Thermocouples A thermocouple is a thermoelectric device for measuring temperature.

A thermocouple is formed by welding or soldering two dissimilar metal alloy wires ( A & B) at one end, which is called the measuring junction or hot junction. The two lead ends are connected to an indicating or controlling device. This connection point is called the reference or cold junction. Isothermal block

Measuring junction

A B

T1

Reference junction

T2 V

Fig. 8 A practical Thermocouple A thermocouple generates an emf (DC voltage) when the measuring junction is exposed to the temperature to be measured. This phenomenon of generating emf is governed by Seebeck, Peltier and Thomson effects. Seebeck effect states that whenever two dissimilar metals are joined together to form a closed loop, an emf is generated which is dependent on the difference of the temperatures of the two junctions. The Seebeck emf is generated because, the spatial distribution of conduction electrons along a conductor is a function of the temperature distribution. A non-uniform electron distribution, at the junctions, results in a net potential difference (emf). When a temperature gradient is established across a conductor, the free carriers at the hot end have more kinetic energy thereby tending to diffuse towards the cold end. As this occurs, a heat current, carried by the diffusing electrons, flows from the hot to cold end. As this heat current is flowing an electric field develops which tends to oppose the heat flow. Thus an emf appears along the conductor which is proportional to the temperature difference. This is referred to as the Seebeck effect. emf K ( T1 - T2) Peltier effect is the reverse of Seebeck effect. It states that whenever an electric current flows through a circuit of dissimilar metals heat is liberated at one junction and heat is absorbed at the other junction depending on the direction of flow of current. The rate at which heat is liberated or absorbed at the junctions is dependent on the amount of current flowing through the circuit and the nature of the two dissimilar metals forming the junctions. Thomson effect states that when current flows along a single homogeneous wire a temperature gradient exists. Heat is liberated at any point where current flows in the same direction as heat flows and heat is absorbed where current flows in the opposite direction as heat flows.

T1

T2

T1 i

T1 - T

T2

T1 + T

T1 + T

T2

T1 - T i

Heat

Heat Fig. 9 Thomson effect

Heat

The errors due to Peltier effect and Thomson effect are negligible in a practical thermocouple circuit and further minimized when the thermocouple is connected to an amplifier with very high input impedance of 1 to 1000 M (instrumentation amplifier). Laws of thermocouple

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1. The emf of a thermocouple is unaffected by temperatures elsewhere in the circuit if the two metals A and B are homogeneous. (Lead wires may be exposed to unknown / varying temperature environment without affecting the voltage produced). 2. If a third homogeneous metal C is inserted in to either A or B, as long as the two new junctions are at same temperature, the net emf is unchanged irrespective of the temperature of C away from the new junctions. 3. If metal C is inserted between A and B at one of the junctions, as long as the two new junctions are at same temperature, the net emf is unchanged irrespective of the temperature of C away from the new junctions. (Laws 2 & 3 make it possible to insert a voltage measuring device in to the circuit to actually measure the emf). 4. If the emf of metals A & C is E A C and that of metals B & C is ECB, then the thermal emf of metals A & B is EA C + ECB . (All possible pairs of metals need not be calibrated since individual metals can be paired with one standard metal and calibrated). 5. If a thermocouple produces emf E1 when its junctions are at T1 and T2 and emf E2 when at temperatures T2 and T3, then it will produce an emf E1 + E2 when the junctions are at temperatures T1 and T3. (Calibration tables are based on the reference junction being at the ice point. When a thermocouple is used, the reference junction may or may not be at the measuring junction temperature).

Figure pertaining to laws of thermo couple, no harmful effect is caused by introducing any number of metals at a thermocouple junction if all connections are kept at the same temperature

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Figure pertaining to laws of thermocouple, the emf of thermocouple A plus the emf of thermocouple B is equal to the emf of thermocouple C

Types of thermocouples While many materials exhibit the thermoelectric effect to some degree, only a small no. of pairs are in wide use. They are platinum / Rhodium, Chromel / Alumel, Copper /constantan, Iron / constantan & chromel / constantan. Each pair exhibits a combination of properties that suit it to a particular class of application. Since the thermoelectric effect is somewhat non-linear, the sensitivity varies with temperature. The maximum sensitivity of any of the above pairs is about 60 V / 0C for chromel constantan at 350 0C. Platinum / Rhodium Platinum is the least sensitive about 6 V / 0C between 0 & 1000C.

