Roman Medallions / (Cornelius C. Vermeule)

ROMAN
BOSTON
MEDALLIONS
MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS
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57- Vei 2.3
PREFACE
THIS catalogue includes all the Roman me-
dallions and contorniates in the Museum of
Fine Arts. In addition, a few coins of exceptional
rarity and prime artistic merit are described. The
balance of the Roman Republican and imperial
coins will be published in another volume or in
special articles. The Roman collection, more than
the Greek, is practically entirely that of Miss The-
odora Wilbour. In 1934 she made her first gift of
medallions and coins, and each year thereafter her
collection in the Museum was enriched by pieces
of great artistic merit. The purchases made during
the decade 1950 to 1961 have been entirely from
the funds Miss Wilbour bequeathed in memory
of her sister Zoe Wilbour.
Before Miss Wilbour began her series of gifts,
the principal Roman coins were those of the
Catharine Page Perkins Collection, acquired in
1895, 1897 and 1901 through the intermediary of
Edward Perry Warren. These coins are described
on pp. 100 f. of Matthew Prichard's Guide to the
Catharine Page Perkins Collection of Greek and
Roman Coins (Boston and New York, 1902).
With a few exceptions, the other source of ac-
quisition in recent years is a series of anonymous
gifts in memory of Professor George H. Chase,
Acting Curator until his death in 1952, and in
memory of Mr. Leonard Forrer Sr., the much-
esteemed classical numismatist of Spink and Son
in London. Included in this group are medallions
secured by exchange with the British Museum.
The list of Museum accession numbers and sources
gives details of acquisition for each medallion and
coin. As with the Greek coins in Mrs. A. B. Brett's
catalogue of 1955, these accession numbers give
the date of entry into the permanent collections.
The proveniences where known are listed after
each piece. Most medallions and coins were ac-
quired by Miss Wilbour at European sales in the
1930's or from her bequest at similar sales during
the past decade. Mr. Forrer was her numismatic
advisor. In Miss Wilbour's lifetime the Prince
Waldek Sale (Miinzhandlung Basel, 1935) was a
particularly rich source for medallions, gold aurei,
silver denarii and rare aes or bronzes. For the
Wilbour Bequest, the Mazzini collection once in
Italy has provided important imperial medallions
in all metals. One group of medallions and coins
comprises the Museum's share in the great hoard
of Tetrarch gold found in the Mediterranean in
recent years and published preliminarily by R. A.
G. Carson, "The Greatest Discovery of Roman
Gold Pieces Since the Great Find at Arras, In-
cluding Unique Medallions of the Emperor Max-
entius," The Illustrated London News, 14 Novem-
ber 1959.
Since the aim of this catalogue is to emphasize
the artistic significance of these medallions and
coins, some concessions to historical accuracy
have been made in arranging the pieces. For
many years the British Museum catalogues have
reminded us that medallions or coins struck by
one emperor for his colleagues or heir apparent
(Caesar) or female relatives should be listed under
his output, because of reverse die links and similar
chronological considerations. Thus, the first coins
of Domitian as Caesar would fall under his father,
Vespasian (emperor 69 to 79), and the second
The format is designed to match A. B. Brett's
Catalogue of Greek Coins (Boston, 1955). It is
hoped a supplemental volume on Greek coins can
be prepared in the near future, to include those
acquisitions made since Mrs. Brett's work went
to press. This catalogue of Roman medallions re-
flects the work of those who have looked after the
collections in years past, the late Mr. L. D. Cas-
key, the late Professor G. H. Chase and Miss
Hazel Palmer. The plates were made from direct
photographs by Mr. Edward J. Moore. Miss
Mary B. Comstock collaborated in preparing the
catalogue and plates.
CORNELIUS C. VERMEULE III
THE PURPOSE OF ROMAN MEDALLIONS
MUCH has been written in years past about
the exact nature of Roman medallions.* It
is agreed that they were commemorative and ar-
tistic in purpose, and that sometimes they con-
stituted larger units of the ordinary coinage. Close
to medallions stood special strikings of the regular
coins, either trial or souvenir issues. Farther re-
moved from medallions were especially large
coins of artistic nature, such as the silver cis-
tophoric tetradrachms (3 Denarii pieces) struck
from Augustus through Hadrian in the Greek im-
perial East. Most remote from medallions among
the items illustrated here are the coins of certain
rulers which are so rare as to merit attention wher-
ever included. Such is the case with the sestertius
of Plautilla (no. 48), the Antoninianus of Pacati-
anus (no. 64) or the aureus of Uranius Antoninus
(no. 68).
The true series of medallions can be divided
into two parts. There are the bronzes from Trajan
through the fourth century which look like mul-
tiples of the coins but which were purely decora-
tive in that they conformed to no standards of
numismatic weight. By contrast there are the
gold and silver medallions from the middle of the
third century on which are multiples of the aureus
or solidus, denarius or siliqua but which were
certainly intended more for commemorative pres-
entation than for everyday circulation.
Ten contorniates comprise the last plate of this
volume. They are tokens in the accepted numis-
*The literature is collected in M. Grant's "The Border-
line between Roman Coins and Medallions," Congris Inter-
national de Numismatique, Paris 6-11 July 1953, Actes (Paris,
