M 1 P 2

Algebra I lecture notes
version
Imperial College London Mathematics 2005/2006
CONTENTS
Contents
1 Groups 1.1 Denition and examples . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Group table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Criterion for subgroups . . . . . . . . 1.3 Cyclic subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Order of an element . . . . . . . . . 1.4 More on the symetric groups Sn . . . . . . . 1.4.1 Order of permutation . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Lagranges Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.1 Consequences of Lagranges Theorem 1.6 Applications to number theory . . . . . . . . 1.6.1 Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 Applications of the group Z p . . . . . . . . . 1.7.1 Mersenne Primes . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7.2 How to nd Meresenne Primes . . . . 1.8 Proof of Lagranges Theorem . . . . . . . . 2 Vector Spaces and Linear Algebra 2.1 Denition of a vector space . . . . . . 2.2 Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Solution spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Linear Combinations . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Spanning sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 Linear dependence and independence 2.8 Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10 Further Deductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5 11 12 13 14 16 18 20 21 22 22 23 26 27 28 30 34 35 38 39 40 41 43 44 48 51 53 57 57 61
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 More on Subspaces 3.1 Sums and Intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 The rank of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Algebra I lecture notes 3.2.1 3.2.2
CONTENTS 61 63 68 70 71 73 78 79 82 83 84 85 88 88 90 91 91 92 93 95
How to nd row-rank(A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . How to nd column-rank(A)? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 Linear Transformations 4.1 Basic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Constructing linear transformations . . 4.3 Kernel and Image . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Composition of linear transformations . 4.5 The matrix of a linear transformation . 4.6 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors . . . . . . 4.6.1 How to nd evals / evecs of T ? 4.7 Diagonalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 Change of basis . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 Error-correcting codes 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Theory of Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Error Correction . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Linear Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Minimum distance of linear code 5.4 The Check Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Decoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
Introduction
(1) Groups used throughout maths and science to describe symmetry e.g. every physical object, algebraic equation or system of dierential equations, . . . , has a group associated with it. (2) Vector spaces have seen and studied some of these already, e.g. Rn .
Chapter 1 Groups
1.1 Denition and examples
Denition 1.1. Let S be a set. A binary operation on S is a rule which assigns to any ordered pair (a, b) (a, b S ) an element a b S . In other words, its a function from S S S . Eg 1.1. 1) S = Z , a b = a + b 2) S = C, a b ab 3) S = R, a b = a b 4) S = R, a b = min(a, b) 5) S = {1, 2, 3}, a b = a (eg. 1 1 = 1, 2 3 = 2) Given a binary operation on a set S and a, b, c S , can form a b c in two ways (a b) c a ( b c) These may or may not be equal. Eg 1.2. In 1), (a b) c = a (b c). In 3), (3 5) 4 = (3 5) 4 = 6. Whereas 3 (5 4) = 3 (5 4) = 2 Denition 1.2. A binary operation is associative if for all a, b, c S (a b) c = a (b c) Associativity is important. 5
1.1. DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES
Eg 1.3. Solve 5 + x = 2. We add 5 to get 5 + (5 + x) = 5 + 2. Now we use associativity! We rebracket to (5 + 5) + x = 5 + 2. Thus 0 + x = 5 + 2, so x = 3. To do this, we needed 1) associativity of + 2) the existence of 0 (with 0 + x = x) 3) existence of 5 (with 5 + 5 = 0) Generally, suppose we have a binary operation and an equation ax = b (a, b S constants, x S unknown) To be able to solve, we need 1) associativity 2) existence of e S such that e x = x for x S 3) existence of a S such that a a = e Then can solve ax a (a x) (a a) x ex x
= = = = =
b a b a b a b a b
Group will be a structure in which we can solve equations like this. Denition 1.3. A group (G, ) is a set G with a binary operation satisfying the following axioms (for all a, b, c S ) (1) if a, b S then a b S (2) (a b) c = a (b c) (3) there exists e S such that ex= xe= x (identity axiom) 6 (closure) (associativity)
Algebra I lecture notes (4) for any a S , there exists a S such that
a a = a a = e (inverse axiom) Element e in (3) is an identity element of G. Element a in (4) is an inverse of a in G. Eg 1.4. closure yes yes no yes yes yes yes yes assoc. yes no yes yes yes yes yes identity yes no yes yes yes yes yes inverse yes group yes no no yes no yes yes yes
(Z, +) (Z, ) (Z, ) (Q, +) (Q, ) (Q {0}, ) (C {0}, ) ({1, 1, i, i}, )
yes no yes yes yes
We check the group axioms for the last example Closure Multiplication table 1 1 i i 1 1 1 i i 1 1 1 i i i i i 1 1 1 i i 1 1 Associativity Follows from associativity of (C, ) Identity 1 Inverse from table Uniqueness of identity and inverses Proposition 1.1. Let (G, ) be a group. 1) G has exactly one identity element 2) Each element of G has exactly one inverse Proof. 7
1.1. DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES 1) Suppose e, e are identity elements. So ex = xe=x e x = x e = x Then e = e e = e
2) Let x G and suppose x , x are inverses of x. That means x x = x x = e x x = x x = e Then x = = = = = x e x (x x ) (x x) x e x x 2 Notation 1.1. e is the identity element of G x1 is the inverse of x Instead of (G, ) is a group, we write G is a group under . Often drop the in a b, and write just ab. Eg 1.5. In (Z, +), x1 = x. Z is a group under addition. 1 In (Q {0}, x), x1 = x . Denition 1.4. We say (G, ) is a nite group if |G| is nite; (G, ) is an innite group if |G| is innite. Eg 1.6. All groups in example 2.4 are innite except the last which has size (order ) 4. 8
Eg 1.7. Let F = R or C. Say a matrix (aij ) is a matrix over F if all aij F . Set of all n n matrices over F under matrix multiplication is not a group (problem with inverse axiom). But lets dene GL(n, F ) to be the set of all n n invertible matrices over F. Denition 1.5. Denote the set of all invertible matrices over eld F as GL(n, F ) GL(n, F ) = {(aij ) | 1 < i, j n, aij F } Claim GL(n, F ) is a group under matrix multiplication. Proof. Write G = GL(n, F ). Closure Let A, B G. So A, B are invertible. Now since (AB )(B 1 A1 ) = A(BB 1 B ) = AIA1 = I (B 1 A1 )(AB ) = B 1 (A1 A)B = B 1 IB = I So AB G. Associativity proved in M1GLA. Identity is identity matrix In . Inverse of A is A1 (since AA1 = A1 A = I ). Note A1 G as it has an inverse, A. 2 1) GL(1, R) is the set of all (a) with a R, a = 0. This is just the group (R {0}, ). 2) GL(2, C) is the set of a b , a, b, c, d C, ad bc = 0. c d (AB )1 = B 1 A1
Note 1.1. Usually, in a group (G, ) a b is not same as b a. Denition 1.6. Let (G, ) be a group. If for all a, b G, a b = b a we call G an abelian group. Eg 1.8. (Z, +) is abelian as a + b = b + a for all a, b Z. So are the other groups in 2.4. So is GL(1, F ). But GL(2, R) is not abelian, since 1 1 0 2 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 2 9 = = 1 1 2 0 0 2 1 1
Groups of permutations
Denition 1.7. S a set. A permutation of S is a function f : S S which is a bijection (both injection and surjection). Eg 1.9. S = {1, 2, 3, 4}, f : 1 2, 2 3, 3 4, 4 1 is a permutation. Notation 1.2. f= 1 2 3 4 2 4 3 1
is a permutation 1 2, 2 4, 3 3, 4 1. Let 1 2 3 4 g= 3 1 2 4 The composition f q is dened by f g = f (g (s)) Here f g = 1 2 3 4 3 2 4 1
Recall the inverse function f 1 is the inverse of f . Here f 1 = Notice f 1 f = 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 4 1 3 2
= e, the identity function.
Proposition 1.2. Let S = {1, 2, 3, . . . , n} and let G be the set of all permutations of S . Then (G, ), being the function composition, is a group, i.e. G is a group under composition. Proof. Notation for f G is f= 1 2 n f (1) f (2) f (n)
Closure By M1F, if f , g are bijections S S then f g is a bijection. Associativity Let f, g, h G and apply s S Then f (g h)(s) = f (g h(s)) = f (g (h(s))) (f g ) h(s) = (f g )(h(s)) = f (g (h(s))) So f (g h) = (f g ) h 10
Identity is e =
1 2 n , since e f = f e = f . 1 2 n f (1) f (2) f (n) 1 2 n and f 1 f = f f 1 = e 2
Inverse of f is f 1 =
Denition 1.8. The group of all permutations of {1, 2, . . . , n} is written Sn and called the symmetric group of degree n. Eg 1.10. S2 = Eg 1.11. S3 = | S3 | = 6 Proposition 1.3. Sn is a nite group of size n!. Proof. For f = 1 2 n , number of choices for f (1) is n, for f (2) is n 1, f (1) f (2) f (n) f (3) is n 2, . . . , f (n) is 1. The total number of permutations is n (n 1) (n 2) 1 = n!. 2 Notation 1.3. (Multiplicative notation for groups) If (G, ) is a group, well usually write just ab instead of a b. We can dene powers a2 a3 an = aa = aaa = aaa
n
e,
1 2 2 1
. So |S2 | = 2.
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 , , , , , 3 1 2 2 3 1 1 3 2 3 2 1 2 1 3 1 2 3
When we write Let G be a group, we mean the binary operation is understood, and were writting ab instead of a b, etc. Eg 1.12. In (Z, +), ab = a b = a + b and a2 = a a = 2a, i.e. an = na.
1.1.1
Group table
Denition 1.9. Let G be a group, with elements a, b, c, . . . . Form a group table a a a2 b ba . . . b c ab ac b2 bc . . . 11
1.2. SUBGROUPS Eg 1.13. S3 = e = a = a2 = b = ab = a2 b = 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 2 3 1 1 2 3 3 1 2 1 2 3 2 1 3 1 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 3 1 3 2
e a a2 b ab a2 b 2 e e a a b ab a2 b a a a2 e ab a2 b b 2 2 2 a a e a ab b ab b b a2 b ab e a2 a 2 ab ab b ab a e a2 2 2 2 b a a e a b a b ab a3 = e ba = a2 b b2 = e
1.2
Subgroups
Denition 1.10. Let (G, ) be a group. A subgroup of (G, ) is a subset of G which is itself a group under . Eg 1.14. (Z, +) is a subgroup of (R, +). (Q {0}, ) is not a subgroup of (R, +) ({1, 1}, ) is a subgroup of ({1, 1, i, i}, ) ({1, i}, ) is not a subgroup of ({1, 1, i, i}, ) (closure fails i i = 1) 12
1.2. SUBGROUPS
1.2.1
Criterion for subgroups
Proposition 1.4. Let G be a group.1 Let H G. Then H is a subgroup of G if the following conditions are true (1) e H (where e is the identity of G) (2) if h, k H then hk H (H is cloesed) (3) if h H then h1 H Proof. Assume (1)-(3). Check the group axioms for H : Closure true by (2) Associativity true by associativity for G Identity by (1) Identity by (3) 2 Eg 1.15. Let G = GL(2, R) (22 invertible matrices over R). Let H = Claim H is a subgroup of G. Proof. Check (1)-(3) of previous proposition (1) e = 1 0 0 1 H 1 n ,k= 0 1 1 p . Then nk = 0 1 1 n 0 1 1 p+n 0 1 H. 1 n 0 1 |nZ .
(2) Let h =
(3) Let h =
1 n . Then h1 = 0 1
H 2
so is understood and we write ab instead of a b
13
1.3. CYCLIC SUBGROUPS
1.3
Cyclic subgroups
a1 = a, a2 = aa, . . .
Let G be a group. Let a G. Recall
Negative powers a0 = e a2 = a1 a1 an = a1 a1
n
Note 1.2. All the powers an (n Z) lie in G (by closure). Lemma 1.1. For any m, n Z Proof. For m, n > 0
m+n
am an = am+n
a a
m n
= aaaa = a
n m+n m
For m 0, n < 0 am an = a a a1 a1
n n
= a
m(n)
Similarly for m < 0, n 0. Finally, when m, n < 0

