THERMAL CRACKING IN LARGE CONCRETE PLACEMENTS: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

THERMAL CRACKING IN LARGE CONCRETE PLACEMENTS: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

N. Vitharana1 and R. Wark2

ABSTRACT
Large concrete placements such as those encountered in dam construction are subjected to severe stress conditions at early age due to the heat generated in the process of hydration of cement. These thermal stresses can be higher than those experienced by the structures during its service life. Being young concrete, its tensile strength is much lower than that of hardened concrete. Consequently if measures are not taken, thermal stresses could lead to the cracking of concrete. In the traditional approaches, the criterion of limiting the maximum temperature rise (in some cases both average and differential) is specified as the sole criterion to avoid thermal cracking. However, practical experiences has shown this approach to be superficial, being either conservative or unconservative depending on the conditions. This is due to the fact that thermal cracking occurs when thermal stresses exceed the current tensile strength of the concrete and accordingly temperature limits have no direct relevance. Also, traditional deemed-to-satisfy criterion of limited maximum temperature rise, based on experience(s) at past projects, would not be valid for todays conditions where cement types and construction techniques are very different. Consequently, some modern design and construction practices, such as Japanese standards, permit or require designers and contractors to develop their own procedures/criteria with respect to thermal crack control in concrete structures. A method involving the calculation of a thermal cracking index (ratio of thermal stress/tensile strength) would be a better and more rational approach. However, this method needs to consider structural, hydration, material, thermal and exposure parameters. As early-age concrete is in a semi-plastic state with the involvement of many interactive parameters such as creep, temperature, ambient conditions, strength gain etc., the evaluation of the thermal cracking index entails complex procedures. This paper presents the details of a numerical procedure (THERMAL) developed to predict the time-history of thermal cracking index. Examples are also presented to show where this procedure has been successfully applied. Keywords: Thermal stresses, heat-of-hydration, concrete placements, creep, young concrete, strength gain.

INTRODUCTION

with Kinzua dam stilling basin [HOLLAND, 1991]. Engineers are well conversant with the analysis and design of structures against applied loads such as dead and live loads because appropriate analysis methods and design criteria are well documented. Deformation-induced loadings such as temperature and shrinkage are treated with rule-of-thumb or deemed-to-satisfy approaches, if considered at all. The adoption of a minimum reinforcing steel ratio (AS 3600) to avoid early-age thermal cracking in massive structures is questionable as bond transfer in young concrete is very limited [VITHARANA, 1995c].

Hydration-induced cracking in concrete structures, particularly in dams and waterretaining structures, could result in multifarious effects: accelerated corrosion of reinforcing and prestressing steel, unsightly appearance, loss of water-tightness, accelerated deterioration due to freezing-thawing and alkali-aggregate reaction, development of hydrostatic pressures inside cracks in dams, impairment of structural integrity, stability and load redistributions. The negligence or cursory treatment of early-age stresses could incur heavy costs requiring extensive repair work or even the total early replacement of structures such as that occurred
1 2

Principal Engineer, GHD Pty Ltd, BSc(Eng)Hons, PhD(Struct), MBA, PG-Dip(Geotech), MASCE Technical Director (Dams), GHD Pty Ltd, BEng(Hons),BAppSc(Maths), MEngSc, FIE(Aust)

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THERMAL CRACKING IN LARGE CONCRETE PLACEMENTS: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

