Solutions of Problems 1 Solution (1.1) An element of the permutation group Sn of n objects is 1 i 2 j 3 k ... n ... h .

The i object can be chosen in n dierent ways, i.e. i can be any of the 1, 2, 3, .., n objects. Having chosen i, the j object can be chosen in (n 1) ways. Similarly, k can be chosen in (n 2) ways and so on. So we conclude that the order of the permutation group is n(n 1)(n 2)...1 = n!. Solution (1.2) To nd whether the collection matrices of question (1.2) is a group under matrix multiplication, we have to show that satisfy all four requirements of the denition of a group. (i) Closure: Let 1 1 a= 0 1 and b= two such matrices. Then ab = 1 0 1 + 2 1 1 0 2 1

which is clearly a matrix of the type we are considering in (1.2). So the closure requirement is satised. (ii) Associativity: This follows from the associativity of matrix multiplication in general, i.e. (ab)c = a(bc) . (iii) Identity: As an identity e we choose the identity matrix, i.e. e= It is straightforward to see that ae = ea = a . 1 1 0 0 1 .

(iv) Inverse: We choose as the inverse of the matrix a= the matrix a1 = It is straightforward to verify that aa1 = a1 a = e . So indeed the collection of matrices of question (1.2) is a group. Solution (1.3) The group V4 and the group Z2 Z2 are isomorphic if they have the same multiplication tables up to a choice of correspondence for their elements. The multiplication table for the group V4 = {e, a, b, c} is e a b c e| e a b c a| a e c b b| b c e a c| c b a e . Now the group 1 0 1 . 1 0 1

Z2 Z2 = {(e, e ), (e, d ), (d, e ), (d, d )} ,

where Z2 = {e, d} for the rst and Z2 = {e , d } for the second Z2 in the product, respectively. To choose the correspondence, isomorphism, between V4 and Z2 Z2 , we clearly choose e (e, e ) = e . Next since a2 = e and (e, d )2 = (e, e ), we take a (e, d ) = a . Similarly, we take b (d, e ) = b and c (d, d ) = c . Having chosen the correspondence, it remains to see whether the multiplication table of Z2 Z2 is the same as that of V4 . Indeed, we nd that b c e a e | e a b c a | a e c b b| b c e a c | c b a e , and so V4 = Z2 Z2 . Solution (1.4) 2

A calculation using matrix multiplication reveals B2 = E A2 = 1 2 23 A3 = E BA =

1 2 3 2 1 2 3 2 1 2 3 2 1 2

= A2 B

BA2 = Next we consider the set

3 2

23 1 2

= AB .

D3 = {E, A, A2 , B, AB, A2 B } . This set is a group. Closure follows from the above relations, i.e. the multiplication table is

D3 E A B A2 AB A2 B .

E E A B A2 AB A2 B

A A A2 A2 B E B AB

B B AB E A2 B A A2

A2 A2 E AB A A2 B B

AB AB A2 B A2 B E A

A2 B A2 B B A AB A2 E

which makes closure apparent. The identity is E , the inverses are B 1 = B , A1 = A2 , (AB )1 = BA2 and (BA)1 = A2 B . Associativity again follows from matrix multiplication. The isomorphism with S3 can be established as follows: First recall that S3 = {e, a, a2 , b, ab, a2 b} subject to the relations a3 = e b2 = e ab = ba2 a2 b = ba . 3

So we choose the map from D3 to S3 by Ee Aa Bb AB ab A2 B a2 b . This map is 1 1 and onto and preserves the multiplication of the two groups. (Under this correspondence, the multiplication table of S3 is identical to that of D3 ). So D3 is isomorphic to S3 .