mn
am an = a1 a1 a1 a1 = a
n m+n m
2 Proposition 1.5. Let G be a group. Let a G. Dene A = {an | n Z} = . . . , a2 , a1 , e, a, a2 , . . . Then A is a subgroup of G. Proof. Check (1)-(3) of 2.4 14
Algebra I lecture notes (1) e = a0 A (2) am , an A then am an = am+n A (3) an A then (an )1 = an A
2 Denition 1.11. Write A = a , called the cyclic subgroup of G generated by a. So for each element a G we get a cyclic subgroup a of G. Eg 1.16. (1) G = (Z, +). What is the cyclic subgroup 3 ? Well, 31 = 3, 32 = 3 + 3 = 6, 3n = 3n, 31 = 3, 3n = 3n. So 3 = {3n | n Z}. Similarly 1 = {n | n Z} = Z. (2) G = S3 , a = Well a0 = e a1 = a a2 = 1 2 3 3 1 2 1 2 3 . What is a ? 2 3 1
a3 = e a4 = a a5 = a2 . . . a1 = a3 a1 = a2 a2 = a . . . Hence a = {an | n Z} = {e, a, a2 } . 1 2 3 Now consider b , b = . Here b0 = e, b1 = b, b2 = e, . . . . 2 1 3 So b = {e, b}. (3) All the cyclic subgroups of S3 = {e, a, a2 , b, ab, a2 b} e a a2 b ab a2 b = = = = = = 15 {e} {e, a, a2 } {e, a, a2 } {e, b} {e, ab} {e, a2 b}
Denition 1.12. Say a group G is a cyclic group, if there exists an element a G such that G = a = {an | n Z} Call a a generator for G. Eg 1.17. (1) (Z, +) = 1 , So (Z, +) is cyclic with generator 1 (2) ({1, 1, i, i}, ) is cyclic, generator i, since i = {i0 , i1 , i2 , i3 } = {1, i, 1, i}
Another generator is i, but 1 and 1 are not generators.
(3) S3 is not cyclic, as non of its 5 cyclic subgroups is the whole of S3 . For any n N there exists a cyclic group of size n (having n elements) Cn the complex n-th roots of unity, under multiplication. By M1F, we know Cn = {1, , 2, . . . , n1}, i where = e2 n , So Cn = a cyclic subgroup of (C {0}, ). Cn = {x C | xn = 1}
1.3.1
Order of an element
Denition 1.13. Let G be a group, let a G. The order of a, written o(a), is the smallest positive integer k such that ak = e. So o(a) = k means ak = e and ai = e for i = 1, . . . , k 1. If no such k exists, we say a has innite order and we write o(a) = . Eg 1.18. (1) e has order 1, and is the only such element. (2) G = S3 , a = o(a) = 3. For b = 1 2 3 , b1 = e, b2 = e, so o(b) = 2. Full list: 2 1 3 o(e) o(a) o(a2 ) o(b) o(ab) o(a2 b) 16 = = = = = = 1 3 3 2 2 2 1 2 3 . Then a1 = a, a2 = 2 3 1 1 2 3 , a3 = 3 1 2 1 2 3 . So 1 2 3
(3) G = (Z, +). What is o(3)? In G, e = 0, 3n = n 3. So 3n = e for any n N , so o(3) = . (4) G = GL(2, C), A = i 0 . Then 0 e2i/3 Ak = ik 0 2ik/3 0 e
So smallest k for which this is the identity is 12 o(A) = 12. Proposition 1.6. G a group, a G. The number of elements in the cyclic subgroup generated by a is equal to o(a). | a | = o(a) Proof. (1) Suppose o(a) = k , nite. This means ak = e, but ai = e for 1 i k 1. Write A = a = {an | n Z}. Then A contains e, a, a2 , . . . , ak1 These are all dierent elements of G since for 1 y < j k 1, ai = aj a1 ai = ai aj e = aj i o(a) = j i < k contradiction. Hence A contains e, a, . . . , ak1 , all distinct, so |A| K We now show that every element of A is one of e, a, . . . , ak1. Let an A. Write n = qk + r, 0 r k 1 Then an = = = = = aqk+r aqk ar (ak )q ar eq ar ar
So an = ar {e, a, a2 , . . . , ak1 }. Weve shown A = {e, a, a2 , . . . , ak1 } so |A| = k = o(a). 17
1.4. MORE ON THE SYMETRIC GROUPS SN (2) Suppose o(a) = . This means ai = e for i 1 If i < j then ai = aj since ai = aj e = aj i contradiction. Then
and all these elements are dierent elements of G. So |A| = = o(a). 2 Eg 1.19. (1) G = S3 , a = 1 2 3 . Then a = {e, a, a2 }, size 3, o(a) = 3. 2 3 1
A = {. . . , a2 , a1 , e, a, a2 , . . . }
(2) G = (Z, +). Then 3 = {3n | n Z}, is innite and o(3) = . (3) Cn = = {1, , . . . , n1}, size n, and o( ) = n.
1.4
More on the symetric groups Sn
Eg 1.20. Let f =
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 S8 . What is f 2 , f 5 ? 4 5 6 3 2 7 1 8 We need better notation to see answers quicklky. Observe the numbers 143671 are in a cycle, as well as numbers 25 and 8. We will write f = (1 4 3 6 7)(2 5)(8). These are the cycles of f . Each symbol in the rst cycle goes to the next except for the last 7 which goes back to the rst 1. The cycles are disjoint they have no symbols in common. Call this the cycle notation for f . Denition 1.14. In general, an r cycle is a permutation a1 a2 . . . ar which sends a1 a2 ar a1 . . . . Eg 1.21. Can easily go from cycle notation to original, e.g. g = (1 5 3)(2 4)(6 7) S7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 g = 5 4 1 2 3 7 6 18
1.4. MORE ON THE SYMETRIC GROUPS SN
Proposition 1.7. Every permutation f in Sn can be expressed in the cycle notation, i.e. as a product of disjoint cycles. Proof. Following procedure works: Start with 1, and write down sequence 1, f (1), f 2(1), . . . , f r1 (1) until the rst repeat f r (1). Then in fact f r (1) = 1, since f r (1) = f i (1) f i (1)f r (1) = 1 f ri (1) = 1 which is a contradiction as f r (1) is the rst repeat. So have the r -cycle (1 f (1) f r1 (1)) rst cycle of f . Second cycle: Pick a symbol i not in the rst cycle, and write i, f (i), f 2 (i), . . . , f s1(i) where f s (i) = i. Then this is the second cycle of f . This cycle is disjoint from the rst since if not, say f j (i) = k in rst cycle, then f sj (k) = f s (i) = i would be in the rst cycle. Now carry on: pick j not in rst two cycles and repeat to get third cycle and carry on until we have used all the symbols 1, . . . , n. so f = (1 f (1) f r1 (1)(i f (i) f s1 (i)) . . . a product of disjoint cycles. 2 Note 1.3. Cycle notation is not quite unique e.g. (1 2 3 4) can be written as (2 3 4 1) AND (1 2)(3 4 5) = (3 4 5)(1 2). Notation is unique appart from such changes. Eg 1.22. 1. The elements of S3 in cycle notation e a a2 b ab a2 b = = = = = = 19 (1)(2)(3) (1 2 3) (1 3 2) (1 2)(3) (1 3)(2) (2 3)(1)
1.4. MORE ON THE SYMETRIC GROUPS SN
2. For disjoint cycles, order of multiplication does not matter, e.g. (1 2)(3 4 5) = (3 4 5)(1 2) For non-disjoint cycles it does matter, e.g. (1 2)(1 3) = (1 3)(1 2) 3. Multiplication is easy using cycle notation, e.g. f = (1 2 3 5 4) S5 g = (2 4)(1 5 3) S5 then f g = (1 4 3 2)(5)
Denition 1.15. Let g = (1 2 3) (4 5)(5 7)(8)(9) S9 . The cycle shape of g is (3, 2, 2, 1, 1) i.e. the sequence of numbers giving the cycle-length of g in descending order. Abbreviate: (3, 22 , 12 ) Eg 1.23. How many permutation of each cycle-shape in S4 ?
cycle-shape e.g number in S4 4 (1 ) e 1 4 2 (2, 1 ) (1 2)(3)(4) =6 2 4 (3, 1) (1 2 3)(4) 2=8 3 (4) (1 2 3 4) 3! = 6 2 3 (2 ) (1 2)(3 4) Total 24 = 4!.
1.4.1
Order of permutation
Recall the order o(f ) of f Sn is the smallest positive integer k such that f k = e. 20
Algebra I lecture notes Eg 1.24. f = (1 2 3 4), 4-cycle then f1 f2 f3 f4 = = = = f (1 3)(2 4) (1 4 3 2) e
1.5. LAGRANGES THEOREM
So o(f ) = 4. Similarly, if f = (1 2 . . . r ) then o(f ) = r . Eg 1.25. g = (1 2 3)(4 5 6 7). What is o(g )? g 2 = (1 2 3)(4 5 6 7) (1 2 3)(4 5 6 7) (disjoint) = (1 2 3)2 (4 5 6 7)2 Similarly g i = (1 2 3)i (4 5 6 7)i To make g i = e, need i to be divisible by 3 (to get rid of (1 2 3)i ) and by 4 (to get rid of (4 5 6 7)i ). So o(g ) = lcm(3, 4) = 12. Same argument gives Proposition 1.8. The order of a permutation in cycle notation is the least common multiple of the cycle lengths Eg 1.26. Order of (1 2)(3 4 5 6) is lcm(2, 4) = 4. The order of (1 3)(3 4 5 6) is not 4 (not disjoint) Eg 1.27. Pack of 8 cards. Shue by dividing into two halves and interlacing, so if original order is 1, 2, . . . , 8 then the order is 1, 5, 2, 6, 3, 7, 4, 8. How many shues bring cards back to original order? This is the permutation s in S8 s= 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 5 2 6 3 7 4 8
In cycle notation s = (1)(2 5 3)(4 6 7)(8). So order of s o(s) = lcm(3, 3, 1, 1) = 3, so 3 shues are required.
1.5
Lagranges Theorem
Recall G a nite group means G has a nite number of elements. Size of G is |G|, e.g. |S3 | = 6. Theorem 1.1. Let G be a nite group. If H is any subgroup of G, then |H | divides |G|. Eg 1.28. Subgroups of S3 have size 1, 2, 3 or 6.
Note 1.4. It does not work the other wat round, i.e. if a is a number dividing |G|, then there may well not exist a subgroup of G of size a. 21
1.6. APPLICATIONS TO NUMBER THEORY
1.5.1
Consequences of Lagranges Theorem
Corollary 1. If G is a nite group and a G then o(a) divides G. Proof. Let H = a , cyclic subgroup of G generated by a. By 1.6, |H | = o(a) so by Lagrange, o(a) divides |G|. 2 Corollary 2. Let G be a nite group and let n = |G|. If a G, then an = e. Proof. Let k = o(a). By 1, k divides n. Say n = kr . So an = ak Corollary 3. If |G| is a prime number, then G is cyclic. Proof. Let |G| = p, prime. Pick a G with a = e. By Lagrange, the cyclic subgroup a has size dividing p. It contains e, a, so has size 2, therefore has size p. As |G| = p, this implies G = a , cyclic. 2 Eg 1.29. Subgroups of S3 . These have size 1 e , 2, 3 cyclic by 3. So we know all the subgroups of S3 .
r
= er = e.
1.6
Applications to number theory
Denition 1.16. Fix a positive integer m N . For any integer r , the residue class of r modulo m denoted [r ]m is [r ]m = {km + r | k Z} Eg 1.30. [0]5 = {5k | k Z} [1]5 = {. . . , 9, 4, 1, 6, 11, . . . } = [1]5 [2]5 = [3]5 = [8]5 Since every integer is congruent to 0, 1, 2, . . . , m 1 modulo m, [0]m [1]m [m 1]m = Z and every integer is in exactly one of these residue classes. Proposition 1.9. [a]m = [b]m a b Proof. Suppose [a]m = [b]m . As a [a]m this implies a [b]m , so a b mod m. 22 mod m
Algebra I lecture notes Suppose a b mod m. Now xa
mod m x b
mod m
(as is an equivalence relation). So x [a]m x [b]m Therefore [a]m = [b]m . 2 Eg 1.31. [17]9 = [19]9 Denition 1.17. Write Zm for the set of all the residue classes [0]m , [1]m , . . . , [m 1]m From now on well usually drop the subscript m and write [r ] = [r ]m Denition 1.18. Dene +, on Zm by [a] + [b] = [a + b] [a] [b] = [ab] This is OK, as [a] = [a ] Eg 1.32. [2] + [4] = [1] [3] + [3] = [1] [3] [3] = [4] [b] = [b ] [a + b] = [a + b ] [ab] = [a b ]
1.6.1
Groups
Eg 1.33. (Zm , +) is a group. What about (Zm , )? Identity will be [1]. So [0] will have no inverse (as [0] [a] = [0]). So let Z m = Zm {[0]} 23
1.6. APPLICATIONS TO NUMBER THEORY For which m is (Z m , ) a group? Eg 1.34. Z 2 = {[1]}. This is a group. Z 3 = {[1] , [2]} [1] [1] [1] [2] [2] Compare with S2 to see it is a group. Z 4 [1] [2] Here [2] Z / Z 4 , but [2] [2] = [0] 4. Theorem 1.2. (Z m , ) is a group i m is a prime number. Proof. Suppose Z m is a group. If m is not a prime, then m = ab, 1 < a, b < m so [a], [b] Z m (neither is [0]). but [a] [b] = [ab] = [m] = [0] This contradicts closure. So m is prime. Suppose m is a prime, write m = p. We show that Z p is a group. [1] [2] [1] [2] [2] [0] [3] [3] [2] [2] [1]
Closure Let [a] , [b] Z p . Then [a] , [b] = [0], so p |a and p |b. Then p |ab (as p is prime result from M1F). So [a] [b] = [ab] = [0] Thus [a] [b] Z p. 24
Algebra I lecture notes Associativity
([a] [b]) [c] = [ab] c = [(ab)c] [a] ([b] [c]) = [a] [bc] = [a(bc)] These are equal as (ab)c = a(bc) for a, b, c Z.
Identity is [1] as [a] [1] = [1] [a] = [a].
Inverses Let [a] Z p . We want to nd [a ] such that [a] [a ] = [a ] [a] = [1], i.e.
[aa ] = [1] aa 1 mod p Heres how. Well, [a] = [0] so p |a. As p is prime, hcf (p, a) = 1. By M1F, there exist integers s, t Z with sp + ta = 1 Then ta = 1 sp 1 So [t] [a] = [1]
1 Then [t] Z p ([t] = [0]) and [t] = [a] .
mod p
2 So, Z p (p prime) (1) is abelian (2) has p 1 elements

