2012 International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Soft Computing Lecture Notes in Information Technology, Vol.

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Dynamic Scheduling in the Holonic Manufacturing Systems Corneliu Neagu1,a, Mircea Gorgoi2,b,*
1

Department of Manufacturing Technology, Politehnica University of Bucharest, 313 Splaiul Independentei, Bucharest 77206, Romania Department of Manufacturing Technology, Politehnica University of Bucharest, 313 Splaiul Independentei, Bucharest 77206, Romania
a

necor_upb@yahoo.com, bmircea_gorgoi@yahoo.com

*Corresponding author.Tel.:+40214029302; e-mail address:mircea_gorgoi@yahoo.com (M. Gorgoi) Keywords: Artificial Intelligence, Intelligent Systems Manufacturing, Holonic Manufacturing System, Multi-Agent Systems, heuristic scheduling.

Abstract. Nowadays, the globalization and mass customization manufacturing make the optimization process an important component. Manufacturing scheduling is an optimization process that allocates limited manufacturing resources in constrained conditions, because of this, over time, among parallel and sequential manufacturing activities. The allocation is constrained by the schedules optimality with respect of the criteria such as cost, tardiness, lateness, due date or throughput. Scheduling problems are difficult. Finding an optimal solution is impossible without using an essentially enumerative algorithm. The computation time increases exponentially with the problem size. 1. Introduction At the end of the 1970s, a few researchers proposed intelligent manufacturing systems as a solution for the new challenge of the adaptable and reconfigurable systems which are more resilient to disturbances and changes. Furthermore, the limitations of current systems, along with market trend motivated the bird of distributed manufacturing system, where autonomous and flexible manufacturing entities cooperate in a coherent and coordinated manner [1, 2, 3]. The Intelligent Manufacturing Systems international research project started at the end of 1980s, with the goal to produce a kind of manufacturing science able to cope with new challenge of the XXI century and provide countries and organizations an independent solution [4, 5]. The IMS project was divided into six feasibility test cases. Holonic Manufacturing Systems is a part of these cases [6]. The Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium, is responsible for HMS subproject within the IMS The project. Here was born a holonic assembly station as a feasibility study for the HMS concept [7, 8]. Mainly, problems in manufacturing (e.g. scheduling) are very complex, have a large dimension and are extremely dynamic. This dynamism influences the solution to the problem, leading to the need of achieving a new solution in real time [9]. This type of scenario is a good candidate for distributed computation and artificial intelligence, namely distributed artificial intelligence (DAI) and multi-agent systems (MAS). This last type of systems, MAS, is properly methodology described as function of HMS and it is able to give a solution for complex, flexible, configurable and reorganization structures concept for the flexible manufacturing enterprise. In summary, MAS methodology is a general software technology motivated by fundamental research queries on subjects like autonomy, cooperation, group formation, etc. It is focused on answering questions like what can be done? and how can it be done?, and is applicable to a
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large range of domains: e-commerce, intelligent manufacturing, control, robotics, information recovery, etc. 2. Artificial Intelligence methodologies and techniques for the development of intelligent machines and systems 2.1 HMS State-of-the-art A holonic manufacturing system is based on the concept of holonic systems, developed by Arthur Koestler [10]. Holon is an entity which composes the holonic system and arose by putting together two notions whole and parts. In Kostlers point of view about living and organizational systems is difficult to separate firmly these notions. He said that almost everything is both a whole and a part at the same time. Koestler proposed the word holon, which is a combination of the Greek word holos, meaning whole and the Greek suffix on, meaning particle or part, as in proton or neutron. The cooperation between entities called holons, led to a holonic organization or holarchy. The holonic organization was an idea for Suda to introduce the concept of holonic manufacturing system in the early 1990s [11]. In this moment, a lot of researchers, experts, scientists and engineers start an international collaboration to build a framework for an Intelligent Manufacturing System (IMS) which is organized as a Holonic Manufacturing System (HMS) consortium. As a State-of-the-Art of the HMS, the specialist literature covering the theoretical issue and industrial application created a holon architecture, holons interconnection, operation, algorithms for holonic control and methodology for HMS development. It started from Christensens architecture. He proposed a holon with a two parts, a physical processing part and an information processing part, which is capable to take a decision by a behavioral control and specific cooperation techniques, using the communication techniques, in order to reach the task of its goal. The next project, proposed by The Keele University, used oriented agents and function blocks, [12, 13] by integrating in the architecture the IEC standards, those become an artificial intelligent component using an agent methodology. Here appeared the composed holons that are used to manage planning strategies to control level. Deen and Fletcher proposed a computational model for tasks reorganization, based on temperature equilibrium concepts. Brenan and Norrie composed holonic agent architecture, using agents for the deliberative layer and function blocks for physical control layer by a data table [14]. The German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence (DFKI) developed an agent-based architecture to implement holonic systems [15], using the three concurrent layer agent architecture INTERRAP proposed by Muller. The function of the HMS is realized on the interconnection and operation architectures needed a lot of research. In this stage, is defined the Architecture for HMS. In principal, the project tried to develop these architectures such as: MetaMorph I, ABCDE (agent based concurrent design environment), DIDE (distributed design environment), FBIICDE (feature-based integrated and intelligent concurrent design system) and MetaMorph II which use a dynamic virtual cluster in the domain cooperative of architecture. Also appear types of holons or primary holons, like in PROSA architecture (Product-Resource-Order-Staff Architecture) [16] which propose the product holons, resource holons and order holons. These are references at holonic architecture for HMS that has been widely adopted. Other architecture is ADACOR (adaptive holonic control architecture) developed as a holonic approach for the dynamic adaptation and agility in the front of the disturbances in FMSs (flexible manufacturing systems) [17]. The similar architecture with PROSA is HCBA (holonic-component-based-architecture) [18] which is derived from CBD (component-based-development) and HMS. HCBA defines two main holons: product and resource. In Figure 1 are shown the interconnection, communication and functionality between the basically holons: order, product, resource and scheduler. Here is a development of the basically architecture defined by authors PROSA. The order, product and resource holons were described in the work [18].
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The new entity, defined as Scheduler Holon, is capable to issue and develop itself strategy by a Contract Net Protocol holon, and more than, the global strategy for entire HMS. How it can be done is presented in the next section.