A popular method in tender specifications for the construction of dams and large structures is to place limits on the temperature rise and differential. This is achieved by reducing the concrete placing temperature, internal and external cooling, multi-lift concrete placement etc. In recent decades, the introduction of different cement types and construction methods requires the validity of these traditional approaches to be assessed. Moreover, the cracking of young concrete occurs when the thermal stresses exceed the available tensile strength at a given time following the casting of concrete. Therefore, the adoption of the traditional method of limited temperature rise could lead to either superfluous or inadequate measures to guard against thermal cracking of concrete structures. The tendency to cracking at an early age in concrete structures is determined by the ratio of thermal stress/tensile strength of the hardening concrete. The generation of thermal stresses depends on many factors, mainly: cement type and content, placing temperature, ambient conditions, concrete material properties, maturity of concrete, structure type, construction sequence and restrained conditions, creep characteristics etc. Unlike the case of applied loadings, thermal stresses are relaxed by the creep effects (non-elastic additional strains under sustained stresses) which are high in young concrete due to its semi-plastic state. Also, it is important to consider construction sequences as this would modify both the thermal and structural responses of a structure. Therefore, the evaluation of thermal crack occurrence at early ages entails a complex procedure. In recent times, constitutive models for young concrete have been developed [THERMAL, 1995] although there is a great need to understand their behaviour at fundamental levels. During 1994-1996, the first Author was on an industrial fellowship at the Hokkaido Development Bureau, in the most Northern Island of Japan. This organisation is responsible for providing construction advice to all construction activities on the Island. Consequently, it has been conducting research and development activities in conjunction with major contractors particularly for cold weather conditions as winter temperatures can be as low as 40 oC and construction periods can be as short as six months. It has been developing ANCOLD 2002 Conference on Dams

thermal stress prediction models for RCC dams as early as the 1970s. The temperature and stress development predicted for a 70m high RCC dam with interruption for the winter is shown in Fig. 1. With such models, it is easier to observe the effect of various parameters and determine appropriate measures to be taken when construction conditions are varying. The Author was involved in the development of constitutive models for young concrete (including large scale tensile creep tests for dam concrete) and a methodology for predicting the tendency to cracking under heat-of-hydration, drying and autogenous shrinkage. The computer program developed [THERMAL, 1995] is suitable for 3-dimensional structures.

(a) Temperature prediction

(b) Thermal stress prediction

Fig. 1 Temperature and stress predictions for a 70 m high RCC dam

MECHANISM BEHIND EARLY-AGE THERMAL CRACKING

Many interactive factors are involved in the early-age thermal cracking of concrete structures (eg, hydration, thermal, material, environmental and structural). Therefore, it is difficult to make firm conclusions on the influence of each factor as they depend on a Page 2

THERMAL CRACKING IN LARGE CONCRETE PLACEMENTS: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

given situation. The major difference between applied and thermal loadings is that thermal loading depends on the member stiffness (ie, Youngs modulus of elasticity). Unfortunately, this has not been recognised in the design of reinforced concrete structures subject to ambient thermal loading where the structural engineers have been misled and consider thermal stresses under ultimate limit state conditions in which the member stiffness is very small (being in a plastic stage) resulting in negligible thermal stresses [VITHARANA, 1998]. During the hydration phase of concrete, semiplastic concrete has a very low value for Youngs modulus of elasticity. The incremental compressive thermal stress, due to temperature change Tt within a time step T, is given by: t = Et Tt where is the coefficient of expansion for concrete and Et is Youngs modulus of concrete at an age t since casting concrete. This stress is further reduced by the concurrent creep which is high for young concrete. The temperature rise takes place within the first few days and the resulting compressive stresses would be about 1 MPa in typical applications. Once the rate of hydration retards, the temperature begins to drop (or cooling phase) depending on the rate at which heat is lost to the surrounding. The temperature drop takes place under an increased Et value and the net stress therefore becomes tensile. If this tensile stress exceeds the available tensile strength, cracking would occur. This mechanism is schematically shown in Fig. 2. For comparison, the development of thermal stresses under the same temperature cycle in matured concrete with a constant E value is also shown. As can be seen with constant E, the induced stress at the end of the temperature cycle would return to zero. This highlights that if an accurate assessment of the tendency to cracking is required, it is necessary to consider both the heat generating characteristics as well as the material and strength properties of young concrete. In particular, creep effects should be considered as it would reduce the magnitude of initial compressive stresses as well as the subsequent tensile stresses.