Table 3. Types of thermocouples T/C type Metal content in positive leg Metal content in Negative leg Temperature range (Deg. C) Recommended service Oxidising or Reducing Oxidising or Reducing Oxidising Oxidising Oxidising or Inert Oxidising or Inert Oxidising, Vacuum or Inert Reducing or Inert Average sensitivity ( V / 0 C) 40.5 52.6 67.9 38.8 12 10.6 7.6 16.6

T J E K R S B

Copper Constantan Iron Constantan Chromel Constantan Chromel Alumel Platinum Rhodium Platinum Rhodium Platinum Rhodium Tungsten Rhenium

100 % Cu 100 % Fe 90% Ni, 10% Cr 90% Ni, 10% Cr 87% Pt, 13 % Rh 90% Pt, 10 % Rh 70% Pt, 30 % Rh

55% Cu, 45 % Ni 55% Cu, 45 % Ni 55% Cu, 45 % Ni 95% Ni, 5% * 100 % Pt 100 % Pt 94% Pt, 6% Rh 74% W, 26% Re

-200 to + 350 0 to 750 0 to 900 0 to 1250 0 to 1450 0 to 1450 870 to 1700 0 to 2300

95% W, 5% Re

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D G

Tungsten Rhenium Tungsten Rhenium

97% W,3% Re 100 % W

75% W, 25% Re 74% W, 26% Re

0 to 2300 0 to 2300

Reducing or Inert

16 17

* Al , Mn, Si, Co, Fe

Reducing or Inert C, D and G type are not ANSI type.

Copper constantan thermocouple is used at temperatures as low as -200 deg.C. Its upper limit is about 350 deg.C because of the oxidation of copper above this range. Iron-constantan is the most widely used thermocouple for industrial applications and covers the range up to 750 deg.c in oxidizing atmospheres and up to 1000 deg.C in reducing atmosphere. Chromel-alumel are useful up to 1300 deg.C .Their main application, however, is from about 700 to 1200 deg.C in non-reducing atmospheres. The temperature / voltage characteristic is quite linear for this combination. Platinum / Rhodium - Platinum thermocouples are employed mainly in the range 0 to 1450 deg.C. The main features of this combination are its chemical inertness and stability at high temperatures in oxidizing atmospheres. Reducing atmospheres cause rapid deterioration at high temperatures as the thermocouple metals are contaminated by absorbing small quantities of other metals from nearby objects (such as protecting tubes). This difficulty, causing loss of calibration, is unfortunately common to most thermocouple materials above 1000 deg.C. Tungsten/ rhenium tungsten thermocouples are used up to 2300 deg. C in reducing or inert atmospheres. Measurement of the emf may be used as a means of determining the difference in temperature between the measuring junction and reference junction. Thus, if temperature of one of its junctions (reference junction) is at some known temperature, measurement of emf, and hence T, makes it possible to determine the temperature of the other junction (measuring junction). Emf v/s temperature tables for many different material combinations are available. Cold junction compensation Variations in the reference junction temperature will produce changes in the millivolt output, resulting in temperature measurement errors. Therefore, for accurate measurements, the reference junction must remain constant. Compensation for these variations can be provided by placing the reference junction in an ice point bath (00C). Since it is not practical to maintain an ice bath for every application, most instruments are provided with electronic circuitry that takes in to account the variations in reference junction temperature. This is called Cold junction compensation. Generally, in all temperature indicating / controlling instruments, automatic cold junction compensation is provided using a temperature sensor IC. mV corresponding to (for the type of T/C used) ambient temperature (as sensed by the IC sensor located close to reference or cold junction) is added to the T/C generated mV. Thermocouple Extension wires When the temperature indicator or controller is located away from the point of measurement, extension wires are used to shift the reference junction. Thermocouple extension grade wires are made from relatively inexpensive proprietary alloys created to simulate the thermoelectric behaviour of actual thermocouple element over a limited temperature range (max. 200 deg.C). Thermocouple extension wires are used for economy and mechanical flexibility.