Figure 1 Holonic Manufacturing System Labirint

2.2 Scheduling in HMS As a part of basic function, the scheduling process is like the blood in an organism, which makes possible the life in the system. All the informations about product, resource or accessory and the relationships between them is found in this central process sequence planners. 2.2.1 Scheduler Holon In the PROSA architecture Bongaerts et al [19] is defined that a staff holon notion could be an centralized scheduler of a shop. It has an overview of all resources and all orders, it generates an optimal schedule and it gives this schedule as advice to the individual order holon and to the resource holons. After the scheduler holon was created, this has to implement a different algorithms for scheduling, and also a specific organization (holarchies) for holons in the systems. Researchers propose a different approach to realize the scheduling. For example, Gou et al. [20] perform scheduling by decomposing the problem into sub-problems, using Lagrangian relaxation. Leitao and Barbosa use the traditional practice [21] fail and recover transformed into predict and prevent practice. Walker et al. compare performance results with pure heuristic scheduling and randomly generated mixed heuristic [22]. Kotak et al. use the JADE platform for the scheduling holonic control [23]. A significant research effort has been dedicated to holonic scheduling algorithms. A lot of research was focused on the flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) like in Gou et al. [24,], assembly lines in Sugimura et al. [25], job-shop [26], assembly and machining work cell in Heikkila et al. [27, 28]. The reason for the large number of activities in this field is the high level of knowledge in the intelligent technique [29] and algorithms for factory distributed control [30, 31], due to the fact that both of them are similar to the holonic approach. The scheduling problem consists in defining a schedule that can meet all the timing and logical constraints of the task being scheduled. This problem, in its general form, was NP-complete [32]. In a heuristic approach, which can obtain a near-optimal solution in a relatively short period, is more appreciated and practical. Many different heuristic methodologies have been proposed. For example: dispatching rules, such as first-in-first out, shortest processing time, and critical ratio, etc [33]. 2.2.2 Heuristic Priority Rules Approach
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The implementation of priority rules approach to the scheduling process is to see the system as a number of flexible intervals of time (available resource times) and a number of succeed items (the ordering job time that need to be scheduled), with the scheduling mechanism activity as the Brownian excitation that causes the items to fall into low-energy job slots (jobs to be scheduled for a certain time on a certain resource) [34]. In the holonic systems, the Brownian motion excitation has a similar process developed by Deen and Fletcher, which defined in holarchy as a reorganization of a temperature equilibrium concept [35] with scope to put in balance the scheduling mechanism. When appears a delayed task, the scheduler holon may experience overloads and this makes the holon to increase temperature, as a hot holon, like in the Brownian motion, where the particle excited emitts the heat. Thus, when a holon realizes that its temperature is over a predefined threshold, informs the other holon in the holarchy of the situation. If there is a cool holon that can manage the task in hand, it starts a negotiation interaction with the hot holon, in order to transfer the task [36]. The auto-organization of the entire systems is achieved when the holarchies that make up the systems try to maintain temperature equilibrium due to the fact that the holons and holarchies have a recursive property. Holarchies are recursive in the sense that a holon may itself be an entire holarchy, as an autonomous and cooperative unit in the enclosing [37]. The list of priority rules is created in general by constrains function conditions or criteria rules. From experience, these criteria could be: makespan, early or tardy dates, due date, precedence constrain or successiveness, completion time, etc. Function of point of view of the Jobs or the Resource is possible to create a tuples with criteria weighted of rule. By combination of these criteria, it can obtained a various scenarios of priority list. The implementation system of heuristic and priority rules for scheduling is a complex process and function of constrain. This could be various, such as: FIFO (first in-first out), FCFS (first come-first served), LWR (least work remaining), MWKR (most work remaining), SPT (shortest processing time), LOPNUR (least operations remaining), MOPNR (most operations remaining) [34]. Although there are many conventional sequencing rules, such as the shortest processing time rule, each rule shows different performances according to the state of shop-floor. In recent years, some other heuristic methodologies have been widely adopted, such as branch and bound, hill climbing, ant colony optimization (ACO), simulated annealing, Tabu search, genetic algorithm (GA) and many others. 