Fig. 2 Mechanism behind early-age cracking (a) Temperature and Youngs modulus (b) Tensile stress and tensile strength

HEAT-OF-HYDRATION

In recent decades, finite element methods have been developed for heat-transfer analysis and structural analysis with various levels of sophistication from simple elastic methods to non-linear methods [CRICHTON, 1999]. However, little attention has been paid to the use of appropriate hydration models. The generation of thermal stresses depends on both the rate and the total heat generated during the hydration process. In most thermal stress modellings, an adiabatic hydration model (in which heat transfer is not lost to/or gained from the surrounding) is used in line with the traditional approaches. Typical adiabatic temperature generation curves are given in [ACI207, 1973] for different placing temperatures (low to high-heat cements) used prior to the 1960s and these had been used often in temperature predictions. Hydration of cement is a thermally-activated process and consequently the rate of cement hydration depends on the reaction temperature (ie, at which the reaction takes place). The reaction temperature in turn depends on the heat-transfer characteristics within the concrete Page 3

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THERMAL CRACKING IN LARGE CONCRETE PLACEMENTS: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

mass. Therefore, heat-of-hydration and heattransfer processes should be coupled in which the time-history of the reaction temperature is taken into account and such analysis is known as coupled or non-linear heat-of-hydration analysis [HARADA, 1991]. As will be shown later, the arbitrary use of adiabatic hydration models could result in significant errors in predicted temperatures.

concrete mix design. Heat-of-hydration adiabatic calorimeter tests or large concrete blocks with insulated surfaces can alternatively be used when an accurate evaluation of the parameters is required. 3.1.2 Non-adiabatic models Adiabatic hydration models give the fastest rate of heat generation as they are based on the implicit criterion that the heat already produced by hydration accelerates this hydration process in turn. Although this may be valid to the interior of massive structures such as dams, it would become invalid near the surfaces of massive structures or in other members such as walls, foundations etc. Non-adiabatic hydration models should consider the time-history of the reaction (process) temperature. As the reaction temperature varies within a structural member due to the concurrent heat-transfer, the hydration process at a given time varies within the structural member. In recent times, sophisticated hydration models have been developed and tested [HARADA, 1991], but they are not suitable for routine applications. A simplified model can be developed from the method suggested by RASTRUP [1954] based on heat measurement on cement samples under constant-temperature (isothermal) conditions (ie, heat-of solution tests). Supplemented by laboratory testing and field measurements, it was shown that [VITHARANA, 1995c] this model can be easily calibrated and incorporated in heat-transfer analysis. With this model, the reaction temperature is taken into account by relating the actual reaction time t to an equivalent (or maturity) age te which is determined based on the timehistory of the reaction temperature. The cumulative heat generated Q(t) (kJ/kg of cement) up to the reaction time t (days) is expressed as:

3.1

HYDRATION CHARACTERISTICS

3.1.1 Adiabatic models JCI[1986] covers a wide range of cement types and blend ratios and parameters are given for developing adiabatic curves for different cements placed at different temperatures. These models were calibrated against several hundred concrete placements throughout Japan. The adiabatic temperature rise of concrete can be generally described by:

T(t ) = T( ) (1 e t )

(1)

where T(t) = temperature rise (oC) at time t since casting concrete, T() = total (ultimate) temperature rise directly proportional to the unit cement content S (kg/m3 of concrete), and = hydration constant representing the rate of hydration dependent only on the concrete placing temperature To for a given cement type. The cumulative heat generated Q(t) (J/m3) up to time t, for a given cement content S is given by:

Q( t ) = cT ( t )

(2)

where c = specific heat of concrete (J/kg/oC), and = mass density of concrete (kg/m3 ). The rate of heat generation, which is to be used in transient heat-transfer analysis, Qo (J/m3/s) is given by:
Q = cT( ) e t = c (T( ) T( t ) )
o

(3)

Typical values of and T() for different cement types (eg, ordinary Portland cement, moderate-heat Portland, Portland fly ash, Portland blast-furnace slag, and high-strength concrete) are given in [JCI, 1986] and these are very useful for design and construction engineers to make a preliminary assessment of the heat generating characteristics of a given ANCOLD 2002 Conference on Dams

