Classical Control Notes

M. C. Berg

Version: 31 October 2000

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Page 1 of 14 Residue Theorem Reference: Sec. 17.3 of Advanced Engineering Mathematics by C. R. Wylie. Theorem: If F(s) is an analytic (i.e., differentiable) function of s except at a finite number of poles each of which lies to the left of a vertical line Real(s) = a, and if sF(s) is bounded as s becomes infinite through the half plane Real(s) a, then f(t) = L1 [F(s)] = residues of F(s)est at each of its poles. (Note that est has only zeros.) Theorem: If F(s) has a pole of order m at s=p, then the residue of F(s) at s=p is 1 dm 1 lim [(s p)m F(s)] (m 1)! s p ds m 1 Key Points: 1. The character of f(t) is completely determined by the poles of F(s). 2. The contribution to f(t) of the portion of f(t) due to each pole of F(s) is a function of the gain and all of the poles and all of the zeros of F(s).

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Page 2 of 14 Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion The Routh-Hurwitz criterion is used to determine how many roots a polynomial of the form (s) = ansn + an1sn1 + . . . + a0 has in the right half of the s-plane. Procedure: Construct the Routh array: sn: sn1: sn2: sn3: sn4: . . . s0: where: an an2 1 det bn2 = a n1 an1 an3 an an4 1 bn4 = a det n1 an1 an5 ... an an1 bn2 cn3 dn4 . . . x an2 an3 bn4 cn5 dn6 . . . x an4 an5 bn6 cn7 dn8 . . . x ... ... ... ... ... . . . ... 0 0 0 0 0 . . . 0

an an6 1 bn6 = a det n1 an1 an7 an1 an3 1 cn3 = b det n2 bn2 bn4

an1 an5 1 cn5 = b det n2 bn2 bn6 ...

an1 an7 1 cn7 = b det n2 bn2 bn8 . . . Then: . . . . . .

1. The number of sign changes in the first column of the array is equal to the number of roots of (s) in the open right half of the s-plane. 2. If the first element in a row is zero, replace it with a small positive number , then count the sign changes after completing the array when 0.

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Page 3 of 14 3. If all elements of a row are zero, then (s) has a pair of poles symmetrically located about the origin (e.g., at j or ). The coefficients in the row immediately preceding the zero row then define the auxiliary polynomial. The auxiliary polynomial will be a factor of (s) and will have roots symmetrically located about the origin.

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Page 4 of 14 Root Locus Construction Consider a polynomial in s of the form (s) = d(s) + k n(s) where d(s) and n(s) are polynomials in s with no common roots and k is a parameter. Let closed-loop poles = roots of (s) open-loop zeros = roots of n(s) open-loop poles = roots of d(s) With _ n( s ) (s) = 1 + k d(s) = 1+k

b m s m + b m 1s m 1 + K + b 0 s n + a n 1s n 1 + K + a 0 b m (s + z1 )(s + z 2 )L(s + z m ) (s + p1 )(s + p 2 )L(s + p n )

= 1+k

The zeros of (s) (i.e., the values of s such that (s) = 0) coincide one-to-one with the roots of (s) for 0 < |k| < . Magnitude condition: n( s ) 1 = magnitude k d(s) Angle condition: n( s ) (2 q + 1) 180o = angle k , d(s) q = 0, 1,K

The following rules (for a 180 degree root locus) can be used to sketch the locations of the closed-loop poles in the s-plane as a function of k, for k 0. 1. For k = 0 the closed-loop poles coincide with the open-loop poles. 2. All sections of the real axis to the left of an odd number of open-loop poles and open-loop zeros are part of the root loci.
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Page 5 of 14

3. The root loci are symmetric about the real axis. 4. There are as many root locus branches as there are open-loop poles. Each branch starts at an openloop pole and goes to an open-loop zero as k . If n > m there are, by definition, nm open-loop zeros at infinity. 5. The nm branches that go to infinity do so along asymptotes. The angles 1, 2,,nm that the asymptotes make with the real axis can be determined from k = 2k 1 180o ; nm k = 1, 2, . . . , nm

6. All asymptotes intersect the real axis at the point (i=1 pi) ( i=1 z i) (sum of open-loop poles) (sum of open-loop zeros) = = nm nm 7. Points of breakaway from or arrival at the real axis may exist. For example, if the real axis between two real open-loop poles is part of the loci, and if that part of the real axis has no open-loop zeros, then a breakaway point exists between the two real-axis open-loop poles. At a breakaway point (arrival point) on the real axis k= d(s) n( s )
n m

is maximized (minimized). Thus, breakaway and arrival points on the real axis are also real zeros of dk [d(s) n(s) d(s) n (s)] = ds n 2 (s) 8. The angle of departure from any open-loop pole or the angle of approach to any open-loop zero can be determined by choosing a trial point close to the open-pole or open-zero and applying the angle condition.

