anhydrous acetic
acid; and by Table II., a little over 8.25 of hydrated
acetic acid. If 208 grains of dry carbonate of potassa'
368 HANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
are required, the vinegar contains 4 per cent. of anhy-
drous, and nearly 4.75 of hydrated acid.
CHAPTER XXXV.
ADULTERATIONS OF VINEGAR.
SOKE unscrupulous manufacturers, in order to pass off
weak or inferior vinegars, adulterate them with mineral
acids, or substances with ahot, pungent taste, such as
chillies, red pepper, &c. These adulterations are not
only a fraud, but they may be dangerous to health, and
it is necessary to prevent them by indicating the means
of ascertaining themat least qualitatively. A quantitative
analysis is always better made by a regular chemist.
Nevertheless, there are always certain impurities in
vinegar, due to a bad preparation, or to an inferior
wllter, or to natural constituent parts of the vinegar;
these are not fraudulent.
F9r instance, if we evaporate the following natural
vinegars, we find that their dry residue is on an average :-
From 2 to 2.1 for wine vinegar.
" 6 to 6 for beer and malt vinegar.
" 1.( to 1.6 for cider vinegar.
Other accidental impurities may also be found in
vinegar, such as vinegar-eels, flies, dust, &c. These may
be removed by filtering i but in the case of eels it is prefer-
able previously to boil the vinegar, or to pass it through
tubes heated outside by boiling water.
Sulphuric acid in 'l:inegar is the most usual fraud, since
sulphuric acid is cheap, saturates a great amount of al-
ADULTERATIONS OF VINEGAR. 369
kali, and has, besides, the property of keeping badly
manufactured vinegar. The latter reason caused the
English excise laws to permit the addition of one vol-
ume of sulphuric acid to one thousand volumes of vine-
gar, that is to say, about two thousandths in weight.
As vinegar should not be badly manufactured, and, more-
over, as it can be prepared well, free sulphuric acid in
it is an adulteration.
Chloride of barium is the best test for sulphuric acid;
so much so, that rarely will any vinegar not appear
cloudy after the addition of a few drops of the reagent. If
it is slightly cloudy, the impurities are due to sulphates
naturally present in the water, or in the substances from
which the vinegar has been made. A heavy white
cloud, slow in subsiding, will indicate free sulphuric
acid in small proportion; the fraud exists, but there is
no danger to the health. On the contrary, if the
quantity of sulphuric acid is more than a thousandth,
the sulphate of oaryta produces a precipitate and falls
rapidly to the bottom of the test-glass.
For the quantitative analysis of the free sulphuric
acid present in vinegar, it is necessary to separate it
from that naturally present in the form !Jf soluble sul-
phates. The operation is then conducted as follows:
A tolerably large quantity of vinegar is evaporated in a
porcelain vessel, over a steam-bath, to about one-tenth
of its bulk, and then alcohol added (five to six times
the volume of the residue). The natural sulphates are
nearly insoluble in the alcoholic solution, while the free
sulphuric acid is soluble. The separation is made by
filtration, the filtrate is then diluted with \Vat!.'r, boiled to
evaporate most of the alcohol, and the sulphuric acid is
precipitated by the chloride of barium in the usual
manner.
24
370 HANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.
Another qualitative test is by means of sugar. White
sugar is dissolved in the vinegar, and the whole evapo-
rated in a porcelain dish on a water-bath. When the
solution is sufficiently concentrated, the sugar becomes
brown, and then black, as it is carbonized by the sul-
phuric acid present.
This test can be made in a different way. The white
sugar is dissolved in 30 parts of water, and heated in a
porcelain dish over a water-bath. If a drop of vinegar
containing lrh of its weight of sulphuric acid is allowed
to fall upon the solution of sugar, the point of contact
will become greenish; with lrh of sulphuric acid, the
spot is brown-black.
Hydrochloric acid in vinegar is rarely met with except
in wood vinegar, and its presence is ascertained by a few
drops of n ~ t r a t e of silver, which produce a white curdy
precipitate, falling rapidly to the bottom of the beaker,
and becoming black after a certain time of exposure to
solar light. The bulk of the precipitate will indicate
whether it is due to chlorides naturally present in vine-
gar, or to f r ~ e hydrochloric acid added.
To analyze quantitatively the proportion of free hy.
drochloric acid, the vinegar must be distilled, and the
proportion of hydrochloric acid determined in the distil.
late carefully condensed.
Nitric acid in vinegar is not a frequent adulteration.
It is detected by saturating with carbonate of soda or
potassa several ounces of vinegar, and evaporating the
whole to dryness. The addition of sulphuric acid and
copper turnings to the heated residue will cause the
evolution of nitrous vapors.
Tartaric add in vinegar exists naturally in that from
wine in the form of cream tartar, which is purposely
added to other vinegars. It is too expensive to be used
ADULTERATIONS OF VINEGAR. 371
as an adulterant. Its presence is ascertained by evapo-
rating the vinegar to dryness. If free tartaric acid is
present, the mass is viscous and very acid, and will in-
tumesce and produce acrid fumes at a red heat. Its
calcination is quite slow.
Alcohol added to the residue of the evaporation over
the steam-bath, will dissolve the tartaric acid, which will
be precipitated in the form of crystalline bitartrate of
potassa by the addition of chloride of potassium.
Metallic salts in 'Vinegar come from the vessels em-
ployed in the manufacture or the storage of the acid.
Iron imparts a black color to the vinegar, which is in-
creased by a few drops of a tincture of gall-nuts.
Tin, lead, copper, and zinc are better determined after
evaporation of the vinegar and calcination of the ash,
which is afterwards treated with a few drops of nitric
acid. The acid liquor is filtered and examined.
Sulphuretted hydrogen will give a black precipitate
with copper and lead, and a white one with zinc, if the
liquor has been oversaturated with ammonia.
Polished iron will precipitate, and be coated with, the
copper in the slightly acid solution. Ammonia, in ex-
cess, produces a blue color, and yellow prussiate of
potassa a brown-red precipitate, in liquors containing
copper.
A nitric solution of lead will be precipitated in white
by sulphuric acid, and in yellow by bichromate of po-
tassa.
Burnt Sugar in Vinegar.-Two or three hundred
grains of the vinegar are evaporated over a water-bath
to dryness, and the extract boiled with alcohol. The
alcoholic solution is evaporated, and the residue tested;
if it be of a very dark color, and of a bitter taste, burnt
sugar is certainly present.
372 lIANUFACTURE OF V I N E ~ A R .
Organic sUbstances in vinegar, other than those natu-
rally found in it, are chillies, pepper, &c. For their
detection, the suspected vinegar is carefully neutral-
ized by carbonate of soda, and then tested with the
tongue. If the taste remains hot and pungent, the
above spices have been added.
APPENDIX.
TH"F. METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES,
THE United States being the first to introduce the decimal
sJ8tem into the coinage ot' the country, and to demonstrate its
superior utility, it is remarkable that we have hesitated 80 long
in regard to the substitution of the same simple and rational
system of weights and measures for the complicated and con
fused standards in general use.
In May, 1H66, the Committee on Coinage, Weights, and Mea-
sures presented to the House of Representatives an exhaustive
report, accompanied by bills authorizing the introduction of
the metric 8ystem into the various departments of trade, and
making all contracts, based on this system of weights and
measures, valid before any court in the United States. They
suid:-
"'l'HE METRIC SYSTEM.
II It is orderly, simple, and perfectly harmonious, having use
ful relations between all its parts. It IS based on the MI!:TI!:R,
which is the principal and only arbitrary unit. The meter is a
measure of length, and was intended to be, and is, very nearly
one ten-millionth of the distance on the earth's surface from
the equator to the pole. It is 39.37 inches, very nearly.
"The are is a surface equal to a square whose side is 10
meters. It is nearly four square rods.
"The liter is the unit for measuring capacity, and is equal to
the contents of a cube whose edge is a tenth part of the meter.
It is a little more than a wine quart.
"The gramme is the unit of weight, and is the weight of a
cube of water, each edge of the cube being one onehundredth
of the meter. It is equal to 15.432 grains.
II The stere is the cubie meter.
II Each of these units is divided decimally, and larger units
are formed by multiples of 10, 100, &c. The successive mul-
t i pies are designated by the prefixes, deka, hecto, kilo, and myria ;
the subordinate parts by deci, centi, and milli, each having its
own numerical significance.
.. The nomenclature, simple as it is in theory, and designed
374 THE METRIC SYSTEM.
from its orlgm to be universal, can only become familiar by
use. Like all strange words, these will become familiar by
custom, and obtain popular abbreviations. A system which
has incorporated with itself so many different series of weights,
and such a nomenclature as 'scruples,' 'pennyweights,' 'avoir
dupois,' and with no invariable component word, can hardly
protest against 0. nomenclature whose leading characteristic is 0.
short component word with a prefix I!ignifying number. We
are all familiar with thermometer, barometer, diameter,
&C., with tekgram, monogram, &c., words formed in the Bame
manner.
" After considering every argument for a change of nomen-
clature, your committee have come to the conclusion that any
attempt to conform it to that in present use would lead to con
fusion of weights and measures, would violate the early learned
order and simplicity of metric denomination, and would serio
ously interfere with that universality of system so essential to
international and commercial convenience.
"When it is remembered that of the value of our exports
and imports, in the year ending June 30,1860, in all $762,000,000,
the amount of near $700,000,000 was with nations and their de-
pendencies that have now authorized, or taken the preliminary
steps to authorize, the metric system, even denominational uni-
formity for the use of accountants in such vast transactions
assumes an important significance. In words of such universal
employment, each word should represent the identical thing in-
tended, and no other, and the law of association familiarizes it.
" Your committee unanimously recommend the passage of
the bills and joint resolutions appended to this report .
The metric system is already used in some arts and trades in
this country, and is especially adapted to the wants of others.
Some of its measures are already manufactured at Bangor, in
Maine, to meet an existing demand at home and abroad. The
manufacturers of the wellknown Fairbanks' scales state: I For
many years we have had a large export demand for our scales
with :French weights, and the demand and sale ure constantly
increasing.' Its minute and exact divisions specially adapt it
to the use of chemists, apothecaries, the finer operations of the
artisan and to all scientific objects. It has always been and
now uRed in the United States coast survey. Yet in some of
the States, owing to the phraseology of their laws, it would be
a direct violation of them to use it in the business transllctions of
the community. It is, therefore, very important to legalize its use,
and to give to the people, or that portion of therp desiring it, the
opportunity for its legal employment, while the knowledge of
its characteristics will be thus dift'used among men."
TABLES
SBOWIlIG TBB
RELATIVE VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH WEIGHTS
AND MEASURES, &0.
Measures of Length.
Millimetre == 0.03937 Inch.
Centimetre == 0.393708 II
Decimetre == 3.937079 inches.
Metre = 39.37079 "
" == 3.2808992 feet.
" _ 1.093633 yard.
Decametre - 32.808992 feet.
Bectometre == 328.08992 "
Kilometre = 3280.8992 "
" _ 1093.633 yards.
Myriametre == 10936.33 ..
" = 6.2138 miles.
Inch (h yard) = 2.539954 centimetres.
Foot (! yard) = 3.0479449 decimetres.
Yard = 0.91438348 metre.
Fathom (2 yards) = 1.82876696"
Pole or peroh (5* yards) == 5.029109 metres.
Furlong (220 yards) = 2(\1.16437 "
Mile (1760 yards) == 1609.3149 "
Nautical mile == 1852 "
1
-_... - - - - - - ~
376 VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH
=
II
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
" foot
II yard
II rod or perch
Rood (1210 sq. yards) =
Acre (4840 sq. yards)
Heotare
Are
Square inch
Superficial Measures.
Square millimetre - th square inch.
II = 0.00155 II II
II centimetre 0.155006 II II
" declmetre 15.50059 II Inches.
II _ 0.107643 II foet.
" metre orcentlal'fl = 1550.05989 "Inches.
II II = 10.764299 ". feet.
" "= 1 . 1 9 ~ 0 3 3 " yard
- 1076.4299 "feet.
119.6033 II yards.
_ 0.098845 rood.
= 11960.3326 square yards.
= 2.471143 acres.
= 645.109201 square millimetres.
= 6.451367 II cl'ntimetres
= 9.289968 II decimetres.
0.836097 II metre.
25.291939 II metres.
10.116775 ares.
0.404671 heotare.
Measures of Capacity.
Cublo millimetre - 0.000061027 cubio inch.
II centimetre or millilitre = 0.061027 ""
10 II centimetres or centilitre = 0.61027 ""
100 II " " decllltre 6.102705 " inches.
1000 II " "litre _ 61.0270515 II II
"" " II II 1. 760773 imp'l pint.
"" II "" _ 0.2200967 "gal'n.
Decalitre = 610.270515 cubic inches.
" _ 2.20(19668 imp. gal'ns.
Heotolitre _ 3.531658 cubic feet.
" _ 22.009668 Imp. gal'ns.
Cubic metre or stere or kilolitre = 1.::1(1802 cubic yarrl.
" " = 35.:U65807 "feet.
M,rrialitre = 353.165807 " "
2
WEIGHTS A:\"D ETC. 371
Cobic inch
" foot
" yard.
16.386176
= 28.315312
0.764513422
cobiu centimetres.
" decimetrea.
" metre.
American Measures.
Wincbesteror U.S. gallon (231 cub.in.) 3.785209litres.
" II busbl'l(2150.42cub. in.)= 35.23719 II
Chaldron (57.25 cubic feet) = 1621.085 "
British Imperial Measures.
Gill _ 0.141983 litre.
Pint gallon) 0.567932 "
Qoart (t gallon) 1.135864 "
Imperial gallon (277.2738 cub. In.) = 4.;'4345797 litres.
Peuk (2 gallons) _ 9.l1869159 "
Bushel (8 gallons) = 36.347664 "
Back (3 busbels) = 1.09043 bectolitre.
Quarter (8 bushels) = 2.907813 bectolitres.
Chaldron (12 sacks) = 13.08516 u
=
=
=
II
"
"
"
"
"
Milligramme
Oelltigramme
Decigramme
Gramme
Decagramme
Kilogramme
Weights.
0.015438395 troy grain.
0.15438395 II "
1. 54311395 " "
- 15.438395 "grains.
0.643 pennyweigbt.
0.0321633 oz. troy.
0.0352889 oz. avoirdupois.
- 154.38395 troy grains.
5.64 drachms avoirdupois.
Hectogramme - 3.21633 oz. troy.
_ 3.52889 oz. avoirdupois.
= 2.6803 Ibs. troy.
= 2.205486 Ibs. avoirdupois.
Myriagramme _ 26.803 Ibs. troy.
_ 22.05486 Ibs. avoirdupois.
Quintal metriqu& = 100 kilog. = 220.5486 Ibs. avoirdupois.
Tonne = 1000 kilog. = 2205.486" "
a
37H VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH
Different anthors give the following values for the gramme:-
Gramme = 15.44402 troy grains.
" = 15.44242 "
.. = 15.4402 "
" = 15.433159 "
" = 15.43234874 "
AVOIRDUPOIS.