Q ( t ) = A + B exp{ m[te ] n }

te = 20.1(T Tr ) dt
where A, B, m and n are hydration constants dependent on the cement type and m also depends on Tr (the reference temperature). As can be seen, the actual reaction time t is Page 4

THERMAL CRACKING IN LARGE CONCRETE PLACEMENTS: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

converted to the equivalent time te with the known reaction temperatures from the heattransfer analysis. With this approach, the hydration and heat-transfer process are coupled implicitly. The rate of heat generation can be obtained numerically from the above equation within a given time increment. Typical values for hydration constants were developed [VITHARANA, 1995c], and for normal Portland cement: A=12.56, B=328.7 (both in kJ/kg of cement) and n=0.42 and m=-1.029 for the reference temperature Tr = 20 oC. Fig. 3a shows the adiabatic and isothermal heat generation characteristics for different placing temperatures for the same concrete mix. The heat generation within a concrete mass lies in between these two extreme conditions. In order to highlight the significance of the inaccuracy in using adiabatic hydration models, Fig 3b shows the typical thermal stress development in a 200mm and 600mm thick reinforced concrete walls in moderate ambient conditions [VITHARANA, 1995b], an overestimation of the tensile stresses by about 40% .

A general disadvantage with this model is the difficulty in conducting isothermal heat-ofsolution tests. However, adiabatic tests are easy to perform and test results are widely available for different placing temperatures [JCI, ACI207]. Therefore, an indirect method was developed to synthesise the hydration curves for varying temperature curves [VITHARANA, 1995b]. This method ignores the temperaturetime history as a direct variable, but the rate of heat generation is related to the cumulative heat already generated by adjusting the placing temperature with the known reaction temperature at a given time. This was shown to provide accurate temperature predictions for non-adiabatic environments.

HEAT-TRANSFER ANALYSIS

Both finite difference and finite element methods are well established and standard analysis procedures are available. Finite difference methods can be formulated easily and can be implemented even in an Excel spreadsheet. It is very important to consider the heat transfer boundaries, particularly the wind speed and direct solar radiation. The insulation effect provided by wood formwork should be considered and sudden removal can generate surface thermal stresses significant enough to cause surface cracking. Due to space limitation, these will not be discussed in detail here. Schmidts method is used [ACI207] by design and construction engineers to predict temperature rise in concrete placements. Although this method is useful for preliminary estimates of thermal stresses, there are several implicit assumptions that do not allow an accurate assessment of temperatures. It assumes that the surface temperature is equal to the ambient temperature and field measurements show that this is not true due to heat-transfer resistance along the boundaries. In addition, it uses adiabatic hydration models.

Fig. 3a Adiabatic and isothermal heat generation

5
Fig. 3b Thermal stress development with adiabatic and non-adiabatic models

MATERIAL PARAMETERS

The development of material and strength properties in young concrete depends not only on the age (time since casting concrete) but also on the reaction temperature which varies with Page 5

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THERMAL CRACKING IN LARGE CONCRETE PLACEMENTS: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

time as well as within the structural element due to the transient heat-transfer. Although the age has been considered using measured data or maturity functions [ACI209, CEB] in recent thermal stress predictions, the influence of reaction temperature has received less attention although strength development is also a thermally-activated process.

5.1

TENSILE STRENGTH AND YOUNGS MODULUS

The development of tensile strength can be related to the compressive strength with good accuracy using the ACI209[1986] strength development function. The tensile strength ft at age t (days) at a standard curing temperature of 20 oC is given by: t ft = f t ( 28) A + Bt where ft(28) is the tensile strength at the age of 28 days, and A and B are material constants dependent of the cement type, curing method, admixtures etc. Typical values of A and B are: A=4.0 and B=0.85 for normal-strength concrete and A=2.30 and B=0.92 high-strength concrete. The Youngs modulus of elasticity E at age t can also be related to the corresponding value of E at 28 days with the above function. Similar to the heat of hydration, the strength gain is much faster at elevated temperatures and this should be considered in the determination of the thermal cracking index. The major implication is that the strength gain near the surface would be much slower compared with the interior. The temperature-dependency of ft and E can be incorporated by using an equivalent (or maturity) age te which considers the timehistory of the curing temperature. The CEBFIP[1991] formulations can be used for this purpose. The development of compressive and tensile strength of high-strength concrete in standard (20 oC) and adiabatic conditions is shown in Fig. 4. As can be seen, within the first 3-4 days, the strength gain under adiabatic condition is about 30% higher than that under the standard temperature. This highlights the fact that the purpose of undertaking detailed thermal stress analysis would be lost if the development of basic material properties is not considered rationally. ANCOLD 2002 Conference on Dams
0.5