Table 4. Types of thermocouple extension wires

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T J E K R&S B

T/C Type Copper Constantan Iron Constantan Chromel Constantan Chromel Alumel Platinum-Rhodium Platinum Platinum-Rhodium Platinum-Rhodium * Compensating extension wires

Symbol TX JX EX KX SX BX

Elements TPX Cu TNX Cu-Ni JPX Fe JNX Cu-Ni EPX Ni-Cr ENX Cu-Ni KPX Ni-Cr KNX Ni-Al SPX Cu * SNX Cu-Ni BPX Cu * BNX Cu

The type of a thermocouple can be identified by the colour of the insulation material. The colour codes followed by various standards are detailed in the following table. Table 5 Thermocouple wire insulation colour code T/C type ANSI MC 96.1 (T/C) B (overall) BP BN E (overall) EP EN J (overall) JP JN K (overall) KP KN N (overall) NP NN R (overall) RP RN S (overall) SP SN T (overall) TP TN ANSI MC 96.1 (Extension) Grey Grey Red Purple Purple Red Black White Red Yellow Yellow Red Orange Orange Red Green Black Red Green Black Red Blue Blue Red UK BS 1843 Germany DIN 43714 Grey Red Grey Black Red Black Blue Red Blue Green Red Green Japan C16101981 Grey Red White Purple Red White Yellow Red White Blue Red White France NF C42323

Brown Purple Red Brown White Red Brown Yellow Red Brown Orange Red

Brown Brown Blue Black Yellow Blue Red Brown Blue

Black Yellow Black Yellow Yellow Purple

Brown Blue Red

Green White Blue Green White Blue Blue White Blue

White Red White Brown Red Brown

Black Red White Black Red White Brown Red White

Green Yellow Green Blue Yellow Blue.

When thermocouple wires are heated and cooled, physical and chemical changes take place. Physically, the molecular structure of the thermocouple metal changes. Chemically, the thermocouple wires react with oxygen or other substances causing changes in chemical composition of the thermocouple wire. The chemical reactions are accelerated at higher temperature. These will cause drift in the thermocouple output which necessitates periodic calibration.

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Table 6 Thermocouple tolerances (initial calibration) T/C type E J K,N T B R,S C,D,G Tolerances Standard Special (premium grade) 1.7o C or 0.5 % rdg 1.0o C or 0.4 % rdg 2.2o C or 0.75 % rdg 1.1o C or 0.4 % rdg o 2.2 C or 0.75 % rdg 1.1o C or 0.4 % rdg 1.0o C or 0.75 % rdg 0.5o C or 0.4 % rdg 0.5 % rdg o o 1.5 C or 0.25 % rdg 0.6 C or 0.1 % rdg 4.5o C or 1.0 % rdg ( whichever is greater)

Physical properties of thermocouple or extension wires : Abrasion resistance Moisture resistance Chemical resistance Fabrication of thermocouple Prior to being joined, the thermo elements are straightened to fabricate insertion in to ceramic insulators. In this operation care should be taken to avoid excessive clod working of the wires which has a deleterious effect on the emf of the thermocouple. After being cut to the desired length, the thermocouple wires are cleaned ( to remove lubricant residue, finger prints and other contaminants ) with a suitable solvent such as Methyl-ethyl-ketone Isopropyl alcohol prior to joining. For applications below 500 0 C, base metal thermocouple wires may be silver brazed using borax as flux. Above this temperature, T/C junctions are usually prepared by welding. Noble metal thermocouple T/Cs should always be welded. Welding is usually done using gas, electric arc, resistance, TIG and plasma arc processes. In gas welding, a neutral flame is required ( preferably oxidizing for noble metals). Prior to welding, the ends of types T, J, E and K T/C wires are first twisted one and a half turns. Effecting a hot junction in a sheathed thermocouple requires a high degree of skill and considerable care. After the sheath has been stripped away, joining usually is done by Tungsten arc or Plasma arc welding. An oven capable of continuous operation ( @ 90 0 C) should be available for storage of unsealed sheathed thermocouples during unavoidable delays in forming of junctions to minimize pick up of airborne moisture and other contaminants. Protective sheath : To isolate / insulate the leads from one another in a thermocouple, ceramic beads can be used ( for exposed junction type). When the thermocouple wire diameter is very small and if the thermocouple is to be protected from corrosive or erosive atmosphere, sheathed thermocouples are used. A sheathed thermocouple has a metallic or ceramic outer sheath and the space around the thermocouple wire inside the sheath is filled with compacted insulating powder. Material of metallic sheath can be SS ( 900 0C), Hastelloy ( 12650C) or inconel (11750C) depending on the application. The insulating material can be high purity magnesium oxide( 13700C) or alumina oxide or SiO2( around 1500 0C) or beryllium oxide ( 19000C) depending on the operating conditions. BeO is used with tungstenrhenium conductors and molybdenum or tantalum sheath. The insulating material has to be a good electrical insulator and a very good thermal conductor. Junction styles