Long ton = 20 cwt. = 2240 Ibs. = 1015.649
Short ton (2000 Ibs.) _ 906.8296
Hundred weight (112 Ibs.) _ 50.78245
Quarter (28 Ibs.) = 12.6956144
Pound = 16 oz. = 7000 grs. _ 453.4148
Ounce = 16 dr'ms. = 437.5 grs. = 28.3375
Drachm = 27.344 graius _ 1.77108
TROY (PRECIOUS XBT.U.s).
kilogrammes.
"
"
"
grammes.
"
gramme.
Pound = 12 01. = 5760 grs. 373.096 grammes.
Ouuce = 20 dwt. = 480 grs.
=
31.0913
"
Peuuyweight = 24 grs.
-
1.55457 gramme.
Grain
=
0.064773
..
APOTHECARIES' (PBABXACY).
Ounce = 8 drachms = 480 grs. _ 31.0913
Drachm = 3 scruples = 60 grs. 3.8869
Scruple = 20 grs. _ 1.29546
gramme.
"
gramme.
CARAT WEIGHT FOR DIAMONDS.
1 carat = 4 carat grains = 64 carat parts.
" = 3.2 troy grains.
" = 3.273" "
" = 0.207264 gramme
" = 0.212 "
" = 0.205 "
Great diversity in value.
4:
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, ETC. 379
Proposed Symbols for Abbreviations.
M-myrla - 10000 lIlm lIrg MI
K-kilo
-
1000 Km Kg KI
H-hecto
-
1(l0
Hm Hg HI Ha
D-deoa
-
10 Dm Dg lJI Da
Unit
-
1 metre-m gramme-g 1Itre-l are-a
d-decl - 0.1 dm dg dl dn.
c-cenU - 0.01 em cg cl ca
m-milli - 0.001 mm mg ml
Km == Kilometre. HI == Hectolitre. cg = oentlgramml'.
c. om = CiD
s
= cubic centimetre. dii,lI = sq. dm = square decl.
metre. Kgm = Kilogrammetre. Kgo = I:ilogramme degree.
Cel.lnl or Cenllgrade.
_ 15
0
- 10
- 5
(l melting
+ 5
+ 10
+ 15
+ 20
+25
+ 30
+ 35
+ 40
+ 45
+ 50
+ 55
+ 60
+ 65
+ 'i0
+ 75
+ 80
+ 85
+ 90
+ 95
+100 boiling
+200
+300
+400
+500
Fahrenheit.
+ 5
+ 14
+ 23
+ 32
+ 41
+ 50
+ 59
+ 68
+ 77
+ 86
+ 95
+104
+113
+122
+131
+140
+149
+158
+167
+176
+185
+194
+2(\3
+212
+392
+572
+';52
+932
R ~ a u m u r .
_12
8
4
ice 0
+ 4
+ 8
+ 12
+ 16
+ 20
+24
+ 28
+ 32
+ 36
+ 40
+44
+ 48
+ 52
+ 56
+ 60
+ 64
+ 68
+ 72
+ 76
water + 80
+160
+240
+320
+400
&
380 VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH
1 C. = 1.8 Ft. = to Ft. = 0" R. = iO R.
1 C. X ! = 1 Ft. 1 Ft. X &= 1 C. 1 R. X t =1 Ft.
1 C. X i = 1 R. 1 Ft. X &.... 1 R. 1 R. X i =1 C.
Calorie (Frenoh) = unit of heat }
=kilogramme degree English.
It is the quantity of heat necessary to raise 1C. the tempera-
ture of 1 kilogramme of distilled water.
Kllogrammetre = Kgm = the power necessary to raise 1 kilo-
gramme, 1 metre high, in one seoond. It is equal to .rs of a
French horse power. An English horse power =550 foot pounds,
while a French horse power = 642.7 foot pounds.
Ready-made CalculatiQns.
No.
I
or Inch to Ft to Yl\rd. to
I Mil" to I Mllllm.l....
unlt. cenUmetrea. metr... metrH. Kllom.tr... to tncb.
1 2.53996 0.3047945 10.91438348! 1.6093 0.03937079
2 6.0799 0.6096890 1.82876696i 3.2186 0.07!l74158
3 7.6199 0.9143835 2.74315044; 4.8279 0.11811237
4 10.1598 1.2197680 3.65753392' 6.4373 0.15748316
5 12.6998 1.5239724 4.57191740' 8.0466 0.19685395
6 15.2397 1.8287669
5.486300881
9.6559 0.23622474
7 17.77f17 2.1335614 6.40068436 11.2652 0.27559553
8 20.3196 2.4383559 7.31506784, 12.8745 0.31496632
9 22.8596 2.7431504 8.22945132
1
14.4838 0.354:i3711
10 25.3995 3.0479450 9.14383480
1
16.0930 0.39370790
Nn. e.nllmetr.. M.lres to M.tre. to Kllom.tre. Bqnl\re Inch..
or to Inah. reet.
7"rd.
to mil... to "quare
nnlto. centimetrell.
1 0.3937079 3.2808992 1 . 0 9 3 ~ 3 3 0.6213824 6.45136
2 0.7874158 6.5617984 2.187266 1.2427648 12.90273
3 1.1811237 9.8426976 3.280899 1.8641472 19.35408
4 I 1.5748316 ,13.1235968 4.374532 2.4855296 25.80544
5 I 1.9685395 ;16.4044960 5.468165 3.1069120 32.256EO
6 2.3622474 i 19.6853952 6.561798 3.7282944 38.70816
7
2.7559553 22.9662944 7.6115431 4.3496768 45.15952
8 3.1496632 26.2471936 8.749064,4.9710592 51.61088
9 3.5433711 29.5280928
9.84:.l697 I 5.5924416 58.06224
10 3.9370790 3 2 . 8 0 8 9 ~ 1 2 0 10.936330 . 6.2138240 64.51360
6
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, ETC. 381
1II0. ISquare feel 10 Sq. yard. 10
Acres to I Square I 8q. met ...
of I .q. melre..
aq. metres. hect&reo. ceulimelre. to aq. feet.
unttll. 10 .q. lucbe.
----.---------
1 0.836097 0.404671 0.155 10.7643
2 0.1858 1.672194 0.809342 0.310 21.5286
3 0.2787 2.508291 1.204013 0.465 32.2929
4 0.3716 3.344388 1.618684 0.620 43.0572
5
0.4645
4.180485 2.023355 0.775 53.8215
6 0.5574 5.016582 2.428026 0.930 64.5858
7 0.6503 5.852679 2.832697 1.085 75.3501
8 0.7432 6.688776 3.237368 1.240 86.1144
9 0.8361 7.524873 3.642039 1.395 96.8787
10 0.9290 8.360970 4.046710 1.550 107.6430
NO./Square metree/
Hect&r..
ICubic lueb..
Cubic feel to I Cubic yard.
of to aq. yard. tQ acrea, to cubic cubic metres. to cubic
""II.
cenUmetl'6l!l. metre.
----
I 1.196033 2.471143 16.3855 0.02831 0.76451
2 2.392066 4.942286 32.7710 0.05662 1.52902
3 3.588099 7.413429 49.1565 0.08494 2.29354
4 4.784132 9.884572 65.5420 0.11325 3.05li05
5 5.980165 12.355715 81.9275 0.14157 3.82257
6 7.176198 14.826858 98.3130 0.16988 4.58708
7
8.372231 17.298001 114.6985 0.19819 5.:15159
8 9.568264 19.769144 131.0840 0.22651 6.11611
9 10.764297 22.240287 147.4695 0.25482 6.1l8062
10 11.960330 24.711430 163.8550 0.28315 7.64513
NO.' Cubla
Lit"," to Hectolltre. to! Cubic metr.. Cubic metres
or to cubic loabe. cubic feeL 10 coble feel. to cublo
unlts./ cubic Incbes. yard.
1 0.06102 61.02705 3.5317 35.31659 1.30802
2 0.12205' 122.05410 7.0634 70.63318 2.61604
3 0.18308 183.08115 10.5951 105.94977 3.92406
4 0.24411 244.10820 14.1268 141.26636 5.23208
5 0.30514 305.13525 17.6585 176.58295 6.54010
6 0.36617 366.16230 21.1902 211.89954 7.84812
7 0.42720 427.18935 24.7219 247.21613 9.15614
8 0.48823 488.21640 282.53272 10.46416
9 0.54926 549.24345 31.7853 317.84931 11.77218
10 0.61027 610.27050 35.3166 353.16590 I
1308020
7
282 FRENCH .AND ENGLISH WEIGHTS, ETC.
0.373096
0.7461fJ2
1.119288
1.492384
1.865480
2.238576
2.li11672
2.984768
3.357864
3.730960
0.4534148
0.9068296
1.3602444
1.813li592
2.2670740
2.7204888
3.1739036
3.6273184
4.0807332
4.5341480
31.0913
62.1826
93.2739
124.3652
155.4565
186.5478
217.63!ll
248.7304
279.8217
310.9130
28.3375
56.6750
85.0125
113.3500
141.6871
170.0250
198.3625
226.7000
255.0375
283.3750

NO'1 Oraln. Onn..... nOlr./ Ounc tr07Ipound.aTolr., Pound. tro7
or to gramm.... to gramm... 10 gramm... to I to
unll. 1_____ ikllogramme. kilogrammea.
-1i 0.064773
2 0.129546
3 0.194319
4 0.259092
5 0.323865
6 0.38R638
7 0.453411
8 0.518184
9 0.582957
10 0.647730
I
I Pound. per : I
No. Long tC'DII to .quare Inch to Gramme. to GJ1Imm". to Gramme. to
or tonoel 0(1000 kilogrammellj' grains. ouneN avolr.
1
1
ounees troy.
unill. kllog. I per "'I
nare
centimeLre.
1 1.015649 I 0.0702774 15.43839"1 0.0352889 0.0321633
2 2.031298 I 0.1405548 30.876790
1
0.0705778 0.06432,;6
3 3.04li947 0.2108322 46.3151R5 O.1058liG7 0.0964899
4 4.062596 0.2811096 61.753580
1
0.1411556 0.] 286532
5 5.078245 0.3513870 77.191975 0.1764445 0.llilJ81li5
6 6.093894 i 0.4216644 I 92.630370: 0.21173M 0.1929798
7
7.109543 0.4919418 1108.0687651 0.2470223 0.2251431
. 8
8.125192
0.5622192 1]23.50716010.2823112 0.2573064
9 9.140841 0.6324966 138.945555 0.3176001 0.2894697
10 10.156490 0.7027740 154.383950 0.3528890 0.3216330
KIlOgramm...l Kllogrammes
Metric ton nee Kllog. per Kl1oll". per
No. or 1000 kllog. "'I"ar. mllll- square Cf.>otl-
or to poo.odl to ponnd. to iODA' tons or metre to metre 10
nnita. 1Y0Irdupol.
tr07 22-10 ponnd. pound. per pound. per
"'Inare Incb. aquare locb.
1 2.205486 2.6803 0.9845919 1422.52
2 4.410972 5.3606 1.9691838 2845.05 28.45052
3 6.616458 8.0409 2.9537757 4267.1)7 42.67578
4 8.821944 10.7212 3.9383676 5690.10 1)6.90104
5 11.027430 13.4015 4.9229595 7112.63 71.12630
6 13.2:32916 16.0818 1\.91
1
75514 8535.15 85.35156
7
15.438402 18.7li21 6.8921433 9957.68 99.1)7682
8
17.64388!'! I
21.4424 7.8767:352 11380.20 113.80208
9 19.849374 24.1227 8.8613271 12802.73 128.02734
10 22.01)4860 I 26.8030 9.8459190 14225.2(; I 142.252tiO
. 8
IN DEX.
Absolute alcohol, 68
Acetate, 97, 108
of alumiDB, 188
of ammonia, 134
of baryta, 120, 135
of cobalt, 144
of copper, 827
bibasic, 153
byperbasic, 156
and lime, 156
sesqnibasic, 155
tribasic, 156
of lead, 118
bib68ic, 150
decomposing, 106
sesquib68ic, 160
sl'll:b68ic; 151
tribasic, 150
of lime, 182, 136, 323, 324, 825
and Glauber's salt, 116
of magnesia, 140
of manganese, 140
of nickel, 145
of oxide of mercury, 157
of potassa, 129
of sesquioxide of iron, 142
of soda, 180, 320, 821, 822
crystallization of, 188
purifying, 182
with sulphuric acid, 116
of silver, 116, 158
of strontia, 186
of suboxide of mercury, 166
of tin, 144
of zinc, 148
Acetates, 127
alkaline, 124
of copper, 152
decomposition of, 826
of iron, 141
of lead, 145
of mercnry, 156
table of, 128
with pyrcligneous acid and baryta,
118
Acetic acid, 17, 97, 102, 182, 822, 824,
826,827
Acetic acid-
acetometers, 844
and alcobol, 70
by acid acetate of pota88a, 112
by decomposition of tbe ace-
tates and by distillation, 111
concentrated, 828
with acetate of soda and
pyrolignite of lime 114
crystallizable, 116, 118, 828
density of, 841
derivatives of, 121
from slices of beet, 260
glacial, 105
bydrated, 105, 855
methods of preparing, 110
rectification of, 117
seaweed as a source of, 267
and sulphuric acid, 128
table of composition of, 107
of densities of, 109
testing the strength of, 108
with pyroligneons acid and
baryta, 118
with pyrolignite of lime, 115
ether, 108, 125, 298
fermentation, 92
t ~ m p e r a t u r e necessary fol', 93
theory of, 95, 97
to establish, 98
Acetification of alcohol, experiments
on, 276,281
oxygen in, 277
tendency to, 88
Acetometer, 856
Descroizilles', 844
of Parisian merchants, 848
Taylor's, 848
8al1eron's, 859
used in England, 843
acetic acid, 844
Acetometric liquor, 845
Acetometry, 18, 841
Otto's process, 849
Poh!'s process, 861
process wi th carbonated alkalies,
864
384: INDEX.