1957), pp. 167-174. Part 1 (Chapters I to m) of J. M. C.
Toynbee's Roman Medallions gives the basic, detailed explana-
tion of what constitutes a Roman medallion.
matic sense of the word. They had no relation to
the coinage either in weight, style or subject mat-
ter. Their age is the century from 350 to 450.
Many, if not all contorniates, seem to be related
to entertainment, whether the chariot races or the
low theatre, and they are often said to have been
distributed at events in these categories. Their
subjects are often mildly pagan, and they have
been taken as instruments of propaganda on the
part of Roman noble families opposed to the uni-
versal triumph of Christianity. The choice of em-
perors revived in contorniates is interesting. Those
rulers remembered as patrons of the games seem
to have been favored. Types were often mixed
up, and thus in no. 100 an obverse copied from a
sestertius of Trajan is paired with a reverse from
a similar coin of Nero. Inclusion of Alexander the
Great and the late Republican historian Sallust
forms an interesting footnote to the archaeology
of these contorniates.
As Boston's collection demonstrates, the great
age of artistic medallions in bronze was from Ha-
drian to Commodus, and the last of the Antonine
emperors was the greatest producer of these
pieces. However ill-starred and debased he may
have been as a ruler, Commodus was the fore-
most patron of medallions. His designs were
beautifully conceived in high relief, and his choice
of types formed a perfect record of the imperial
thoughts and acts. This might be said to be the
perfect purpose of Roman medallions. The earli-
est example (no. 35), struck while Marcus Aure-
cult of Hercules-Commodus makes its debut as a
reverse design. In the three medallions of 192, the
year of his assassination, Commodus has gone be-
yond the sober expectations of his years as junior
partner to Marcus Aurelius. No. 43 presents him
juxtaposed with the goddess Roma, whose fea-
tures may be those of his concubine Marcia, and
nos. 44, 45 reveal an emperor identified in ob-
verse portrait and reverse type with Hercules.
The Romans of the period were not yet ready
for such overt manifestations of imperial divinity.
Somewhat over a century later, however, it was
to seem scarcely unnatural that Maximianus (nos.
84, 85) and his son Maxentius (no. 87) proclaimed
themselves as Herculean emperors.
Before the extremely rare bronze medallions of
Trajan (no. 17), medallions in the sense of "mon-
etiform" commemorative pieces do not exist.
The silver cistophori were called medallions in
nineteenth-century catalogues, but they appear
here only because they are beyond the regular
Julio-Claudian coinage both in size and often ar-
tistic qualities of design. A sestertius such as no. 7,
showing the bust of Augustus set on an orb and
crowned by Victoria, was certainly part of a spe-
cial series, distinguished from other aes chiefly by
the artistic quality of this obverse die. The as
struck by the moneyer T. Crispinus Sulpicianus
for Augustus (no. 8) must be classed as a pattern
rather than a medallion. Save for its enormous
flan with concentric circles, it is no different from
an ordinary coin. After this unique piece had
served its purpose as illustration of the potentials
of a new coinage, it was probably retired to the
cabinet of some mint official or friend of the au-
thorities. The medallic sestertius of Nero (no. 13)
is slightly larger and more finely designed in de-
tails of the dies than most sestertii, but the chief
feature setting this rare piece off from the ordin-
ary coinage is the absence of the letters S C ("By
Decree of the Senate") on the reverse. Again, the
piece may have been struck for trial purposes, or
the issue may have been a very limited one for
use by the imperial household without recourse
to the control mark of the Senate. Medallions
proper in the period from Hadrian on are usually
without S C, but the rule is far from fixed, as il-
lustrated here by the spiendid medallion of Lucius
Verus struck in 165 (no. 31).
To say that medallions passed their prime with
the death of Commodus in 192 is not to say the
series in any way diminishes. Septimius Severus,
Severus Alexander, Gallienus and Probus in the
third century were patrons of a prolific medallic
art. The medallions of the years 200 to 290 fol-
low, on a high artistic level, all the stylistic and
compositional changes in the regular coinage.
About the time of Gordian the Third (no. 56), a
certain mastery of the crowded reverse design is
achieved, whole scenes of imperial adlocutio or
triumphal procession being compressed on to an
area about 40 millimeters in diameter. Artistic-
ally, the strongest feature of these medallions, es-
pecially those from Gallienus to Probus, is devel-
opment of a taste for elaborate half-figure busts of
the emperor in full uniform on the obverse (as
no. 75). The weakest artistic feature of this age is
fondness for the Three Monetae, the personifica-
tions of the three metals, as a reverse type. They
begin here with Severus Alexander (no. 49) and
tween East and West became permanent. Con-
servative tendencies, however, are evident in the
bronze medallion of Constantius n (no. 94), for
this piece was one of the last manifestations of a
traditional reverse design. In obverse and especial-
ly reverse, the style recalls the plasticity of third-
century medallions.
After Constantius n the pagan Roman divini-
ties hardly appear on the reverses. Concentration
on the victorious emperor or on general concepts
as reverse designs is the major subjective differ-