Eg 1.35. Z 5 = {[1] , [2] , [3] , [4]}. Is Z5 cyclic? Well
[2]2 = 4 So Z 5 = [2] .
[2]3 = [3]
[2]4 = [1]
1 Eg 1.36. In the group Z 31 what is [7] ? From the proof above, want to nd s, t with
7s + 31t = 1 25
1.7. APPLICATIONS OF THE GROUP Z P Use Euclidean algrithm 31 = 4 7 + 3 7 = 23+1 So 1 = 723 = 7 2(31 4 7) = 9 2 31 So [7]1 = [9] .
1.7
Applications of the group Z p
Theorem 1.3. (Fermats Little Theorem) Let p be a prime, and let n be an integer not divisible by p. Then np1 1 mod p Proof. Work in the group Z p = {[1] , . . . , [p 1]} As p |n, [n] = [0],so [n] Z p
Now Cor.?? says: if |G| = k then ak = e a G. Hence [n]p1 = identity of Z p = [1] Since [n]p1 = [n] [n] = np1 so np1 (from prop. 1.9). Corollary 4. Let p be prime. Then for all integers n np n 26 mod p = [1] np1 1 mod p 2
Algebra I lecture notes Proof. If p |n then by FLT
1.7. APPLICATIONS OF THE GROUP Z P
np1 1 mod p np n mod p If p|n then both np and n are congruent to 0 mod p. Eg 1.37. p = 5, then 1314 1 mod 5 p = 17, then 6216 1 mod 17. Eg 1.38. Find remainder when divide 682 by 17. 616 1 mod 17 (616 )5 = 680 1 mod 17 682 = 680 66 62 2 mod 17 Second application. (FLT) 2
1.7.1
Mersenne Primes
Denition 1.19. A prime number p is called a Mersenne prime if p = 2n 1 for some n N. Eg 1.39. 22 1 23 1 24 1 25 1 27 1 = = = = = 3 7 15 31 127
The largest known primes are Mersenne primes. Largest known 2/2/06 230402457 1 Connection with perfect numbers Denition 1.20. A positive integer N is perfect if N is equal to the sum of its positive divisors (including 1, not N ). Eg 1.40. 6 = 1+2+3 28 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14 27
1.7. APPLICATIONS OF THE GROUP Z P Theorem 1.4. (Euler) (1) If 2n 1 is prime then 2n1 (2n 1) is perfect. (2) Every even perfect number is of this form Proof. Sheet 4. Harder - look it up.
2 It is still unsolved is there an odd perfect number?
1.7.2
How to nd Meresenne Primes
Proposition 1.10. If 2n 1 is prime, then n must be prime. Proof. Suppose n is not prime. So n = ab, 1 < a, b < n Then 2n 1 = 2ab 1 = (2a 1)(2a(b1) + 2a(b2) + + 2a + 1) (using xb 1 = (x 1)(xb1 + ) with x = 2a ) So 2n 1 has factor 2a 1 > 1, so is not prime. Hence 2n 1 implies n prime. Eg 1.41. Know 22 1, 23 1, 25 1, 27 1 are prime. Next cases 211 1, 213 1, 217 1 Are these prime? We will answer this using the group Z p . We will need Proposition 1.11. Let G be a group, and let a G. Suppose an = e. Then o(a)|n. 28 2
Algebra I lecture notes Proof. Let K = o(a). Write
1.7. APPLICATIONS OF THE GROUP Z P
n = qK + r, 0 r < K Then e = = = = an = aqK +r aqK ar = (aK )q ar eq ar ar
So ar = e. This K is smallest positive integer such that aK = e and 0 r < K , this forces r = 0. Hence K = o(a) divides n. 2 Proposition 1.12. Let N = 2p 1, p prime. Let q be prime, and suppose q |N . Then q 1 mod p. Proof. q |N means N 0 mod q , i.e. 2p 1 mod q This means that [2]p = [1] Z q
We know that Z q is a group of order q 1. We also know that o([2]) in Zq divides p, so is 1 or p as p is prime. If o([2]) = 1, then [2] = [1] in Z q
that is 2 1 mod q 1 0 mod q so q |1, a contradiction. Hence we must have o([2]) = p By Corollary 1, That is, p divides q 1 o([2]) divides |Z q| q1 0 q 1 mod p mod p 2 29
1.8. PROOF OF LAGRANGES THEOREM Test for a Mersenne prime
N = 2p 1 List all the primes q with q 1 mod p and q < N and check, one by one, to see if any divide N . If none of them divide N , we have a prime. Eg 1.42. p = 11. N = 2p 1 = 2047, N < 50. Which primes q less than 50 have q 1 mod 11? We check through all numbers congruent to 1 mod 11. 12, 23, 34, 45 The only prime less than 50 that can possibly divide 2047 is 23. Now we check to see if 23|211 1, i.e., if 21 1 = 1 mod 23. 25 32 9 mod 23 210 (25 )2 92 mod 23 12 mod 23 11 2 23 mod 23 1 mod 23 Conclusion 211 1 is not a prime it has a factor of 23. Eg 1.43. 213 1 is prime Exercise sheet.
1.8
Proof of Lagranges Theorem
Now we have to prove the Lagranges Theorem Theorem 1.5. Let G be a nite group of order |G|, with a subgroup H of order |H | = m. Then m divides |G|. Note 1.5. The idea write H = {h1 , . . . , hm }. Then we divide G into blocks. H h1 h2 . . . 1 Hx Hy h1 x h1 y h2 x h2 y 2 3 ... ... ... ... r
We want the blocks to have the following three properties (1) Each block has m distinct elements (2) No element of G belongs to two blocks (3) Every element of G belongs to (exactly) one block 30
1.8. PROOF OF LAGRANGES THEOREM
Then |G| is the total number of elements listed in the blocks, i.e. rm, so m||G|. Denition 1.21. For x G, H subgroup of G, dene the right coset Hx = {hx | h H } = {hx | h H } = {h1 x, h2 x, . . . , hm x} The ocial name for a block is a right coset. Note 1.6. Hx G Eg 1.44. G = S3 , H = a = {e, a, a2 }, a = (1 2 3). H = He = Ha = Ha2 = a2 , e, a Take b = (1 2), so b2 = e, Hb = eb, ab, a2 b = b, ab, a2 b e a a2 Lemma 1.2. For any x in G |Hx| = m Proof. By denition, we have Hx = {h1 , x, . . . , hm x} These elements are all dierent, as hi x = hj x hi xx1 = hj xx1 hi = hj So |Hx| = m. Lemma 1.3. If x, y G then either Hx = Hy or Hx Hy = . Proof. Suppose We will show this implies Hx = Hy . We can choose an element a Hx Hy . Then a = hi x 31 Hx Hy = 2 b ab a2 n ea2 , aa2 , a2 a2
a = hj y
1.8. PROOF OF LAGRANGES THEOREM for some hi , hj H . a =i x = hi y 1 x = h i hj y Then for any h H

1 hx = hh i hj y
1 As H is a subgroup, hh i hj H . Hence
hx Hy This shows Hx Hy . Similarly hi x = hj y 1 y = h j hi x so for any h H So Hy Hx. We conclude Hx = Hy .

1 hy = hh j hi x Hx
Lemma 1.4. Let x G. Then x lies in the right coset Hx. Proof. As H is a subgroup, e H . So x = ex Hx. 2 Theorem 1.6. Let G be a nite group of order |G|, with a subgroup H of order |H | = m. Then m divides |G|. Proof. By 1.4, G is equal to the union all the right cosets of H , i.e. G=
xG
Hx
Some of these right cosets will be equal (eg. G = S3 , H = a , then H = He = Ha = Ha2 ). Let the list of dierent right cosets be Hx1 , . . . , Hxr Then and Hxi = Hxj if i = j (eg. in G = S3 , G = H Hb). By 1.3, Hxi Hxj = if i = j . Picture G = Hx1 Hx2 32 G = Hx1 Hx2 Hxr
Hxr
(1.1)
Algebra I lecture notes So |G| = |Hx1 | + + |Hxr |. By 1.2
1.8. PROOF OF LAGRANGES THEOREM
|Hxi | = m = |H | So |G| = rm = r |H | Therefore |H | divides |G|. Proposition 1.13. Let G be a nite group, and H a subgroup of G. Let r= | G| |H | 2
Then there are exactly r dierent right cosets of H in G, say Hx1 , . . . Hxr They are disjoint, and G = Hx1 Hxr Denition 1.22. The integer r =
| G| |H |
is called the index of H in G, written r = |G : H |
Eg 1.45. (1) G = S3 , H = a = {e, a, a2 }. Index |G : H | = Hb and G = H Hb.

6 3
= 2. There are 2 right cosets H ,

6 2
(2) G = S3 , K = b = {e, b} where b = (1 2)(3). Index |G : K | = right cosets they are Ke = K = {e, b} Ka = {a, ba} = a, a2 b Ka2 = a2 , ba2 = a2 , ab
= 3. So there are 3
33
Chapter 2 Vector Spaces and Linear Algebra