2.2.3 Negotiation and Decision Making Process The cooperative negotiation between order holon, product holon, resource holon and scheduler holon, is realized by combining the mediation mechanism based on the Contract Net Protocol for generating and maintaining dynamically production schedules. The Contract Net Protocol is a negotiation protocol proposed by Smith in 1980, which facilitates distributing subtask among various intelligent agents [38]. An agent is an autonomous and flexible computational system that is able to act in an environment [39]. A multi-agent system (MAS) is a computational system where two or more agents interact (cooperate or compete, or a combination of them) to achieve some individual or collective goals. The achievement of these goals is beyond the individual capabilities and individual knowledge of each agent [36]. In the previously paragraph we mentioned that MAS is the properly methodology, due to the fact that the agent concept is similar with holonic conceptual approach. Flexibility of the agents means that it is reactive, proactive with the following properties: autonomy, social ability, rationality, reactivity, pro-activeness, adaptability, mobility, veracity and benevolence [40, 41]. Those agents are the instrument of work of the Contract Net Protocol (CNP) mechanism and they cooperate between different type of holons (i.e. order, product, resource, etc.). When the CNP is used, the agents want to get a task from holons. When the principal agent sends a request message to one or more agents and gets replies, it awards a contract to the best offer, according to a selection criteria determined by the principal agent [42]. The principal agent is the agent which is appealed in the zero moment or in real-time moment. When the principal agent announces the messages to other agents, called task agents, the last agents, according to its knowledge, start to bid mechanism regarding to information about criterion of constraints. For example, one of the criterion of constrain could be
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processing time and cost. The bids process will evaluate the prioritized list of criteria of negotiation. If is not possible to schedule the order, the task agent will recombine the resource holons and perform a new negotiation. A renegotiation may also be necessary if the orders condition change (i.e. anticipate due date, delayed, etc.) [9]. After that, the awards is announced, the decision is made by an award message on notice type to the selected agent, which then offers a time slot and reserves it for scheduling. This time slot now becomes unavailable to other task [43]. The list of the criteria could be based on a different requests of constrain such as cost model [44], the task tardiness treated by weighted cost implemented with a simple Monte Carlo method, or other optimization method such as Genetic Algorithm (GA)[45] and Simulated Annealing [46]. In the job-shop level, where is a low-level control, Christensen proposed [47] the agent with Function Block IEC 61499 standards [48, 49], while for the high-level control, where is a holon negotiation or coordination or staff holon in holarchies, he proposed using FIPA (Foundation for Intelligent Physical Agents) [50]. In this paper we will suppose that all agents which are announced could be a crowded feasible region of the problem space and they try to be a winner by a bid mechanism. The bid mechanism is a method of computing fitness value by the PARETO domination (or prevalence) relation and then to assign the fitness value [51]. The domination relation between two value candidates, is denoted by the symbol , and is defined if following two conditions in the same time: A. p1 dominate p2 if fi(p1) fi(p2), i {1,2,,z} (1) B. p1 is strict much better than p2 in one less objective, if i {1,2,,z} such as fi(p1) < fi(p2), (2) where fi is objective function, and fi(p) is solution candidate of fitness value. Those will have a PARETO frontier of solution candidates which will try to occupy the best of solution as is shown in Figure 2, where the agent An is the best solution.