ence between the output of the fourth century
and the older medallions. Thus, Victoria on a
bronze of Magnentius (no. 95) is more the spirit
of imperial success than the old Roman divinity,
and on the gold one and one-half solidus piece of
Valentinianus 1 (no. 96) Victoria and an Amorino
are merely decorative vehicles to support the
shield bearing the vows for a decade of successful
imperial rule. The legend about the lordly em-
peror's victory has become a formula rather than
a reference to the goddess or to a specific event.
In short, medallions embrace the chronological
range of Roman imperial art. They are the art of
the Roman medallist at its highest level. They
stand closer than any other surviving works of
art to the year-by-year thoughts of the emperor
and his ministers. Subjects range from purely ar-
tistic or mythological designs to records of the
most official imperial ceremonies. There is some-
thing very appealing in the thought that the big-
gest and the most beautiful Roman medallions
were probably presented to recipients by the em-
peror in person or by major lieutenants at the im-
perial command. The art of the Roman medallion
was to exert great influence in the Italian Ren-
aissance, and this influence has been a prominent
feature in numismatic art down to modern times.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AC Naville-Ars Classica (Dr. Jacob Hirsch). Auction Catalogues.
Alfoldi A. Alfoldi, Die Kontorniaten, Leipzig 1943.
BMCCRE British Museum Catalogue of Coins of the Roman Empire, London 1923-1950.
BMCR British Museum Catalogue of Coins of the Roman Republic, London 1910.
BMCM Roman Medallions in the British Museum, London 1874.
Cohen H. Cohen, Description historique des monnaies frappees sous l'Empire Romain, Paris 1880-1892.
Gnecchi Fr. Gnecchi, I medaglioni romani, Milan 1912.
Hess-Leu A. Hess A.G., Lucerne. Bank Leu and Co. A.G., Zurich. Auction Catalogues.
M. und M. Munzen und Medaillen A.G., Basel. Auction Catalogues.
Maurice J. Maurice, La numismatique constantinienne, Paris 1908-1912.
RIC H. Mattingly, E. A. Sydenham, et al., The Roman Imperial Coinage, London 1927-1952.
Sydenham E. A. Sydenham, The Coinage of the Roman Republic, London 1952.
Toynbee J. M. C. Toynbee, Roman Medallions, New York 1944.
LIST OF ACCESSION NUMBERS AND SOURCES
I. 58.960
2.
3.
4'
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
I*
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
*3.
*4.
*S.
26.
*7.
28.
29.
30.
31.
3>.
33.
34.
35.
58.961
58.517
59.180
59.179
59.5
58.962
61.602
54.568
60.522
61.1194
58.3
59.6
58.4
60.523
60.524
35.1466
60.525
60.517
60.5
58.1006
58.702
59.513
58.1181
58.518
56.140
60.226
58.963
61.1068
58.964
35.1465
60.6
59.182
59.185
58.967
Theodora Wilbour Fund
PLATE I
ANTONIUS (Marcus Antonius, died 31 B.C.)
1. AR Cistophorus. 39 B.C.
Obv.: Conjoined heads of Anthony and Octavia.
M.ANTONTVS.IMP.COS.DESIG. ITER ET TERT.
Rev.: Dionysos standing on cista mystica, between
serpents.
m.viR [r.p.c]
27 mm. 11.78 gm. f
BMCR n, p. 503, no. 137; Sydenham, no. 1198.
ex Mazzini Collection, no. 190.
OCTAVIUS (C. Octavius Caepias, 31-27 B.C.)
2. AR Cistophorus. 28 B.C.
Obv.: Head right, laureate.
IMP.CAESAR.DIVI.F.COS.VI.LIBERTA'nS.P.R.VINDEX
Rev.: Pax standing on torch, holding caduceus; at right,
cista with serpent; all in laurel wreath.
PAX
27 mm. 12.05 gm. f
BMCR n, p. 537, no. 248; BMCCRE 1, p. 112, no. 691.
AUGUSTUS (27 B.C.-A.D. 14)
3. AR Cistophorus. 27 B.C. Pergamon or Chios.
Obv.: Head right.
IMP. CAESAR
Rev.: Six ears of wheat tied together.
AVGV STVS
27 mm. n.93 gm. T
BMCCRE 1, p. 113, no. 699.
ex Hess-Leu 1958, no. 281.
4. AR Cistophorus. 19-18 B.C. Ephesus or Pergamon.
Obv.: Head right.
IMP.IX.TR.PO.V
Rev.: Triumphal arch surmounted by facing quadriga.
On entablature, imp.dc.tr.pot.v.
In archway, s.p.r. signis receptis
28 mm. 11.81 gm. \
BMCCRE 1, p. 114, no. 703.
5. AR Cistophorus. 19-18 B.C. Ephesus or Pergamon.
Obv.: Head right.
IMP.IX.TR.PO.V
Rev.: Circular, domed tempie on podium of five steps;
in center, a standard; left and right, in field, mart.
vlto
27 mm. n.73 gm. /"
BMCCRE 1, p. 114, no. 704.
. AE Sestertius. 20 B.C.
6 Obv.: Laureate head right.
CAESAR PONT.MAX
Rev.: Altar of Roma and Augustus at Lugdunum,
flanked left and right by Victoriae on columns.
ROM.ET.AVG
40 mm. 24.70 gm. / Pierced.
Cf. BMCCRE 1, p. 92, no. 548; AC xi (1925) no. 223.
7. AE Sestertius. 5 B.C.
Obv.: Laureate head left, a large globe beneath the bust;
behind, Victoria holds cornucopia in left hand and
touches fillet of wreath with right.
CAESAR.AVGVST.PONT.MAX.TRIBVN IC.POT.
Rev.: M.MAECILrVS.TVLLVS.ra.VTR.A.A.A.F.F.
In center, s.c
34 mm. 23.35 gm. \
BMCR n, p. 105, no. 4682.
ex Mazzini Collection, no. 417; V.J.E. Ryan Sale, Part v
(Glendining 1952) no. 2254.
8. AE As, struck on large flan with four concentric circles.
Obv.: avgvstvs triBvnic potest in oak wreath.
Rev.: T.CRISPINVS.SVLPICIANVS.m.VIR.A.A.A.F.F.
Plate i
PLATE II *
37 mm. 25.97 gm. 1
13. AE Medallic Sestertius. a.d. 60.
Obv.: Laureate bust to right, wearing aegis.
NERO CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVG GERM P M TR P IMP P P
Rev.: Ceres seated left, with torch and ears of wheat;
before her, Abundance standing with cornucopia;
between, altar with garland and prow of ship.
ANNONA AVGVSTI CERES
40 mm. 30.18 gm. j
Gnecchi in, p. 4, no. 8. Cf. AC xn (1926) no. 2765.
D O MITIA N (Titus Flavius Domitianus, 81-96)
14. AR Cistophorus. a.d. 82. Ephesus (?).
Obv.: Laureate head to right.
IMP CAES DOMITIAN AVG P M COS VHI (r. tO 1.)
Rev.: Tempie of Jupiter Capitolinus on podium of three
steps; inside, Jupiter seated, between Juno and
Minerva.
CA PIT RESTIT