Recall Rn = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) | xi R} Basic operations on Rn : addition (x1 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , . . . , yn ) = (x1 + y1 , . . . , xn + yn ) scalar multiplication (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (x1 , . . . , xn ), R These operations satisfy the following rules: Addition rules A1 u + (v + w ) = (u + v ) + w A2 v + 0 = 0 + v = v A3 v + (v ) = 0 A4 u + v = v + u associativity identity inverses abelian
(These say (Rn , +) is an abelian group ) Scalar multiplication rules S1 (v + w ) = v + w S2 ( + )v = v + v S3 (v ) = ()v S4 1v = v These are easily proved for Rn : Eg 2.1. 34
Algebra I lecture notes A1 u + (v + w ) = = = = = = S3
2.1. DEFINITION OF A VECTOR SPACE
(u1 , . . . , un ) + ((v1 , . . . , vn ) + (w1 , . . . , wn )) (u1 , . . . , un ) + (v1 + w1 , . . . , vn + wn ) (u1 + (v1 + w1 ), . . . ) ((u1 + v1 ) + w1 , . . . ) ((u1 , . . . ) + (v1 , . . . )) + (w1 , . . . ) (u + v ) + w
(v ) = ((v1 , . . . , vn )) = ((v1 ), . . . , (vn )) = (()v1 , . . . , ()vn ) = ()v
(assoc. of (R, ))
2.1
Denition of a vector space
A vector space will be a set of objects with addition and scalar multiplication dened satisfying the above axioms. Want to let the scalars be either R or C (or a lot of other things). So let F = either R or C Denition 2.1. A vector space over F is a set V of objects called vectors together with a set of scalars F and with a rule for adding any two vectors v, w V to get a vector v + w V a rule for multiplying any vector v V by any scalar F to get a vector v V . a zero vector 0 V for any v V , a vector v V Such that the axioms A1-A4 and S1-S4 are satised. There are many dierent types of vectors spaces Eg 2.2. (1) Rn is a vector space over R (2) Cn = {(z1 , . . . , zn ) | zi C} with addition u + v and scalar multiplication v ( C) is a vector space over C. 35
2.1. DEFINITION OF A VECTOR SPACE (3) Let m, n N. Dene
Mm,n = set of all m n matrices with real entries (So in this example, vectors are matrices.) Adopt the usual rules for addition and scalar multiplication of matrices: A = (aij ), B = (bij ), R A + B = (aij + bij ) A = (aij ) Zero vector is the matrix 0 (m n zero matrix). And A = (aij ). Then Mm,n becomes a vector space over R (check axioms). (4) A non-example : Let V = R2 , with usual addition dened and new scalar multiplication: (x1 , x2 ) = (x1 , 0). Lets check axioms A1-A4 hold S2 ( + ) v = v + v holds S1 (v + w ) = v + w holds
S4 1 v = v fails. To show this, need to produce just one v for which it fails, eg. 1 (17, 259) = (17, 0) = (17, 259) (5) Functions. Let V = set of all functions f : R R So vectors are functions. Addition f + g is a function x f (x) + g (x) Zero vector is the function 0 : x 0.
S3 ( v ) = ()v holds
Scalar multiplication is a function x f (x) ( R)
Inverses f is a function x f (x) Check the axioms A1 using associativity of R (f + (g + h))(x) = = = = = 36 f (x) + (g + h)(h) f (x) + (g (x) + h(x)) (f (x) + g (x)) + h(x) (f + g )(x) + h(x) ((f + g ) + h) (x)
Algebra I lecture notes Conclude V is a vector space over R.
2.1. DEFINITION OF A VECTOR SPACE
(6) Polynomials. Recall a polynomial over R is an expression p(x) = a0 + a1 x + + an x with all ai R. Let Addition If p(x) = V = set of all polynomials over R ai xi , q (x) = bi xi then (ai + bi )xi
p(x) + q (x) = Scalar multiplication If p(x) =
ai xi , ai R then p(x) = ai xi
Zero vector is 0 the poly with all coecients 0 Negative of p(x) = ai xi is p(x) = Consequence of axioms Proposition 2.1. Let V be a vector space over F and let v V , F (1) 0v = 0 (2) 0 = 0 (3) if v = 0 then = 0 or v = 0 (4) ()v = v = (v ) (1) Observe 0v = (0 + 0)v = 0v + 0v 0v + (0v ) = (0v + 0v ) + (0v ) 0 = 0v (2) 0 = (0 + 0) = 0 + 0 0 = 0 Parts (3), (4) Ex. sheet 5 37 by S1 by S2 ai xi
Now check A1-A4, S1-S4. So V is a vector space over R.
Proof.
2.2. SUBSPACES
2.2
Subspaces
Denition 2.2. Let V be a vector space over F , and let W V . Say W is a subspace of V if W is itself a vector space, with the same addition and scalar multiplication as V . Criterion for subspaces Proposition 2.2. W is a subspace of vector space V if the following hold: (1) 0 W (2) if v, w W then v + w W (3) if w W , F then w W Proof. Assume (1), (2), (3). We show W is a vector space. Addition and scalar multiplication on W are dened by (2), (3). Zero vector 0 W by (1) Negative w = (1)w W by (3). Finally, A1-A4, S1-S4 hold for W since they hold for V . Eg 2.3. 1. V is a subspace of itself. 2. {0} is a subspace of any vector space. 3. Let V = R2 and Claim W is a subspace of R2 . W = {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 + 2x2 = 0} 2
Proof. Check (1)-(3) from the proposition (1) 0 W since 0 + 2 0 = 0
(2) Let v = (v1 , v2 ) W , w = (w1 , w2 ) W . So v1 + 2v2 = w1 + 2w2 = 0 v1 + w1 + 2(v2 + w2 ) = 0 v + w = (v1 + w1 , v2 + w2 ) W
(3) Let v = (v1 , v2 ) W , R. Then v1 + 2v2 = 0 v1 + 2v2 = 0 v = (v1 , v2 ) W 38
Algebra I lecture notes So W is a subspace by 2.2.
2.3. SOLUTION SPACES
4. Same proof shows that any line through 0 (ie. px1 + qx2 = 0) is a subspace of R2 . Note 2.1. A line not through the origin is not a subspace (no zero vector). The only subspace of R2 are: lines through 0, R2 itself, {0}. 5. Let V = vector space of polynomials over R. Dene W = polynomials of degree at most 3 (recall deg(p(x)) = highest power of x appearing in p(x)). Claim W is a subspace of V . Proof. (1) 0 W
(3) if p(x) W , R, then p(x) has degree of most 3, so p(x) W .
(2) if p(x), q (x) W then deg(p), deg(q ) 3, hence deg(p + q ) 3, so p + q W . 2
2.3
Solution spaces
Vast collection of subspaces of Rn is provided by the following Proposition 2.3. Let A be an m n matrix with real entries and let W = {x Rn | Ax = 0} (The set of solutions of the system of linear equations Ax = 0) Then W is a subspace of Rn . Proof. We check 3 conditions of 2.2. (1) 0 W (as A0 = 0) (2) if v, w W then Av = Aw = 0. Hence A(v + w ) = 0, so v + w W (3) if v W , R (Av = 0), then A(v ) = (Av ) = 0 = 0, so v W 2 Denition 2.3. The system Ax = 0 is a homogeneous system of linear equations, and W is called the solution space Eg 2.4. 39
2.4. LINEAR COMBINATIONS 1. m = 1, n = 2, A = a b . Then W = x R2 | ax1 + bx2 = 0 which is a line through 0. 2. m = 1, n = 3, A = a b c . Then W = x R3 | ax1 + bx2 + cx3 = 0 a plane through 0. 3. m = 2, n = 4, A = 1 2 1 0 1 0 1 2 Here
W = x R4 | x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0, x1 + x3 + 2x4 = 0 4. Try a non-linear equation : W = (x1 , x2 ) R2 | x1 x2 = 0 Answer is no. To show this, need a single counterexample to one of the conditions of 2.2, eg: (1, 0), (0, 1) W , but (1, 0) + (0, 1) = (1, 1) / W.
2.4
Linear Combinations
Denition 2.4. Let V be a vector space over F and let v1 , v2 , . . . , vk be vectors in V . A vector v V of the form v = 1 v1 + 2 v2 + + k vk is called a linear combination of v1 , . . . , vk . Eg 2.5. 1. V = R2 . Let v1 = (1, 1). The linear combinations of v1 are the vectors v = v1 2. V = R2 . Let ( R) = (, )
These form the line through origin and v1 , ie. x1 x2 = 0. v1 = (1, 0) v2 = (0, 1)
The linear combinations of v1 , v2 are 1 v1 + 2 v2 = (1 , 2 ) So every vector in R2 is a linear combination of v1 , v2 . 40
Algebra I lecture notes 3. V = R3 . Let v1 = (1, 1, 1) v2 = (2, 2, 1) Typical linear combination is 1 v1 + 2 v2 = (1 + 22 , 1 + 22 , 1 2 )
2.5. SPAN
This gives all vectors in the plane containing origin, v1 , v2 , which is x1 x2 = 0. So eg. (1, 0, 0) is not a linear combination of v1 , v2 .
2.5
Span
Denition 2.5. Let V be a vector space over F , and let v1 , . . . , vk be vectors in V . Dene the span of v1 , . . . , vk , written Sp(v1 , . . . , vk ) to be the set of all linear combinations of v1 , . . . , vk . In other words Sp(v1 , . . . , vk ) = {1 v1 + + k vk | i F } V Eg 2.6. 1. V = R2 , any v1 V . Then Sp(v1 ) = = 2. In R2 , Sp((1, 0), (0, 1)) = R2 3. In R3 , v1 = (1, 1, 1), v2 = (2, 2, 1) Sp(v1 , v2 ) = = 4. In R3 Sp(v1 = (1, 0, 0), v2 = (0, 1, 0), v3 = (0, 0, 1)) = 5. V = R3 . Let w1 = (1, 0, 0) w2 = (1, 1, 0) w3 = (1, 1, 1) Claim: Sp(w1 , w2 , w3 ) = R3 . 41 whole of R3 plane containing 0, v1 , v2 plane x1 = x2 all vectors v1 ( R) line through 0, v1
2.5. SPAN Proof. Observe v1 = w1 v2 = w2 w1 v3 = w3 w2
Hence any linear combination of v1 , v2 , v3 is also a linear combination of w1 , w2 , w3 (i.e. (1 , 2 , 3 ) = 1 v1 + 2 v2 + 3 v3 = 1 w1 + 2 (w2 w1 )+ 3 (w3 w2 ) Sp(w1 , w2 , w3 )) 2 6. V = vector space of polynomials over R. Let v1 = 1 v2 = x v3 = x2 Then Sp(v1 , v2 , v3 ) = {1 v1 + 2 v2 + 3 v3 | i R} = 1 + 2 x + 3 x2 | i R = set of all polynomials of degree 2 Eg 2.7. In general, If v1 , v2 are vectors in R3 , not on same line through 0 (i.e. v1 = v1 ), then Sp(v1 , v2 ) = plane through 0, v1 , v2 Proposition 2.4. V vector space, v1 , . . . , vk V . Then Sp(v1 , . . . , vk ) is a subspace of V . Proof. Check the conditions of 2.2 (1) Taking all i = 0 (using 2.1) 0v1 + 0v2 + + 0vk = 0 + + 0 = 0 So 0 is a linear combination of v1 , . . . , vk , so 0 Sp(v1 , . . . , vk ) (2) Let v, w Sp(v1 , . . . , vk ), so v = 1 v1 + + k vk w = 1 v1 + + k vk Then v + w = (1 + 1 )v1 + + (k + k )vk Sp(v1 , . . . , vk ). 42
Algebra I lecture notes (3) Let v Sp(v1 , . . . , vk ), F , so v = 1 v1 + + k vk so
2.6. SPANNING SETS
v = (1 )v1 + + (k vk ) Sp(v1 , . . . , vk ) 2
2.6
Spanning sets
Denition 2.6. V vector space, W a subspace of V . We say vectors v1 , . . . , vk span W if (1) v1 , . . . , vk W and (2) W = Sp(v1 , . . . , v2 ) Call the set {v1 , . . . , vk } a spanning set of W . Eg 2.8. {(1, 0, 0) , (1, 1, 0) , (1, 1, 1)} is a spannig set for R3 . (1, 1, 1) , (2, 2, 1) span the plane x1 x2 = 0. Let W = Find a (nite) spanning Solve system 1 1 2 3 1 0 1 1 3 1 2 3 1 1 x = 0 1 0 8 2
x R4
set for W .
Echelon form:
3 1 0 1 1 3 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 5 1 0 8 2 0 0 1 5 1 0 1 1 3 1 0 0 1 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 x1 + x2 + 3x3 + x4 = 0 x2 5x3 x4 = 0 43
2.7. LINEAR DEPENDENCE AND INDEPENDENCE General solution x4 x3 x2 x1 = = = = = a b a + 5b a 3b (a + 5b) 2a 8b
i.e. x = (2a 8b, a + 5b, b, a). So W = {(2a 8b, a + 5b, b, a) | a, b R} Dene two vectors (take a = 1 and b = 0 and vice versa) w1 = (2, 1, 0, 1) w2 = (8, 5, 1, 0) Claim W = Sp(w1 , w2 ) Proof. Observe (2a 8b, a + 5b, b, a) = a(2, 1, 0, 1) + b(8, 5, 1, 0) = aw1 + bw2 This gives a general method of nding spanning sets of solution spaces. 2 a = 1, b = 0 a = 0, b = 1
2.7
Linear dependence and independence
Denition 2.7. V vector space over F . We say a set of vectors v1 , . . . , vk in V is a linearly independent set if the following condition holds 1 v1 + + k vk = 0 all i = 0
Usually just say the vectors v1 , . . . , vk are linearly independent vectors. We say the set {v1 , . . . , vk } is linearly dependent if the oposite true, i.e. if we can nd scalars i such that (1) 1 v1 + + k vk = 0 (2) at least one i = 0 Eg 2.9. 1. V = R2 , v1 = (1, 1). Then {v1 } is a linearly independent set, as v1 = 0 (, ) = (0, 0) =0 44
2.7. LINEAR DEPENDENCE AND INDEPENDENCE
2. V = R2 , the set {0} is linearly dependent, e.g. 20 = 0 3. In R2 , let v1 = (1, 1), v2 = (2, 1). Is {v1 , v2 } linearly independent? Consider equation 1 v1 + 2 v2 = 0 i.e. (1 , 1 ) + (22 , 2 ) = (0, 0) i.e. 1 + 2 2 = 0 1 + 2 = 0 4. In R3 , let v1 = (1, 0, 1) v2 = (2, 2, 1) v3 = (1, 4, 5) Are v1 , v2 , v3 linearly independent? Consider system x1 v1 + x2 v2 + x3 v3 = 0 This is the system of linear equations 1 2 1 0 2 4 x = 0 1 1 5 1 2 1 0 1 2 1 0 0 2 4 0 0 2 4 0 1 1 5 0 0 3 6 0 1 2 1 0 0 2 4 0 0 0 0 0 3v1 2v2 + v3 = 0 So v1 , v2 , v3 are linearly dependent. Geometrically, v1 , v2 span a plane in R3 and v3 = 3v1 + 2v2 Sp(v1 , v2 ) is in this plane. In general: in R3 , three vectors are linearly dependent iff they are coplanar. 45 1 = 2 = 0
(2.1)
(i.e. v1 v2 v3 x = 0) Solve
Solution x = (3a, 2a, a) (any a). So
2.7. LINEAR DEPENDENCE AND INDEPENDENCE 4. V = vector space of polynomials over R. Let p1 (x) = 1 + x2 p2 (x) = 2 + 2x x2 p3 (x) = 1 + 4x 5x2 Are p1 , p2 , p3 linearly dependent? Consider equation 1 p1 + 2 p2 + 3 p3 = 0 Equating coecients 1 + 2 2 + 3 = 0 2 2 + 4 3 = 0 1 2 5 3 = 0 Showed in previous example that a solution is 1 = 3, 2 = 2, 3 = 1 So So linearly dependent. 3 p1 2 p2 + p1 = 0
5. V = vector space of functions R R. Let f1 (x) = sin x, f2 (x) = cos x So f1 , f2 V . Are f1 , f2 linearly independent? Sheet 6.
Two basic results about linearly independent sets.