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Fig.11. Thermocouple junction styles

Sheath

Exposed

Grounded

Ungrounded

Exposed junction : T/C wires are butt welded, and insulation is sealed against liquid or gas penetration. This junction style provides the fastest possible response time but leaves the thermocouple wires unprotected against corrosive or mechanical damage. Grounded junction : The sheath and conductors are welded together, forming a completely sealed integral junction. Recommended in the presence of liquids, moisture, gas or high pressure. The wire is protected from corrosive and erosive conditions. Response time approaches that of exposed junction. Ungrounded junction : The thermocouple junction is fully insulated from the welded sheath end. The ungrounded junction is excellent for critical electrical applications and where strong emf would affect the reading for frequent or rapid temperature cycling. Response time is slightly longer than for the grounded junction. Thermowells Thermowells are manufactured from drilled bar stock and they provide a pressure tight connection at the point of installation. With thick walls, thermowells are sturdy enough to handle high pressure, high velocity and corrosive environments. Thermowells are welded or screwed to tanks or pipes. Care should be taken to have sufficient length of thermowell immersed in the process liquid. Thermocouple which is inserted in to the thermowell will be protected from the corrosive process fluid. Protecting tubes Both ceramic and metal (pipe type) protecting tubes serve the purpose of protecting the temperature sensor from harsh environments. Unlike thermowells, they are not designed for pressure tight applications. Advantages of thermocouples : Thermocouples can be used over range of temperatures and optimized for various atmospheres. They are rugged and can be welded to a metal part or clamped under a screw. Note : Type N (Nicrosil Nisil) thermocouple: ------------------------------------------------Positive leg: 84.4% Ni, 14.2%Cr, 1.4%Si, Negative leg: 95.5% Ni, 4.5% Si, Operating range: 0 to 1250 deg. C Stability and drift factors are similar to noble metal thermocouples. Can be used where K type cannot be used. Very high immunity to neutron bombardment.

Resistance temperature detector ( RTD)

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Resistivity of metals are dependent on temperature; Resistivity = Resistance (c/s area / length). Resistance thermometry is based on increase in electrical resistance of metals (conductors) with increase in temperature. For most of the metallic materials, the variation of resistance R with temperature can be represented by an equation of the form

R = Ro (1 + a1 T + a2 T 2 + ..+ an T n)
where Ro = resistance at 0 0 C and a1 ,a2 an are coefficients. The no. of terms necessary depends on the material, the accuracy required and the temperature range to be covered. The standard formula used for practical considerations is R=R 0 (1 + T) where is the temperature coefficient of resistance. is given by (R100 - R0 / 100 R0) Most of the metal conductors have positive temperature coefficient.

Table 2 RTD material and temperature range Metal Temp. range Temp. coefficient of (deg.C) resistance (ohms / ohms / deg.C) Platinum -200 to 650 0.00385 Nickel -100 to 260 0.00672 Copper -100 to 205 0.00427

8
R/R0 Nickel Copper Platinum

1 - 200 0 Temperature 800 deg.C Fig.4 Resistance / temperature curves 400

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Criteria for consideration of a metal for RTD : Good temperature coefficient of resistance Linear temperature v/s resistance charactistic Good repeatability & Stability Good mechanical properties (to draw in to required form) Cost