26 mm. 10.29 gm. 1
Cf. BMCCRE n, p. 351, no. 251.
ex M. und M. xvn (1957) no. 425.
15. AR Cistophorus. Pergamon.
IMP CAES DOMITIANVS
Rev.: Bundle of six corn ears.
AVG GERM P below.
27 mm. 9.98 gm. j
Cf. BMCCRE n, p. 351, no. 254.
NERVA (Marcus Cocceius Nerva, 96-98)
16. AR Cistophorus. a.d. 97.
IMP NERVA CAES AVG P M TR POT P P
Rev.: Bundle of six corn ears.
cos m
26 mm. 10.28 gm. 1/
BMCCRE m, p. 13, no. 81.
TRAJAN (Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, 98-117)
17. AE Medallion. a.d. 114.
Obv.: Laureate, draped bust to left.
IMP CAES NERVAE TRAIANO AVG GER DAC P M TR P
COS V P P
Rev.: Trajan on horseback to right, followed by Mars
with helmet, spear and shield; preceded by Fortuna
pointing forward. Two soldiers in the background.
ADVENTVS AVG SPQR OPT PRINCIPI
Gnecchi n, p. 3, no. 1. Cf. AC xi (1925) no. 498.
ex Prince Waldek Collection (Munzhandlung Basel Sale
No. 3, 1935) no. 308.
Two other examples are known, in Paris and Vienna.
18. AR Cistophorus. Ephesus (f).
IMP CAES NERVA TRAI AN AVG GERM P M
Rev.: Woman (Tyche) with cornucopia crowning em-
peror (in field dress) in a distyle tempie. roma et
AVG on entablature.
tr pot cos n com asi (in exergue).
29 mm. 10.26 gm. \
BMCCRE m, p. 146, no. 711.
HADRIAN (Publius Aelius Traianus Hadrianus, 117-138)
19. AE Medallion, set in a copper frame.
Obv.: Head to right.
HADRIANVS AVGVSTVS
Rev.: Sol (Helios) in flowing robes, galloping a biga to
the right.
68 mm. 93.40 gm. t
Found in Egypt.
PLATE III
22. AE Medallion.
IMP CAESAR HADRI ANVS AVG COS fflPP
Rev.: Hadrian and a companion in military dress on
horseback, galloping to the right, both holding
lances; at the right, a soldier on foot, carrying a
shield.
40 mm. 38.07 gm. \ Pierced.
Gnecchi n, p. 8, no. 47.
The specimen from the Recamier and V. J. E. Ryan Col-
lections (no. 2590) appears to be a modern cast after this
medallion. The British Museum specimen is badly tooled.
23. AE Medallic Sestertius.
Obv.: Laureate, draped, cuirassed bust to right.
HADRIANVS AVGVSTVS
Rev.: Emperor standing in toga, holding a scepter in the
left hand and rudder on a globe in the right.
cos m
32 mm. 22.03 gm. T
A. Magnaguti, Hadrianus in Numrnis, London 1934, p.
120, no. 2.
ex Mazzini (no. 1750) and Giorgio Giorgi Collections
(M. Ratto Sale, Milan 1955, no. 586).
24. AE Medallic Sestertius.
Obv.: Draped bust to right.
HADRIANVS AVG COS III P P
Rev.: Pax standing to left, holding branch in extended
right hand and cornucopia in left.
PAX AVG s c
34 mm. 23.99 gm. |
Toynbee, p. 32, pi. 1, no. 4 (this piece).
ex M. und M. xvn (1957) no. 451; Trau Collection (Hess,
Lucerne, 1935) no. 1267.
Another specimen from the same dies was Ryan Collec-
tion no. 2548 and AC n (Vautier, 1922) no. 732.
25. AR Cistophorus. Smyrna.
HADRIANVS AVGVSTVS P P
Rev.: Two draped women (Nemeses) facing; the left
holds an elaborate double fillet (?) and the right a
scepter; both hold up part of their costumes with
their right hands.
cos ra
28 mm. 10.28 gm. ! Overstruck.
Cf. BMCCRE ra, p. 389, no. 1074, pi. 73, 9.
ex Hess-Leu 1958, no. 325; Magnaguti Collection (Santa-
maria Sale ra, 1950) no. 663.
26. AR Cistophorus.
HADRIANVS AVGVSTVS P P
Rev.: Roma seated to left on a cuirass; she holds a Vic-
toriola on the right hand and a spear in the left.
cos m
31 mm. 10.57 gm. i
Cf. BMCCRE ra, p. 390, no. 1076, pi. 73, 11.
27. AR Tetradrachm. Bithynia.
IMP CAES TRA HADRIANO AVG P P
Rev.: Octastyle temple, with rom s p avg on entablature.
com BIT
27 mm. 10.66 gm. \
Cf. BMCCRE m, pp. 396 f, no. 1099; Pinder, Ober die
Cistophoren, 1855, no. 101.
ANTONINUS PIUS
(Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus, 138161)
28. AE Medallion. 140-143.
Obv.: Laureate head to left.
ANTONINVS AVG PIVS P P TR P COS HI
Rev.: Jupiter, half-draped and holding thunderbolt and
Plate 3
Plate 4
*<? PLATE IV
37 mm. 52.17 gm. t
33. AE Medallion. 165.
Obv.: Bust to left, with scaled cuirass seen from the back.
L AVREL VERVS AVG ARMENIACVS IMP IITRPV COS II
Rev.: Lucius standing in military dress, holding staff and
patera over altar; at left, column with statue of
Minerva; at right, Victoria crowning the emperor
and holding a palm.
37 mm. 39.30 gm. t
Gnecchi n, p. 49, nos. 38 (rev.), 39 (obv.).
L UC ILL A (Annia Lucilla, wife of Lucius Verus, died 183)
34. AE Medallion.
LVCILLAE AVG ANTONINI AVG F
Rev.: Venus standing facing, scepter in left hand, right
arm around shoulders of Cupid; at right, a lighted
altar.
VENVS
41 mm. 42.91 gm. T
COMMODUS (Lucius Marcus Aelius Aurelius Com-
modus Antoninus, Caesar 175-180, Emperor 180-192)
Obv.: Youthful bust to right, laureate, draped and
cuirassed.
IMP CAES L AVREL COM MODVS GERM SARM
Rev.: Marcus Aurelius and Commodus, each holding
branch of olive, driving quadriga to left, led by
Virtus; above, Victoria flying to left, carrying a
trophy.
tr pot cos in exergue.
39 mm. 51.87 gm. t
Obv.: Bust to right, laureate, with scaled cuirass seen
from the back.
M AVREIIVS COMMODVS ANTONINVS AVG
Rev.: Jupiter standing facing, scepter in right hand and
fuhnen in left; at left, Minerva with spear and
shield; at right, Juno with patera and scepter-staff.
p m tr p vm IMP VI
cos nn p p in exergue.
40 mm. 61.02 gm. \
ex Sir Arthur Evans Collection.
Obv.: Laureate, draped, cuirassed bust to left.
M AVREL COMMODVS ANTONINVS AVG
Rev.: Pomona seated to right, holding corn ears and
poppy in left hand, right raised to grapevine,
below which are two children in a tub and a third
with a basket at the feet of the goddess.
p m tr p vm imp vi cos nn p p
temporvm felicitas in exergue.
Cf. Gnecchi n, p. 68, no. 150 (obv.), p. 66, no. 133 (rev.).
ex Mazzini Collection, no. 3180. Another specimen was