Proposition 2.5. Any subset of a linearly independent set of vectors is linearly independent. Proof. Let S be a lin. indep. set of vectors, and T S . Label vectors in S, T T = {v1 , . . . , vt } S = {v1 , . . . , vt , vt+1 , . . . , vs } Suppose 1 v1 + + t vt = 0 Then As S is lin. indep., all coes must be 0, so all i = 0. Thus T is lin. indep. 46 1 v1 + + t vt + 0vt+1 + + 0vs = 0 2
2.7. LINEAR DEPENDENCE AND INDEPENDENCE
Proposition 2.6. V vector space, v1 , . . . , vk V . Then the following two statements are equivalent (i.e. (1)(2)). (1) v1 , . . . , vk are lin. dependent (2) there exists i such that vi is a linear combination of v1 , . . . , vi1 . Proof. (1) (2) Suppose v1 , . . . , vk is lin. dep., so there exist i such that 1 v1 + + k vk = 0 and j = 0 for some j . Choose the largest j for which j = 0. So 1 v1 + + j vj = 0 Then j vj = 1 v1 j 1 vj 1 So vj = 1 j 1 j j
which is a linear combination of v1 , . . . , vj 1 . (1) (2) Assume vi is a linear combination of v1 , . . . , vi1 , say v1 = 1 v1 + + i1 vi1 Then 1 v1 + + i1 vi1 vi + 0vi+1 + + 0vk = 0 Not all the coecients in this equation are zero (coef of vi is 1). So v1 , . . . , vk are lin. dependent. 2 Eg 2.10. v1 = (1, 0, 1), v2 = (2, 2, 1), v3 = (1, 4, 5) in R3 . These are linearly dependent: 3v1 2v2 + v3 = 0. And v3 = 3v1 + 2v2 a linear combination of previous ones. Proposition 2.7. V vector space, v1 , . . . , vk V . Suppose vi is a linear combination of v1 , . . . , vi1 . Then Sp(v1 , . . . , vk ) = Sp(v1 , . . . , vi1 , vi+1 , . . . , vk ) (i.e. throwing out vi does not change Sp(v1 , . . . , vk )) 47
2.8. BASES Proof. Let vi = 1 v1 + + i1 vi1 (j F ) Now consider v = 1 v1 + + k vk Sp(v1 , . . . , vk ) Then v = 1 v1 + + i1 vi1 + +i (1 v1 + + i1 vi1 ) + +i+1 vi+1 + + k vk So v is a lin. comb. of v1 , . . . , vi1 , vi+1 , . . . , vk Therefore Sp(v1 , . . . , vk ) Sp(v1 , . . . , vi1 , vi+1 , . . . vk ). Eg 2.11. v1 = (1, 0, 1), v2 = (2, 2, 1), v3 = (1, 4, 5). Here v3 = 3v1 + 2v2 So Sp(v1 , v2 , v3 ) = Sp(v1 , v2 ).
2.8
Bases
Denition 2.8. V a vector space. We say a set of vectors {v1 , . . . , vk } in V , is basis of V if (1) V = Sp(v1 , . . . , vk ) (2) {v1 , . . . , vk } is a linearly independent set. Informally, a basis is a spanning set for which we cannot throw any of the vectors away. Eg 2.12. 1. {(1, 0), (0, 1)} is a basis of R2 .
v1 v2
Proof. (1) (x1 , x2 ) = x1 v1 + x2 v2 so R2 = Sp(v1 , v2 ) (2) v1 , v2 are linearly independent as 1 v1 + 2 v2 = 0 (1 , 2 ) = (0, 0) 1 = 2 = 0 48
2.8. BASES
2 2. (1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1) is a basis of R3 Proof. (1) They span R3 previous example. (2) x1 v1 + x2 v2 + x3 v3 = 0 1 1 1 0 leads to the system 0 1 1 0 with the only solution x1 = x2 = x3 = x4 = 0 0 0 1 0 v1 , v2 , v3 are lin. indep. 2 Theorem 2.1. Let V be a vector space with a spanning set v1 , . . . , vk (i.e. V = Sp(v1 , . . . , vk )). Then there is a subset of {v1 , . . . , vk } which is a basis of V . Proof. Consider the set v1 , . . . , vk We throw away vectors in this list which are linear combinations of the previous vectors in the list. End up with a basis. Process: Casting out Process First, throw away any zero vectors in the list. Start at v2 : if it is a linear combination v1 , (i.e. v2 = v1 ), then delete it; if not, leave it there. Now consider v3 : if it is a linear combination of the remaining previous vectors, delete it; if not, leave it there. Continue, moving from left to right, deleting any vi , which is a linear combination of previous vectors in the list. End up with a subset {w1 , . . . , wm } of {v1 , . . . , vk } such that (1) V = Sp(w1 , . . . , wm ) (by 2.7) (2) no wi is a linear combination of previous ones. Then {w1 , . . . , wm } form a linearly independent set by 2.6. Therefore {w1 , . . . , wm } is a basis of V . 2 Eg 2.13. 49
2.8. BASES
1. V = R3 , v1 = (1, 0, 1), v2 = (2, 2, 1), v3 = (1, 4, 5). Let W = Sp(v1 , v2 , v3 ). Find a basis of W . 1) Is v2 a linear combination of v1 ? No: leave it in. 2) Is v3 a linear combination of v1 , v2 ? Yes: v3 = 3v1 + 2v2 . So cast out v3 : basis for W is {v1 , v2 }. 2. Heres a meatier example of The Casting out Process. Let V = R4 and v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 = = = = = (1, 2, 3, 1) (2, 2, 2, 1) (5, 2, 1, 3) (11, 2, 1, 7) (2, 8, 2, 3)
Let W = Sp(v1 , . . . , v5 ), subspace of R4 . Find a basis of W . v1 . The all-in-one-go method : Form 5 4 matrix . . and reduce it to echelon form: v5 1 2 3 1 2 2 2 1 5 2 1 3 11 2 1 7 2 8 2 3 v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v1 1 2 3 1 0 6 8 1 v2 2v1 0 12 16 2 v3 5v1 0 24 32 4 v4 11v1 v5 2v1 0 12 4 1 v1 1 2 3 1 0 6 8 1 v2 2v1 0 0 0 0 v3 5v1 2(v2 2v1 ) 0 0 0 0 v4 11v1 4(v2 2v1 ) v5 2v1 2(v2 2v1 ) 0 0 12 3
So v3 is a linear combination of v1 and v2 : cast it out. And v4 is linear combination of previous ones: cast it out. Row vectors in echelon form are linearly independent: So last row v5 + 2v1 2v2 is not a linear combination of the rst two rows. So v5 is not a linear combination of v1 , v2 . Conclude: Basis of W is {v1 , v2 , v5 }. To help with spanning calculations: Eg 2.14. Let v1 = (1, 2, 1), v2 = (2, 0, 1), v3 = (0, 1, 3), v4 = (1, 2, 3). Do v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 span the whole of R3 ? 50
2.9. DIMENSION
Let b R3 . Then b Sp(v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 ) iff system x1 v1 + x2 v2 + x3 v3 + x4 v4 = b has a solution for x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 R. This system is 1 2 0 1 b b1 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 b2 0 4 1 0 b2 2b1 1 1 3 3 b3 0 3 3 4 b3 + b1 b1 1 2 0 1 0 4 1 0 b2 2b1 0 0 9 12 This system has a solution for any b R3 . Hence Sp(v1 , . . . , v4 ) R3 .
2.9
Dimension
Denition 2.9. A vector space V is nite-dimensional if it has a nite spanning set, i.e. there is a nite set of vectors v1 , . . . , vk such that V = Sp(v1 , . . . , vk ). Eg 2.15. Rn is nite dimensional. To show this, let e1 = (1, 0, 0, . . . , 0) e2 = (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0) . . . en = (0, 0, 0, . . . , 1) Then for any x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) Rn x = x1 e1 + x2 e2 + + xn en So Rn = Sp(e1 , . . . , en ) is nite-dimensional. Note 2.2. {e1 , . . . , en } is linearly independent since 1 e1 + +n en = 0 implies (1 , . . . , n ) = 0, so all i = 0. So {e1 , . . . , en } is a basis for Rn , called the standard basis. Eg 2.16. Let V be a vector space of polynomials over R. Claim: V is not nite-dimensional. Proof. By contradiction. Assume V has a nite spanning set p1 , . . . , pk . Let deg (pi ) = ni and let n = max (n1 , . . . , nk . Any linear combination 1 p1 + + k pk ( R) has degree n. So the poly xn+1 is not a linear combination of vectors from our assumed spanning set; contradiction. 2 Proposition 2.8. Any nite-dimensional vector space has a basis. Proof. Let V be a nite-dimensional vector space. Then V has a nite spanning set. This contains a basis of V by Theorem 2.1. 2 51
2.9. DIMENSION
Denition 2.10. The dimension of V is the number of vectors in any basis of V .1 Written dim V Eg 2.17. Rn has basis e1 , . . . , en , so dim Rn = n. Eg 2.18. Let v R2 , v = 0 and let L be the line through 0 and v . So L is a subspace. L = {v | R} Eg 2.19. Let v1 , v2 R3 with v1 , v2 = 0 and v2 = v1 . Then Sp(v1 , v2 ) = P is a plane through 0, v1 , v2 . As v2 = v1 , {v1 , v2 } is linearly indepenednt, so is a basis of P . So dim P = 2. Major result: Theorem 2.2. Let V be a nite-dimensional vector space. Then all bases of V have the same number of vectors. Proof. Based on: Lemma 2.1. (Replacement Lemma) V a vector space. Suppose v1 , . . . , vk and x1 , . . . , xr are vectors in V such that v1 , . . . , vk span V x1 , . . . , xr are linearly independent Then (1) r k and (2) there is a subset {w1 , . . . , wkr } of {v1 , . . . , vk } such that x1 , . . . , xr , w1 , . . . , wkr span V (i.e. we can replace r of the v s by the xs and still span V ) Eg 2.20. V = R3 . e1 , e2 , e3 span R3 x1 = (1, 1, 1) According to 2.1(2), we can replace one of the ei s by x1 and get a spanning set {x1 , ei , ej }. How? Consider spanning set x1 , e1 , e2 , e3 This set is linearly dependent since x = e1 + e2 e3 . By 2.6, one of the vectors is therefore a linear combination of previous ones in this case e3 = e1 + e2 x1 So cast out e3 spanning set is {x1 , e1 , e2 }.
1
So L = Sp(v ) and {v } is a basis of L. So dim L = 1.
following theorem shows the uniqueness of this number
52
2.10. FURTHER DEDUCTIONS
Proof. (of Lemma 2.1) Consider S1 = {x1 , v1 , . . . , vk }. This spans V . It is linearly dependent, as x1 is a linear combination of the spanning set v1 , . . . , vk . So by 2.6, some of the vectors in S1 is a linear combination of previous ones. This vector is not x1 , so it is some vi . By 2.7, V = Sp(x1 , v1 , . . . , vi , . . . , vk ). Now let S2 = {x1 , x2 , v1 , . . . , vi , . . . , vk }. This spans V and is linearly dependent, as x2 is a linear combination of others. By 2.6, there exists a vector in S2 which is linear combination of previous ones. It is not x1 and x2 , as x1 , x2 are linearly inedpendent. So it is some vj . By 2.7, V = Sp(x1 , x2 , v1 , . . . , vi , . . . , vj , . . . , vk ). Continue like this, adding xs, deleting v s. If r > k , then eventually, we delete all the v s and get V = Sp(x1 , . . . , xk ). Then xk+1 is a linear combination of x1 , . . . , xk . This cant happed as x, . . . , xk+1 is linearly independent set. Therefore r k . This proces ends when weve used up all the xs, giving V = Sp(x1 , . . . , xr , k r remaining v s) 2 (Proof of 2.2 continued) Let {v1 , . . . , vk } and {x1 , . . . , xr } be the bases of V . Both are spanning sets for V and both are linearly independent. Well v1 , . . . , vk span, x1 , . . . , xr is linearly inedpendent, so by the previous lemma, r k . Similarly, x1 , . . . , xr span. v1 , . . . , vk is linearly independent, so by the previous lemma again, k r . Hence r = k . So all bases of V have the same number of vectors. 2
2.10
Further Deductions
Proposition 2.9. Let dim V = n. Any spanning set for V of size n is a basis of V . Proof. Let {v1 , . . . , vn } be the spanning set. By 2.1, this set contains a basis of V . By 2.2, all bases of V have the size n. Therefore, {v1 , . . . , vn } is a basis of V . 2 Eg 2.21. Is (1, 2, 3), (0, 2, 5), (1, 0, 6) a basis of R3 ? 1 2 3 1 2 0 2 5 0 2 1 0 6 0 2 1 2 0 2 0 0 3 5 9 3 5 14
The rows of this echelon form are linearly independent, so cant cast out any vectors. So they form a basis. 53
Proposition 2.10. If {x1 , . . . , xr } is a linearly independent set in V , then there is a basis of V containing x1 , . . . , xr . Proof. Let v1 , . . . , vn be a basis of V . By 2.1(2), there exists {w1 , . . . , wnr } {v1 , . . . , vn } such that V = Sp(x1 , . . . , xr , w1, . . . , wnr ) Then x1 , . . . , xr , w1 , . . . , wnr is a spanning set of size n, hence is a basis by 2.9. 2
Eg 2.22. Let v1 = (1, 0, 1, 2), v2 = (1, 1, 2, 5) R4 . Find a basis of R4 containing v1 , v2 . Claim: v1 , v2 , e1 , e2 is a basis of R4 . Proof. Clearly can get all standard basis vectors e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 as linear combination of v1 , v2 , e1 , e2 . So v1 , v2 , e1 , e2 span R4 , so they are basis by 2.9. 2 Proposition 2.11. Let W be subspace of V . Then (1) dim W dim V (2) If W = V , then dim W < dim V Proof. (1) Let w1 , . . . , wr be a basis of W . This set is linearly independent. So by Proposition 2.10 there is a basis of V containing it. Say w1 , . . . , wr , v1 , . . . , vs . Then dim V = r + s r = dim W . (2) If dim W = dim V , then s = 0 and w1 , . . . , wr is a basis of V , so V = Sp(w1 , . . . , wr ) = W. 2 Eg 2.23. (The subspaces of R3 ) Let W be a subspace of R3 . Then dim W dim R3 = 3. Possibilities: dim W = 3 Then W = R3 dim W = 2 Then W has a basis {v1 , v2 } so W = Sp(v1 , v2 ), which is a plane through 0, v1 , v2 . dim W = 1 Then W has a basis {v1 } so W = Sp(v1 ), which is a line through 0, v1 . dim W = 0 Then W = {0}. Conclude: The subspaces of R3 are {0}, R3 and lines and planes containing 0. Proposition 2.12. Let dim V = n. Any set of n vectors which is linearly independent is a basis of V . 54
Proof. Let v1 , . . . , vn be linearly independent. By Proposition 2.10 there is a basis containing v1 , . . . , vn . As all bases have n vectors, v1 , . . . , vn must be a basis. 2 Eg 2.24. Is the set (1, 1, 1, 0), (2, 0, 1, 2), (0, 3, 1, 1), 1 1 1 1 1 0 v1 0 2 2 0 1 2 v2 0 3 1 1 v3 0 3 0 0 2 2 1 0 v4 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 (2, 2, 1, 0) a basis of R4 ? 1 0 2 2 1 1 3 0 1 0 1 1 4 5 3 0 1 0 w1 1 1 w2 4 5 w3 0 1 w4
The vectors w1 , w2 , w3 , w4 are linearly independent (clear as they are in echelon form). By 2.12, w1 , . . . , w4 are a basis of R4 , therefore v1 , . . . , v4 span R4 (as w s are linear combinations of v s), therefore v1 , . . . , v4 is a basis of R4 , by 2.9. Proposition 2.13. Let dim V = n. Then any set of n + 1 vectros or more vectors in V is linearly dependent. Proof. Let S be a set of n + 1 or more vectors. If S is linearly independent, it is contained in a basis by Proposition 2.10, which is impossible as all bases have n vectors. So S is linearly dependent. 2 Eg 2.25. (A fact about matrices) Let V = M2,2 , the vector space of all 2 2 matrices over R (usual addition A + B and scalar multiplication A of matrices) Basis: Let E11 = E12 = E21 = E22 = 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
Claim: E11 , E12 , E21 , E22 is a basis of V = M2,2 . Proof. 55
2.10. FURTHER DEDUCTIONS Span
a b c d
= aE11 + bE12 + cE21 + dE22
Linear independence 1 E11 + 2 E12 + 3 E21 + 4 E22 = 0 implies 1 2 3 4 = 0 0 0 0 i = 0 2 So dim V = 4. Now let A V = M2,2 . Consider I , A, A2 , A3 , A4 . These are 5 vectors in V , so they are linearly dependent by 2.13. This means there exist i R (at least one non zero) such that 4 A4 + 3 A3 + 2 A2 + 1 A + 0 I = 0 This means, if we write p(x) = 4 x4 + 3 x3 + 2 x2 + 1 x + 0 then p(x) = 0 and p(A) = 0. So weve proved the following: Proposition 2.14. For any 2 2 matrix A there exists a nonzero polynomial p(x) of degree 4, such that p(A) = 0.
Note 2.3. This generalizes to n n matrices.
Summary so far
V a nite-dimensional vector space (i.e. V has a nite spanning set) Basis of V is a linear independent spanning set All bases have the same size called dim V Write dim V = n Every spanning set contains a basis Any spanning set of size n is a basis Any linearly independent set of size n is a basis Any linearly independent set is contained in a basis Any set of n + 1 or more vectors is linearly dependent Any subspace W of V has dim W n, and dim W = n W = V 2.11) 56 (Theorem 2.2) (Theorem 2.1) (Proposition 2.9) (Proposition 2.12) (Proposition 2.10) (Proposition 2.13) (Proposition
Chapter 3 More on Subspaces