Platinum metal is available in the pure form and can be drawn in to a very fine wire. Its linear characteristic response makes it to be considered for standard RTD for temperature interpretation from 13K to 960 deg.C (usage of copper and nickel RTDs is rather limited). This sensing wire (usually of 0.025 mm dia.) can be wound on a ceramic insulator to the required form, size and shape (wire-wound type RTD). An RTD can be formed by depositing a thin film of metal on to a ceramic substrate (thin film type RTD). The entire piece is housed in a metallic case for protection from the process fluid. The choice of casing metal depends on the application. Casing metal should have good thermal conductivity for quicker response. SS316, SS304, Inconel, Hastelloy, Monel etc. are the generally used case materials. Care has to be taken to fabricate the RTD in strain free condition to avoid inaccuracies or damage. Construction of an RTD and thermowell are shown in annexure-1. A RTD uses a base resistance value. For eg. most platinum RTDs have a base value of 100 ohms at zero deg.C. Some platinum RTDs, however, have a base resistance of 500 ohms or even 1000 ohms at zero deg.C. Cu RTDs have a base resistance of 10 -25 ohms generally and never more than 100 ohms. Nickel RTDs will have 10 1000 ohms base resistance. Temperature range : Platinum deg.C. -200 to 960 deg.C, Nickel -200 to 250 deg.C and Copper up to 150

The advantages of RTDs are stability, repeatability and accuracy. Disadvantages are expensive (platinum, which is widely used, is expensive), limited temperature range, slow response ( the entire RTD element must reach a uniform temperature). The response time of the RTD depends on the size and cladding material. The time constant for RTDs is 1 sec. to a few seconds. A precision RTD has a drift of about 0.0025 0C/year. Industrial grade RTDs have a drift of 0.1 0C/year. The resistance of the lead wires will cause errors in temperature measurement using a RTD. To avoid this each RTD has to be calibrated for a particular set of lead wires, which is not practical. To compensate for the lead errors, 3-wire and 4-wire lead compensation techniques are used and a bridge circuit is used for measuring the RTD resistance.

2 wire RTD

3 wire RTD

4 wire RTD

Fig.5 Different RTD configurations

Bridge configurations for 2-wire and 3-wire RTDs are as shown below in fig.6.

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R1 O/p R4 a

R2

R1 O/p b R3 ( RTD) R4
Fig.6

R2

c b

R3 (RTD)

R1 + R4 = R2 + a+ R3 +b If R1 = R2 R4 = a +b + R3

R1 + R4 + b +a = R2+ c +R3 + a If R1 = R2 and a=b=c R4 = R3

In bridge circuit, the RTD forms one arm of the bridge. Imbalance in the bridge (due to change in resistance of RTD) will result in output change. The resistance of the lead wires can get added to the resistance of RTD and introduce an error. This can be eliminated by using 3-wire compensation technique. In a 3-wire compensation technique ( RTD has three leads), two leads are in the two arms of the bridge and the third lead forms part of the power supply return line. It is assumed here that the 3 lead wires are similar and have the same resistance. To further minimize the error, say for laboratory measurement, four wire compensation technique is used where the RTD wires ( 4-wire RTD) are interchanged to both sides of the bridge one after the other. The difference in the two readings will give the error. Apart from the bridge circuit, the resistance of RTD can be measured with the help of a constant current source as shown below. Very low current, around 1 mA, is used for excitation to avoid self heating error. An amplifier with very high input impedance draws no current through the measuring lead wires eliminating error due to lead resistance. RL3 i ex

i=0
RTD sensor RL1 RL2 Voltmeter Constant current source

i=0
RL4 Fig.7. Thermistor 4 Wire ohmmeter technique

A thermistor is a type of resistor used to measure temperature changes, relying on the change in its resistance with changing temperature. Thermistor is a combination of the words thermal and resistor. The Thermistor was first invented by Samuel Ruben in 1930, and has U.S. Patent #2,021,491. If we assume that the relationship between resistance and temperature is linear (i.e. we make a first-order approximation), then we can say that: R = kT where R = change in resistance Page 10 of 15

T = change in temperature k = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance Thermistors can be classified into two types depending on the sign of k. If k is positive, the resistance increases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor, Posistor. If k is negative, the resistance decreases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor. Resistors that are not thermistors are designed to have the smallest possible k, so that their resistance remains almost constant over a wide temperature range.