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Page 6 of 14 Nyquist Stability Criterion Consider a characteristic polynomial (s) = d(s) + n(s) where d(s) and n(s) are coprime1 polynomials in s. Let closed-loop poles = roots of (s) open-loop zeros = roots of n(s) open-loop poles = roots of d(s) Let (s) = 1 +

n( s ) d(s)

= 1 + L(s) The number Z of closed-loop poles in the right half of the s-plane can be determined as follows: 1. Choose an s-plane D-contour that encircles the entire right half of the s-plane and detours around any open-loop poles on the imaginary axis. 2. Determine the number, P, of open-loop poles within the D contour. 3. Traverse the D-contour in the clockwise direction and map it into the L(s) plane. 4. Count the number, N, of L(s)-plane clockwise encirclements of the 1 point. 5. Determine Z using N = Z P.

Two polynominals in s are coprime if no value of s is a root of both polynomials.

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Page 7 of 14 Determining Gain and Phase Margins 1. Construct a block-diagram representation of the system for which the gain and phase margins are to be determined. 2. Choose the loop breaking point in the block diagram where the gain and phase margins are to be determined. 3. Insert a k e j block at the loop breaking point you chose in Step 2. 4. Determine the characteristic polynomial (s) for the resulting system. Write (s) as (s) = d(s) + k e j n(s) Here d(s) the portion of (s) that does not multiply k e j and n(s) is the portion that does. 5. Check (e.g., using Matlabs roots command) that all roots of (s) have negative real part (and are where you expect them to be) when k = 1 and = 0. If not, then your system is nominally unstable and it has no gain or phase margins at any loop breaking point. 6. Define L(s) = n( s ) d(s)

This is the loop transfer function for your system for the loop breaking point you chose in Step 2. 7. Plot either the polar plot or the Bode plot of the frequency response of k e j L(s) when k = 1 and = 0 (this will be the same as the polar or the Bode plot of the frequency response of L(s)). 8. Determine, by inspection of your frequency response plot, the smallest k that is larger than one and will cause the polar plot of the frequency response of k e j L(s) to go through the 1 point when = 0. This k value is the positive gain margin for you system for the loop breaking point you chose in Step 2. If no k exists that is larger than one and causes the polar plot of the frequency response of k e j L(s) to go through the 1 point when = 0, then the positive gain margin for your system for the loop breaking point you chose in Step 2 is defined to be infinite. 9. Determine, by inspection of your frequency response plot, the largest nonnegative k that is smaller than one that will cause the polar plot of the frequency response of k e j L(s) to go through the 1 point when = 0. This k value is the negative gain margin for your system for the loop breaking point you chose in Step 2. If no nonnegative k exists that is smaller than one and causes the polar plot of the frequency response of k e j L(s) to go through the 1 point when = 0, then the negative gain margin for your system for the loop breaking point you chose in Step 2 is defined to be zero.

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Page 8 of 14 10. Determine, by inspection of your frequency response plot, the smallest positive or negative that will cause the polar plot of the frequency response of k e j L(s) to go through the 1 point when k = 1. The magnitude of this theta value is the phase margin for you system for the loop breaking point you chose in Step 2.

Notes: 1. Gain margins are most commonly expressed in decibels. This makes the positive gain margin a positive number of decibels and the negative gain margin a negative number of decibels. 2. The 1 point on the polar plot of the frequency response of a system corresponds to a gain of 1 (zero decibels) and a phase angle that is ANY odd multiple of 180 degrees. It particularly important to keep this in mind if you chose to plot only the Bode plot in Step 7. 3. When dealing with a system that has only one feedback loop, the gain and phase margins at all loop breaking points in that loop will be the same (can you show this?). Thus, when dealing with a singleloop system, control engineers often refer to the systems gain and phase margins and this can be taken to mean the gain and phase margins of the system for any loop breaking point in the systems feedback loop. 4. Matlabs margin command returns either the positive gain margin or the negative gain margin, whichever has the smaller magnitude, and the phase margin.