3.1 Sums and Intersections
Denition 3.1. V a vector space. Let U, W be subspaces of V . The intersection of V and W is U W = {v | v U and v W } The sum of U and W U + W = {u + w | u U and w W } Note 3.1. U + W contains all the vectors in u U (as u + 0 U + W ) all the vectors in w W many more vectors (usually) Eg 3.1. V = R2 U = Sp(1, 0), W = Sp(0, 1). Then U + W contains all vectors 1 (1, 0) + 2 (0, 1) = (1 , 2 ). So U + W is the whole of R2 . Proposition 3.1. U W and U + W are subspaces of V . Proof. Use subspaes criterion, Proposition 2.3 U +W (1) As U, W are subspaces, both contain 0, so 0 + 0 = 0 U + W
(2) Let u1 + w1 , u2 + w2 U + W (where ui U , wi W ). Then (u1 + w1 ) + (u2 + w 2 ) = (u 1 + u 2 ) + (w 1 + w 2 ) U + W (3) Let u + w U + W , F . Then (u + w ) = u + w U + W 57
3.1. SUMS AND INTERSECTIONS U W Sheet 8.
2 What about dimensions of U + W , U W ? First: Proposition 3.2. If U = Sp(u1 , . . . , ur ), W = Sp(w1 , . . . , ws ). Then U + W = Sp(u1 , . . . , ur , w1 , . . . , ws ) Proof. Let u + w U + W . Then (i , i F ) u = 1 u1 + + r vr w = 1 w1 + + s ws So u + w = 1 u1 + + r vr + 1 w1 + + s ws Sp(u1 , . . . , ur , w1 , . . . , wr ) So U + W Sp(u1 , . . . , ur , w1 , . . . , ws ) All the ui , wi are in U +W . As U +W is a subspace, it therefore contains Sp(u1 , . . . , ur , w1 , . . . , ws ). Hence U + W = Sp(u1 , . . . , ur , w1 , . . . , ws ) 2 Eg 3.2. In the above example, U + W = Sp((1, 0), (0, 1)) = R2 . Eg 3.3. Let U = {x R3 | x1 + x2 + x3 = 0}, W = {x R3 | x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0} subspaces of R3 . Find bases of U , W , U W , U + W . For U general solution is (a b, b, a), so basis for U is: {(1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0)}. For W general solution is (2b + a, b, a), so basis of W is: {(1, 0, 1), (2, 1, 0)}. U W : this is x R3 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 0 1 2 1 0 x = 0. Solve 1 1 1 0 0 3 2 0
General solution is (a, 2a, 3a). Basis for U + W is {(1, 2, 3)}. 58
Algebra I lecture notes U + W : By Proposition 3.2
3.1. SUMS AND INTERSECTIONS
U + W = Sp((1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 1), (2, 1, 0)) Check that can cast out only 1 vector. So U + W has dimension 3, so U + W = R3 So dim U = dim W = 2 dim U W = 1 dim U + W = 3 Theorem 3.1. Let V be a nite-dimensional space and let U, W be subspaces of V . Then dim (U + W ) = dim U + dim W dim (U W ) Proof. Let dim U = m dim W = n dim (U W ) = r Aim: to prove dim (U + W ) = m + n r . Start with basis {x1 , . . . , xr } of U W . By 2.10, can extend this to bases Bu = {x1 , . . . , xr , u1 , . . . , umr } basis of U Bw = {x1 , . . . , xr , w1 , . . . , wnr } bases of W Let B = Bu Bw = {x1 , . . . , xr , u1 , . . . , umr , w1 , . . . , wnr } Claim B is a basis of U + W . Proof. (1) Span : B spans U + W by Proposition 3.2. (2) Linear independence : We show that B is linearly independent. Suppose 1 x1 + + r xr + 1 u1 + + mr umr + 1 w1 + + nr wnr i.e.
r mr n r
i xi +
i=1 i=1
i u i +
i=1
i wi = 0
(3.1)
59
3.1. SUMS AND INTERSECTIONS Let v=

i=1
n r
i wi
Then v W . Also
v=
i xi
i u i U
So v is in U W . As x1 , . . . , xr is a basis of U W
r
v=
i=1
i xi ( F )
As v =
i wi , this gives
r n r
i xi +
i=1 i=1
i wi = 0
Since Bw = {x1 , . . . , xr , w1 , . . . , wnr } is linearly independent, this forces (for all i) i = 0 i = 0 (i.e. v = 0). Then by (3.1)
r mr
i xi +
i=1 i=1
i u i = 0
Since Bu = {x1 , . . . , xr , u1, . . . , umr } is linearly independent, this forces (for all i) i = 0 i = 0 So weve shown that in (3.1), all coecients i , i , i are zero, showing that B = Bu Bw is linearly independent. Hence B is a basis of U + W . 2 Then we proved that dim (U + W ) = r + m r + n r = r + m r 2 Eg 3.4. V = R4 . Suppose U, W are subspaces with dim U = 2, dim W = 3. Then dim U + W 3 (as it contains W ) and dim U + W 4 (as U + W R4 ). Possibilities 60
3.2. THE RANK OF A MATRIX
dim U + W = 3 Then U + W = W and so U W . dim U + W = 4 (in other words U + W = R4 ). Then dim(U W ) = dim U + dim W dim U + W = 1 For example this happens: U = Sp(e1 , e2 ) = {(x1 , x2 , 0, 0) | xi R} W = Sp(e1 , e3 , e4 ) = {(x1 , 0, x2 , x3 )}
3.2
The rank of a matrix

row-space(A) = column-space(A) = subspace of Rn spanned by the rows of A subspace of Rm spanned by the columns of A
Denition 3.2. Let A be an m n matrix with real entries. Dene
Eg 3.5. A =
3 1 2 0 1 1 row-space(A) = Sp((3, 1, 2), (0, 1, 1)) 3 1 2 column-space(A) = Sp , , 0 1 1
Denition 3.3. Let A be m n matrix. Dene row-rank(A) = dim row-space(A) column-rank(A) = dim column-space(A) Eg 3.6. In above example row-rank(A) = column-rank(A) = 2
3.2.1
How to nd row-rank(A)
row operations, say ... 1 ... ... ... ... ... . . . 0 . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 0 ... 0 1 ... ...
Procedure: (1) Reduce A to echelon form by 0 0 A = 0 Then (we will prove this)
row-space(A) = row-space(A ) 61
(2) Then row-rank(A) = number of nonzero rows in echelon form A and these nonzero rows are a basis for row-space(A). Proof. (1) Rows of A are linear combinations of the rows of A (since they are obtained by row operations ri ri + rj , etc.) Therefore row-space(A ) Sp( rows of A) = row-space(A) By reversing the row operations to go from A to A, we see that rows of A are linear combinations of rows of A , so row-space(A) row-space(A ) Therefore row-space(A) = row-space(A ) (2) Let the nonzero rows of A be v1 , . . . , vr 0 ... 1 ... ... ... ... 0 . . . 0 . . . 1 . . . . . . A = . . . 0 ... 0 ... 0 1 ... Then row-space(A ) = Sp(v1 , . . . , vr ) Also v1 , . . . , vr are linearly independent, since 1 v1 + + r vr = 0 implies 1 = 0 (since 1 is i1 coordinate of LHS) 2 = 0 (since 1 is i2 coordinate of LHS) j = 0 (since 1 is ij coordinate of LHS) Therefore v1 , . . . , vr is a basis for row-space(A ), hence for row-space(A). So row-rank(A) = r = no. of nonzero rows of A 2 62
. . . v1 . . . v2 . . . ... vr
Algebra I lecture notes Eg 3.7. Find the row-rank of
1 2 5 A= 2 1 0 1 4 15 Reduce to echelon form: 1 2 5 A 0 3 10 0 6 20 1 2 5 0 3 10 0 0 0 Row-rank is 2. Eg 3.8. Find the dimension of W = Sp((1, 1, 0, 1), (2, 3, 1, 0), (0, 1, 2, 3)) R4 Observe 1 1 0 1 W = row-space( 2 3 1 0 ) = A 0 1 2 3 1 1 0 1 A 0 5 1 2 0 1 2 3 1 1 0 1 0 5 1 2 0 0 9 12 So dim W = row-rank(A) = 3.
So dim W = row-rank(A).
3.2.2
Clearly
How to nd column-rank(A)?
column-rank(A) = row-rank(AT ) 63
3.2. THE RANK OF A MATRIX 1 2 5 Eg 3.9. column-rank() of A = 2 1 0 1 4 15 1 2 1 4 AT = 2 1 5 0 15 1 2 1 0 3 6 0 0 0 So column-rank(A) = 2. Theorem 3.2. For any matrix A, row-rank(A) = column-rank(A) Proof. Let a11 a1n v1 . . . . .. . A= . . . . . am1 amn vm k = row-rank(A) = dim Sp(v1 , . . . , vm ) Let w1 , . . . , wk be a basis for row-space(A). Say w1 = (b11 , . . . , b1n ) . . . wk = (bk1 , . . . , bkn ) Each vi Sp(w1 , . . . , wk ), so (ij F ) v1 = 11 w1 + + 1k wk . . . vm = m1 w1 + + mk wk Equating coordinates:
So vi = (ai1 , . . . , ain ). Let
ith coord of v1 : a1i = 11 b1i + + 1k bki . . . ith coord of vm : ami = m1 b1i + + mk bki 64
Algebra I lecture notes This says
ith
So column-space(A) is spanned by these k vectors. So
Hence each column of A is a linear combination of the k column vectors 1k 11 . . . . = l1 , . . . , l k . ,..., . mk m1
a1i 11 1k . . . column of A = . . = b1i . . + + bki . . ami m1 mk
column-rank(A) = dim column-space(A) k = row-rank(A) So weve shown that column-rank(A) row-rank(A) Applying the same to AT : column-rank(AT ) row-rank(AT ) i.e. row-rank(A) column-rank(A) Hence row-rank(A) = column-rank(A). Eg 3.10. illustrating the proof Let 2
As v3 = v1 + v2 , basis of row-space is w1 , w2 where w1 = v1 w2 = v2 Write each vi as a linear combination of w1 , w2
1 2 1 0 v1 0 1 v2 A = 1 1 0 3 1 2 v3
v1 = w1 = 1w1 + 0w2 v2 = w2 = 0w1 + 1w2 v3 = w1 + w2 = 1w1 + 1w2 65
3.2. THE RANK OF A MATRIX So the column vectors l1 , l2 are 0 1 0 , 1 1 1 These span column-space(A). Check
l2 l2
Denition 3.4. The rank of a matrix is its row-rank or its col-rank, written rank(A) or rk(A) Proposition 3.3. Let A be n n. Then the following four statements are equivalent: (1) rank(A) = n (2) rows of A are a basis of Rn (3) columns of A are a basis of Rn (4) A is invertible Proof. (1) (2) rank(A) = n dim row-space(A) = n the n rows of A span R3 the n rows are a basis of R3 (2.9) 66
1 1 0 2 1 3 1 0 1
= l1 l2 = 2 l1 + l 2 = l1
Algebra I lecture notes (1) (3) Similarly (1) (4)
rank(A) = n A can be reduced to echelon form A can be reduced to In A is invertible (M1GLA, 7.5) 2
67
Chapter 4 Linear Transformations

Linear transformations are functions from one vector space to another which preserve addition and scalar multiplication, i.e. for linear transformation T if v1 w1 = T (v1 ) v2 w2 = T (v2 ) then and v1 + v2 w1 + w2 = T (v1 ) + T (v2 ) v1 w1 = T (v1 ) Denition 4.1. Let V , W be vector spaces. A function T : V W is a linear transformation if 1) T (v1 + v2 ) = T (v1 ) + T (v2 ) for all v1 , v2 V 2) T (v ) = T (v ) for all v V , F Eg 4.1. (1) Dene T : R1 R1 by T (x) = sin x
Then T is not a linear transformation: e.g. T ( ) = sin = 0 = 2 sin = 2 2T 2 2 So 2T

2
= T ( )
(2) T : R2 R1 , T (x1 , x2 ) = x1 + x2 T is a linear transformation: 68
Algebra I lecture notes 1) T ((x1 , x2 ) + (y1 , y2)) = T (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ) = x1 + x2 + y1 + y2 = T (x1 , x2 ) + T (y1 , y2 ) 2) T ((x1 , x2 )) = = = = (3) T : R2 R2 T is not linear: e.g. T (2(1, 0)) = T (2, 0) = 3 2T (1, 0) = 4 (4) V vector space of polynomials. Dene T : V V by T (p(x)) = p (x) e.g. T (x3 3x) = 3x2 3 Then T is linear transformation: 1) T (p(x) + q (x)) = p (x) + q (x) = T (p(x)) + T (q (x)) 2) T (p(x)) = p (x) = T (p(x)) Basic examples: Proposition 4.1. Let A be an m n matrix over R. Dene T : Rn Rm by (for all x Rn , column vectors) T (x) = Ax Then T is a linear transformation. 69 T (x1 , x2 ) x1 + x2 (x1 + x2 ) T (x1 , x2 )
T (x1 , x2 ) = x1 + x2 + 1
4.1. BASIC PROPERTIES Proof. 1) T (v1 + v2 ) = A(v1 + v2 ) = Av1 + Av2 = T (v1 ) + T (v2 ) 2) T (v ) = A(v ) = Av = T (v )
2 Eg 4.2. 1. Dene T : R3 R2 x1 T x2 = x3 T (x) = So T is a linear transformation. 2. Rotation : R2 R2 is = so is a linear transformation. cos sin sin cos
x1 3x2 + x3 x1 + x2 2x3
Then
1 3 1 1 1 2
4.1
Basic properties
Proposition 4.2. Let T : V W be a linear transformation (i) T (0V ) = 0W (ii) T (1 v2 + + k vk ) = 1 T v1 + + k T (vk ) Proof. 70
Algebra I lecture notes (i)
4.2. CONSTRUCTING LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS
T (0V ) = T (0v ) = 0 T (v ) = 0W (ii) T (1 v1 + + k vk ) = T (1 v1 + + k1 vk1 ) + T (k vk ) = T (1 v1 + + k1 vk1 ) + k T (vk ) Repeat to get (ii). 2
4.2
Constructing linear transformations
Eg 4.3. Find a linear transformation T : R2 R3 which sends 1 1 1 0 2 e1 0 1

e2
1 0 1 3
w2
We are forced to dene T x1 x2 = T (x1 e1 + x2 e2 ) = x1 T (e1 ) + x2 T (e2 ) = x1 w1 + x2 w2 So the only possible choice for T is T x1 x2 x1 = x1 + x2 2x1 + 3x2
This is a linear transformation, as it is
And it does send e1 w1 , e2 w2 .
1 0 T (x) = 1 1 x 2 3 71
4.2. CONSTRUCTING LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS In general:
Proposition 4.3. Let V, W be vector spaces, and let v1 , . . . , vn be a basis of V . For any n vectors w1 , . . . , wn in W there is a unique linear transformation T : V W such that T (v1 ) = w1 . . . T (vn ) = wn Proof. Let v V . Write v = 1 v1 + + n vn By 4.2(ii), the only possible choice for T (v ) is T (v ) = T (1 v1 + + n vn ) = 1 T (v1 ) + + n T (vn ) = 1 w 1 + + n w n So this is our denition of T : V W if v = 1 v1 + + n vn , then T ( v ) = 1 w 1 + + n w n We show this function T is a linear transformation: 1) Let v = i vi , w = i vi . Then v + w = T (v + w ) = = (i + i )vi , so
(i + i )w i i w i + i wi
= T (v ) + T (w ) 2) Let v = i vi , F . Then T (v ) = T = = i vi i wi i w i
= T (v ) So T is a linear transformation sending v1 w1 for all i and is unique. 2 72
4.3. KERNEL AND IMAGE
Remark 4.1. This shows that once we know what a linear transformation does to the vectors in a basis, we know what it does to all vectors. Eg 4.4. V =vector space of polynomials over R of degree 2. Basis of V : 1, x, x2 . Pick 3 vectors in V : w1 = 1 + x, w2 = x x2 , w3 = 1 + x2 . By 4.3 there exists a unique linear transformation T : V V sending 1 w1 x w2 x2 w3 Then T (a + bx + cx2 ) = aT (1) + bT (x) + cT (x2 ) = a(1 + x) + b(x x2 ) + x(1 + x2 ) = a + c + (a + b)x + (c b)x2
4.2
4.3
Kernel and Image