Acetometry-
Salleron and Rllveil's process, 868
Fleck's process, 353
Fresenius and Will's process, 847
Acetone, 124
and hydrochloric acid, 126
burning of, 124
and nitric acid 126
and sulphuric \c;id, 124
Acid acetate of powsa, preparation of
acetic acid by, 112
fermentation, 06
fruits, sugar of, 62
percentage of, in Tinegar, 866
sulphacetic, 126
Acids, numeral, 868
powerful, with dilute alcohol, 70
Acrospire, 76
Adlum, Major John, 196
Adulterations in Tinegar, 868
Affinity, 80, 83
Agents and reagents, 29
Air, 26
apparatus, 286
disengaged from the generator, 276
in fermentation, 69, 92
Alcarsine, 130
Alcohol, 06, 66
absolute, 68
affinity for water, 69
analysis of, 69
and certain acids, mixture of, 70
and oxygen, 103, 104
and water, boiling points of mix-
tures, 169
table of specific graTities of
mixtures of, 178
and whiskey, vinegar with, :no
composition of, 68
connrsion of, into acetic acid or
ether, 37
decomposition of, 69, 96, 97
ebullition of, 69
evaporation, 234
in fermented liqnors, 201
losses of, 282
ordinary, 60
oxidation of, 104
oxidized by chromic acid, 70
properties of, 68
pure, decomposed by potassium and
sodium, 70
Dot solidified, 68
tables of, 179, 180
uses of, 69
vinegars, 18
what it dissolves, 69, 70
Alcobolic fermentation, 65
liquors, alcohol in, 202
upors, collecting, 282
Alcobolometel'll, 164, 176
Alcobolometry, 163
metbods of, 164
Aldebyde, 97, 103, 121
ILnbydrous, 123
discovery of, 274
Ale vinegar, 248
Alimentary substances, preservation of,
337
AlklLlies, process of acetometry witb,
364
Alkalinc acetates, 124
solutions, weigbing, 866
Alkalimetrio liquor of Gay-LU88&C, 858
Alumina, acetate of, 188
American resouroes, vastness of, 197
Analysis, 28, 29
of alcobol, 69
of wine, 200
Analyzing vinegars, 18
Ancbovies, vinegar of, 330
Anbydrous aldebyde, 123
AnimlLls, 22, 84
Animal substances, presenation, 887
Antimony, Ilcetate of, 169
Antiscorbutic vinegar, 385
Antiseptic vinegar, 385
American vinegar generator, Strong's,
250
Ammonia, acetate of, 184
liquid as a reagent, 868
test solution of, 861
Amylic alcohol; 60, 67
ApparlLtus, quick procellll, 224
Apple, essence of, 298
Apples for vinegar, 247
Applications of vineg"r, 18, 827
Aromlllic vinegar, 827, 389
distilled vinegars, 882
Art of brewing, 71
Atoms or molecules, 28
Attraction, 83
Asparagus, 889
Assimilative force, 86
Author's process, 294
quick process, 272
Banana, essence of, 298
Barley, 92
Baryta, acetate of, 186
and pyroligneous acid, 118
salt of, and sulphuric acid, 127
sulpbate. of, 119
Bassorin, 49
B a u m ~ ' s bydrometers, 164, 165, 173
hydrometer tables, 176
Baup's process, 111
Beans, 389
Becken, 92
Beer, 60
INDEX. 385
Beer vinegar, 248
Beet, acetic acid from slices, 260
fermentation and alcoholic distilla-
tion of, 259
juice into vinegar, 261
vinegar, 250
Neale & Duyck's patent, 257
Beringer's process, 115
Berthollet, 20, 88
Bertrand, 92
Berzelius, 20, 858
Bi-acetate of pot&8sa, 112
Bibaslc acetate of copper, 158
of lead, 150
Bichromate of pota88&, 822, 824
Bigg, 72
Binary compounds, 28
Binoxide of manganese, 822
Biemuth, acetate of, 159
Black-drop Tinegar, 886
Blnck malt, 78
Blondeau on fermentation, 97
Bodies, simple and compound, 27
Boerhaan, 20, 95
Boerhaaye's method, 202
process, 228
Boiling, 81, 86
spirits, alcoholic contente, table of,
169
Bornte of soda, 858
Boyle, Robert, 27
Brnconnot, analyHis of wine-lees, 198
Brande's proce88 of alcoholometry, 170
Brandy, vinegar of German, 242
Brewer's yelUlt, 184
Brewing, 81
art of, 71
Bringing the generators Into action,
229
Drown seetate of lime, 186
sugar of lead, 148
Bully's vinegar, 833
Burnt sugar in vinegar, 871
Cadet Gassicourt, 244
Cadmium, acetate of, 169
Caloric, 26
Calvert, Crace, 189
Camphorated vinegar, 835
Cnne sugar, 49, 50
Yinegnr with, 246
Capers, 888
Carbonated alkalies, process of acetome-
try, 861
Carbonates of potassn nnd soda, 364
Carbonic acid, 28
from grains. 72, i8, 76
gas, 26
Carburetted hydrogl'n, 37
Cartier's hydrometer, 164, 165
25
Ca8Artelli's 8accllarometer, 88
Catawba grape, 196
Cavendish, 83
Celery Tinegar, 880
Cellulose, 39
CerlUlin, 49
Cerium, acetate of, 169
Chalk,28
Chaptnl.96
Charcoal filters, 297
and pyroligneous acid in various
woods, 318
Chemical principles, 18. 21
transformations, 87
Chemist. the power of the, 81
Chemistry, functions of, 21
general notionH of, 21
the objectll of, 21
Cherries, 888
Chilies in vinegar, 868
Chlorhydric ether of acetone. 125
and sulphoYinic ether, 126
Chloride of barium IUl n test for sulphuric
acid,869
Chlorine, 107
a current of, 112
pnssed through alcohol, 128
Chloro-ncetio acid, 107
Cbristt's process, 114
Chrome, acetate of, 159
Chromic acid oxidizes alcohol, iO
Cider, flO
and alcohol vinegars, 18
vinegar, 209, 248
and wine vinegars, lin
Cleansing, 71, 91
Clearing vinegar, 297
CloTes, vinegar of, 380
Cobalt, acetate of, 144
Cohesion, 24, -30
Colchicum vinegar, 886
Colin on fermentation of Bugar, 185
Coloring fermentation, 56
Yinegar.297
Combination, 30
Combin&tions &nd decomposition, cauaes
of,82
of nitrogen and ollygen, 82
Compounds, inorgnnic and organic, 84
Compound vinegars, 8:.!9
Concentrated Rcetic acid, 328
methods of prepnring, 110
with acetate of soda and pyro-
lignite of lime, 114
Concentrated l1negnr, 828
Concentration of vinegars, degree of,
341
I
Conditions of a good fermentation, 89
Constituent principles of grape-juice,
198
386 INDEX.
Empedooles, 27
English apparatus for distilling wood,
303
Essence ot pear, 298
Essential oil of gaultheria, 87
E8l!igspirit, 116
Ether, acetic, 126
oonverslon ot, Into water, 87
preparation of, 126
taxation ou the manufacture of,
211
Ethylic alcohol, 67
Excise taJ:, absurdities of, 210, 211
Farada,., 69
Ferment, 61
or vinegar motber, 187
presence of, necll8sary, 94
proportion, 234
me ot, 182
Fermentation, 47, 89
acetic, 92
Rcid,66
air in, 59
alcobolic, 56
coloring, 56
micoderma in, 97,99, 101
of sugar, 186
putrid, 66
saccharine, 56
secondary, 67
temperature tor, 90
time of, 91
Yinous, 66, 68
Fermented liquid, preparation ot, 218
liquor, transformation into vinegar,
220
liquors, alcohol in, 201
wort, racking, 91
Fermenting, 71, 81
Ferments, 184
use ot, 182
Filter for grain and malt vinegar, 236,
237
Filtering frames tor grain and malt vinll-
gar, 236
Filters, charcoal, 297
Flayor and odor ot vinegar, 298
Fleck's process, 863
Flemish method, 203
Flooring, 71
Fontenelle on fermentation, 93, 96
United States, Formio aoid, 37
I
Fourcro,., 33
Fownes' table ot aloohol, 168
France, method ot north of, 208
vinegar made In oellars at 600 in,
!'3
French apparatus for distilling wood,
306
Continuous method, 288
Cooling, 81, 88
Coc.ling, processes ot, 88
Copper, acetate ot, 162,827
Copper and lime, acetate of, 166
Cordial wines, 200
Corrections of temperatures, tables of,
176, 177
Couching, 71
Crystallil8ble acetic acid, 828
preparatiou ot, 116, 118
Crystallization of acetate ot soda, 182
Crum, Walter, 138
Cucumbers, 388
Curraut vinegar, 266
Dalton, 864
Decolorizing vinegar, 296
Decompose, bodies to, 81
Decomposition and combinations, causes
of,82
Decomposition of acetates, III
of alcohol, 69, 96, 97
of impure acetates, 825
Definite proportions, 38
Degrees of attenuation of worts, 91
Demaoh,.,93
Density of acetio acid, 841
Derivatiyes of acetic acid, 121
De Saussure, 20
Descroizilles" acetometer, 844
Despreu's process, 118
Details of quick process, 229
Deville, St. Claire, table of water, 819
Dextrin, 41, 42, 44
Diabetes, sugar of, 62
Diastase, 46
Dilution of alooholic mixture, 280
Dingler's process, 271
quick process, 271
Distillation of wood, 299
Distilled vinegar, 184
vinegars, 332
Distilling pyroligneous acid and vinegar,
18
wood, prooess for, 800
Divide bodies, to, 31
Dobereiner, 20
Doebereiner's process, 224
Drake, Dr., on grape culture in the Uni-
ted States, 194
Dufour, John J., 196
on grape culture in
198
Dumasin, 124
Dussauce's process, 294
Ebullition of alcohol, 69
Elaldehyde, 123
Elements, the, 27
I
INDEX. 387
French and English weights and mea
sures, tables of, 876
method, improved, 207
Fresenius and Will's process, 847
Fruit sugar, 49
vinegar, 261
Grain and malt, vinegar with, 286
Gas, 26
carbonic acid, 26
sulphurous, 26
Gaseous, 26
wines, 200
Gaultheria, essential oil of, 87
Gny-Lussao, 68
alkalimetrio, liquor of, 868
Gay-Lnssao's alooholometer, 166
prooess of alcoholometry, 170
test, 853 .