AC xvm (1938) no. 292 = Hirsch Sale xvra (1907) no.
1031.
M COMMODVS ANTO NINVS AVG PIVS BRIT
Rev.: Herakles crowning himself with right hand and
holding club and lion skin in left. At left, apple tree
on which hangs a quiver; at right, lighted and
garlanded altar.
p m tr p x imp vn cos nil p p
40 mm. 50.23 gm. f
+9 PLATE V
43. AE Medallion, bimetallic. 192.
Obv.: Conjoined busts of Commodus (laureate, draped,
cuirassed) and Roma (helmeted, cuirassed with
aegis) to right.
L AELTVS AVRELIVS COM MODVS AVG PIVS FELIX
Rev.: Pietas enthroned to left, holding scepter in her left
hand and extending right hand to naked child
standing before her.
PMTRP xvn 1mp vm COS VDPP
45 mm. 63.78 gm. I
Cf. also D. H. Cox, Coins from Curium, no. 234.
Obv.: Head to left, wearing lion skin.
L AELTVS AVRELIVS COMMODVS AVG PIVS FELLX
Rev.: Hercules-Commodus, carrying lion skin and club,
driving oxen yoked to a plow to the left.
HERC ROM CONDITORI P M TR P XVHI
cos vn p p in exergue.
41 mm. 70.69 gm. '
ex Mazzini Collection, no. 3056, and Vierordt Collection,
no. 1732.
L AELTVS AVRELIVS COMMODVS AVG PTVS FELLX
Rev.: Hercules-Commodus standing to right, right hand
on hip; left holds bow and rests on pile of rocks
with lion skin and club.
HERCVLI ROMANO AVG P M TR P XVm COS \TO P P
42 mm. 62.63 gm. T
Cf. Gnecchi n, p. 54, no. 30; p. 55, no. 33 (rev.).
CLODIUS ALBINUS (Decimus Clodius Septimius
Albinus, Caesar 193-196, Emperor 196-197)
46. AE Medallion, bimetallic.
Obv.: Draped, cuirassed bust to left.
D CLODTVS SEPTLMIVS ALBINVS CAES
Rev.: Minerva standing to left, holding an olive branch
and a shield, a spear resting against the left arm.
MINER PA OF COS II
51 mm. 89.82 gm. 1/
Cf. Gnecchi n, p. 73, no. 3.
ex Earl Fitzwilliam Collection, no. 358A.
SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS (Lucius Septimius Severus
47. AE Sestertius. 211. Pertinax, 193-211)
DTVO SEPTIMIO SEVERO PIO
Rev.: Funeral pyre consisting of a base and four tiers,
adorned with wreaths and statuary in niches, and
with facing quadriga on top.
CONSECRATIO
s c in exergue.
36 mm. 27.85 gm. T
BMCCRE v, p. 428, nos. 49 f.
PLAUTILLA (Fulvia Plautilla, wife of Caracalla, died
48. AE Sestertius. 202-205. 212)
PLAVTLLLA AVGVSTA
Rev.: Plautilla standing to right, scepter in her right hand
and child on her left arm.
PIETAS AVGG S C
34.5 mm. 23.85 gm. T
BMCCRE v, p. 323, note; cf. pi. 48, 7.
ex Mazzini (no. 3882) and Ryan Collections (no. 2684),
and the coin quoted by Cohen (no. 17) from the Schwing
Collection (sold in Paris, 1932). Cf. Trau Sale (Hess, 1934)
no. 2325.
SEVERUS ALEXANDER (Marcus Aurelius
Plate 5
Gnecchi ra, p. 42, no. 39.
ex Prince Waldek Collection, no. 776 (also Munzhand-
lung Basel Sale no. 8, 1937, no. 931).
Obv.: Laureate, draped, cuirassed bust to right, facing
diademed, draped bust of Julia Mamaea to left.
IMP SEV ALEXAND AVG IVLIA MAMAEA AVG
mater avg in exergue.
Rev.: Emperor seated to left in curule chair, holding orb
and scroll; Victoria crowns him; Felicitas stands in
front; and a woman (Mamaea?) appears at his right.
FELICI TAS TEMPORVM
28 mm. 10.65 gm. 1
Gnecchi ra, p. 44, nos. 15 (obv.), 16 (rev.).
ex Mazzini (no. 4398) and Prince Waldek Collections (no.
780).
Similar pieces are inscribed vot x (Toynbee, p. 81).
Obv.: All as no. 53.
Rev.: Alexander standing to right in military dress, sacri-
ficing to Jupiter at a tripod; at the left, Virtus holds
shield and crowns the emperor.
FIDES MILI TVM
26 mm. 9.83 gm. T
Gnecchi in, p. 45, no. 18.
ex Mazzini Collection, no. 4399. Cf. Giorgi Collection no.
972 and Consul Weber Collection no. 2045.
Plate 6
PLATE VI
55. AE Medallic As. 226.
Obv.: All as nos. 53, 54.
Rev.: Nymphaeum of Severus Alexander, adorned with
statues and trophies within and, including a quad-
riga, above.
PMIRPV cos n P P s c
27 mm. 11.62 gm. t
RIC rv, 2, p. 123, no. 615; Cohen rv, p. 483, no. 14.
ex Prince Waldek Collection, no. 782 (also Miinzhand-
lung Basel Sale no. 8, 1937, no. 936).
GORDIANUS III (Marcus Antoninus Gordianus,
56. AE Medallion, bimetallic. 238-244)
IMP CAES M ANT GORD1ANVS AVG
Rev.: Gordian standing to left on platform with prefect
behind him, addressing four praetorians who stand
with standards, spears and shields.
ADLOCVTIO AVGVSTI
38.5 mm. 53.22 gm. t
Cf. Gnecchi n, p. 89, no. 19 (obv.), p. 88, no. 8 (rev.).
ex Mazzini (no. 4551) and Giorgi Collections (no. 1003).
TRANQUILLINA (Furia Sabinia Tranquillina, wife
57. AE As. 241. of Gordianus m)
Obv.: Diademed, draped bust to left.
SABINIA TRANQVILLINA AVG
Rev.: Gordian and Tranquillina standing in formal attire,
facing each other and clasping hands.
CONCORDIA AVGVSTORVM
s c in exergue.
26 mm. 9.91 gm. T
RIC rv, 3, p. 53, no. 341 (b); Cohen v, p. 89, no. 7.
Ex Hesperia Art, Bulletin x1, no. 140, and Fauvel Collec-
tion. Found in Asia Minor.
PHILIP I (Marcus Julius Philippus "Arabs", 244-249)
58. AR Medallion (10 Denarii).
Obv.: Laureate, cuirassed bust to right.
IMP CAES M IVL PHILIPPVS AVG
Rev.: The Three Monetae (as no. 49).
AEQVITAS AVGVSTI
38 mm. 30.378 gm. t
Cf. Gnecchi 1, p. 48, no. 4; Cohen v, p. 96, no. 14.
Greek and Roman Portraits, Boston 1959, no. 65.
ex Prince Waldek Collection, no. 838.
OTACILIA SEVERA (Marcia Otacilia Severa, wife
59. AE Medallion. of Philip 1)
Obv.: Diademed, draped bust to right.
MARCIA OTACIL SEVERA AVG
Rev.: The Three Monetae (as nos. 49, 58).
AEQVITAS PVB LICA
36 mm. 32.67 gm. T
M. und M. Sale xvn (1957) no. 543.
M.F.A., Annual Report for 1957, p. 30.
Workmanship and design suggest this piece was a trial for
a medallion in silver or gold.
PHILIP II (Marcus Julius Severus Philippus, Caesar
60. AE Medallion. 244-247, Emperor 247-249)
M IVL PHILIPPVS NOBTL CAES