Fig. 4 Compressive and tensile strength development under adiabatic and constant temperatures

5.2

CREEP BEHAVIOUR

The analysis of thermal stresses due to heat-ofhydration should be carried out in an incremental fashion in time steps (Section 6). With known thermal strain developed during a particular time step, the stress can be calculated with the appropriate Youngs modulus (Section 3). However, the time-dependent deformational behaviour of concrete should be considered as this reduces the magnitude of thermal stresses, usually known as creep-relaxation. In the analysis procedure developed in THERMAL, the principle of superposition is used to take into account the stress-history. Separate creep factors and characteristics are developed for the incremental stress developed at each point in the concrete section during each time step. It is also important to consider effect of temperature, before and after a particular thermal stress is generated, on the creep behaviour of concrete. The elevated temperature generated, before stressing, determines the effective age te (calculated in Section 3) thus reducing the creep strain. After stressing, creep is accelerated with elevated temperature. Based on an experimental program [VITHARANA, 1995c], it was concluded that reasonable accuracy can be obtained by using the formulations given in CEB-FIP with some modifications to reflect on the very early-age concrete behaviour. The total (elastic and creep) strain (t) at age t under a stress applied at age t = to is given by:

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THERMAL CRACKING IN LARGE CONCRETE PLACEMENTS: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

(t ) = [1 + o (t ,to ) ]

Ec (to )

where Ec(to) = Youngs modulus of elasticity at age to (considering maturity due to reaction temperature prior to to), o = ultimate creep factor and (t,to) = function defining timedependency of creep strain since to. The ultimate creep value is proportional to the factor k which defines the age at stressing and the function (t,to) is given by:

Calculate incremental thermal stress D(t) developed during time t and t+t. In FEM analysis, strains can be used as the input directly. The total stress (t) at a given time is given by the algebraic sum of D(t) up to the current time step n.

D (t ) = RF Ec (t + t ) T(t + t ) T(t ) D cr

k=

1 0.2 [0.1 + to ]

The factor RF represents the degree of restraint on the free induced strain if this is known for the structure based on previous elastic analysis. Axial and flexural restraint factors RF are given in [JCI(1986), ACI207 (1973)]. The tendency to cracking is determined by calculating the Thermal Cracking Index ratio: Tci = (t)/ft , where ft is the available tensile strength in hardening concrete. The time-history of this ratio can be prepared for the critical points in the structure and then the probability of cracking can be determined. Probability of cracking vs Tci is given in JCI(1986) based extensive field data. This is a very useful tool for estimating the probability of cracking for different concrete mix designs particularly for comparing temperature control measures and the cost involved.

( t ,to )

t = a + t

0.3

THERMAL STRESS CALCULATION

As the analysis is to be carried out in time steps in an incremental fashion, free strains are to be determined for each element/node before they are introduced as induced strains to the structural analysis program, either a FEM or a simple beam analysis. THERMAL then calculates the stresses depending on the external restraints/boundary conditions of the structure. FEM analysis would be time consuming and not always necessary. Simple beam-theory based calculations can be performed to obtain accurate results (Section 7). The steps involved in determining thermal stresses are: Calculate the incremental thermal strain Dt for each point within the concrete section developed during time t and t+t (ie, within time step n): Dt = [T(t+t)-T(t)]. Other induced-strains such as drying and autogenous shrinkage can also be included. Calculate the incremental creep strain Dcr,to occurring within time step n due to a unit stress ( = 1) applied at an age to:

D cr ,to =

o { t + t to ) (t to ) Ec ( to )

Thermal stresses are generated in concrete sections even if they are unrestrained externally or by structural indeterminacy. These unrestrained stresses are known as primary stresses and are caused by non-linear temperature distributions. Secondary stresses are generated due to the axial and flexural restraints. It would be worthwhile and economical to understand the structure behaviour in simple axial and flexural actions in conjunction with appropriate restraint factors before undertaking complex finite element analysis (eg, walls, massive foundations, boxgirder bridges, dams etc). The influence of degree of restraint on thermal stresses can also be used to compare different concrete mix designs [VITHARANA, 1998] before specifying them for a particular project. A typical case for a wall is shown in Fig. 5 in which unrestrained primary stresses are set up in the vertical direction while restrained (primary and secondary) stresses are set up in the horizontal direction due to base fixity. Page 7

Determine the algebraic sum of the incremental creep strains Dcr from incremental stresses generated at the 1st time step to the current step n.

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THERMAL CRACKING IN LARGE CONCRETE PLACEMENTS: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

These can be calculated based on the usual plane sections remain plane hypothesis. Similar approach has been used to predict stresses in multi-lift foundation construction (Section 7) founded on different foundation conditions.

strains were measured continuously up to 70 days. THERMAL was used to compare the temperatures monitored and to predict thermal stresses including creep relaxation. In particular, it was required to determine whether the time gap between successive pours (which is significant compared with the available construction time) helped reducing thermal stresses generated compared with a single pour. In an earlier analysis [ISHIKAWA, 1994], the measured strains have been converted to thermal stresses using an effective modulus to account for the creep relaxation and therefore it may not be accurate as it neglects early-age non-linear creep. The temperature predicted by THERMAL is in close agreement with those measured, Fig. 6. In particular, the thermal stresses predicted by THERMAL highlight the importance of considering the creep-relaxation. The tensile strength development included the effect of varying reaction temperatures during the hardening process. It is interesting to note that 1-dimensional heat transfer and beam analyses were also undertaken (with zero axial restraint on the axial deformation) and the predictions were accurate within 5-10% compared with finite element analysis results. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that simple analysis procedures be undertaken, wherever possible, which may take a fraction of the time and resources required for finite element analysis.

Fig. 5 Thermal stress generation in a wall section

APPLICATIONS

It is difficult to firm general conclusions / recommendations on the development of thermal stresses due to the involvement of many factors including ambient conditions. In the previous sections, the major aspects were outlined with brief discussions on their influence(s) on the development of thermal stresses and tendency to cracking.

7.1

TOKACHI BRIDGE BASE

Temperature (C)

60
Base-measured

The spread foundation for this 750 m long bridge was constructed in the winter conditions with minimum daily temperatures varying between 20 to 30 oC. With a plan area of 27mx32m and a thickness of 6m, this was the second largest substructure of this type ever constructed in Japan [ISHIKAWA, 1994]. The construction was carried out in 3-lifts of 2m thick pours with a 14-day gap between each pour to permit the dissipation of hydrationinduced heat. Artificial surface heating and surface insulation was undertaken to prevent high temperature differentials. The cement content used is 280 kg/m3 with normal Portland cement. During construction, temperature and ANCOLD 2002 Conference on Dams

50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50

Base-predicted Mid-measured Mid-predicted

60

70

80

Time (days)

Fig. 6a Tockachi Bridge: Temperature in 6 m thick base

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THERMAL CRACKING IN LARGE CONCRETE PLACEMENTS: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

4 3 2 1 0 0 -1 -2 -3 10 20 Time (days) 30 40
Base-measured Base-predicted Mid-measured Mid-predicted Tensile strength

Tensile stress (MPa)

cracking can be minimised. One such method adopted in concreting for thick foundations is multi-lift (or multi-layer) concrete placement with a time gap between each lift [GYRAX, 1994]. A range of parameters was considered for foundation thicknesses varying from 1-5m for typical Hokkaido weather conditions [VITHARANA, 1995a]. Fig. 7 shows the temperature and thermal stresses predicted for single and multi-lift constructions with a 3-day time gap between each 1-m thick concrete placement. As can be seen, although temperature is lower with the multi-lift construction, the induced thermal stresses are not lower and single-lift concrete can be undertaken without an increased risk of thermal cracking. This is due to the fact that stiffnesses of layers are different in multi-lift construction thus developing internal restraints within the structure. The influence of creep is significant with a stress reduction of about 4550%. Following this study, several single-lift concrete placements up to 5m thick were undertaken without any thermal cracking.