f2
The arrow explain that each agent A} try to minimized their position by minimizing f1 or f2 functions. They bids to occupy the best of solution/ position. In this case the agent An is the best solution which dominate other candidates.

y Ar

Aq y y Ap Ay n

Feasible Region

Ao y

Optimal PARETO frontier

f1
The imaginary GATE region in the optimal zone

Figure 2 Optimal PARETO in the objective solution space of agents candidate

In this case, the solution candidates try to converge to the best place or position. In our research, the best place is the slot time (minimum time interval for processing). So, to resume, the fitness value is the solution candidate between values p1 and p2, computing by a domination PARETO relation. Who are p1 and p2 values? As we mention in the previously paragraph 2.2.2, the job is waiting to process in the system by under a priority list. The priority list is created on a criterion rules and constrain condition base. Functions on the criteria rules or constrain condition, defined a priori
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when is made the order at zero moment or in real-time, each agent intelligent has information regarding to this criteria by a tuple information as is defined in section 2.2.2. If is not realized the domination condition such as is presented in the Figure 3, then criteria rules or constrain condition will be change in a new iteration by a permutation method in the tuple list. In the Figure 3 is depicted the influence of the agent Ap of the dominated solution and of the dominating solution. The Ap becomes a minimization bi-objective problem. Constrain condition or criteria rule is represented by the function objective f1 and f2. In this way, by iteration of the computing a value of function objective with dominance PARETO relation, we will find an optimal solution of the criteria rules who has a high priority to start processing in the system. This way, the Intelligent Agent, which has precious information, will bid for a best of position. Obviously, it occur a population of solution candidates to be assigning in a ranking algorithm. The ranking algorithm is subject of another research work.
f2 Space of Individuals agents dominated by Ap