Rev.: The Caesar standing in military dress, flanked by
Virtus with a shield and standard, and crowned by
Mars, similarly equipped at the right.
PRINCIPI IW EN TVTIS
37 mm. 53.IO gm. t
TRAIANUS DECIUS (Caius Messius Quintus
61. AE Double Sestertius. Traianus Decius, 249-251)
Obv.: Radiate, draped and cuirassed bust to right.
IMP C M Q TRAIANVS DECTVS AVG
Rev.: Felicitas standing to left, holding caduceus-staff
PLATE VII
TREBONIANUS GALLUS (Caius Vibius
65. AE Medallion. Trebonianus Gallus, 251-253)
IMP CAES C VIBIVS TREBONIANVS GALLVS AVG
Rev.: Gallus and Volusianus sacrifice at an altar in front
of a hexastyle tempie, in which there is a statue of
Fortuna with rudder and cornucopia. Genius Sena-
tus (?) and Victoria (?) crown the rulers, and three
figures assist the ceremonies.
FORTVNAE R ED VCI
38.5 mm. 51.08 gm. T
VOLUSIANUS (Caius Vibius Volusianus, 252-254)
66. AR Medallion, with traces of gilding.
IMP CAE C VIB VOLVSIANO AVG
Rev.: The Three Monetae.
MONETA AVGG
31 mm. 24.63 gm. T
Gnecchi 1, p. 50, no. 2.
67. AE Medallion. 252 or 253.
Obv.: Opposed busts of Gallus and Volusian, both
laureate, draped and cuirassed.
IMP GALLVS AVG IMP VOLVSIANVS AVG
Rev.: The emperors on horseback galloping to right,
cloaks flying behind; they carry lances.
ADVENTVS AVGG
37 mm. 42.37 gm. T
Gnecchi n, p. 103, no. 1; Cohen v, p. 262, no. 1.
ex AC xv (1930) no. 1849 and Horsky Collection (no.
4072).
URANIUS ANTONINUS (Lucius Julius Aurelius
Sulpicius Uranius Antoninus, 253-254)
68. AV Aureus. Emesa.
L IVL AVR SVLP VRA ANTONINVS
Rev.: Fortuna standing to left, holding rudder and
cornucopia.
FB CVND ITAS AVG
21 mm. 5.53 gm. /"
RIC rv, 3, p. 205, no. 3; Delbrueck, Numismatic Chroni-
cle 1948, p. 18, B 1.
ex M. und M. Sale xn (1953) no. 846.
VALERIANUS (Caius Publius Licinius Valerianus,
69. AR Medallion. 253-260)
IMP C P LIC VALERIANVS P F AVG
MONETAE AVGG
31 mm. 19.28 gm. T
BMCM, p. 61, no. 2 (this piece).
Cf. Gnecchi 1, p. 51, no. 7; Jameson n, no. 251 (same dies).
GALLIENUS (Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus,
70. AR Medallion, gilded. 260-268. 253-268)
IMP GALLIENVS P F AVG
MONETA AVG
34 mm. 22.80 gm. i
Gnecchi 1, p. 52, no. 5.
Obv.: Bust to right, wearing cloak held by double baldric
passing across the chest and holding caduceus on
left shoulder.
IMP G ALLIENVS PIVS FELIX AVG
Rev.: Emperor standing in military costume, holding
Plate 7
Plate 8
*? PLATE VIII **
P R O B U S (Marcus Aurelius Probus, 276-282)
75. AE Medallion.
Obv.: Half-figure bust to left, laureate, holding Victori-
ola on orb and, in left hand, an eagle-headed sword
or scepter.
IMP C PRO BVS P F AVG
MO NETA AV G
38 mm. 22.20 gm. t
Gnecchi n, p. 118, no. 26, pi. 120, no. 6 (same dies); Del-
brueck, Munzbildnisse, pi. 27, no. 23.
Cf. Toynbee, p. 149, no. 25, pi. 47, no. 5; M. und M. Sale
(IQ54) no. 751. Greek and Roman Portraits, no. 69.
ex Vierordt Collection (Schulman Sale, Amsterdam 1923)
no. 2481 and Santamaria Sale 1907 (Martinetti and Ner-
vegna Collections, Sangiorgi Catalogue) no. 2842.
On Probus's medallions in general, see also K. Pink,
Numismatische Zeitschrift 1955, pp. 16 ff.
76. AE Medallion.
Obv.: Laureate bust to left, wearing aegis and seen from
the back; spear to left, behind.
PROBVS IN VICT P AVG
MO NETA A VG
37 mm. 33.62 gm. T
Gnecchi n, p. 118, no. 30, pi. 120, no. 8.
77. AE Medallion.
Obv.: Laureate, cuirassed bust to left, holding spear and
shield on which Victoria and Virtus accompany
the equestrian emperor.
IMP PROBV S P F AVG
MONETA A VG
34 mm. 29.07 gm. T
Cohen v1, p. 290, no. 376. Cf. AC vm (1924) no. 1421.
ex AC xv (1930) no. 1880.
78. AE Medallion.
Obv.: All as no. 77.
Rev.: Also as no. 77.
33 mm. 16.15 gm. I
Gnecchi n, p. 118, no. 24, pi. 120, no. 5. Cf. AC xvn
(1934) no. 1798.
79. AE Medallion.
IMP C M AVR P ROBVS P F AVG
MONETA A VG
33 mm. 20.68 gm. T
Cf. Gnecchi n, p. 117, no. 15.
DIOCLETIAN (Caius Valerius Diocletianus, 284-305)
80. AV Medallion (2 Aurei). 305. Alexandria.
Obv.: Laureate, robed bust to right, holding olive branch
and rotulus.
D N DIOCLETIANO BAEATISSIMO SEN AVG
Rev.: Jupiter standing with scepter-staff and Victoriola,
eagle at feet.
iovi con servatori ale in exergue. a in field.
26 mm. 10.74 gni. T
Cf. Gnecchi 1, p. 12, no. 4 (Maximianus); Trau Collection,
no. 3636 (Hess Sale, Lucerne 1935).
Greek and Roman Portraits, no. 70.
8oa. AE Medallion. 284-286.
IMP C C VAL DIOCLETIANVS P F AVG
MONETA AVG
38 mm. 28.44 gm. 1
Gnecchi n, pp. 124 f., no. 10, pi. 124, no. 5.
ex E. Gans List no. 3 (Dec. 1950) no. 665.
+e PLATE IX
MAXIMIANUS (Marcus Aurelius Valerius
Maximianus "Herculeus", 286-305-310)
84. AV Medallion (4 Aurei). 306-307. Rome.
Obv.: Head of Maximianus to right, wearing lion skin.
IMP C M AVR MAXIMIANVS P F AVG
Rev.: Hercules standing facing, looking left, lion skin on
left shoulder, quiver at back, bow in extended left
hand, club downward in right.
HERCVLI COMITI AVGG ET CAES N
p r in exergue.
33 mm. 20.76 gm. T
Illustrated London News, 14 Nov. 1959, fig. 3.
M.F.A., Calendar of Events, Feb. 1960, p. 2.
Cf. Gnecchi 1, pi. 5, nos. 5, 7, 8.
85. AV Medallion (4 Aurei). 306-307. Carthage.
IMP MAXIMIANVS SEN AVG
Rev.: Mars in full uniform marching to right with spear
and shield.
MARTI CONSER V AVGG ET CAES N
p k in exergue.
33 mm. 20.11 gm. T
The two Augusti are Maximianus and Maxentius, and the
Caesar is Constantinus Magnus, who became Augustus
on 31 March 307.
MAXENTIUS (Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius,
86. AV Medallion (2 Aurei). Rome. 306-312)
Obv.: Radiate head to right.
IMP MAXENTIVS P F AVG
Rev.: Hercules standing facing, looking to right, lion skin
over left arm, bow in left hand, club downward