Fig. 6b Tockachi Bridge: Stress generation in 6 m thick base

7.2

IS MULTI-LIFT CONSTRUCTION ALWAYS HELPFUL ?

It is generally believed that by lowering the average temperature rise, the tendency to

Fig. 7 Temperature and stress developments in single and multi-lift foundations

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7.3

CANNING DAM ANCHOR BLOCK

The anchor block for the Canning dam posttensioned cables is about 3 m thick [WARK, 2001]. The concrete mix design was based on previous similar dam constructions (North Dandalup and Lower South Dandalup) and extensive laboratory tests undertaken to minimise the tendency to alkali-aggregatereaction. The selected mix had a unit cement content of 370 kg/m3 (normal Portland cement = 190, Fly ash = 150 and Silica fume = 30). With a high Fly ash content, the strength gain was slower with a 180-day characteristics compressive strength of 50 MPa (compared with the 28-day strength of 31 MPa). According to the original construction programme, concreting was to be done during the summer months and the anticipated main issue would be the control temperature rise. The construction specification therefore placed stringent conditions: a placing temperature of 20 oC and a limit of 30 oC on the maximum temperature rise in the pour. However, delay to the construction programme required the concrete placement to be undertaken during the winter months and there were concerns that the construction methodology would be unable to limit the temperature differential to 20 oC as per the specifications. THERMAL was used to simulate the temperature monitored in Block No. 20 and then to predict thermal stresses and the tendency to cracking. There were also concerns that uplifting at the old-new interface may occur with a high differential temperature gradient. The results at a point 200mm below the top of the block are shown in Fig. 8. As can be seen, the thermal stresses were well below the tensile strength. As an additional measure, a couple of layers of ceiling insulation were used during cooler nights as an insulation layer. THERMAL considered the influence of creeprelaxation and further analyses showed that the predicted stresses would have been higher than those shown in Fig. 8 by about 30% if creep effects had been neglected.

4.0

50

40 3.0

Stress and strength (MPa)

30 2.0 20 Tensile strength (MPa) 1.0 Tensile stress (MPa) Temperature (C) Measured tem (C) 0.0 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 10

Time (days)

Fig. 8 Temperature, stress and strength development in Canning Dam anchor block (3 m thick)

7.4

HARVEY DAM INTAKE TOWER FOUNDATION

The foundation for the Harvey Dam intake tower has a diameter of 20m and a thickness of 2m. The foundation is founded on rock with grouted dowels for enhancing its stability under extreme loads. The foundation is provided with reinforcement to resist the lateral loadings induced by earthquakes and minimum steel for crack control. The total cementitious content was 370 kg/m3 (normal Portland cement =50%, Fly ash =40% and Silica Fume =10%). Temperature development was monitored during the construction at several locations. The construction was carried out in March 2001 when maximum and minimum ambient temperatures were 32 and 10 oC respectively. THERMAL was used to develop the heat-ofhydration and heat-transfer in a 1-dimensional analysis. The results are shown in Fig. 9 for the mid-thickness of the foundation, comparing with measured temperatures and they are in excellent agreement.