General notions of ohemistry, 21
Generalities on distilling wood, 300
Generator, 224
air diaengaged from, 276
Generators, 284, 286
bringing into action, 229
Tilden's improvement, 292
German brandy, vinegar of, 242
Glaoial neetio aoid, 105
Glaser, 96
Glauber, 20
Glanber's salt, 80, 115
Glucina, acetate of, 159
Glucose, 41,48,63, 240
immediately into vinegar, 240
Grain alone, vinegnr with, 288
Grains, vinegar from, 18
Grapes, analysis of jnice of ripe, 199
Grape culture, 191
in the United States, 192
juice, 197,199
constituent principles of, 198
sugar, 49, 62
vinegar of, 246
territory in tbe United States, 197
Gray acetate of lime, 186
Grinding, 81
Groning's table of alooholic oontents of
boiling spirits from temperature
of vapors, 169
table of the boiling points of alco-
hol and water, 169
Good fermentation, oonditions of, 89
malt distinguished, 79
Gums, 48
Gumarabio, 49
fruit, 37
-tragacanth, 49
Halliday's apparntns for extracting
pyroligneous acid, 309
Ham's process, 271
Heat in grain, 74
Herbs, vinegar of, 381
History of vinegar, 18
Honey, vinegar with, 247
Household process, 206
for malt vinegar, 221
Hydrated acetio acid, 106, 107, 108
Hydrate of lime, nse of, 116
Hydrocarbons, 322
Hydrochloric aoid, 824, 826, 826, 866
and aoetone, 126
and alcohol, 70
in vinegRr, 370
Hygienic Society vinegar, 884
Hyperbasic acetate of copper, 156
Hydrometer for testing the strength of
acetic acid, 108
Hydrometers, 164, 165, 171, 178
Impenetrability, 24
Improvements in the qnick proce88, 269
Improving vinegar. 296
Impurities in wl\ter, 188
Inorganic componndll, 34
Iron, acetates of, 141
proto-acetate of, 141
pyrolignite of, 141
sesqui-acetate of, 142
John, M., analysis of red-tartar, 199
Kestner's appllratue, 307
Kiln-drying, 71, 76
drying the malt in, 77
temperatnre of, 78
Knapp on losses by quick procell8, 278
Knhlman's prooess, 118
Lartigue's process, 110
Lavender vinegar, 332
Lavoisier, 83, 58, 95, 96
Lead, acetates of, 145
anhydrous acetate of, 146
bibasio acetate of, 150
sesquibasic acetnte of, 160
Liebig's discovery of aldehyde, 274
Lliiocomme, 46
Lepechin, 92, 93
Leplay's process, 269
Life, 36
Lime, acetate of, 136, 823, 1124, 826
Lime and copper, acetate of, 166
Lime-water as a reap;ent, 354, 1157,858
Lithia, acetate of, 169
Liqnid,26
Liquids heavier than water, hydrometer
table of, 175
lighter than water, hydrometer
table of, 175
388 INDEX.
Para-llidehyde, 117
P'lrisian method, 206
Particles, 23
PlI.8teur, 20, 181
on fermentatinn. 99, 102
Pasteur' a p r o c e ~ s , 28i
Oil of potatoes, 60
Onions. 888
Organic ohemistry, generalities, 33
compouncls, 84
mntters, 84
substances in vinegar, 871
OrleRns method, 204
prooess, 291
Otto's method, 238
process, 849
OudemRn's table of densities of acetio
Acid, 109
Oxalic acid, 87, 48
Oxidation in fermentation, 97, 102
of alcohol, 104
Oxide of mercury, acetate of, 157
Oxygen, absorption of. by malt, 75
and Rlcohol, lOS, 104
in acetification, 277
Mollerat, 1\1., 20, 841, 848
)follernt's apparatns, 806
MolybdenA, acetate of, 169
Molybdenum, acetates of, 127
Molybdic Roid, acetate of, 159
Monge, 83
MonohydrRted &Cetio acid, 108
Moneau, Guyton de, 88
Moses, 19
Mother, 184
of vinegar, 95, 101, 287
Mould, vegetable, 189
Muci'o acid, 48
Mulder, 187
Multiple proportions, theory of, 88
1\I uspratt, 88, 140
Mustard, vinegar of, 870
Myooderma a.ceti. 98,99, 187, 287, 290
cerevisilll, 187
vini, 187
Maceration, 78
Mackenzie's experiments on vinegars,
242,
Malt, black, 78
dryinp; on the kiln, 77
extract, table of speciflo gravity,
161
good, distinguished, 79
kiln, description of, 79
vinegar, 18, 218
household process, 221
Malting, 71
length of time, 76
moderate temperature of the air
best for, 77
Manganese, acetate of, 140 Naphtha, table of, 819
binozide of, 822 wood, 815, 816
Mash, malt for, 84 INeal & Duyck's pRtent for vinegar from
proper proportions for a mixture, 84 beets, 257
-tun, 84 NeutrallLoetate of copper, 152
Mashinjl;, 71, 81, 88 of leRd, 145
lengtb of time, 85 Nickel, ncetRte of, 145
temperllture of water in, 85 Nitric Rcid in vinegar, 870
MRtter, different stRtes of, 24 Nitric acid on acetone, 125
MedicilllLl vinegars, 885 Nitrogen and oxygen, combinations of,
Melsell's process, 112, 828 82
Mercury, acetRtes of, 156 Non-metallio bodies, 27
Meta-aldehyde. Il7
Metalclehyde, 128
Metallic acetates, 127
Metallic SAlts in vinegar, 871
Metalloida, 27
Metals, 27
Methods of alcoholometry, 164
Method of north of France, 205
Methylic 1Licohol, 60,67, 816
Methods of preparing conoentrated
ncetic aoid, 110
Metric system of weights and measures,
8iS
Michaux on grape culture in the United
St'l tea, 194
Mindererus, spirit of, 184
Mineral acids, 868
Minerals, 22
Mixture of alooholio and certain acids,
iO
Moderate heat in kiln, 78
Modifications of appnrntus for extract-
ing pyroligneous Rcid, 312
Mohr's tahle of monohydrated acetic
acid, 108
Molasses, vinegnr with, 247
Molecules or atoms, 23
Liquol'll, graduRting, 282
Longworth, Nicholas, 195
Losses in quick process, 278
Lovage, vinegar of, ll30
Lowiu's process, 111
INDEX. 389
Quartenary compounds, 28
Quen"y and Houel's vinegars, 246
Quick me'thod, 241
process, 18, 181, 228, 271, 272
Anthon's, 272
apparatus, 224
general details, 229
Ham's,2it
Improvements in, 269
Knapp on, 278
old methods, 228
precautions, 283
Schutzenbach's, 278
Ure's, 269
Racking fermented wort, 91
Rags, vinegar of, 266
Raspberry vinegar, 266
Ravigotle, vinaigre a. la, 832
Reagents, 853, 8M
and agents, 29
Red liquors for calico-printing, 139
Reichenbach's apparatus, 808
Resources, naturl\l, in the United States,
197
Rhodium, acetate of, 159
and soda, acetatlt ot', 159
Richness of vinegars, table of, 862
Richter on acetic acid t'rom pyroligneous
acid and baryta, 119
Richter's hydrometer, 165
Rice vinegar, 882
Riviere and Durand's experiments, 242
Ruez Delsaux and V&nwormhoude's pro-
cess, 262
Payen's experiments on pyroligneons Pyroxylic spirit, 816
acid, 800 Pyroxylin, 41
Pear, essenCA of, 298
Peres' process, 110
Perry, 60
vinegar, 260
Pese-acid, Baume's, 173, 174
-esprit, llaume's, 173,174
-sel, Bauma's, 178
-syrop, !V-ume's, 178
Pepper in vinegar, 868
Phosphates, use ot', 289
Pineapple, essence of, 298
Platinum, acetnte of, 159
use of, in the llJanufacture ot'vine-
gar, 104
Pohl's process, 861
Pores, 24
Porosi ty, 24
Potassa, Rcetate ot', 129
acid acetate of, 112
bichromate of, 822, 324
carbonate of, 864
PotassilHll nnd sodium decompose fine
alcohol, 70
Potatoes, oil of, 60
vinegar of, 241
Powerful Rcids with dilute alcohol, 70
Precautions duringthe quick process, 283
PreservRtion of alimentary substanoes,
337
ot' animal substanoes, 387
of vegetable substanoes, 838
Priestly, 38
Primrose vinegar, 266
Properties of alcohol, 68
Proportions, theory of definite, 83
of multiple, 88
Proto-acetate of iron, 141
-molybdena, acetate of, 159
Pumps, 229 Saccharification, 55
Pnre acetio acid and acetates, with by sulphurio acid, 288
pyroligneous acid Rnd haryta, 118 Sacoharine fermentation, 56
Purification of the products of the dis- substances, 56
tillation of wood, 815 Saocharometer, 83, 175
of wood vinegar, 819 table of specifio gravity of degrees,
Purifying acetate of s"da, 182 87
Putrid fermentation, 66 Saccharometers, 87,166
Pyroligneous acid, 18, 117, 299 Saccharometricai tables, 160
and baryta, 118 Saccharometry, 169
and cRrbonate of lime, 115 Salleron and Reveil's process, 868
and charcoal in various woods, . Raussure, de, 96
813 Savory spices, vinegar of, 881
crude, 325 Scbeele, 83
apparatus for extracting from Schnedermann, 115
sawdust, 809 Schutzenhach's qulllk process, 278
for the preservation of animal Seaweeds as a sonrce of acetio acid,
substances, 887 267
Pyrolignite of iron, 141 Sehille-Auger, preparation of orystal-
of lime, aoetie acid with, 114, 111i lizab1e aoetio acid by, 116
26
390 INDEX.
Secondary fennentation, 67
Sensibility, 34
Sesquincetnte of iron, 142
Sesquiba.sic llceta.te of copper, 166
of lead, 160
Sexbllsic ncetate of lead, 161
Sha.vings, 228
Silver, acetate of, 158
Simple llnd compound bodies, 27
27
Slow method, 241
process, 181
Soda., acetllte of, 130,320, 821, 822
ash, 321
borate of, 35R
cnrbona.te of, 8G4
solution of, 356
Solid, 25
Solomon, 19
Spanish method, 206
Spielman, 96
Spices, vinegar of savory, 831
Spitaler's new generator, 286
Spirit of mindererus, 134
Spirits, under proof, table of boiling
points of, 1,0
Squill vinegar, 886
Stahl, 92, 95
Starch,42
conversion of, into gum, 87
torrified, 46
vinegar, 246
vinep;ar of, 241
Starchy vegetahles, vinegar of, 241
Steeping, , I, 72
Stenhouse on seaweeds, 267
Still, 117
Stills, copper, 824
iron, 824
Stolze, 116
Strength of vinegar, 276
Strong's American vinega.r generator,
250
Strontia, Rcetate of, 136
Strove, 92
Suboxide of mercury, aceta.te of, 166
Sugar and alcohol, vinegar of, 242,
244
of acid fruits, 62
cRndy,60
of diabetes, 52
fermentation of, lR6
fruit, 37
of lend, brown, 148
white, 146, 14G
8S a test for slJlllhuric acid, 870
of, 243, 244
Sngars,49
Sulphacetic acid, 126
Sulphate of haryta, 119, 127
Sulphate of soda., 117
of soda, 322
Sulphovinic acid, 126
and chlorhydric ether, 125
Sulphuric acid, 119, 825
and acetate of soda, 116
and acetone, 124
and alcohol. ,0
decomposition of, 323
in vinegar, 868
Sulphurous gas, 2G
Sweating, ,I, 74
Syke's hydrometer, 164
Synthesis, 28
Syrup of 336
Tnble for volume per cent. of alcohol,
217
for weightll per cent. of alcohol,
216
of acetlltes. 128
of alcohol in alcoholic liquors, 202
of alcoholic contents per cent. by
weil!ht of spirits, 168
of alcohol in fermented liquors,
201
of boiling points of under proof
spirits, 1,0
of densities of acetic Rcid at dif-
ferent temperatures, 109
of mensures of richness of vinegars,
862
of percentage of alcohol, 1G6
of proportions of monohydrated
acetic acid, 108
of sacchRrometry, 160, f61. 168
of specific gravities of mixtures of
alcohol and watH, 178
of specific gravity of saccharometer
degrees at temperature of 63",
87
of test solution of ammonia, 801
Table vinejl;Rrs, 329
Tables. hyrlrometer, 176
of corrections of temperatures, 176,
177
of experiments on acetification of
alcohol, 277. 281
of French and English weights BIld
measures, 376
of percentage of acid in vinegar,
866
of woods, 814
Tarragon vinegar, 831
Tarry matters, 325
Tartaric acid, 356
and alcohol, 70
in vi negRI', 8,0
Taxation upon discoveries, 212
Taylor's acetometer, 843
INDEX. 391
Temperature for fermeutation, 90
necessary in acetic fermentatiou,
93
of room for Bcetification, 215
of tbe kiln, i8
of tbe "inegar-room, 229
Temperatures, tables of corrections of,
li6, 177
Ternary compounds, 28
Test, Oay-LussBc's, 353
sorurion of ammonia, 350
Tests for water, 183
Theory of acetic fermentation, 95, 97
(If definite proportions, 33
of multiple proportions, 33
Thorina, Doetate of, 159
Tilden's improvement in generators, 292
Time of fermentBtion, 91
Tin, acetB!e of, 144
Toilet vinegBrs, 332, 834
Tomatoes, 339
Torrified stRrch, 46
Tralles' hydrometer, 165
tllble of percentRge of Blcohol, 166
TrRnsformntions, chemical, 37
Transformation of fermented liquor in-
to vinegar, 220
Tribasic acetate of copper, 156
acetate of lead, 1[,0
UncrystnllizBble fruit sugar, 49 .
. United States, grape culture in, 192
Uranium, acetate of, 159
Urea, 117
Ure, Dr., 86
Ure' s process, 269
table of boiling points of under-
proof spirits, 1iO
table of percentage of real Mph-
tba, 819
Vanadium, acetate of, 159
Van Helmond, 25.
Vapor, 25
Vegetable mould, 189
substBnces, preservation of, 83B
Vegetables, 22, 34
Venel, lI5
Verdet, 152
116
Vinaigre l\ la ravigotte, 332
aux fines berbes, 331
Vinegar, ndnlterations in, 36B
antiscorbutic, 335
antiseptic, 335
applications of, 18, 327
apples for, 249
aromBtio, 32i, 333
beet, 255
beet-juice into, 261
VinegBr-
black drop, 336
Boerho.ave's method, 202
process; 223
Bully's, 833
by quick process, 18
campborRted, 335
cider, 209, 248
clearing, 2\17
colorinli;, 297
currBnt, 26'1
decolorizing, 296
different modes of manufacturing,
202 .
distille,l 184, 832
distilling, 18
Dingler's quick process, 271
flavor and odor, 298
Flemisb metbod, 203
fruit, 266
generalities on tbe fabrication of,
181
generator, American, 250
glucose immediately into, 240
bistory of, 19
housebold process,
improved French metbod, 207
improving, 296
lavender, 832
made in cellars at 50, in France,
n3
malt, 218, 221
method of north of France, 205
motber, 187
of ale, 248
of anchovies, 830
of beer, 248
of celery, 330
of cloves, 330
of German brandy, 242
of grape sugar, 245
of berbs, 8111
of lovage, 330
of mustard, 330
Orleans metbod, 204
Orleans process, 220
of pot atoes, 241 .
of rags, 266
of savory spices, 881
of starch, 241
of starchy vegetables, 241
of sugar, 243, 244
of sweet waters, raisins, fecula, &0.,
246
of tile Hygienic Society, 334
Parisian metbod, 206
Pasteur's process, 287
perry, 250
progress in the fabrioation ot', Ii
primrose, 266
392 INDEX.
Vinegar-
proportion! for, 244
quiok process, 228
raspberry, 266
-room, temperature of, 229
Schutlenbach's quick process, 218
Spanish method, 200
starch, 246
strength of, 216
squill, 836
syrup for, 240
syrup of, 8:16
tables of percentage of acid in, 866
table of richness of, 862
tarragon, 881
taxation on the manufacture of, 210
transformation of fermented liquor
into, 220
rose, 382
with alcohol and whiskey, 210
with alcohol or whiskey, 281
with beet-juice, &0., Rue.-Delsaux
and Vanwormhoude's process,
262
with cane sugar 246
with grain alone, 288
with grnin and malt, 28ii
with honey, 247
with molasses, 247
wood,299
wood, specifto gravity of, 344
Vinegars, analyzing, 18
Anthon's quick process, 272
aromatic distilled, 882
compound, 829
constituents of wine, 188
degree of concentration of, 841
medicinal, 886
of malt or grains, 18
of wine, cider, and alcobol, 18
table, 829
toilet, 882, 884
wine and cider, 181
Vinous fermentation, 66, 67, 68
Vinous liquors, acetification of, 96
Vital force, 84, 86
Volta, 88
Water, 25
boiling, 184
importance of, 188
Water-
impurities in, 183
temperature of, in washing, 85
test for, 183
Weighing the alkaline solutions, 365
Weights and measures, metric system,
813
Whiskey and alcohol vinegar, 210
White sugar oflead, 146, 14G, 329
Will and Fresenius' process, 347
Wine, 191,199
of alcohol, 60
analysis of, 200
and cider vinegars, 181
cider, and alcohol vinegal'll, 18
production in the United States, 197
vinegars, constituents of, 188
Wine-lees, analysis of, ] 98
Wines, cordial, 200
gaseous, 200
Wood, distilling, 299
English apparatus for distilling, 803
French apparatus for distilling, 305
Kestner's apparatus for distilling,
.806
naphtha, 316, 816
processes for distilling, 30]
Reichenbach's apparatus for distill-
ing, 808
spirit, 816
spi ri t of, 60
Woods, tables of, for pyroligneous acid
and charcoal, 814
Wood vinegar, 299, 820, 822
purification of, 819
specific gravity of, 844
Wort, for vinegar mlUlufacture, 83
Worts, boiling, 86
cooling, 88
degrees of attenuation of, 9]
table of specific gravity of, 91
Xylaidin, 43
Yeast, 62, ]84, ]85
brewers', 184
proportion of, 89
Yttria, acetate of, ] 69
Zinc, acetate of, 148
Zirconia, acetate of, 169
Founded by Mathew Carey, 17l15
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AMATEUR MECHANICS' WORKSHOP:
A treatise containing plain and concise directions for the manipula.
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Soldering and Carpentry. By the author of the .. Lathe and Its
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ANDRES.-A Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of Volatile
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From the German of ERwtN ANDRES, Manufacturer of Varnishes
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ARLOT.-A Complete Guide for Coach Painters:
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ARMENGAUD, AMOROUX, AND JOHNSON.-The Practi-
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ARMSTRONG.-The Construction and Management of Steam
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ARROWSMITH.-Paper-Hanger's Companion:
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ASHTON.-The Theory and Practice of the Art of Designing
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spooling and making out harness for cross drafts and finding any re-
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AUERBACH-CROOKES.-Anthracen:
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BAIRD.-Miscellaneous Papers on Economic Questions.
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BAIRD.-The American Cotton Spinner, and Manager's and
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BAKER.-The Mathematical Thcory of thc Steam-Engine:
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BLINN.-A Practical Workshop Companion for Tin, Sheet-
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BOOTH.-Marble Worker's Manual:
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BOOTH and MORFIT.-The Encyc10psedia of Chemistry,
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BRAMWELL.-The Wool Carder's Vade-Mecum:
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BRANNT.-A Practical Treatise on Distilling and the Manu-
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BULLOCK.-The American Cottage Builder:
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6 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE.
BURGH.--Practical Rules for the Proportions of Modem
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BURNS.-The American Woolen Manufacturer:
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BYLES.-Sophisms of Free Trade and Popular Political
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BYRN.-The Complete Practical Brewer:
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BYRN.-The Complete Practical Distiller:
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BYRNE.-Hand-Book for the Artisan. Mechanic, and Engi-
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HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 7
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BYRNE.-Pocket-Book for Railroad and Civil Engineers:
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BYRNE.-The Practical Model Calculator:
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CABINET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE:
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Illustrated by Fortyeight Large and Beautifully Engraved Plates.
Oblong, 8vo. .. . "3.50
CALLINGHAM.-Sign Writing llnd Glaas Embossing:
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CAMPIN.-A Practical Treatise on Mechanical Engineering:
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ARMSTRONG, C. E., and JOHN BOURNE. Rules for Calculating the
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CAREY.-A Memoir of Henry C. carey.
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Manual of Social Science. Condensed from Carey's" Principles
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Miscellaneous Works. With a Portrait. 2 vols. 8vo. $6.00
Past. Present and Future. 8vo. . $2.50
Principles of Social Science. 3 volumes. 8vo. . . '10.00
The Slave-Trade. Domestic and Foreign; Why it Exists, and
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The Unity of Law: A. Exhibited in the Relations of Physical,
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CLARK.-Tramways, their Construction and Workin&,:
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COLBURN.-The Locomotive Engine:
Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its
Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Man-
agement. By ZERAH COLBURN. Illustrated. 12mo. $1.00
COLLENS.-The Eden of Labor; or, the Christian Utopia.