in right.
HERCVLI C OMITI AVG N
p r in exergue.
27 mm. 10.70 gm. T
M.F. A., Calendar of Events, Feb. 1960, p. 2.
87. AV Medallion (2 Aurei). Rome.
Obv.: Head of Maxentius to left, wearing lion skin.
IMP MAXENTIVS P F AVG
Rev.: Emperor in military costume standing to the right
holding scepter-staff and receiving orb from Dea
Roma, who is seated to the left with scepter-staff
in left hand and shield beside her. On shield, Lupa
Romana beneath a tree.
CONSERVA TO R VRBS SVAE
p * r in exergue.
26 mm. 10.83 gm. t
M.F.A., Calendar of Events, Feb. 1960, p. 2.
CONSTANTINE THE GREAT (Flavius Valerius
Constantinus, Magnus, 306-337)
88. AV Medallion (iH Solidi). 1 March 325. Nicomedia.
D N CONSTANTINVS MAX AVG
Rev.: Emperor (?) on horseback to right, hand raised in
greeting.
EQVIS ROMANVS
s m n in exergue.
24 mm. 6.72 gm. T
Gnecchi 1, p. 16, no. 9, pi. 6, no. 12; Cohen vn, p. 244, no.
139; Maurice in, p. 58, pi. 12.
Cf. A. Bellinger, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 12 (1958) no.
5 and references.
CONSTANTINUS II (Flavius Claudius Julius Victor
Constantinus, Caesar 316-337, Augustus 337-340)
89. AV Medallion (iH Solidi). 333. Treviri.
Obv.: Laureate bust to right, wearing fringed cloak and
Plate 9
Rev.: Two Victoriae supporting wreathed votive shield
inscribed vot x mvl xx
VICTORIAE D D N N AVGG
sis. in exergue.
28.5 mm. 8.87 gm. j
Cf. Gnecchi 1, p. 28, no. 16; Bellinger, Dumbarton Oaks
Papers 12 (1958) no. 21 (same dies) and references. The
issue commemorated the Decennalia with Constantius n
(as Augusti).
ex Mazzini Collection.
93. AR Miliarense (2 Siliquae). Thessalonika.
Obv.: Diademed, draped, cuirassed bust to right.
FL IVL CON STANS P F AVG
Rev.: Emperor in military costume standing to left and
holding standard in right hand, shield in lowered
left.
TRTVMFATOR GENTIVM BARBARVM TES
23 mm. 4.55 gm. j
Gnecchi 1, p. 63, no. 22, pi. 30, no. 12.
ex M. und M. Sale xvn (1957) no. 609.
CONSTANTIUS II (Flavius Julius Valerius Con-
stantius, Caesar 327-337, Emperor 337-361)
94. AE Medallion. 350-361. Rome.
Obv.: Diademed, draped, cuirassed bust to right.
D N CONST [AN] TIVS P F AVG
MONETA [AV]G
r in exergue.
28 mm. 10.23 gm. t
Cf. Gnecchi n, p. 147, nos. 11, 12, pi. 136, nos. 5, 6 (with
small heads); Bizot Collection (Sotheby, Nov. 1902) no.
373.
ex Admiral Lord Anson and Lord Bagot of BUthfield
Collections.
MAGNENTIUS (Flavius Magnus Magnentius, 350-353)
95. AE Medallion.
Obv.: Draped, cuirassed bust to right.
IMP CAE MAGN ENTTVS AVG
Rev.: Victoria running to left, holding a wreath in raised
right hand, a palm in left.
VICTORIA AVGVSTORVM
36.5 mm. 17.36 gm. T
Gnecchi n, p. 154, no. 7, pi. 138, no. 8.
ex M. und M. Sale xrx (1959) no. 271.
VALENTINIANUS I (Flavius Valentinianus, 364-375)
96. AV Medallion (iM Solidi). 368. Thessalonika.
Obv.: Diademed, helmeted, cuirassed bust to left, with
spear and shield; on the latter, emperor riding to
the right, over a fallen barbarian.
D N VALENTINI ANVS P F AVG
Rev.: Victoria seated to left, writing on a shield held up
at the left by a winged Amorino.
VICTORIA D N AVGVSTI
vot v mvlt x on shield
tes oB in exergue.
27 mm. 6.735 gm. i
Cf. Gnecchi 1, p. 35, no. 10, pi. 14, no. 11; RIC rx, p. 177,
no. 20.
Plate io
PLATE X
CONTORNIATES AND TESSERAE
97. AE Contorniate. Circa 356-395.
Obv.: Draped bust of Alexander the Great to right, lion
skin over the head.
ALEXA NDBR
Rev.: View of the Circus Maxim us with four chariots
racing; the obelisk appears in the center of the
spina, and the metae are visible on either end;
statues and spectators fill the area between.
40 mm. 28.89 gm. i
Cf. Alfoldi, p. 131, no. 19, pi. xxxvm, no. 2; MQnzhand-
lung Basel Sale no. 3 (1935) no. 1068.
98. AE Contorniate.
Obv.: Bust of Sallust to right, draped in a pallium.
SALVSTI VS AVTOR
Rev.: Three entertainers facing, the central one with a
syrinx and the others with flutes.
PETRONI PLACEAS
39 mm. 32.67 gm. T
Alfoldi, p. 136, no. 76, pi. xxxv1, no. 1.
M.F.A., Annual Report for 1957, p. 30.
99. AE Contorniate.
Obv.: Laureate head of Nero to right; palm branch in-
cised in the field at the left.
NERO CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVG GER P M TR P IMP P P
Rev.: Victoria floating down to left, carrying a shield
on which is inscribed spqs
s c in field, left and right.
38 mm. 28.87 gm. T
Alfoldi, p. 139, no. 100, pi. vn, no. 3.
ex J. Hirsch Sale xxxiu (1913) no. 1530.
100. AE Contorniate. 356-394.
Obv.: Laureate, draped, cuirassed bust of Trajan to left.
IMP CAES NERVAE TRAIANO AVG GER DAC P M TR P
COS V P P
Rev.: Ceres seated to left, with ears of wheat in left hand
and right extended over a tall cylindrical altar;
before her, Abundance standing with cornucopia.
ANNON A AVGVSTA CERES
s c in exergue.
36.5 mm. 22.97 gm. I
Cf. Alfoldi, p. 151, no. 201, pi. rx, no. 4 and p. 150, no.
197, pi. x, no. 6.
ex Hotel Drouot Sale, 6 April 1959, no. 198 (Collection
of Madame M. P.).
101. AE Contorniate.
Obv.: Laureate, draped, cuirassed bust of Trajan to
right; palm branch incised in the field at the right.
TRAIANVS AVG COS IfflPP
Rev.: Charioteer driving a quadriga to the right; he
holds wreath and palm, and looks to the left.
FL A VIANV S
38 mm. 24.09 gm. T
Cf. Alfoldi, p. 156, no. 248 (obv.) and p. 145, no. 154 (rev.).
Obv.: Laureate, draped, cuirassed bust of Trajan to
right; at right, flower inlaid in silver.
IMP CAES TRAIANVS AVG P M P P PRO CONS
Rev.: Nude athlete standing between woman and flute
piayer, and holding up a crown in the right hand
and a palm in the left.
FIL INVS
37 mm. 22.50 gm. J,
Alfoldi, p. 159, no. 275, pi. xxxv, no. 4.
Obv.: Laureate, draped, cuirassed bust of Trajan to right.
DIVO TRAIA NO AVGVSTO