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Temperature (C)

THERMAL CRACKING IN LARGE CONCRETE PLACEMENTS: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

10

REFERENCES

60

AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE (ACI), Committee 207, (1970), Mass concrete for dams and other massive structures. ACI Committee 209, (1986), Prediction of creep, shrinkage, and temperature effects in concrete structures. ACI Committee 207, (1973), Effect of restraint, volume change and reinforcement on cracking of massive concrete, ACI Journal, July 1973. CEB-FIP, (1991), Model code for concrete structures, Paris.
0 24 48 72 96 120 144

50 Ambient

Temperature (oC)

40

Measured Predicted

30

20

10

Time (hrs)

Fig. 9 Temperature prediction for Harvey Dam intake tower foundation (2 m thick)

CRICHTON, A.J., et al., (1999), Kinta RCC dam are over-simplified thermal-structurl analysis valid, ANCOLD Issue No. 115. GEO-ENG PTY LTD, (2002), Canning dam construction report. GYRAX, A., AND SOVACHINDA, A. (1994), Predicting hydration temperature rise in a mass concrete stack foundation, Concrete International, ACI. HARADA, S., AND MEAKAWA, K., (1991), Non-linear coupling analysis of heat conduction and temperature-dependent hydration of cement (in Japanese), Concrete Library of JSCE. HOLLAND, J.C., AND KRYSA, A., (1991), Use of silica-fume concrete to repair abrasionerosion damage in the Kinzua dam stilling basin, ACI, SP 91-40, 1991, pp.841-863. ISHIKAWA, H., AND KONAGI, N., (1994), A report on the construction of substructure of the New Tokachi Bridge Winter Mass Concrete, International Workshop on Low Temperature Effects on Concrete, Hokkaido, Japan. JAPAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE, (1986), Standard specifications for design and construction of concrete structures, Part 2 (construction), Tokyo, Japan. RASTRUP, E., (1954), Heat of hydration in concrete, Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol. 6, No. 17, 1954. THERMAL, (1995), Evaluation of early-age behaviour of concrete structures by N Vitharana and K Sakai, Hokkaido Development Bureau, Sapporo, Japan.

CONCLUSIONS

Heat-of-hydration in hardening concrete would be severe enough to cause cracking in concrete placements. If accurate results are to be obtained, correct modelling of the hydration process is as important as heat-transfer analysis. The traditional criterion of limiting the maximum and differential temperature rise would not always be correct. The primary aim should be to determine the thermal stresses and then compare with the strength gain. Stressrelaxation due to early-age creep is significant. As shown with practical applications, THERMAL can be used to predict the developments of temperature and thermal stresses with good accuracy.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The first Author would like to thank the staff at the Hokkaido Development Bureau, Sapporo, Japan for all the assistance given during his stay and Dr K Sakai (Head, Structural Engineering) and Dr N Sato (Head, Dams Engineering) for guidance and advice on numerous occasions and financial support. Mr Jonathan Jensen is thanked for formatting this paper.

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THERMAL CRACKING IN LARGE CONCRETE PLACEMENTS: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS

VITHARANA, N., AND PRIESTLEY, M.J.N., (1998), Significance of temperature-induced loadings on concrete cylindrical reservoir walls, Structural Journal, American Concrete Institute. VITHARANA, N., AND SAKAI, K., (1995a), Single and multi-stage concrete placements for large foundations: Hydration-induced thermal stresses, 5th East Asia-Pacific Conference on Structural Engineering and Construction, Brisbane, Australia. VITHARANA, N., AND SAKAI, K., (1995b), Design against unfamiliar loading conditions, International Workshop on Integration of Material and Structural Design, Tokyo, Japan. VITHARANA, N., AND SAKAI, K., (1995c), Material and creep properties of young concrete, Report I, Hokkaido Development Bureau, Sapporo, Japan. VITHARANA, N., (1995d), Temperature and stress developments in high-strength concrete columns under heat-of-hydration effects, Concrete95 International Conference, Brisbane. VITHARANA, N., (1998), Tendency to cracking in hardening concrete under different degrees of restraint, 15th Australasian Conference on Mechanics of Structures and Materials, Melbourne. WARK, R., VITHARANA, N., WATERS, J., AND SOMERFORD, J., (2000), Dam safety issues and remedial works at Canning Dam in Western Australia, ICOLD Conference, Beijing, Sep 2000.

ANCOLD 2002 Conference on Dams

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