By T. \VIIARTOS COLLENS, author of .. Humanics," .. The History
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COOLEY.-A Complete Practical Treatise on Perfumery:
Being a Hand-book of Perfumes, Cosmetics and other Toilet Articles.
With a Comprehensive Collection of Formulre. By ARNOLD J.
COOLEY. 12mo. .. $1.50
COOPER.-A Treatise on the use of Belting for the Trans-
mission of Power.
With numerous illustrations of approved and actual methods of ar-
ranging Main Driving and Quarter Twist Belts, and of Belt Fasten-
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Practical Directions for the Treatment, Care and Management of
Belts. Descriptions of many varieties of Beltings, together with
chapters on the Transmission of Power by Ropes; by Iron and
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on the Experimental Investigations of Morin. Briggs, and others. By
JOHN H. COOl'ER, M. E. 8vo.. . . .. $3.50
CRAIK.-The Practical American Millwright and Miller.
By DAVID CRAIK, Millwright. Illustrated by numerous wood en-
gravings and two folding plates. 8vo. '5.00
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & COo'S CATALOGUE. 9
CRISTIANI.-A Technical Treatise on Soap and Candles:
With a Glance at the Industry of Fats and Oils. By R. S. CRIS-
TIANI, Chemist. Author of .. Perfumery and Kindred Arts." Illus-
trated by 176 engravings. 581 pages,8vo. '7.50
CRISTIANI.-Perfumery and Kindred Arts:
A Comprehensive Treatise on Perfumery, containing a History of
Perfumes from the remotest ages to the present time. A complete
detailed description of the various Materials and Apparatus used in
the Perfumer's Art, with thorough Practical InstructIOn and careful
Formulre, and advice for the fabrication of all known preparations of
the day, including Essences, Tinctures, Extracls, Spirits, Waters,
Vinegars, Pomades, Powders, Paints, Oils, Emulsions, Cosmetics,
Infusions, Pastilles, Tooth Powders and \Vashes, Cachous, Hair Dyes,
Sachets, Essential Oils, Flavoring Extracts, etc.; and full details for
making and manipulating Fancy Toilet Soaps, Shaving Creams, etc.,
by new and improved methods. With an Appendix giving hints and
advice for making and fermenting Domestic Wines, Cordials, Liquors,
Candies, Jellies, Syrups, Colors, etc., and for Perfuming and Flavor-
ing Segars, Snuff and Tobacco, and Miscellaneous Receipts for
various useful Analogous Articles. By R. S. CRISTIANI, Can
suiting Chemist and Perfumer, Philadelphia. 8vo. 15.00
CUPPER.-The Universal Stair-Builder:
Being a new Treatise on the Construction of Stair-Cases and Hand-
Rails; showing Plans of the various forms of Stairs, method of
Placing the Risers in the Cylinders, general method of describing
the Face Moulds for a Hand-Rail, and an expeditious method of
Squaring the Rail. Useful also to Stonemasons constructing Stone
Stairs and Hand-Rails; with a new method of Sawing the Twist
Part of any Hand-Rail square from the face of the plank, and to a
parallel width. .Also, a new method of forming the Easings of the
Rail by a gauge; preceded by some necessary Problems in Practical
Geometry, with the Sections of Prismatic Solids. Illustrated by 29
plates. By R. A. CUPPER, Architect, author of .. The Practical
Stair-Builder's Guide." Third Edition. Large 4to. . $2.50
DAVIDSON.-A Practical Manual of House Painting, Grain-
ing, Marbling, and Sign-Writing:
Containing full information on the processes of House Painting in
Oil and Distemper, the Formation of Letters and Practice of Sign-
Writing, the Principles of Decorative Art, a Course of Elementary
Drawing for House Painters, Writers, etc., and a Collection of Useful
Receil)ts. With nine colored illustrations of Woods and Marbles,
and numerous wood engravings. By ELLIS A. DAVIDSON. 12mo.
'3.
00
DAVIES.-A Treatise on Earthy and Other Minerals and
Mining:
By D. C. DAVIES, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, etc. Illustrated by
76 Engravings. 12mo. '5.00
10 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & COo'S CATALOGUE.
DAVIES.-A Treatise on Metalliferous Mineral. and Mining:
By D. Co DAVIKS, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, Examiner of Mines,
Quarries and Collieries. Illustrated by 148 engravings of Geological
Formations, Mining Operations and Machinery, drawn from the
practice of all parts of the world. 2d Edition, 12mo., 450 pages '5.00
DAVIES.-A Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying:
Scientific, Practical and Commercial. By D. C. DAVIES, F. G. S.,
Mining Engineer, etc. With numerous illustrations and folding
plates. 12mo. $2.50
DAVIS.-A Practical Treatlle on the Manufacture of Bricks,
TUes, Terra-Cotta, etc. :
Including Common, Pressed, Ornamentally Shaped, and Enamelled
Bricks, Drain-Tiles, Straight and Curved Sewer-Pipes, Fire-Clays,
Fire-Bricks, Terra-Cotta, Roofing-Tiles, Flooring.Tiles, Art-Tiles,
Mosaic Plates, and Imitation of Intarsia or Inlaid Surfaces; com-
prising every important Product of Clay employed in Architecture,
Engineering, the Blast-Furnace, for Retorts, etc., with a History and
the Actual Processes in Handling, Disintegrating, Tempering, and
Moulding the Clay inlo Shape, Drying Naturally and Artificially,
Setting and Burning, Enamelling in Polychrome Colors, Composition
and Application of Glazes, etc.; including Full Detailed Descriptions
nf the most modern Machines, Tools, Kilns, and Kiln-Roofs used.
By CHARLES THOMAS DAVIS. Illustrated by 228 Engravings and
6 Plates. 8vo., 472 pages $5.00
DAVIS.-The Manufacture of Leather:
B e i n ~ a description of all of the Processes for the Tanning, Currying,
and Finishing of Leather; including the Various Raw Materials and
the Methods for Determining their Values; the Tools, Machines,
and all Matters of Importance connected with an Intelligent and
Profitable Prosecution of the Art, with Special Reference to the best
American Practice. To which is added a List of American Patents
(or Materials, Processes, Tools and Machines for Tanning, Currying,
etc. By CHARLES T. DAVIS. Illustrated by about 300 engravings.
In one volume, 8vo., 01 about 850 pages. (In prus.)
DAWIDOWSKY-BRANNT.-A Practical Treatise on the
Raw Materials and Fabrication of Glue, Gelatine, Gelatine
Veneers and Foils, lBinglass, Cements, Pastes, Mucilages,
etc.:
Eased upon Actual Experience. By F. DAWIDOWSKY, Technical
Chemist. Translated from the German, with extensive allditions,
including a description of the most Recent American Processes, by
WILLIAM T. BRANNT, Granuate of the Royal Agricultural College
of Eldena, Prus,ia. 35 Engravings. 12mo.. . . $2.50
DE GRAFF.-The Geometrical Stair-Builders' Guide:
Being a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, emhracing all i t ~
necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by twenty-two Steel
Engravings; together with the use of the most approved principles
of Practical Geometry. By SIMON DE GRAFF, Architect. 410.
$250

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO'.S CATALOGUE. II


DE KONINCK-DIETZ.-A Practical Manual of Chemical
Analysis and Assaying:
As applied to the Manufac1ure of Iron from its Ores, and to Cast Iron,
WrtJught Iron, and Steel, as found In Commerce. By L. L. DE
KONINCK, Dr. Sc., and E. DIETZ, Engineer. Edited with Note_, hy
ROBERT MALLET, F. R. S., F. S. G., M. I. C. E., etc. American
Edition, Edited with Notes and an Appendixon Iron Ores, by A. A.
FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. 12mo. $2.50
DUNCAN.-Practical Surveyor's Guide:
Containing the necessary information to make any person of com
mon capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of a teacher.
By ANDREW DUNCAN. I1Iu'trated. 12mo. .. $1.25
1>UPLAIS.-A Treatise on the Manufacture and Distillation
of Alcoholic Liquors:
Comprising Accurate and Complete Details in to Alcohol
from Wine, Molas_es, Beets, Grnin, Rice, Potatoe_, Sorghum, Aspho.
del, Fruits, etc.; with the Di,tillation and Rectification of Brandy.
Whiskey, Rum, Gin, Swi.. Absinthe, etc., the Prepar.tion of Aro.
matic \Vaters, Volatile Oils or Essences, Sugar<, Syrups, Aromatic
Tinctures, Liqueurs, Cordial Wines, Effervescing \Vines, etc., die
Ageing of Brandy and the improvement of with Copiuus
Directions and Tables for Testing and Reducing Spirituous Liquors,
etc., etc. Translated and Edited from the French of MM. J)UPl.AIS.
Aine! et Jeune. By M. McKENNIE, M. D. To which are added the
United States Internal Revenue Regulations for the Assessment ane!
Collection of Taxes on Distilled Spirits. Illustrated by fourteen
folding plates and several wood engravings. 743 Pp. 8vo. $10 00
DUSSAUCE.-A General Treatise on the Manufacture of
Vinegar:
Theoretical and Practical. Comprising the various Methods, by the
Slow and the Quick Processe', With Alcohol, Wine, Grain, Malt,
Cider, Molasses, and Beets; as well as the Fabricalion of Wood
Vinegar, etc., etc. By Prof. H. DU55AUCE. 8vo. 'S 00
DUSSAUCE,-Practical Treatise on the FabricatJonofMatche..
Gun Cotton, and Fulminating Powder.
By Profe...,or H. Dus5AUCE. 12mo. . .. $3 00
DYER AND COLOR MAKER'S COMPANION:
Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts (or making Colors, on
the most approved principles, for all the various styles and fahrics now
in existRnce; with the Scouring Process, and plain Directions for
Preparing, Washing.off, and Finishing the Goods. 12mo. $1 2S
EDWARDS.-A Catechism of the Marine Steam.Engine,
For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Mechanics. A Practical
Work for Practical Men. By EMORY EDWARDS, Mechanical Engi.
neer. I1Iu,trated by sixtythree Engravings, including examples of
the most modern Engines. Third edition, thoroughly revised, with
much additional matter. Izmo. 414 pages . $2 00
EDWARDS.-Modem American Locomotive Engine.,
Their Design, Construction and Management. By EMOIlYEDWA1los.
Dlustrated I amo. $z 00

12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE:.


EDWARDS.-Modem American Marine Engines, Boilers, and
Screw Propellers,
Their Design and Construction. Showing the Present Practice of
the most Eminent Engineers and Marine Engine Builders in the
United States. lllustrated by 30 large and elaborate plates. 4to. 15.00
EDWARDS.-The Practical Steam Engineer's Guide
In the Design, Construction, and Management of American Stationary,
Portable, and Steam Fire-Engines, Steam Pumps, Boilers, Injectors,
Governors, Indicators, Pistons and Rings, Safety Valves and Steam
Gauges. For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Steam Users. By
EMORY EDWARDS. lllustrated by 119 engravings. 420 pages.
12mo. .. $2 So
ELDER.-Conversations on the Principal Subjects of Political
Economy.
By Dr. WILLIAM ELDER. 8vo. $2 So
ELDER.-Questions of the Day,
Economic and Social. By Dr. WILLIAM ELDER. 8vo. 13 00
ELDER.-Memoir of Henry C. Carey.
By Dr. WILLIAM ELDER. 8vo. cloth. 75
ERNI.-Mineralogy Simplified.
Easy Methods of Determining and Classifying Minerals, including
Ores, by means of the Blowpipe, and by Humid Chemical Anal}'sis,
based on Professor von Kobell's Tables for the Determination of
Minerals, with an Introduction to Modern Chemistry. By HENRY
ERNI, A.M., M.D., Professor of Chemistry. Second Edition, rewritten,
enlarged and improved. 12mo. (1" pr/!j.J.)
FAIRBAIRN.-The Pnnciples of Mechanism and Machinery
of TransmIssion'
Comprising the Pnnciples of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys.
Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Coupling of Shaits, and Engag.
ing and Disengaging Gear. By SIR WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, Bart.
C. E. Beautifully lIlustrated by over ISO wood-cuts. In one
volume, 12mo. $2.50
VITCH.-Bessemer Steel,
Ores and Methods, New Facts and Statistics Relating to the Types
of Machinery in Use, the Methods in Vogue, Cost and Class of Labor
employed, and the Character and Availability of the Ores utilized in
the Manufacture of Bessemer Steel in Europe and in the United States;
together with opinions and excerpts from various accepted authorities.
Compiled and arranged by THOMAS W. FITCH. 8vo. $3 00
FLEMING.-Narrow Gauge Railways in America.
A Sketch of their Rise, Progress, and Success. Valuable Statistics
as to Grades, Curves, 'Veight of Rail, Locomotives, Cars, elc. By
HOWARD FLEMING. Illustrated,8vo. $1 So
FORSYTH.-Book of Designs for Headstones, Mural, and
other Monuments:
Containing 78 Designs. By JAMES FORSYTH. With 1m Introduction
by CHARLES BOUTELL, M. A. 410., cloth $5 00
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 13
B'RANKEL--HUTTER.-A Practical Treatise on the :Manu-
facture of Starch, Glucose, Starch-Sugar, and Dextrine:
Based on the German of LADISLAUS VOll' WAGl"ER, Professor in the
Royal Technical High School, Bu<1aPest. Hungary, and olher
authorities. By JULIUS Graduate of the Polytechnic
School of Hanover. Edited by ROBERT HUTTER, Chemist. Practical
Manufacturer of Starch-Sugar. Illustrated by 51! engravings, cover-
ing every branch of the subject, including examples of the most
Recent and Best American Machinery. 8vo., 344 pp. '3.5
GEE.-The Goldsmith's Handbook:
Containing full inslructions for the Alloying and Working of Gold,
including the Art of Alloymg, Melting, Reducinl(, Coloring, Col-
lecting, and Refining; the Processes of Manipulation, Recovery of
Waste; Chemical and Physical Properties of Gold; with a New
System of Mixing its Alloys; Solders, Enamels, and other Useful
Rules and Recipes. By GEORGE E. GEE. 12lDO. . '1.75
GEE.-The Silversmith's Handbook:
Containing full Instructions for the Alloying and Working of Silver,
including Ihe different modes of Refining and Melting the Metal; its
Solders; the Preparation of Imitation Alloys; Methods of Manipula-
tion; Prevention of Waste; Instructions for Improving and Finishing
the Surface of the Work; together with other U,efullnformation and
Memoranda. By GEORGE E. GEE, Jeweller. Illustrated. 12mo.