Roman Medallions / (Cornelius C. Vermeule)

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57- Vei 2.3

THIS catalogue includes all the Roman me-

dallions and contorniates in the Museum of

Fine Arts. In addition, a few coins of exceptional

rarity and prime artistic merit are described. The

balance of the Roman Republican and imperial

coins will be published in another volume or in

special articles. The Roman collection, more than

the Greek, is practically entirely that of Miss The-

odora Wilbour. In 1934 she made her first gift of

medallions and coins, and each year thereafter her

collection in the Museum was enriched by pieces

of great artistic merit. The purchases made during

the decade 1950 to 1961 have been entirely from

the funds Miss Wilbour bequeathed in memory

of her sister Zoe Wilbour.

Before Miss Wilbour began her series of gifts,

the principal Roman coins were those of the

Catharine Page Perkins Collection, acquired in

1895, 1897 and 1901 through the intermediary of

Edward Perry Warren. These coins are described

on pp. 100 f. of Matthew Prichard's Guide to the

Catharine Page Perkins Collection of Greek and

Roman Coins (Boston and New York, 1902).

With a few exceptions, the other source of ac-

quisition in recent years is a series of anonymous

gifts in memory of Professor George H. Chase,

Acting Curator until his death in 1952, and in

memory of Mr. Leonard Forrer Sr., the much-

esteemed classical numismatist of Spink and Son

in London. Included in this group are medallions

secured by exchange with the British Museum.

The list of Museum accession numbers and sources

gives details of acquisition for each medallion and

coin. As with the Greek coins in Mrs. A. B. Brett's

catalogue of 1955, these accession numbers give

the date of entry into the permanent collections.

The proveniences where known are listed after

each piece. Most medallions and coins were ac-

quired by Miss Wilbour at European sales in the

1930's or from her bequest at similar sales during

the past decade. Mr. Forrer was her numismatic

advisor. In Miss Wilbour's lifetime the Prince

Waldek Sale (Miinzhandlung Basel, 1935) was a

particularly rich source for medallions, gold aurei,

silver denarii and rare aes or bronzes. For the

Wilbour Bequest, the Mazzini collection once in

Italy has provided important imperial medallions

in all metals. One group of medallions and coins

comprises the Museum's share in the great hoard

of Tetrarch gold found in the Mediterranean in

recent years and published preliminarily by R. A.

G. Carson, "The Greatest Discovery of Roman

Gold Pieces Since the Great Find at Arras, In-

cluding Unique Medallions of the Emperor Max-

entius," The Illustrated London News, 14 Novem-

Since the aim of this catalogue is to emphasize

the artistic significance of these medallions and

coins, some concessions to historical accuracy