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Page 9 of 14 Root-Locus Lead Compensator Design 1. Translate the design objectives into a specification for the desired dominant closed-loop pole locations. 2. Assume the compensator form s+z Gc(s) = K s+p 3. Choose values for z and p such that the angle criterion is satisfied at the desired dominant closed-loop pole locations for some value of K. 4. Determine a value for K such that the magnitude criterion is satisfied at the desired dominant closedloop pole locations. 5. Test for satisfaction of the design objectives. If the design objectives are not satisfied, repeat the procedure using different desired dominant closed-loop pole locations and/or different values for z and p.

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Page 10 of 14 Loop Shaping Lead Compensator Design 1. Translate the design objectives into specifications for2: (i) The loop transfer function crossover frequency. (ii) The minimum gain of the loop transfer function at low frequencies. (iii) The phase margin. 2. Assume the compensator form G c (s) = K p s + z z s + p

3. Construct a Bode plot of the loop transfer function with Gc(s) = K and K set to a value such that specifications (i) and (ii) are satisified. 4. From your Bode plot, determine the crossover frequency m and the amount of additional phase lead m that is needed at the crossover frequency to satisfy the phase margin specification. 5. Determine p and z using m = z p and p z = 1 + sin m 1 sin m

6. Test for satisfaction of the design objectives. If the design objectives are not satisfied, repeat the procedure selecting different specifications in Step 1.

Oftentimes the design objectives will suggest a minimum loop transfer function crossover frequency or a minimum gain of the loop transfer function at low frequencies, but not both.

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Page 11 of 14

Bode of

p s + z with p > z z s + p

Magnitude (Log Scale)

p z

z p

wz

wm

wp

Frequency (rad/sec)

m
Phase (deg)

wz

wm

wp

Frequency (rad/sec)

p m = z p sin m = z p z

1 +1

p z

1 + sin m 1 sin m

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Page 12 of 14 Root-Locus Lag Compensator Design 1. Translate the design objectives into specifications for the dominant closed-loop pole locations and the steady-state tracking error constant. 2. Assume the compensator form s + z Gc(s) = K s + p Let Gc(s) = K and construct a root locus of the closed-loop poles versus K. Determine a value for K so as to achieve the desired dominant closed-loop pole locations. If this is not possible, design a lead compensator so that it will be possible, then return to Step 1. 3. Using Gc(s) = K and the K value you determined in Step 2, determine the factor by which the steady-state tracking error constant must be increased in order to satisfy the steady-state tracking error constant specification. 4. Determine z and p using z =p and such that the difference between the angle of the pole and the angle of the zero measured from the desired dominant closed-loop pole locations is less than 2. 5. Test for satisfaction of the design objectives. If the design objectives are not satisfied, repeat the procedure using different specifications for the dominant closed-loop pole locations and the steadystate tracking error constant.

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Page 13 of 14 Loop Shaping Lag Compensator Design 1. Translate the design objectives into specifications for3: (i) The loop transfer function crossover frequency. (ii) The minimum gain of the loop transfer function at low frequencies. (iii) The phase margin. 2. Assume the compensator form Gc (s) = s + z s + p

3. Construct a Bode plot of the loop transfer function with Gc(s) = 1. 4. From your Bode plot, check to see if specifications (i) and (iii) are satisfied. If not, design a lead compensator to satisfy them, then return to Step 1. 5. From your Bode plot, determine the factor by which the lag compensator must boost the gain of the loop transfer function at low frequencies compared to the crossover frequency, in order to satisfy specification (ii). 6. To make sure that the lag compensator will not add too much phase lag to the loop transfer function frequency response at the crossover frequency, choose z to be at least a factor of ten less than the crossover frequency. 7. Determine p using = z p

8. Test for satisfaction of the design objectives. If the design objectives are not satisfied, repeat the procedure selecting different specifications in Step 1.

Oftentimes the design objectives will suggest a minimum loop transfer function crossover frequency or a minimum gain of the loop transfer function at low frequencies, but not both.

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Page 14 of 14

Bode of

s + z with z > p s +p

Magnitude (Log Scale)

z p

wp
0

wm

wz

Frequency (rad/sec)

Phase (deg)

wp

wm

wz

Frequency (rad/sec)

m =

z p

z 1 p sin m = z +1 p

z 1 + sin m = p 1 sin m

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