MICROPROCESSOR: It is multipurpose programmable logic device that reads binary instruction from a storage device called memory, accepts

binary data as input and process the data as per the instruction & provide the result as output. e.g: traffic light control system, used in mobile phones, speed control in stepper motor. ALU: This unit is capable of doing all logical and arithmetical operation. Timing & Control Unit: It generates the timing and control signals which are necessary for the execution of any instructions. This unit controls the data flow between microprocessor and the peripheral devices. Register: It is device which stores binary data. Accumulator: It is used during execution of a program for temporary storage. When any arithmetic or logical operation is performed, the final result of the operation is stored in the accumulator by default. Instruction Register (IR): It holds the opcode of any instruction which is going to be decode or execute. Stack Pointer: Stack is sequence of memory location assigned by the programmes to store/retrieve the content of accumulator, flags, PC, GPR during execution of any programme. During execution of a programme it is sometimes necessary to store the content of certain register because the register is required for some other operation in the subsequent steps. Then the content of register can be stored in an assigned/predefined memory location known as stack. Stack pointer is a 16-bit register which hold the address of the stack top. Programme Counter (PC): It is hold the address of the next instruction which is going to be executed. Microprocessor fetches an instruction from memory, executes it and increment the content of PC each time. Flag register: 5 FFs are used to show the various status of the accumulator after any arithmetic or logical operation performed. Carry Flag: The carry flag/carry bit is set to 1 indicating, a carry bit is generating after any arithmetic or logical operation else it is set to 1; Parity Flag: The Parity flag is set to 1 if the result of any arithmetic or logical operation is having even no. Of 1 else is set to zero. Auxiliary Carry: set to 1 is any carry is propagating from 3rd bit to 4th bit during any arithmetic or logical operation. Zero Flag: set to 1 if the content of accumulator is 00H after any arithmetic or logical operation is performed.

Sign Flag: set to 1 if result of any arithmetic or logical operation is negative. Temporary Register: It holds the data during any arithmetic or logical operation temporarily. It is associated to processor not to user. Instruction: Instruction is a command to a processor to performed certain operation. Opcode: It is the first part of the instruction which specifies the task performed by the processor. Operand: 2nd part of the instruction. Fetch: reading of opcode. MR: reading of operand. 1-byte instruction: opcode and operand of any instruction take 1-byte of memory space. e.g: MOV A, B; ADD B 2-byte instruction: in this instruction 1st byte specifies the opcode and 2nd byte specifies the operand which may be a data or address. 3-byte instruction: 1st by specifies the opcode and next 2-bytes specifies a 16-bit data or address. 1. Immediate Addressing Mode: - An immediate is transferred directly to the register. Eg: - MVI A, 30H (30H is copied into the register A) MVI B,40H(40H is copied into the register B). 2. Register Addressing Mode: - Data is copied from one register to another register. Eg: - MOV B, A (the content of A is copied into the register B) MOV A, C (the content of C is copied into the register A). 3. Direct Addressing Mode: - Data is directly copied from the given address to the register. Eg: - LDA 3000H (The content at the location 3000H is copied to the register A). 4. Indirect Addressing Mode: - The data is transferred from the address pointed by the data in a register to other register. Eg: - MOV A, M (data is transferred from the memory location pointed by the regiser to the accumulator). 5. Implied Addressing Mode: - This mode doesn't require any operand. The data is specified by opcode itself. Eg: - RAL CMP

Interrupt: Interrupt is a mechanism by which an I/O or an instruction can suspend the normal execution of processor and get itself serviced. Generally, a

particular task is assigned to that interrupt signal. In the microprocessor based system the interrupts are used for data transfer between the peripheral devices and the microprocessor. The processor will check the interrupts always at the 2nd T-state of last machine cycle. interrupt increases the efficiency of a computer and caused by multi-tasking

Assembly Language An assembly language is a low-level programming language for microprocessors and other programmable devices. It is not just a single language, but rather a group of languages. Assembly language implements a symbolic representation of the machine code needed to program a given CPU architecture. Assembly language is the most basic programming language available for any processor. With assembly language, a programmer works only with operations that are implemented directly on the physical CPU. Stack and Stack pointer Stack is a LIFO data structure and grows downward. SP is a register that points to the stack top. SP should be initialised to the top of the RAM for maximum available stack area. Stack is used to i) store return address of the caller; ii) store temporary values and iii) pass parameters and return values to and from the procedures. PUSH instruction pushes a word in the stack top and POP gets back the word from the top

Concept of Subroutine In 8085 microprocessor a subroutine is a separate program written aside from main program ,this program is basically the program which requires to be executed several times in the main program. The microprocessor can call subroutine any time using CALL instruction. after the subroutine is executed the subroutine hands over the program to main program using RET instruction. Branching Instructions The branch group instructions allows the microprocessor to change the sequence of program either conditionally or under certain test conditions. The group includes, (1) Jump instructions, (2) Call and Return instructions, (3) Restart instructions,