Im(T ) = {T (v ) | v V } W
Denition 4.2. T : V V linear transformation. Dene the image Im(T ) to be
The kernel Ker (T ) is Ker (T ) = {v V | T (v ) = 0} V Eg 4.5. T : R3 R2 x1 T x2 = x3 Ker (T ) = = x1 x2 = x3
3 1 2 1 0 1
A
3x1 + x2 + 2x3 x1 + x3
Then
x R3 | T ( X ) = 0 x R3 | Ax = 0 = solution space of Ax 3x1 + x2 + 2x3 x1 + x3 3 1 + x2
Im (T ) = set of all vectors
= set of all vectors x1 = col-space of A 73
2 1 + x3 1 0
4.3. KERNEL AND IMAGE Proposition 4.4. T : V W linear transformation. Then i) Ker (T ) is a subspace of V ii) Im (T ) is a subspace of W Proof. i) Use 2.3: 1) 0 Ker (T ) since T (0V ) = 0W
4.2
2) Let v, w Ker (T ). Then T (v ) = T (w ) = 0, so T (v + w ) = T (v ) + T (w ) = 0+0=0 So v + w Ker (T ).
3) Let v Ker (T ), F . Then T (v ) = T (v ) = 0 = 0 So v Ker (T ) ii) 1) 0 Im (T ) as 0 = T (0)
2) w1 , w2 Im (T ) so w1 = T (v1 ), w2 = T (v2 ) w1 + w2 = T (v1 ) + T (v2 ) = T (v1 + v2 ) so w1 + w2 Im (T )
3) w Im (T ), F . Then w = T (v ) w = T (v ) = T (v ) so w Im (T ). 2 74
Eg 4.6. Let vn = vector space of polynomials of degree n. Dene T : Vn Vn1 by T (p(x)) = p (x) Then T is a linear transformation. Ker (T ) = {p(x) | T (p(x)) = 0} = {p(x) | p (x) = 0} = V0 (the constant polynomials) and Im (T ) = Vn1 . This has basis 1, x, x2 , . . . , xn1 , dim n. Proposition 4.5. Let T : V W be a linear transformation. If v1 , . . . , vn is a basis of V , then Im (T ) = Sp(T (v1 ), . . . , T (vn )) Proof. Let T (v ) Im (T ). Write v = 1 v1 + + n vn Then T (v ) = 1 T (v1 ) + + n T (vn ) Sp(T (v1 ), . . . , T (vn )) This shows Im (T ) Sp(T (v1 ), . . . , T (vn )) All T (v1 ) Im T , so as Im (T ) is a subspace, Sp(T (v1 ), . . . , T (vn )) Im (T ). Therefore Sp(T (v1 ), . . . , T (vn )) = Im (T ). 2 Important class of kernels and images: Proposition 4.6. Let A be an m n matrix, and dene T : Rn Rm by (x Rn ) T (x) = Ax Then 1) Ker (T ) = solution space of the system Ax = 0. 2) Im T = column-space(A) 3) dim Im (T ) = rank(A) Proof. 75
4.2
4.3. KERNEL AND IMAGE 1)
Ker (T ) = {x | T (x) = 0} = {x Rn | Ax = 0} = solution space of Ax = 0 2) Take a standard basis e1 , . . . , en of Rn . By 4.5 Im (T ) = Sp(T (e1 ), . . . , T (en )) Here 0 . . . T (ei ) = Aei = A 1 . . . 0 = i-th column of A So Im (T ) = Sp(columns of A) = column-space(A). 3) dim (Im (T )) = dim (column-space(A)) = rank(A) 2 Eg 4.7. T : R3 R3 1 2 3 T (x) = 1 0 1 1 4 7
Find bases for Ker (T ) and Im (T ). Ker (T )
General solution (a, 2a, a). Basis for Ker (T ) is (1, 2, 1). 76
1 2 3 0 1 2 3 1 0 1 0 0 2 4 1 4 7 0 0 2 4 1 2 3 0 2 4 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
Theorem 4.1 (Rank-nullity Theorem). a linear transformation. Then
Im (T ). Basis for Im (T ) = column-space((A)). Dimension is rank((A)) = 2. So basis 1 2 1 is , 0. 1 4

1
Let V, W be vector spaces, and T : V W be
dim (Ker (T )) + dim (Im (T )) = dim (V ) Proof. Let r = dim (Ker (T )). Let u1 , . . . , ue be a basis of Ker (T ). By 2.10 we can extend this to u1 , . . . , ur , v1 , . . . , vs basis of V . So dim V = r + s. We want to show that dim (Im (T )) = s. By 4.5 Im (T ) = Sp(T (u1 ), . . . , T (ur ), T (v1 ), . . . , T (vs )) Each T (u1) = 0, as ui Ker T . So Im T = Sp(T (v1 ), . . . , T (vs )) Claim: T (v1 ), . . . , T (vs ) is a basis of Im T . Proof. Span shown by (). Suppose 1 T (v1 ) + + s T (vs ) = 0 Then T (1 v1 + + s vs ) = 0 So 1 v1 + + s vs Ker T . So 1 v1 + + s vs = 1 u1 + + r ur (as u1 , . . . , ur are basis of Ker T ). That is 1 u1 + + r ur 1 v1 s vs = 0 As u1 , . . . , ur , v1 , . . . , vs is a basis of V , it is linearly independent, and so i = i = 0 i 2
4.2
( )
This shows T (v1 ), . . . , T (vs ) is linearly independent, hence a basis of Im T . So dim (Im T ) = s and dim (Ker T ) + dim (Im T ) = r + s = dim V.
2
1
dim (Ker (T )) is sometimes called the nullity of T
77
4.4. COMPOSITION OF LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS
Consequences for linear equations

Proposition 4.7. Let A be m n matrix, and W = solution space of Ax = 0 = {x Rn | Ax = 0} Then dim W = n rank(A) Proof. Dene linear transformation T : Rn Rm by T (x) = Ax
4.6
( x Rn )
Then Ker T = W , Im T = column-space(A). By 4.1 dim Rn = n = dim (Ker T ) + dim Im T = dim W + dim column-space(A) So n = dim W + rank(A) 2 1 1 3 2 5 Eg 4.8. Let A = 0 1 3 2 1 . Let W be the solution space of the system Ax = 0. 0 0 0 1 2 5 So W R . Then dim W
4.7
= 5 rank(A) = 5 3 = 2.
General solution is (4a, 3a3b, b, 2a, a). This has two free variables and is a(4, 3, 0, 2, 1)+ b(0, 3, 1, 0, 0) so (4, 3, 0, 2, 1), (0, 3, 1, 0, 0) is a basis of W . In general, number of free variables in the general solution of Ax = 0 is the dimension of the solution space, i.e. n rank(A).
4.4
Composition of linear transformations

T : V W, S:W X
Denition 4.3. Let be linear transformation (V, W, X vector spaces). The composition S T : V X is dened S T (v ) = S (T (v )) Usually just write ST . 78
4.5. THE MATRIX OF A LINEAR TRANSFORMATION
Then ST is again a linear transformation ST (v1 + v2 ) = S (T (v1 + v2 )) = S (T (v1 ) + T (v2 )) = ST (v1 ) + ST (v2 ) Eg 4.9. 1. Let T : Rn Rm , be T (x) = Ax S (x) = Bx So ST (x) = = = = 2. Let T : V V . Dene T2 = T T : V V = T (T (V )) If T : Rn Rn , T (x) = Ax then T 2 (x) = A2 x T 3 (x) = A3 x . . . n T (x) = An x S (T (x)) S (Ax) B (Ax) BAx ( x Rn ) ( x Rm ) S : Rm Rp
(T is linear) (S is linear)
4.5
The matrix of a linear transformation
A linear transformation is a type of function between two vector spaces. Well show how to associate a matrix with any linear transformation. This will enable us to use matrix theory to study linear transformations. 79
Let T : V V be a linear transformation (V a vector space). Let B = {v1 , . . . , vn } be a basis of V (nite dimensional). Each T (vi ) V , so is a linear combination of vi s T (v1 ) = a11 v1 + a21 v2 + + an1 vn T (v2 ) = a12 v1 + a22 v2 + + an2 vn . . . T (vn ) = a1n v1 + a2n v2 + + ann vn Denition 4.4. Matrix of T (with respect a11 a21 [T ]B = . . . an1 T x1 x2 = = Let B = {e1 , e2 } = 1 0 , 0 1 to basis B ) is a12 . . . a1n a22 . . . a2n . . .. . . . . . an2 . . . ann 2x1 x2 x1 + 2x2 2 1 1 2 x1 x2
Eg 4.10. T : R2 R2
. Work out [T ]B : 2 1 = 2e1 + e2 = e1 + 2e2
T (e1 ) = T (e2 ) = 2 2 1 2 With another basis So [T ]B = What is [T ]B ? .
1 2
B = {(1, 1), (0, 1)} = {v1 , v2 } 1 1 0 1 = 21 1+2 1 2 1 3
T (v1 ) = T T (v2 ) = T Hence [T ]B = 1 1 2 3 .
= 1v1 + 2v2
= v1 + 3v2
80
Eg 4.11. V the vector space of polynomials of degree 2. Dene T : V V by T (p) = p . Basis B = 1, x, x2 T (1) = 0 T (x) = 1 T (x2 ) = 2x Hence 0 1 0 [T ]B = 0 0 2 0 0 0 [T (p(x))]B = [T ]B [p(x)]B 0 1 0 = 0 0 2 0 0 0 b 2c = 0 Denition 4.5. Let V be a vector space over F , B = {v1 , . . . , vn } a basis of V . Let v V , v = 1 v1 + + n vn , i F . Dene vector of v , [v ]B F n to be 1 . [v ]B = . . n Proposition 4.8. Let V be a vector space, B a basis of V and v a vector in V . Then [T (v )]B = [T ]B [v ]B Proof. Let v =
n i=1
Observe
i vi . So
Let [T ]B = (aij ), so
1 . [v ]B = . . . n
T (vi ) = a1i v1 + a2i v2 + + ani vn 81
4.6. EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS So

n
T (v ) =
i=1 n
i T (vi ) i (a1i v1 + + ani vn )

n n
=
i=1
=
i=1
i a1i
v1 + +
i ani
i=1
vn
So [T (v )]B = 1 a1i . . . i ani
1 a11 a1n . . . . .. . = . . . . . n an1 . . . ann = [T ]B [v ]B 2
4.6
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
Denition 4.6. Let T : V V be a linear transformation. Say v V is an eigenvector of T if (1) v = 0 (2) T (v ) = v , F Call an eigenvalue of T . Eg 4.12. 1. V a vector space of polys of degree 2. Dene T : V V by T (p(x)) = p(x + 1) p(x) T is a linear transformation. The eigenvectors of T are non-zero polynomials p(x) such that T (p(x)) = p(x) p(x + 1) p(x) = p(x) p(x + 1) = ( + 1)p(x). 82
Algebra I lecture notes 1. Let T : Rn Rn be dened by
4.6. EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS
T (v ) = Av
where A is n n matrix. Then T (v ) = v iff Av = v ; the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of T are the same as those of matrix A.
4.6.1
How to nd evals / evecs of T ?

T (v ) = v
Let v be an eigenvector of T , so Let B be a basis of V . Then [T (v )]B = [v ]B = [v ]B By [T ]B [v ]B = [v ]B So collumnn vector [v ]B is an eigenvector of the matrix [T ]B , and is an eigenvalue of this matrix. Hence: Proposition 4.9. Let T : V V , B a basis of vector space V . 1) The eigenvalues of T are the eigenvalues of the matrix [T ]B 2) The eigenvectors of T are the vectors v such that [v ]B is an eigenvector of the matrix [T ]B . Eg 4.13. V = polynomials of degree 2. T (p(x)) = p(x + 1) p(x)
Find the eigenvectors and eigenvalues of T . Let B = {1, x, x2 }. So (from one of the previous examples) 0 1 1 [T ]B = 0 0 2 0 0 0 Characteristic polynomial |A I | = 1 1 0 2 0 0 = 3
So only eigenvalue is 0. Eigenvectors of A are solutions to the equation So for = 0 (A I )x = 0 0 0 0 the constant polynomials.
0 1 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 So eigenvectors of T are the polynomials a, i.e. 83
4.7. DIAGONALISATION
4.7
Diagonalisation
Let T : V V be a linear transformation. Suppose B = {v1 , . . . , vn } is a basis of V such that the matrix [T ]B is diagonal. So 1 0 .. [T ]B = . 0 n T (v1 ) = 1 v1 T (v2 ) = 2 v2 . . . T (vn ) = n vn Proposition 4.10. The matrix [T ]B is diagonal iff B is a basis consisting of eigenvectors of T . Denition 4.7. Linear transformation T : V V is diagonalisable if there exists a basis B of V consisting of eigenvectors of T . Eg 4.14. V = polynomials of degree 2. 1. T1 (p(x)) = p(x + 1) p(x). Weve showed that the only eigenvectors are the constant polynomials. So there exists no basis of eigenvectors; T1 is not diagonalisable. 2. T2 (p(x)) = p (x). Then for B = {1, x, x2 } 0 1 0 [T2 ]B = 0 0 2 0 0 0
This means
Find as for T1 , that the only eigenvectors of T are the constant polynomials; T2 is not diagonalisable. 3. T3 (p(x)) = p(1 x). Here 1 1 1 [T ]B = 0 1 2 0 0 1
Is T3 diagonalisable?
84
Algebra I lecture notes Eg 4.15. T : R2 R2 T Is T diagonalisable? For B = {e1 , e2 } = 1 0 , 0 1 , 0 1 2 3 x1 x2 = x2 2x1 + 3x2 = 0 1 2 3
4.8. CHANGE OF BASIS
x1 x2
[T ]B =
=A a b , . So there is a a 2b
We nd that the eigenvalues of A are 1, 2 and the eigenvectors basis of eigenvectors of A: B = So [T ]B = 1 1 , 1 2 1 0 0 2
From M1GLA, recall that if (columns are equal to vectors in B ) P = then P 1 AP = i.e. P 1 [T ]B P = [T ]B General theory: 1 0 0 2 1 1 1 2
4.8
Change of basis
V a vector space, B = {v1 , . . . , vn } a basis of V . T a linear transformation T : V V . Matrix [T ]B = (ai j ) (n n matrix) where T (vi ) = a1i v1 + + ani vn Question: If B = {w1 , . . . , wn } is another basis of V , get another matrix [T ]B . What is 85
4.8. CHANGE OF BASIS the relation between [T ]B and [T ]B ? To answer this, write w1 = p11 v1 + + pn1 vn . . . wn = p1n v1 + + pnn vn where pij F . The matrix p11 p1n . . .. . P = . . . . pn1 pnn
is called the change of basis matrix from B to B . Proposition 4.11. P is invertible, and
[T ]B = P 1 [T ]B P Proof. Omitted (in favour of further material). Can look it up, e.g. in Lipschitz, Linear Algebra. 2 Eg 4.16. Let T : R2 R2 . T Let B = B = Then change of basis matrix is P = and [T ]B = [T ]B = So by 4.11, P 1 [T ]B P = [T ]B 86 0 1 2 3 1 0 0 2 1 1 1 2 0 0 , 1 1 1 1 , 2 1 x1 x2 = x2 2x1 + 3x2 = 0 1 2 3 x1 x2
Algebra I lecture notes i.e. P 1 (familiar from M1GLA). 0 1 2 3 P = 1 0 0 2
4.8. CHANGE OF BASIS
87
Chapter 5 Error-correcting codes