'I.75
GOTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET-MAKERS:
Designs for Gothic Furniture. Twenty-three plates. Oblong '2.00
GREENWOOD.-Steel and Iron:
Comprising the Practice and Theory of the Several Methods Pur-
sued in their Manufacture, and of their Treatment in Ihe Rolling-
Mills, the Forge, and the Foundry. By WILLIAM HE="RY GREEN-
WOOD, F. C. S. Asso. M. I. C. E., M. 1. M. E., Associate of the Royal
School of Mines. With 97 Diagrams, 536 pages. 12mo.. '2.00
GREGORY.-Mathematics for Practical Men:
Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and
Civil Engineers. By OLINTHUS GREGORY. 8vo., plates. '3.00
GRIER.-Rural Hydraulics:
A Practical Treatise on Rural Household Water Supply. Giving a
full description of Springs and Wells, of Pumps and Hydraulic Ram,
with Instructions in Ci,tern Building, Laying of Pipes, etc. By W.
W. GRIER. Illustrated 8vo. 75
GRIMSHAW.-Modem Milling:
Being the substance of two addres,es delivered by request, at Ihe
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, January 191h and January 271h,
1881. By ROBERT GRIMSHAW, Ph. D. Edited from the Phono-
graphic Reports. With 28 Illustrations. 8vo. $J.oo
GRIMSHAW.-Saws:
The History, Development, Action, Classification, and Comparison
of Saws of all kinds. With Copious Apptndius. Giving the details
14 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & COo'S CATALOGUE.
of Manufacture, Filing, Setting, Gumming, etc. Care and Use of
Saws; Tahles of Gauges; Capacities of Saw-Mills; List of Saw-
Patents, and other valuable information. By ROBERT GRIMSHAW.
Second and greatly enlarged edition, wi/h and 354 lI1u5-
trations. Quarto 14.00
GRIMSHAW.-A Supplement to Grimshaw on Saws:
ContainiliR' additional practical matter, more especially relating to the
Forms of Saw-Teeth, for special material and conditions, and to the
Behavior of Saws under particular conditions. 120 Illustrations. By
ROHERT GRIMSHAW. Quarto $2.00
GRISWOLD.-Railroad Engineer's Pocket Companion for the
Field:
Compri,ing Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and Angles,
Tangential Distances and An!?les, and all Necessary Tables for En-
gineers; also the Art of Levelling from Preliminary Survey to the
ConstruClion of Railroads, intended Expres;ly for the Young En-
gineer, together with Numerous Valuable Rules and Examples. By
W. GRISWOLI>. umo., tucks . . . '1.75
GRUNER.-Studies of Blast Furnace Phenomena:
By 1\1. L. GRUII:EIl., President of the General Council of Mines of
France, and latcly Profes-;or of Metallurgy at the Ecole des Mines.
Translated, with the author's sanction, with an Appendix, by L. D.
B. GORI>ON, F. R. S. E., F. G. S. gvo. . . '2.5
GUETTIER.-Metallic Alloys: .
Being a Practical Guide to their Chemical and Physical Properties,
their Preparation, Composition, and Uses. Translated from the
French of A. GUETTtER, Engineer and Director of Founderies,
author of .. La Fouderie en France," dc., 1'11'. By A. A. FESQUET,
Chemist and Engineer. Umo. . . . . $3.00
HASERICK.-The Secrets of the Art of Dyeing Wool, Cotton,
and Linen,
Including Bleaching and Coloring Wool and Colton Hosiery and
Random Yams. A Treatis,e based on Economy and Practice. By
E. C. HASERICK. by 323 of Ilu Yarns
or Fabrics. 8vo. $25.00
HATS AND FELTING:
A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical Hatter.
Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, etc. 8vo. . $1.25
HENRY.-Tbe Early and Later History of Petroleum:
With Authenlic Facts in re!1ard to its Development in Western Penll'
sylvania. Sketches of the Pioneer and Prominent Operators.
with the Refining Capacity of the United Stales. By J. T.
HF.sRY. Illustrated 8vn. . . . . $4.50
HOFF'ER.-A Practical Treatise on Caoutchouc and Gutta
Percha.
Comprising the Properties of the Raw Materials, and the manner of
Mixing and Working them; with the Fabrication of Vulcanized a!ld
Hard Rubbers, Caoutchouc and Gutta Percha Compositions, Water.
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. IS
proof Substances, Elastic Tissues, the Utilization of \Vaste, etc., etc.
From the German of RAIMUND HOFFER. By W. T. ERAlI:NT.
Iliustrated 12mo. . . $2.5
HOFMANN.-A Practical Treatise on the Manufacturc of
Papcr in all its Branches:
By CARL HOFMANN, Lale Superintendent of PaperMills in Germany
and the United States; recently Manager of the" Public Ledger"
Paper.Mills, near Elkton, Maryland. Illustrated by 110 'Io'Ood en
gravings, and five large Foldmg Plates. 4to., cloth; about 400
pll#:es . . . . . $3.00
HUGHES.-American Miller and Millwright's Assistant:
By WILLIAM CARTER HtIGHES. 12mo.. . . . $1.5
HULME.-Worked Examination Questions in Plane Geomet-
rical Drawing:
For the Use of Candidates for the Royal Military Academy, Wool-
wich; the Royal Military College, Sandhurst; the Indian Civil En-
~ n e e r i n g College, Cooper's Hill; Indian Public Works and Tele-
graph Departments; Royal Marine Light Infantry; the Oxford and
Cambridge Local Examinations, elC. By F. EDWARD HULMF., F. L.
5., F. S. A., ArtMaster Marlborough College. Illustrated by 300
cxamples. Small quarto . $3.75
JERVIS.-Railroad Property:
A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways;
designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the
holders of thM; class of property; as well as Railway Managers. Offi
cers, and Agents. By JOHN B. JERVIS, late Civil Engineer of the
Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct. etc. I2mo., cloth $2.00
KEENE.-A Hand-Book of Practical Gauging:
For the Use of Beginners, to which is added a Chapter on Distilla-
tion, describing the process in operation at the CustomHouse for
ascertaining the Strength of Wines. By JAMES B. KEENE, of H. lit.
Customs. 8vo. . . . . . . . . $1.25
KELLEY.-Specches, Addrcsscs, and Letters on Industrial and
Financial Qucstions:
By liON. WILI.IAM D. KELLEY, M. C. 544 pages, 8vo.. $3.00
KELLOGG.-A New Monetary System:
The only means of Securing the respective Rights of Labor and
Property, and of Protecting the Public from Financial Revulsions.
By EDWARD KELLOGG. Revised from his work on .. Labor and
other Capital." With numerous additions from his monuscript.
Edited by MARY KELLOGG PuTNAM. Fifth edition. To which is
added a Biographical Sketch of the Author. One volume, 12mo.
Paper cover $1.00
Bound in cloth . . . 1.50
KEMLO.-Watch-Repairer's Hand-Book:
B ~ i n K a Complete Guioe to the Young Beginner, in Taking Apart.
PUlling Together, and Thoroughly Cleaning the English Lever and
other Foreign Watches, ano.all American Watches. By F. KEMLO,
Practical Watchmaker. With Illustrations. I2mO. 11.25
16 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & COo'S CATALOGUE.
KENTISH.-A Treatise on a Box of Instruments,
And the Slide Rule; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Loga.
rithms, including Practical Geomelry, Surveying, Measuring of Tim-
ber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. By THOMAS
KENTISH. In one volume. 12mo. $1.25
KERL.-The Assayer's Manual:
An Abri(lged Trealise on the Docimastic Examination of Ores, od
Furnace and other Artificial Products. By BRU;o;O KERL, Professor
in the Royal School of Mines; Member of the Royal Technical
Commission for the Industries, and "f the Imperial Patent-Office,
Berlin. Translated from the German by WILLIAM T. BRAN:ST,
Graduate of the Royal Agricultural College of Eldena, Prussia.
Edited by WILLIAM H. WAHL, Ph. D., Secretary of the Franklin
Institute, Pbiiadelphia. Illustrated by sixty-five engravings. 8vo.
053.
00
KINGZETT.-The History, Products, and Processes ef the
Alkali Trade:
Including the most Recent Improvements. By CHARLES THOMAS
KINGZETI', Consultin!: Chemist. With 23 illustralions. livo. $2.50
KINSLEY.-SelfInstructor on Lumber Surveying:
For the Use .of Lumber Manufacturers, Surveyors, and Teachers.
By CHARLES KINSLEY, Practical Surveyor and Teacher of Surveying.
12mo. . $2.00
KIRK.-The Founding of Metals:
A Practical Treatise on the Melting of Iron, with a Description of the
Founding of Alloys; also, of all the Melals and Mineral Substances
used in the Art of Founding. Collected from original sources. By
EDWARD KIRK, Practical Foundryman and Chemist. Illustrated.
Third edition. 8vo. $2.S0
KITTREDGE.-The Compendium of Architectural Sheet-
Metal Work:
Profusely Illustrated. Embracing Rules and Directions for Estimates,
Items of Cost, Nomenclature, Tahles of Brackets, Modillions, Den-
tals, Trusses, Stop-Blocks, Frieze Pieces, etc. Architect's Specifica-
tion, Tahles of Tin-Roofing, Galvanized Iron, etc., etc. To which is
added the Exemplar of Architectural Sheet-Metal Work, containing
details of the Centelllual BuildinRs, and other important Sheet-Metal
Work, Designs and Prices of Architectural Orcaments, as manufac-
tured for the Trade by the Killredge Cornice and Ornament Com-
pany, and a Catalogue of Cornices, Window-Caps, Mouldings,etc., as
manufactured by the Kittredge Cornice and Ornament Company.
The whole supplemented by a full Index and Table of Contents. By
A. O. KITTREDGE. 8vo., S6S pages $5.00
LANDRIN.-A Treatise on Steel:
Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properlies, Practical Working,
and Use. By M. H. C. LANDRIN, JR., Civil Engineer. Translated
from the French, with Notes, by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and En-
gineer. With an Appt:ndix on the Bessemer and the Martin Pro-
cesses for Manufacturing Steel, from the Report of Abram S. H e w i t ~
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 17
-- - - ---------------
United States Commissioner to the :Jnivcrsal Expolition, Paris, 1867.

LARDEN.-A School Course on Heat:
By W. LARDEN, M. A. 321 pp. 12mo. '2.QC)
LARDNER.-The Steam-Engine:
For the Use of Beginners. By DR. LARDNER. IlIllStrated. 12mo.
75
LARKIN.-The Practical Brass and Iron Founder's Guide:
A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and
thcir Alloys, etc.; to which are added Recent Improvements in the
Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc., etc. By
JA)lES LARKIN, late Conductor of the Bras.s Foundry Department in
Reauy, Neafie & Co.'s Penn Works, Philadelphia. Fifth edition,
revised, with extensive additions. I2mo. $2.25
LEROUX.-A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of
Worsteds and Carded Yams:
Comprising Practical Mechanics, with Rnles and Calculations applied
to Spinning; Sorting, Cleaning, and Scouring Wools; the English
and French Methods of Comhing, Drawing, and Spinning Worsteds,
and Manufacturing Carded Yarns. Translated from the French of
CHARLES LEROUX, Mechanical Engineer and Superintendent of a
Spinning-Mill, by HORATIO PAINE, M. D., and A. A. FESQUET,
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated hy twelve large Plates. To which
is added an containing Extracts from the Reports of the
International Jury, and of the Artisans selected by the Committee
appointed by the Council of the Society of Arts, London, on Woolen
and Worsted Machinery and Fabrics, as exhibited in the Paris Uni.
versai Exposition, 1867. 8vo. $5.00
LEFFEL.-The Construction of Mill-Dams:
Comprising also the Building of Race and Reservoir Embankments
and Head-Gates, the Measurement of Streams, Gauging of Water
Supply, etc. By JAMES LEFFEL & CO. Illustrated by 58 engravings.
8vo. . '2.5
LESLIE.-Complete Cookery:
Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By MISS LESLlE_
Sixtieth thollsand. Thoroughly revised, with the addition of New
Receipts. In 12mo., cloth $1...50
LIEBER.-Assayer's Guide;
Or, Practical DIrections to Assayers, Miners, and Smelter5, for the
Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the Ores of all
the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and Alloys, and of
CO;tI, etc. By OSCAR M. LIEBER. 12mo. . $1.25
LOVE.-The An of Dyeing, Cleaning, Scouring, and Finish-
. ing, on the Most Approved English and French Methods:
Being Practical Instructions in Dyeing Silks, \Voolens, and Cottons,
Feathers, Chips, Straw, etc. Scouring and Cleaning Bed and Win-
dow Curtains, Carpets, Rugs, elc. French and English Cleaning,
any Color or Fabric of Silk, Salin, or Damask. By THOMAS LOVE,
a Working pyer and Scourer. Second American Edilion, to which
8 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO:S CATALOGUE.
With 30 plates. 18mo.
$1.75
are added General Instructions for the use of Aniline Colors. 8vo.
343 pages $5.00
LUKIN.-Amongst Machines:
Embracing De'criptions uf the various Mechapical Appliances used
in the Manufacture of \Vood, Metai, and other Substances. 12010.
$1.75
LUKIN.-The Boy Engineers:
What They Did, and How They Did It.
LUKIN.-The Young Mechanic:
Practical Carpentry. Directions for the Use of all kinds
of Tools, and for Construction of Steam Engines and Mechanical
Models, including the Art of Turning 10 Wood and Metal. By JUHS
LUKIN, Author of "The Lathe and Its Uses," Illustrated.
12mo. $1.75
MAIN and BROWN.-Questions on Subjects Connected with
the Marine Steam-Engine:
And Examination Papel'>; with Hints for their Solution. By
THOMAS J. MAIN, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College,
and THOMAS BROWN, Chief Engineer, R. N. 12010., cluth . $1.50
MAIN and BROWN.-The Indicator and Dynamometer:
With their Practical Applications to the Steam Engine. By THOMAS
J. MAIN, M. A. F. R., Ass't S. Professor Royal Naval College,
Portsmouth, and THOMAS BROWN. Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer
R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. 8vo.. $1.50
MAIN and BROWN.-The Marine Steam-Engine.
By THOMAS J. MAIN, F. R. Ass't S. Mathematical Professor nt the
Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and THOMAS BROWN, Assoc.
Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer R. N. Attached to the Royal Naval
College. With numerous illustrations. 8vo. $5.00
MARTIN.-Screw-Cutting Tables, for the Use of Mechanical
Engineers:
Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the Threads
of Screws of any Required Pilch; with a Tahle for Making the Uni
versal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. MARTIN, Engineer.
Svo. . 50
MICHELL.-Mine Drainage:
Being a Complete and Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Under
ground Steam Pumping Machinery. With a Description of a large
number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and the
Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode of their Application, and
their Merits comp2red with other Pumping Machinery. By STEPHEN
MICHELL. Illustrated by 137 engravings. 8vo., 277 pages. $6.00
MOLESWORTH.-Pocket-Book of Useful Formuille and
Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical Engineers.
By GUILFORD L. MOLESWORTH, Member of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Full-
bound iri Pocket-book form $1.00

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO:S CATALOGUE. 19


MOORE.-The Universal Assistant and the Complete Me-
chanic:
Containing over one million Industrial Facts, Calculations, Receipts,
Processes, Trades Secrets, Rules, Business Form" Legal Items, Etc.,
in every occupation, from the Household to the Manufactory. By
R. MOORE. Illustrated by 500 Engravings. r2mo. $2.50
MORRIS.-Easy Rules for the Measurement of Earthworks:
By means of the I'rismoidal Formula. Illustrated with Numerous
Wood-Cuts, Prohlems, and Examoles, and concluded hy an Exten.
sive Tahle for finding the Solidity in cubic yards from Mean Areas.