{ {

y Ar
{ { { { {

Aq

y Ap
{ { { { { {

yAo

y An
Space of Individuals agents who dominate Ap

f1

Fig. 3. The PARETO domination relation of the individuals agents

2.3 Heterarchy and hierarchy organization As we are able to can observe, the agent methodology approach in the HMS can offer a solution for increase the flexibility of the organization, due to the fact that the agent properties, in particular the autonomy and so on, and the HMS program concept as one consisting of autonomous holons with distributed control. The aim is to attain the benefits that holonic organization provides to living organisms and societies, in manufacturing, i.e., stability of the stimulus of changes, and efficient use of available resources. In this manner, the agents start to bid in the heterarchic way and the end of bids establish the winner, which fix the hierarchy between agents. The HMS concept combines the best features of hierarchical and heterarchical organization [31], or how said Duffie and Prabhu in [32] like as a real-time solution for distributed scheduling. The combination of the decision making in vertical up and down, or top and bottom action (hierarchy) and horizontal action (heterarchy) assure a high level of control of the HMS, the efficiency of the control have been in the real-time how is show in the Figure 1. 3. Literature review Research in holonic scheduling has its roots in intelligent scheduling techniques [30, 52] and in distributed factory control algorithm [31, 32, 53, 54]. The key areas where research has been initiated in holonic scheduling are as follows, taken in part from [55]: flexible manufacturing systems [20,57],
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assembly lines [26], job shop [27], assembly and machining cells [29, 58], continuous process lines [59, 60], plant wide maintenance [61] and genetic scheduling methods [62,63]. In the paper, [55] McFarlane and Bussmann describe few themes in HMS scheduling research, such as: (1) central vs distributed problem formation, (2) local decision-making/computational techniques, (3) cooperative interaction strategy, (4) interchange mechanism, and (5) degree of central coordination. All of these holonic scheduling approaches are being reported of having some degree of central coordination [34]. In this paper, we propose a scheduling mechanism without a central coordinate, the subsequent principles of work in which this system has heterarchic approach which works in an independent manner, and the function of the central coordinator is replaced by the agents task. Here is presented a simple and efficient dynamic manufacturing scheduling mechanism combining a mediation mechanism based on heterarchical and hierarchical mediators with a bidding mechanism by a mix of heuristic methodology with a mathematical support and priority rules by a PARETO distribution dominance in a Contract Net Protocol. 4. Conclusion and future work Solution approaches for scheduling problems mainly come from the field of Operations Research (OR) and Artificial Intelligence (AI). In contrast to OR approach to scheduling, which are focused on optimization and which were mainly covered in the preceding chapters, AI relies on satisfaction, i.e. it is sufficient to generate solutions which are accepted by the decision maker. Although the OR-and AI-based solution approaches are different, many efforts of either disciplines for investigating scheduling problems are similar; examples are the development of priority rules, the investigation of bottleneck resources and constraint-based scheduling. With priority scheduling as a job or task oriented approach, and with bottleneck scheduling as a resource-oriented one, two extremes for rule-based schedule generation exist. [63]. The new modern methods for scheduling study have a very large domains of research, such as is mathematical programming or optimization which consist in finding value, or the maximum possible value, subject to a number of constraints all these variables must satisfy. When the number of variables or constraints is too high, this operation turns out to be quite complex. Mix of the heuristic method and mathematical approach by identifying the specified functions with constraint conditions can find an unpredictable solution even if the exact method does not have a solution. The PARETO distribution dominance method could be an efficient optimization method to find the optimal best of solution on satisfaction. 5. Acknowledgement This work was funded by the POLITEHNICA University Bucharest Romania and financial supported by the FSE POSDRU/107/1.5/S/76909 EU Program. References [1] J. Solberg and R. Kashyap, ERC research in intelligent manufacturing systems, In Proceedings of the IEEE, 8(1), pp.25-41, 1993. [2] P. Sousa, N. Silva, T. Heikkila, M. Kallingbaum and P. Valckenaers, Aspects of cooperation in distributed manufacturing systems, Studies in Informatics and Control Journal, 9(2), pp.89-110, 2000. [3] A. Tharumarajah, A Wells and L. Nemes, Comparison of Bionic, Fractal and Holonic manufacturing concepts, In International Journal of Computer Integrated Manufacturing, 9(3), PP.217-226, 1996. [4] H. Hayashi, The IMS international collaborative program, In Proceedings of the 24th International Symposium on Industrial Robots, Japan Industrial Robot Association, 1993.
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