Steinhart Hart equation

In practice, the linear approximation (above) works only over a small temperature range. For accurate temperature measurements, the resistance/temperature curve of the device must be described in more detail. The Steinhart-Hart equation is a widely used third-order approximation:

where a, b and c are called the Steinhart-Hart parameters, and must be specified for each device. T is the temperature in kelvin and R is the resistance in ohms. To give resistance as a function of temperature, the above can be rearranged into:

where

and The error in the Steinhart-Hart equation is generally less than 0.02C in the measurement of temperature. As an example, typical values for a thermistor with a resistance of 3000 at room temperature (25C = 298.15 K) are: a = 1.4010 - 3 b = 2.3710 - 4 c = 9.9010 - 8

B parameter equation
NTC thermistors can also be characterised with the B parameter equation, which is essentially the Steinhart Hart equation with c=0.

where the temperatures are in kelvin. Using the expansion only to the first order yields: or R = reB / T or Page 11 of 15

where R0 is the resistance at temperature T0 (usually 25 C=298.15 K)

Conduction model
Many NTC thermistors are made from a pressed disc or cast chip of a semiconductor such as a sintered metal oxide. They work because raising the temperature of a semiconductor increases the number of electrons able to move about and carry charge - it promotes them into the conducting band. The more charge carriers that are available, the more current a material can conduct. This is described in the formula: I = electric current (ampere) n = density of charge carriers (count/m) A = cross-sectional area of the material (m) v = velocity of charge carriers (m/s) e = charge of an electron (e = 1.60210 - 19 coulomb) The current is measured using an ammeter. Over large changes in temperature, calibration is necessary. Over small changes in temperature, if the right semiconductor is used, the resistance of the material is linearly proportional to the temperature. There are many different semiconducting thermistors and their range goes from about 0.01 Kelvin to 2,000 Kelvins (273.14C to 1,700C). Most PTC thermistors are of the "switching" type, which means that their resistance rises suddenly at a certain critical temperature. The devices are made of a doped polycrystalline ceramic containing barium titanate (BaTiO3) and other compounds. The dielectric constant of this ferroelectric material varies with temperature. Below the Curie point temperature, the high dielectric constant prevents the formation of potential barriers between the crystal grains, leading to a low resistance. In this region the device has a small negative temperature coefficient. At the Curie point temperature, the dielectric constant drops sufficiently to allow the formation of potential barriers at the grain boundaries, and the resistance increases sharply. At even higher temperatures, the material reverts to NTC behaviour. The equations used for modeling this behaviour were derived by W. Heywang and G. H. Jonker in the 1960s. Another type of PTC thermistor is the polymer PTC, which is sold under brand names such as "Polyfuse", "Polyswitch" and "Multiswitch". This consists of a slice of plastic with carbon grains embedded in it. When the plastic is cool, the carbon grains are all in contact with each other, forming a conductive path through the device. When the plastic heats up, it expands, forcing the carbon grains apart, and causing the resistance of the device to rise rapidly. Like the BaTiO3 thermistor, this device has a highly nonlinear resistance/temperature response and is used for switching, not for proportional temperature measurement.

Self-heating effects
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When a current flows through a thermistor, it will generate heat which will raise the temperature of the thermistor above that of its environment. If the thermistor is being used to measure the temperature of the environment, this self-heating effect will introduce an error if a correction is not made. The electrical power input to the thermistor is just where I is current and V is the voltage drop across the thermistor. This power is converted to heat, and this heat energy is transferred to the surrounding environment. The rate of transfer is well described by Newton's law of cooling: where T(R) is the temperature of the thermistor as a function of its resistance R, T0 is the temperature of the surroundings, and K is the dissipation constant, usually expressed in units of milliwatts per C. At equilibrium, the two rates must be equal. The current and voltage across the thermistor will depend on the particular circuit configuration. As a simple example, if the voltage across the thermistor is held fixed, then by Ohm's Law we have I = V / R and the equilibrium equation can be solved for the ambient temperature as a function of the measured resistance of the thermistor:

The dissipation constant is a measure of the thermal connection of the thermistor to its surroundings. It is generally given for the thermistor in still air, and in well stirred oil. Typical values for a small glass bead thermistor are 1.5 mw/C in still air and 6.0 mw/C in stirred oil. If the temperature of the environment is known beforehand, then a thermistor may be used to measure the value of the dissipation constant. For example, the thermistor may be used as a flow rate sensor, since the dissipation constant increases with the rate of flow of a fluid past the thermistor.

Applications

PTC thermistors can be used as current-limiting devices for circuit protection, as replacements for fuses. Current through the device causes a small amount of resistive heating. If the current is large enough to generate more heat than the device can lose to its surroundings, the device heats up, causing its resistance to increase, and therefore causing even more heating. This creates a self-reinforcing effect that drives the resistance upwards, reducing the current and voltage available to the device. NTC thermistors are used as resistance thermometers in low-temperature measurements of the order of 10 K.