The whole being adapted for convenient use by Engineers, Surveyors,
Contractors, and others needing Correct Measurements of Earthwork.
By ELWOOD ~ 1 0 R R t s , C. E. 8vo. $1.50
MORTON.-The System of Calculating Diameter, Circumfer-
ence, Area, and Squaring the Circle:
Together with Interest and Miscellaneous Tables, and other informa
tion. By JAMES MORTON. Second Edition, enlarged, with the
Metric System. 12mo.. $1.00
NAPIER.-Manual of Electro-Metallurgy:
Including the Application of thc Art to Manufacturing Processes.
By JAMES NAPIER. Fourth American, from the Fourth London
edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated by engravings. 8vo. $1.50
NAPIER.-A System of Chemistry Applied to Dyeing.
By JAMES NAPIER, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised Edi-
tion. Completely hrought up to the present state of the Science.
including the Che1pistry of Coal Tar Colors, by A. A. FESQun,
Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Calico
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. IIlus
trated. 8vo. 422 pages '5.00
NEVILLE.-Hydraulic Tables, Coefficients, and Formulle, for
IInding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches,
Weirs, Pipes; and Rivers:
Third Edition, with Additions, consisting of New Formula: for the
Discharge from Tidal and Flood Sluices and Siphons; general infor
mation on Rainfall, Catchment Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water
Supply for Towns and Mill Power. By IOHN NEVILLE, C. E. M. R.
I. A.; Fellow of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland. Thick
I2mo. . . 13.5C1
HEWBERY.-Gleanings from Ornamental Art of every
style:
Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian,
Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1851 and
1862, and the best English and Foreign works. In a series of 100
exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred examples. By
ROBERT NEWBERY. 4to. $12.50
NICHOLLS. -The Theoretical and Practical Boiler-Maker and
Engineer's Reference Book:
Containin/.: a variety of Vseful Information for Employers of Labor,
Foremen and Working Boiler-Makers, Iron, Copper, and Tinsmiths,
,
110 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & COo'S CATALOGUE.
Draught.men, Engineers, the General Steam.using Public, and for the
Use of Science Schools and Classel. By SAMUEL NICHOLLS. Illus
trated by sixteen plates, 12mo. 12.5<)
NICHOLSON.-A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding:
Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forwarding,
Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book.edges and
Paper. By JAMES B. NICHOLSON. Illustrated. I2mo., cloth $2.25
NICOLLS.-The Railway Builder:
A HandBook for Estimating the Probable COIl of American Rail
way Construction and Equipment. By WILLIAM J. NICQLLS, Civil
Engineer. Illustrated, full bound, pocket book form $2.00
NORMANDY.-The Commercial Handbook of Chemical AD-
alysia:
Or Practical Instructions for the Determination of the Intrinsic or
Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades,
and in the Arts. By A. NORMANDY. New Edition, Enlarged, and
to a great extent rewritten. By HENRY M. NOAD, Ph.D., F.R.S.,
thick 12mo. .. . 15.00
NORRIS.-A Handbook for Locomotive Engineera and Ma-
chinists:
Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing Loco-
motives; Manner of Settinl:' Valves; Tables of Squares, Cubes,Areas,
etc., etc. By SEPTIMUS NORRIS, M. E. New Illustrated,
I2mo. . . $J.50
NORTH.-The Practical Assayer:
Containing Easy Methods for the Assay of the Principal Metals and
Alloys. Principally designed for explorers and those interested in
Mines. By OLIVER NORTH. Illustrated. 12mo. $2.50
NYSTROM.-A New Treatise on Elements of Mechanics:
Establishing Strict Precision in the Meaning of Dynamical Terms:
:lccompanied with an Appendix on Duodenal Arithmetic and Me
trology. By JOHN W. NYSTROM, C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. '2.00
NYSTROM.-On Technological Education and the eonstruc-
tion of Ships and Screw Propellers:
For Naval and Marine Engineers. By JOHN W. NYSTROM, late
Acting Chief Engineer, U. S. N. Second edition, revised, with addi-
tional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. 12mo.. $1.50
O'NEILL.-A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Printing:
Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in
use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics; with Practical
Receipts and Scientific Information. By CHARLES O'NEILL, Analy-
tical Chemist. To which is added an Essay on Coal Tar Colors and
their application to Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. FESQUET,
and Engineer. With an appendix on Dyeing and Calico
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. 8vo.,
491 pages . .. $5.00
ORTON.-Underground Treasures'.
How and Where to Find Them. A Key for the Ready Determination
of all the Useful Minerals within the United States. By JAMES
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 21
ORTON, A.M., Late Professor of Natural History in Vassar College,
N. Y.; Cor. Mem. of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,
and of the Lyceum of Natural History, New York; author of the
.. Andes and the Amazon," etc. A New Edition, with Additions.
III ustrated $1. So
OSBORN.-The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel:
Theoretical and Practical in all its Branches; with special reference
to American Materials and Processes. By H. S. OSBORN, LL. D.
Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College, Easton,
Pennsylvauia. Illustrated by numerous large folding plates and
wood-engravings. 8vo. . . . . $25.00-
OVERMAN.-The Manufacture of Steel:
Containing the Practice and Principles of Working and Making Steel.
A Handbook for Blacksmiths and Workel'!! in Steel and Iron, Wagon
Makers, Die Sinl<ers, Cutlers, and Manufacturers of Files and Hard-
ware, of Steel and Iron, and for Men of Science and Art. By
FREDERICK OVERMAN, Mining Engineer, Author of the .. Manu-
facture of Iron," etc. A new, enlarged, and revised Edition. By
A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. 12mo. $1.50
OVERMAN.-The Moulder's and Founder's Pocket Guide:
A Treatise on Mouldingand Founding in Green-sand, Dry.sand, Loam,
and Cement; the Moulding of Machine Frames, Mill-gear, Hollow-
ware, Ornaments, Trinkets, Bells, and Statues; Description of Moulds
for Iron, Bronze, Brass, and other Metals; Plaster of Paris, Sulphur.
Wax, etc.; the Construction of Melting Furnaces, the Melting and
Founding of Metals; the Composition of Alloys and their Nature,
etc., etc. By FREDERICK Ovr:RMAN, M. E. A new Edition, te>
which is added a Supplement on Statuary and Omamental Moulding,
Ordnance, Malleable Iron Castings, etc. By A. A. FESQUET, Chern
ist and Engineer. Illustrated by 44 engravings. 12mo.. $2.00
PAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION:
Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to the _'\.rt5
of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, Glass-Staining, Graining, Marbling,
Sign- Writing, Gilding on Glass, and Coach Painting and Varnishing:
Tests for the Deteclion of Adulterations in Oils, Colors, etc.; and a
Statement of the Diseases to which Painters are peculiarly liable, witb
the Simplest and Best Remedies. Sixteenth Edition. Revised, with
an Appendix. Containing Colors and Coloring-Theoretical and
Practical. Comprising descriptions of a great variety of Additional
Pigments, their Qualities and Uses, to which are added, Dryers, ane:'
Modes and Operations of Painting, etc. Together with Chevreul"s
Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colors. I2mo. Cloth $1.50
PALLETT.-The Miller's, Millwright's, and Engineer's Guide.
By lIE:>RY PALLEIT. Illustrated. 12mo. $3.00
PEARSE.-A Concise History of the Iron Manufacture of the
American Colonies up to the Revolution, and of Pennsyl-
vania until the present time.
By ]OH:< B. PEARSE. Illustrated 12mo. $2.00
22 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE.
PERCY.-The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron.
By JOHN PERCY, M. D., F. R. S., Lecturer on Metallurgy at the
Royal School of Mines, and to The Advance Class of Artillery
Officers at the Royal Artillery Institution, Woolwich; Author of
.. Metallurgy." With Illustrations. 8vo., paper S0 cts.
PERKINS.-Gas and Ventilation:
Practical Treatise on Ga., and Ventilation. With Special Relatiolt
to Illuminating, Healing, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scientific
Helps to Engineer-students and others. With Illustrated Diagrams.
By E. E. PERKINS. 12mo., clOlh $1.25
PERKINS AND STOWE.-A New Guide to the Sheet-iron
and Boiler Plate Roller:
Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and Piles
to Produce BOiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the Sizes of
Bars to produce Sheet-iron; the Thickness qf the Bar Gauge
in decimals; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or
Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch; the Weight per
sheet, and the Thickness on the \Vire Gauge of Sheet-iron of various
dimensions to weigh 112 lbs. per bundle; and the conversion of
Short Weight into Long Weight, and Long Weight into Short.
Estimated and collected by G. H. PERKINS and J. G. STOWE. '2.50
POWELL-CHANCE-HARRIS.-The Principles of Glass
Making.
By HARRY J. POWELL, B. A. Together with Treatises on Crown and
Sheet Glass; by HENRY CHANCE, M. A. And Plate Glass, by H.
G. HARRIS, Asso. M. Insl. C. E. Illustrated 18mo. $1.50
PROTEAUX.-Practical Guide for the Manufacture of Paper
and Boards.
By A. PROTEAUX. From the French, by HORATIO PAINE, A. B.,
M. D. To which is added the Manufacture of Paper from Wood,
by HENRY T. BROWN. Illustrated by six plates. 8vo. $12.50
PROCTOR.-A Pocket-Book of Useful Tables and Formulae
for Marine Engineers.
By FRANK PROCTOR. Second Edition, Revised and Enbrged.
FuH bound pocket-bOOk form '1.50
REGNAULT.-Elements of Chemistry.
By M. V. Rt:GNAULT. Translated from the French by T. FORRFST
BETTON, M. D., and edited, with Notes, by JAMES C. BooTH, Melter
and Refiner U. S. Mint, and WILLIAM L. FABER, Metallurgist and
Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings. Com-
prising nearly 1,500 pages. In two volumes, 8vo., cloth $7.50
lUFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.-A Practical
Treatise on the Manufacture of Colors for Painting:
CompnslI1g the Ongll1, Definition, and Classificallon of Colors; the
Treatment of the Raw Materials; the hest Forrnulze and the Newest
Processes for the Preparallon of every deSCription of Pigment, and
the Necessary Apparatus and DirectIOns for its Vse; Dryers; the
Testing, Apphcattoll, and Qualities of Paints, etc., etc. By M:'.f.
VERG:\AUD, and TOUSSAINT. ReVised and Edited by M.
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & COo'S CATALOGUE. 23
F. MALEPEVRE. Tran51ated from the French, by A. A. FI!SQUT,
Chemist and Engmeer. Illustrated by Eighty engraving5. In one
vo1., 8vo., 659 pages $7.5
0
ROPER.-A Catechism of High-Preaaure, or Non-Condensing
Steam-Engines:
Including the Modelling, Constructing, and Management of Steam-
Engines and Steam Boilers. With valuable illustrations. By STE
PHE:'i ROPER, Engineer. Sixteenth edition, revised and enlarged.
18mo., tucks, gilt edge $a.oo
ROPER.-Englneer's Handy-Book:
Containing a full Explanation of the Steam-Engine Indicator, and its
Use and Advantages to Engineers and Steam Users. With Fonnulre
for Estimating the Power of all Classes of Steam-Engines; also,
Facts, Figures, Questions, and Table,; for Engineers who wish to
qualify themselves for the United States Navy, the Revenue Service,
the Mercantile Marine, or to take charge of the Better Class of Sta-
tionary Steam-Engines. Sixth edition. 16mo. 690 pages, tucks,
gilt edge $3.50
ROPER.-Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines:
Including the Modelling, Construction, Running, and Management
of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers. With iPustrations. By
STEPHEN ROPER, Engineer. SiKth edition. 12mo.,l\cks, gilt cdge.
$35
ROPER.-Hand-Book of the Locomotive:
Inclurling the Construction of Engines and Boilers, and the Construe
tion, Management, and Running of Locomotives. By STEPHEN
ROPER. Eleventh edition. ISmo., tucks, gill edge . $2.50
ROPER.-Hand-Book or Modem Steam Fire-Engines.
With illustrations. By STEPHEN ROPER, Engineer. Fourth edition,
12mo., tucks, gilt edge $3.50
ROPER.-Questions and Answers for Engineers.
This little book contains all the Questions that Engineers will be
asked when undergoing an Examination for the purpose of procuring
Licenses, and they are so plain that any Engineer or Fireman of or
dinary intelligence may commit them to memory in a ahort time. By
STEPHEN ROPER, Engineer. Third edition $3.00
ROPER.-Use and Abuse of the Steam Boiler.
By STEPHEN ROPER, Engineer. E i ~ h t h edition, with illustrations.
ISmo., tucks, gilt edge. '2.00
R.OSE.-The Complete Practical Machinist:
Embracing Lathe-Work, Vise Work, Drills and Drilling, Taps and
Dies, Hardening and Tempering, the Making and Use of Tools, Tool
Grinding, Marking Out Work, etc. By JOSHUA ROSE, Author of" The
Pattern-maker's Assistant" and" The Slide Valve." Illustrated by
196 engravingli. Eighth edition, revised and enlarged by the addition
of much new matter. I2mo., 441 pages '2.50
ROSE.-Mechanical Drawing Self-Taught:
Comprising Instructions in the Selection and Preparation of Drawing
Instruments, Elementary Instruction in Practical Mechanical Draw-
24 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE.
ing, together with Examples in Simple Geometry and Elementary
Mechanism, including Screw Threads, Gear Wheels, Mechanical Mo-
tions, Engines and Boiler.;. By JOSHUA ROSE, M. E., Author of
.. The Complete Practical Machinist," .. The Pattern-maker's Assist-
ant," .. The Slide-valve." Illustrated by 330 engravings. Svo., 313
pages ...... $4.00
ROSE.-The Slide-Valve Practically Explained:
Embracing simple and complete Practical Demonstrations of the
o(><'ration of each element in a Slide-valve Movement, and illustrating
the effects of Variations in their Proportions by examples carefnlly
selected from the most recent and snccessful practice. By JOSHUA
Rosf:, M. E., Author of" The Complete Practical Machinist," .. The
Pattern-maker's Assi_tant," etc. Illustrated by 3S engravings '1.00
ROSS.-The Blowpipe in Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology:
Containing all Known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Work-
ing Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. Dy LIEUT.-
COLO:-iEL W. A. Ross, R. A. F., G. S. With 120 Illustrations.
I2mo. $1.50
SHAW .-Civil Architecture :
Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Builrling, can
taining the Fundamental Principles of the Art. Dy EDWARD SHAW,
Architect. To which is aclded a Treatise on Gothic Architecture, etc.
By THOMAS W. SILLOWAY and GEORGE M. HARDING, Architects.
The whole i1Iustrated by 102 quarto plates finely engraved on copper.
Eleventh edition. 4to. . . , $10.00
SHUNK.-A Practical Treatise on Railway Curves and Loca-
tion, for Young Engineers.