5.1 Introduction
Everyday language: alphabet: a,b,c,. . . and words: ahem, won, pea, too, . . . . A code is a language for machine communication: alphabet: 0, 1 and codewords: selected strings of 0s and 1s. Eg 5.1. ASCII code: A 1000000 B 1000001 . . . 9 0011100
Message
encode
codewords
with noise!
transmission
received words
decode
decoded message
Errors in transmission happen (1 in 100 bits). In everyday language errors can usually be corrected: lunear algebra linear algebra Try to do the same with codes. Eg 5.2. Simplest code: Messages YES/ NO. Codewords: YES - 111, NO - 000. 88
5.1. INTRODUCTION
Decode by taking majority, e.g. receive 010, decode as 000. This corrects a single error. Denition 5.1. If w is a string of 1s and 0s, the parity check-bit of w is 1, if number of 1s in w is odd, 0 otherwise. Eg 5.3. Parity check-bit of 11010 is 1, 00101 is 0. Eg 5.4. Heres a code which communicates 8 messages abc (a, b, c are 0 or 1). Codewords are abcxyz where x is parity check-bit for ab y is parity check-bit for ac z is parity check-bit for bc So codewords are 000000, 100110, . . . Suppose we receive a string 010110. Here abx = 011 - ok. acy = 001 - wrong. bcz = 100 - wrong. So there is an error. If only 1 error, it must be c, so corrected codeword is 011110. Claim: This code can correct any single error. Proof. wrong abx acy bcz a wrong wrong ok b c wrong ok ok wrong wrong wrong x wrong ok ok y ok wrong ok z ok ok wrong
So the pattern of wrongs and oks pinpoints the error. 89
5.2. THEORY OF CODES
5.2
Theory of Codes
0+0 = 0 0+1 = 1 1+1 = 0
Recall Z2 = {[0] , [1]}. So
Dene Zn 2 = {(x1 , . . . , xn ) | xi Z2 }. Denition 5.2. A (binary) code of length n is a subset C of Zn 2 . Members of C are called codewords. Eg 5.5. Triple-check code C3 = {abcxyz | x = a + b y = a + c z = b + c} = {000000, 100110, 010101, 001011, 110011, 101101, 011110, 111000} Denition 5.3. For x, y Zn 2 the distance d(x, y ) is the number of positions where x and y dier. Eg 5.6. d(11010, 01111) = 3. Proposition 5.1 (Triangle Inequality). For x, y, z Zn 2 d(x, y ) d(x, z ) + d(z, y ) Proof. Let x = x1 , . . . , xn , etc. Let U = {i | xi = yi } S = {i | xi = yi , xi = zi } T = {i | xi = yi , xi = zi } so d(x, y ) = |U |. Then |U | = |S | + |T | |S | d(y, z ) |T | d(x, z ) 2 Denition 5.4. For a code C , the minimum distance of C is min {d(x, y ) | x, y C, Call it d(C ). 90 x = y}
5.3. LINEAR CODES
5.2.1
Error Correction
Code C . Send codeword c. Make some errors and c is received. Correct to nearest codewords. Want this to be c. Denition 5.5. Let e 1. We say a code C corrects e errors if, whenever a codeword c C is sent, and at most e errors are made, the received word is corrected to c Equivalently (1) Let Se (c) = {w Zn 2 | d(c, w ) e}. Then C corrects e errors iff Se ( c ) Se ( c ) = for all c, c such that c = c . (2) C corrects e errors if for any c, c C and w Zn 2 d(c, w ) e, d(c , w ) e c = c
Proposition 5.2. If the minimum distance d(C ) 2e + 1, then C corrects e errors.

Proof. Apply (2). For c, c C and w Zn 2 , d(c, w ) e, d(c , w ) e. Therefore by 5.1
d(c, c) d(c, w ) + d(w, c ) 2e So c = c , since d(C ) 2e + 1. Eg 5.7. d(C3 ) = 3 = 2 1 + 1, therefore C3 corrects 1 error. 2
5.3
Linear Codes
n Claim Z2 is a vector space over Z2 (scallars are Z2 = {0, 1}).
Proof. Dene addition (x1 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , . . . , yn ) = (x1 + y1 , . . . , xn + yn ) and scalar multiplication (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (x1 , . . . , xn ). Check axioms (1) Zn 2 is an abelian group under + (2) four scalar multiplication axioms hold 2 Note 5.1. Unlike Rn , Zn is a nite vector space, having 2n vectors. It has dimension n, with standard basis e1 , . . . , en .
n Denition 5.6. Code C Zn 2 is a linear code if C is a subspace of Z2 .
91
5.3. LINEAR CODES By 2.3, this means (1) 0 C (2) c, d C , then c + d C (3) c C , then c C (as can be only 0 and 1). Eg 5.8. C3 = {abcxyz | x = a + b, 1 1 0 6 1 0 1 = x Z2 | 0 1 1
a solution space in Z6 2. dim C large
y = a + c, z = b + c} 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Aim Find linear codes C with:
length of C small d(C ) large Proposition 5.3. IF C is a linear code, and dim C = m, then number of codewords in C is | C | = 2n Proof. Let c1 , . . . , cm be a basis of C . So C consists of all linear combinations 1 c1 + + m cm Eg 5.9. C3 has 8 codewords abcxyz . (i Z2 ) 2
There are 2 choices 0, 1 for each i . Hence 2m codewords.
5.3.1
Minimum distance of linear code

wt (w ) = number of 1s in w
Denition 5.7. For w Zn 2 dene the weight Eg 5.10. wt(1101010) = 4 Note 5.2. wt (w ) = d(w, 0) Proposition 5.4. For x, y, z Zn 2 d(x, y ) = d(x + z, y + z ). Proof. Notice that x + z = x changed in places where z has a 1. Simillarly y + z is y changed in places where z has 1. So x + z , y + z dier in same places where x, y dier. 2 92
5.4. THE CHECK MATRIX
Main Result
Proposition 5.5. If C is a linear code, d(C ) = min (wt(c) | c C, c = 0) Proof. Let c C , c = 0, be a codeword of smallest weight, say wt(c) = r . Then d(c, 0) = r , hence d(C ) r ( ) d(x, y ) = = = So d(C ) r . Hence, by ( d(x + y, y + y ) d(x + y, 0) wt(x + y ) r ), d(C ) = r . by 5.4
Let x, y C , x = y . Then
(as x + y C ) 2
Eg 5.11. C3 = 000000, 100110, . . . has min(wt(c)) = 3, hence d(C ) = 3.
5.4
The Check Matrix

C = {x Zn 2 | Ax = 0}
Denition 5.8. Let A be an m n matrix with entries in Z2 . If C is the linear code Then A is a check matrix for C . Eg 5.12. 1. Check matrix for C3 is 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
2. Let A =
1 0 1 0 , check matrix of 1 1 0 1 C = =
x Z4 2 | Ax = 0 x Z4 2 |
x3 = x1 x4 = x1 + x2
C sends 4 messages x1 x2 with two check-bits x3 x4 . C = {0000, 1011, 0101, 1110} dim C = 2 d(C ) = 2 So C does not correct any errors. 93
5.4. THE CHECK MATRIX
Proposition 5.6. If C is a linear code of length n with check matrix A C = {x Zn 2 | Ax = 0} then dim C = n rank(A) Proof. This is Proposition 4.7 (rank-nullity). Eg 5.13. C = x Z6 2 1 0 | 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 x = 0 1 1 2
Find dim (C )
So rank(A) = 3, dim C = 6 3 = 3.
1 0 A 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
Relation between check matrix and min. distance

Proposition 5.7. Let C be linear code C = {x Zn 2 | Ax = 0} witch check matrix A. (1) If all columns of A are dierent, and no column is zero, then the C corrects 1 error. (2) Let d 1. Suppose every set of .1 columns of A is linearly independent. Then d(C ) d. Proof. (1) Must show that d(C ) 3, i.e. wt(c) 3 for every c C \ {0}. If there is a codeword 0 . . 1 . c of weight 1, then c = ei = . , and 0 = Ac = Aei , which is the i-th column of . . 0 A. Contradiction. 94
Algebra I lecture notes If there is a codeword c of weight 2, then c = ei + ej , so 0 = Ac = Aei + Aej = column i + column j i.e. column i equals to column j . Contradiction. (2)
5.5. DECODING
2 Eg 5.14. To correct two errors, need d(C ) 5. So the condition in (2) is that any 4 columns are linearly independent. Eg 5.15. 1. There are 7 non-zero column vectors in Z3 2. 1 1 1 1 1 0 A = 1 0 1 Let H = Write them down 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
x Z7 2 | Ax = 0 x5 = x1 + x2 + x3 = x . . . x7 | x6 = x1 + x2 + x4 1 x7 = x1 + x3 + x4 dim H = 4 |H | = 16 H corrects one error by 5.7(1). Code H is Ham(3), a Hamming code.
5.5
Decoding
Say C = {x Zn 2 | Ax = 0}, corrects 1 error. Send c C , make 1 error in i-th bit. Received word is c = c + ei How to nd i? Ac = Ac + Aei = 0 + Aei = i-th column of A ! So we correct i-th bit, where Ac is the i-th column of A. 95
Algebra I lecture notes Eg 5.16. With code H as above. Receive 1 1 Aw = 1 1 1 0 0 = 1 0 w = 0111010. 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 w T 1 1 0 0 1
This is the 6-th column of A is 0111000.
THE END.
as1005@ic.ac.uk

M 1 P 2

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

M 1 P 2

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Algebra I lecture notes

Imperial College London Mathematics 2005/2006

Algebra I lecture notes

Algebra I lecture notes 3.2.1 3.2.2

Algebra I lecture notes

Algebra I lecture notes

1.1. DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES

Algebra I lecture notes

1.1. DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES

(Z, +) (Z, ) (Z, ) (Q, +) (Q, ) (Q {0}, ) (C {0}, ) ({1, 1, i, i}, )

yes no yes yes yes

Algebra I lecture notes

Algebra I lecture notes

1.1. DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES

1.1. DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES

Algebra I lecture notes

is a permutation 1 2, 2 4, 3 3, 4 1. Let 1 2 3 4 g= 3 1 2 4 The composition f q is dened by f g = f (g (s)) Here f g = 1 2 3 4 3 2 4 1

Recall the inverse function f 1 is the inverse of f . Here f 1 = Notice f 1 f = 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 4 1 3 2

= e, the identity function.

Algebra I lecture notes

1.1. DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES

1 2 n , since e f = f e = f . 1 2 n f (1) f (2) f (n) 1 2 n and f 1 f = f f 1 = e 2

Denition 1.9. Let G be a group, with elements a, b, c, . . . . Form a group table a a a2 b ba . . . b c ab ac b2 bc . . . 11

1.2. SUBGROUPS Eg 1.13. S3 = e = a = a2 = b = ab = a2 b = 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 2 3 1 1 2 3 3 1 2 1 2 3 2 1 3 1 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 3 1 3 2

Algebra I lecture notes

Algebra I lecture notes

Criterion for subgroups

so is understood and we write ab instead of a b

1.3. CYCLIC SUBGROUPS

Algebra I lecture notes

Let G be a group. Let a G. Recall

Similarly for m < 0, n 0. Finally, when m, n < 0

1.3. CYCLIC SUBGROUPS

1.3. CYCLIC SUBGROUPS

Algebra I lecture notes

Another generator is i, but 1 and 1 are not generators.

Algebra I lecture notes

1.3. CYCLIC SUBGROUPS

So an = ar {e, a, a2 , . . . , ak1 }. Weve shown A = {e, a, a2 , . . . , ak1 } so |A| = k = o(a). 17

Algebra I lecture notes

More on the symetric groups Sn

Algebra I lecture notes

1.4. MORE ON THE SYMETRIC GROUPS SN

1.4. MORE ON THE SYMETRIC GROUPS SN

Algebra I lecture notes

Algebra I lecture notes Eg 1.24. f = (1 2 3 4), 4-cycle then f1 f2 f3 f4 = = = = f (1 3)(2 4) (1 4 3 2) e

1.5. LAGRANGES THEOREM

1.6. APPLICATIONS TO NUMBER THEORY

Algebra I lecture notes

Consequences of Lagranges Theorem

Applications to number theory

Algebra I lecture notes Suppose a b mod m. Now xa

1.6. APPLICATIONS TO NUMBER THEORY

Algebra I lecture notes

Algebra I lecture notes Associativity

1.6. APPLICATIONS TO NUMBER THEORY

Identity is [1] as [a] [1] = [1] [a] = [a].

2 So, Z p (p prime) (1) is abelian (2) has p 1 elements

Algebra I lecture notes

Applications of the group Z p

Algebra I lecture notes Proof. If p |n then by FLT

1.7. APPLICATIONS OF THE GROUP Z P