NTC thermistors can be used as inrush-current limiting devices in power supply circuits. They present a higher resistance initially which prevents large currents from flowing at turn-on, and then heat up and become much lower resistance to allow higher current flow during normal operation. These thermistors are usually Page 13 of 15

Thermistors are semiconductors made from specific mixtures of pure oxides of nickel, manganese, copper, cobalt, magnesium and other metals sintered at very high temperature. Thermistors are characterised by having very high negative temperature coefficient of resistance which produce large changes in resistance in response to changes in temperature. The resistance of a thermistor at temperature T is given by R = R0 e [( 1 / T) (1 / T0)] where is a constant characteristic of the material and R0 is the resistance at temperature T0 ( generally 25 deg.c) . Overall range of a thermistor is -200 to 1000 deg.C. High sensitivity makes the thermistor suitable for only small spans (large spans will be difficult to handle). Computerised or hardware type linearization can be employed to obtain linear resistance - temperature relation (non-linearity of the order of +/- 0.06 to 0.5 deg.C). It is important to be sure that the application is within the temperature limits of the thermistor being used. Thermistors are inexpensive than RTDs and can be made in various shapes ( beads, flakes, rods & disks) and smaller sizes.

Non-contact type temperature sensors :

All the methods discussed above required physical contact of the sensor with the source. The sensor attained the same temperature as that of the source and it was difficult to measure the temperature of moving object. These problems can be overcome by using radiation thermometers. Radiation thermometers. Thermal radiation is a universal property. Every body above absolute zero in temperature emits electro magnetic radiation dependent on its temperature (except an inert gas like helium). The radiations with wave lengths lying in visible (0.3 to 0.72 m ) and infrared (0.72 to 40 m ) regions of the spectrum are of interest for radiation thermometers / pyrometers. An ideal thermal radiator is called a BLACKBODY. The spectral radiant intensity of a blackbody is given by Planks radiation law which states that the intensity of radiation peaks at shorter and shorter wavelengths as temperature increases.

W = C1 / 5 (e C

/ T

1)

W = Hemi spherical spectral radiant intensity (per unit wave length at wave length ) , W / cm 2 . m C1 = 37413 W. m4 / cm2 & C2 = 14388 m . K, = wavelength of radiation, m T = absolute temperature of blackbody, K A blackbody at a certain temperature emits some radiation per unit wavelength at every wavelength but not the same amount at each wave length. The peaks appear at particular wavelengths as temperature decreases which is given by Weins law of displacement p = 2891 / T m where T is absolute temperature. The area under each curve is the total emitted power and increases rapidly with temperature. This is illustrated by Stefan-Boltzman law which is expressed as W t=5.67x 10-12 . T4 W/cm2..

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W 0.14 650 K W/ cm2 . m 600 K 500 K

Fig. 12 Blackbody radiation radiation (emittance = 1.0) is a mathematical abstraction, real physical bodies While the concept of a blackbody
can be constructed to closely approximate blackbody behaviour (emittance of 0.99). Such radiation sources are needed for calibration of radiation thermometers. The deviation from blackbody radiation is expressed in terms of the emittance of the measured body. If a radiation thermometer has been calibrated against a blackbody source, knowledge of the appropriate emittance value allows correction of its readings for non-blackbody measurements. Commercial radiation thermometers usually include emittance adjustment with a range from about 0.2 to 1.0. Accuracy of radiation type thermometers will be generally +/- 1 2 % of rdg. Object Optics Detector Indicator Fig. 13 Radiation thermometer

14

Detector can be thermal type ( thermocouple or thermopile) or photon type (photo conductive or photo voltaic). Optical pyrometer : Optical pyrometers operate in the visible region of the spectrum. The human eye, acting as the detector , compares a source of known radiant energy generated with in the instrument by a calibrated tungsten lamp to the incoming unknown source.

Filter Eye piece

Tungsten lamp

Lens

Ammeter calibrated in temp. units

Object Fig. 14 Optical pyrometer

Advantages: Does not require physical contact, Measures much higher temperatures than thermocouples, Fast speed of response and available in portable type.. Disadvantages: More fragile and costlier than contact type sensors, Non-linear, Emissivity of target should be known for making correction.

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