By WILLIAM F. SHUNK, Civil Engineer. I2mo. Full bound pocket-
book form $2.00
SLATER.-The Manual of Colors and Dye Wares.
By J. W. SLATER. I2mo. $375
SLOAN.-American Houses:
A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by
twenty-six colorell Engravings, with Descriptive References. By
SAMUEL SLOAN, Architect, author of the .. Model Architect," etc.
etc. 8vo. $1.50
SLOAN.-Homestead Architecture:
Containing Forty Designs for Villas, Cottages, and Farm-houses, with
Essays on Style, Construction, Landseape Gardening, Furniture, etc.,
etc. Illustrated by upwards of 200 engravings. Dy SAMUEL SLOAN,
Architect. 8vo. $3.50
SMEATON.-Builder's Pocket-Companion:
Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architecture;
with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the subject. By
A. C. SMEATON, Civil Engineer, etc. I2mo. $1.50
SMITH.-A Manual of Political Economy.
By E. PESHINE SMITH. A new Edition, to which is added a full
Index. 12mo. '1.
2
5
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 25
SMITH.-Parks and Pleasure-Grousds:
Or Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and
Gardens. By CHARLES H. J. SMITH, Landscape Gardener and
Garden Architect, etc., etc. 12mo. $2.00
SMITH.-The Dyer's Instructor:
Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cotton,
Wool, and Worsted, and \VooIen Goods; containing nearly 800
Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Padding; and
the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, and the
various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of such work.
By D.-\VID SMITH, Pattern Dyer. 12mo. $3.00
SMYTH.-A Rudimentary Treatise on Coal and Coal-Mining.
By WARRINGTON W. SMYTH, M. A., F. R. G., President R. G. S.
of Cornwall. Fifth edition, revised and corrected. With mlmer
ous illustrations. 12mo. $1.75
SNIVELY.-A Treatise on the Manufacture of Perfumes and
Kindred Toilet Articles.
By JOHN H. SNIVELY, Phr. D., Professor of Analytical Chemistry in
the Tennessee College of Pharmacy. 8vo. $3.00
SNIVELY.-Tables for Systematic Qualitative Chemical Anal-
ysis.
By JOHN H. SNIVELY, Phr. D. 8vo. $1.00
SNIVELY.-The Elements of Systematic Qualitative Chemical
Analysis:
A Hand-book for Beginners. By JOHN H. SNIVELY, Phr. D. 16mo.
$2.00
STEWART.-The American System:
Speeches on the Tariff Question, and on Internal Improvements,
principally delivered in the House of Representatives of the Uniled
States. By ANDREW STEWART, lale M. C. from Pennsylvania.
With a Portrait, lind a Biographical Sketch. 8vo. 1I3.00
STOKES.-The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer's Companion:
Comprising the Art of Drawing, as applicahle to Cahinel Work;
Veneering, Inlaying, and Buh! Work; the Art of Dyeing and Stain-
ing Wood, Ivory, Bone, Tortoise-Shell, etc. Directions for Lacker-
ing, Japanning, and Varnishing; to make French Polish, Glues.
Cements, and Compositions; with numerous Receipts, useful to work
men generally. By J. STOKES. Illustrated. A New Edition, with
an Appendix UpOR French Polishing, Staining, Imitating, Varnishing,
etc., etc. 12mo. $1.25
STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS:
Reports of Experiments on the Strength :md other Properties of
Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for Testing
Metals, and of the Classification of Cannon in service. By Officers
of the Ordnance Department, U. S. Army. By authority of the Secre-
tary of War. Illustrated by 25 large steel plates. Quarto. $10.00
SULLIVAN.-Protection to Native Industry.
By Sir EDWARD SULLIVAN, Baronet, author of .. Ten Chapters on
Social Reforms." 8vo. $1.50
26 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE.
SYME.-Outlines of an Industrial Science.
By DAVlll SVME. 12010. $2.00
TABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND,
SQUARE, AND FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC.,
By Measurement. C10lh 63
TAYLOR.-Statistics of Coal:
Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts and
Manufactures; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commercial
Distribution and Amount of Production and Consumption on the
American Continent. With Incidental Statistics of the Iron Manu-
facture. By R. C. TAYLOR. Second edition, revised by S. S. HALlJE-
MAN. Illustrated by five Maps and many wood engravings. 8vo.,
cloth . . . .., $10.00
TEMPLETON.-The Practical Ezaminator on Steam and the
Steam-Engine:
\Vith Instructive References relative thereto, arranged for the Use of
Engineers, Students, and others. By WILLIAM TEMPLETON, En-
gineer. 12mo. . . . . . . . . '1.
2
5
THAUSING.-The Theory and Practice of the Preparation of
Malt and the Fabrication of Beer:
With especial reference to lhe Vienna Process of Brewing. Elab-
orated from personal experience by JULIUS E. THAUSING, Professor
at the School for Brewers, and at the Agricultural Institute, MOdling,
near Vienna. Translated from tbe German by \VILLIAM T. BRANNT,
Thoroughly and elaborately edited, with much American maller, and
according to the latest and most Scientific Practice, by A. SCHWARZ
and DR. A. H. B A U ~ : R . l11ustrateu by 140 Engravings. 8vo., 815
pages .. $10.00
THOMAS.-The Modem Practice of Photography:
By R. W. THOMAS, F. C. S. 8vo. . .. i5
THOMPSON.-Political Economy. With Especial Reference
to the Industrial History of Nations:
By ROBERT E. THOMPSON, M. A., Professor of Social Science ill the
University of Pennsylvania. 12mo.. $1.50
THOMSON.-Freight Charges Calculator:
By ANDREW THOMSON, Freight Agent. 24Jl10. $1.25
TURNER'S (THE) COMPANION:
Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elhptic, and Eccentric Turn.
i!lg; also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments; ami
Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Verticai Cutter, anu
Circular Ro!st; with Pallerns and Instructions for working them.
12010.. $1.25
TURNING: Specimens of Fancy Turning Executed on the
Hand or Foot-Lathe:
With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical CUlling
Frame. By an Amateur. lIlustrated by 30 exquisite Photoglophs.
4to. .. ... $3.00
URBIN-BRULL.-A Practical Guide for Puddling Iron and
Steel.
By ED. URBlN, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A Prize Es>ay,
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & COo'S CATALOGUE.
read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of the School of
Mines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Meeting of 1865-6. To which is
added A COMPARISON OF THE RESISTING PROPERTIES OF AND
STEEL. By A. BRULL. Translated from the French by A. A. FF-s
Qt:ET, Chemist and Engineer. 8vo. . . . $1.00
VAILE.-Galvanized-Iron Comice-Worker's Manual:
Containing Instructions in Laying out lhe Different l\litres, and
l\laking Patterns for all kinds of Plain and Circular Work. Also,
Tables of Weights, Areas and Circumferences of Circles, and olher
Matter calculated to Benefit the Trade. By CHARLES A. VAILE.
Illustrated by twenty-one plates. 4to. $5.00
VILLE.-On Artificial Manures:
Their Chemical Selection and Scientific Application to Agriculture.
A series of Lectures given at the Experimental Farm at Vincennes,
dnring 1867 and 1874-75. By M. GWRGES VILLE. Translated and
Ediled hy WILLIAM CROOKES, F. R. S. Illustrated by thirty,olle
engravings. 8vo., 450 pages $6.00
VILLE.-The School of Chemit:al Manures:
Or, Elementary Principles in the Use of FerlilizinR Agents. From
the French of M. CEO. VILLE, by A. A. FESQUET, Chemillt and EIl-
gineer. With lI1ustralions. I2mo. $1.25
VOGDES.-The Architect's and Builder's Pocket-Companion
and Price-Book:
Consisting of a Short but Comprehensive Epitome of Decimals, Duo
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Measures, Sizes, Weights, Strengths, elC., of Iron, 'Wood, Stone,
Brick, Cement and Concretes, Quantities of Materials in given Sizes
and Dimensions of WoOO, Brick and Stone; and full and complete
Bills of Prices for Carpenter's Work and Painting; also, Rules for
Computing and Valuing Brick and Brick Work, Stone Work, Paint
ing, Plastering, with a Vocabulary of Technical Terms, etc. By
FRANK W. VOGOES, Architect, Indianapolis, Ind. Enlarged, revised,
and corrected. In one volume, 368 pages, full-bound, pocket. book
form, gilt edges '2.00
Cloth 1.50
WAHL.-Galvanoplastic: Manipulations:
A Practical (;uide tor the Gold and Silver Electroplater and the Gal.
""noplastic Operator. Comprising the Electro-Deposition of all
Metals by means of the Battery and the Dynamo-Electric Machine,
as well as the most approved Processes of Deposition by Simple Im-
mersion, with Descriptions of Apparatus, Chemical Products elllployed
in the Art, etc. Based largely on the .. Manipulations Hydroplas.
tiques" of ALFRED ROSEU:t:R. By \VILLIAM H. WAHL, I'h. D.
( Heid J' Secretary of the Franklin Institute. Illustrated by 18<) en
gravings. llvo., 656 (k"\ges $7.50
WALTON.-Coal-Mining and Illustrated:
By THOMAS H. WALTON, Mining Engineer. lllustrated hy 24 large
and elaborate Plates, arter Actual Workings and Apparatus. 4tO.
(1Ilprm.)
28 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & COo'S CATALOGUE.
W ARE.-The Sugar Beet.
IJtcluding a History of the Beet Sugar Industry in Europe, Varieties
of the Sugar Beet, Examination, Soils, Tillage, Seeds and Sowing,
Yield and Cost of Cultivation, Harvesting, Transl"'htion, Conserva
tion, Feeding Qualities of the Beet and of the Pulp, etc. By LEWIS
S. WARE, C. E., M. E. Illustrated by ninety engravings. 8vo.
$4.00
WARN.-The Sheet-Metal Worker's Instructor:
For Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and Tin-Plate Workers, etc. Contain-
ing a selection of Geometrical Problems; also, Practical and Simple
Rules for Describing the various Patterns required in the different
branches of lhe above Trades. By REUBEN H. WARN, Practical
Tin-Plate Worker. To which is added an Appendix, containing
Instructions fGr Boiler-Making, Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids,
Rules for Calculating the Weights of different Figures of Iron and
. Steel, Tables of the Weights of Iron, Steel, etc. Illustrated by thirty-
two Plates and thirty-seven Wood Engravings. 8vo. $3.00
WARNER.-New Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams, for the
Computation of Earth-work:
Designed for the use of Engineers in Preliminary and Final Estimates,
of Students in Engineering, and of Contractors and other non.profes-
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Containing Notes to the Rules and Examples of Part I.; Explana.
tions of the Construction of Scales, Tables, and Diagrams, and a
Treatise upon Equivalent Square Bases and Equivalent Level Heights.
The whole illustrated by numerous original engravings, comprising
explanatory cuts for Definitions and Problems, Stereometric Scales
and Diagrams, and a series of Lithographic Drawings from Models:
Showing all the Combinations of Solid Forms which occur in Railroad
Excavations and Embankments. By JOHN WARNER, A. M., Mining
and Mechanical Engineer. Il1ulitrated by 14 Plates. A new, revised
and improved edition. 8vo. $4.00
WATSON.-A Manual of the Hand-Lathe:
Comprising Concise Directions for Working Metals of all kinds,
Ivory, Bone and Precious \Voods; Dyeing, Coloring, and French
Polishing; Inlaying by Veneers, and various methods practised to
produce Elaborate work with Dispatch, and at Small Expense. By
EGBERT P. WATSON, Author of .. The Modern Practice of American
Machinists and Engineers." Illustrated by 78 engravings. $1,50
WATSON.-The Modem Practice of American Machinists and
Engineers :
Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lathe
Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Hollow-work generall}, with
the most Economical Speed ,for the same; the Results verified by
Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vise, and on the Floor. T<.gethel
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 29
with Workshop Management, Economy of Manufacture, the Steam-
Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc., etc. By EGIlEIlT P.
Illustrated by eighty-six engravings. 12mo. . . . $2.50
WATSON.-The Theory and Practice of the Art of Weaving
by Hand and Power:
With Calculations and Tables for the Use of those connected with the
Trade. By JOHN WATSON, Manufacturer and Practical Machine.
Maker. Illustrated by large Drawings of the best Power Looms.
8vo. $7.50
WATT.-The Art of Soap Making:
A Practical Hand-hook of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Son!,!"
Toilet Soaps, etc., including many New Processes, and a Chapter on
the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. By ALEXA!'lDER
WATT. Ill. I2mo. $3.00
WEATHERLY.-Treatise on the Art of Boiling Sugar, Crys-
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And other proc<sses for Conrectionery, etc., in which are explainecl,
in an easy and familiar manner, the various Methods of Manufactur
ing every Description of Raw and Refined Sugar Goods, as sold by
Confectioners and othen;. 121110. . SI.50
WEDDING.-Elements of the Metallurgy of Iron.
By Dr. HERMANN WEDDII"G, Royal Privy Counsellor of Mines, Ber.
lin, Prussia. Translated from the second revised and rewritten Ger-
man edition. By WILLIAM T. BRANNT, Graduate of the Royal Ag.
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WAHL, Ph. D., Secretary of the Franklin Institute, Philauelphia.
Illustrated by about 250 engravings. 8vo., about 500 pages (In
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WEINHOLD.-Introduction to Experimental Physics, Theo-
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Incluuing directions for Constructing Physical Apparatus and for
Making Experiments. By ADOLF F. WEINHOLD, Professor in the
Royal Technical School at Chemnitz. Translated and edited,.with
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preface, by G. C. FOSTER, F. R. S. Illustrated by three colored plates
and 404 wood-cuts. 8vo., 848 pages 16.00
WIGHTWICK.-Hmts to Young Architects:
Comprlsmg AdVice to those who, while yet at school, are destined
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to travel; and to those who, having completed their education, are
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great vanety or instructive and suggestive maller. By GEORGI!
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WILL.-Tables of Qualitative Chemical Analysis.
With an Introductory Chapter on the Course of Analy5is. By Pro
fessor HEINRICH WILL, of Gieosen, Germany. Third American,
Civilization.
A new and
$1.5
0
30 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & COo'S CATALOGUE.
from the eleventh German edition. Edited by CHARLES F. HIMES,
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WILLIAMS.-On Heat and Steam:
Embracing New Vicws of Vaporization, Condensation, and Explcr
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'35
0
WILSON.-A Treatise on Steam Boilers:
Their Strength, Construction, and Economical Working. By ROBERT
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WILSON.-Cotton Carder's Companion:
In which is given a description of the manner of Picking, Baling,
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valuable Tables, Rules, and Receipts, hy FOSTER WILSON. 12mo.
$15
WILSON.-First Principles of Political Economy:
\Vith Reference to Statesmanship and the Progress of
By Professor W. D. WILSON, of the Cornell University.
revised edition. 12mo. .
WOHLER.-A Handbook of Mineral Analysis.
By F. WOHLER, Prufessor of Chemistry in the University of Gotlin-
gen. Edited by H E ~ R Y ll. NASON, Professor of Chemistry in the
Renssalaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. Illustrated
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From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers, 1869. By S. W.
WORSSAM, JR. I!Iustrated by eighteen large plates. 8vo.. '2.50
,
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
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