PART 1 a) Write a history on logarithm.

NAPIERS LOGARITHMS The invention and origins of Logarithm was credited to John Napier, who was born in 1550 to Sir Archibald and his first wife, Janet Bothwell. John Napier was an amateur Calvinist theologian who predicted that the end of the world would occur in the years between 1688 and 1700, and designed weapons of mass destruction, intended for use against the enemies of his religion. But none of these were remembered widely. His lasting reputation is due to his third hobby: mathematical computation. As a landowner, he never held a job, and his time and energy could be entirely devoted to intellectual pursuits. He developed an interest in reducing the labor required by the many tedious computations that were necessary in astronomical work, involving operations with the very large values of the trigonometric lengths given in the tables of his times. His interest in these matters might have been rekindled in 1590 on the occasion of a visit by Dr. John Craig, the kings physician. On his return from Denmark, Dr. John Craig paid a visit to Napier to inform him of his findings while visiting Uraniborg, the astronomical observatory of Tycho Brahe. Here were new, ingenious ways to perform some of those tedious computations required by astronomical calculations, and foremost was the use of prosthaphaeresis, which refers to the use of the trigonometric identity: ( )

The big problem of multiplying many-digit members in astronomical calculations was thus reduced to the simpler one of addition and subtraction. But what about quotients, exponentiations, and roots? Napier sought a general method to deal with these computations, eventually found it, and gave it to the world in his book Mirifici Logarithmorum Canoni descriptio (Description of the admirable table of logarithms) of 1614. This is a small volume of 147 pages, 90 of which are devoted to mathematical tables containing a list of numbers, mysteriously called logarithms, whose use would facilitate all kinds of computations, although no explanation was given in this book about how they were computed. Instead, there is a disclaimer in an Admonition in Chapter 2 of The first Book, which he stated, if his Tables were well received Napier would be happy to explain how the logarithms were constructed; otherwise, let them go into oblivion.

Figure 1: From Knott, Napier tercentenary memorial volume, Plate IX facing page 181.

It happened that the Descriptio was a huge editorial success: a book well received and frequently used by scientists all over the world. Then an explanatory book became necessary but, although it was probably written before the Descriptio, it was published only posthumously (Napier died in 1617, one year after Shakespeare and Cervantes) under the title Mirifici Logarithmorvm Canonis constructio, when his son Robert included it with the 1619 edition of the Descriptio. For further reading, the Constrvctio gives a glimpse into Napiers mind and his possible sources of inspiration. BRIGGS LOGARITHMS The first mathematics professorship in England, a chair in geometry, was endowed by Sir Thomas Gresham in 1596 at Gresham College in London, and Henry Briggs (1561-1631) was its first occupant. He was quite impressed by the invention of logarithms. However, Briggs had become aware of some serious shortcomings in the logarithm scheme published by Napier.

Both Napier and Briggs had been separately thinking of ways to solve these deficiencies, and each of them made some proposals to accomplish that. These involved, in either case, the construction of a new set of logarithms from scratch. But they differed about the key properties on which the new logarithms should be based. At the time that Briggs was about to embark on the elaboration of his tables (Napiers health was failing in his 65th year, so it was up to Briggs to start a new series of computations) there were two main methods to calculate logarithms, and both of them had been published in the Appendix to Napiers Constructio. However, we do not know whether these are due to Napier or are a product of his collaboration with Briggs. The first method was based on the extraction of

fifth roots and the second on the extraction of square roots. Napier felt that though this method [of the fifth root] is considerably more difficult, it is correspondingly more exact. Briggs chose the method of the square root, and started evaluating (by hand, of course, which may take several hours) the square root of 10. Briggs values can be seen on the previous page, reproduced from Chapter 6, page 10, of the second edition of Arithmetica logarithmica. Note that he did not use the decimal point, but inserted commas to help with counting spaces. On the logarithm side he omitted many zeros, which can be confusing. It must be pointed out that Briggs made a mistake in his computation of . These digits are wrong from the twentieth on. This mistake trickles down through his entire table, but because the wrong digits are so far on the right, the error becomes smaller as it propagates, and his last two entries are almost in complete agreement with values obtained today using a computer. THE LOGARITM ACCORDING TO EULER The present-day notion of logarithms was made by Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) of Basel, who connected them to the exponential function in the 18th century. The son of a preacher and destined to enter the ministry, his ability in mathematics soon convinced his father to let him switch careers, and he went on to become the most prolific mathematics writer of all time. In 1727, the year of Newtons death, he was invited to join the newly founded Academy of Saint Petersburg, in Russia, and soon became producing first rate research. It was the next year, in a manuscript on the firing of cannon, that he introduced a soon to become famous number as follows: Write for the number whose logarithm is unity. E. but he did not give a reason for this choice of letter. By that time, he had already defined the exponential and logarithmic functions, but the mathematical community at large had to wait until Euler was ready to publish. In 1741 he accepted a position at the Academy of Berlin, where he would remain for twenty-five years, and in 1744 he wrote his enormously influential treatise Introductio in Analysin Infinitorum. Published in Lausanne in 1748, it became the standard work on analysis during the second half of the eighteenth century. The success of the Introductio rests on the amount and importance of the mathematical discoveries that Euler included in it, making it one of the most significant mathematics books of all times. Its readers might have been bewildered about the fact that there is one logarithm for each base a, but Euler easily showed that all logarithms of y are multiples of each other.

b) Find and explain the applications of logarithm in two different fields of study. Explanation of each application should include the following : i) ii) The field of study chosen. Examples of problem solving related to the field of study.

Application #1 :: pH Measurement pH is a measurement of acidity and is surprisingly a common measurement. For example, in the chemical industry, the acidity of the reagents in many types of reactor has to be controlled to enable optimum reaction conditions. In addition, in the water industry, the acidity of freshwater for consumption and of effluent for discharge has to be controlled carefully to satisfy legislative requirements. pH is an electro-chemical measurement, invariably made by means of the so-called glass electrode. It is a notoriously difficult measurement to make because of factors such as drift and fouling. Understanding the significance of measurements requires an appreciation of electrochemical equilibria. And using pH for control purposes is problematic because of the inherent non-linearities and time delays. The formal definition of pH is given as:

Where [ ] denotes concentration of ions in aqueous solution with units of g ions/L. In the case of hydrogen, whose atomic and ionic weights are the same, [ ] has units of g/L or . The logarithmic scale means that pH increases by one unit for each decrease by a factor of 10 in [ ]. Pure water dissociates very weakly to produce hydrogen and hydroxyl ions according to

At equilibrium at approximately 25, the r

e trat

are u h that

The dissociation must produce equal concentrations of

and

ions, so

Since pure water is neutral, by definition, it follows that for neutrality:

This gives rise to the familiar pH scale of 0-14, symmetrical about pH 7, of which 0-7 corresponds to acidic solutions and 7-14 to alkaline solutions.

To evaluate the pH of alkaline solutions, it is usual to substitute for H+ in the above equations: * Example :: Neutralisation Control Neutralisation is the process whereby acid and base reagents are mixed to produce a product of specified pH. In the context of waste water and effluent treatment the objective is to adjust the pH to a value of 7 although, in practice, any value in the range of 6-8 is good enough. In many chemical reactions the pH has to be controlled at a value other than 7, which could be anywhere in the range of 0-14. Neutralisation is always carried out in aqueous solutions, pH is a meaningless quantity otherwise. Note that a base that is soluble in water is usually referred to as an alkali. pH is without doubt the most difficult of common process variables to control. For example, the measurement is electrochemical, made with a glass and reference electrode pair as shown below, and is prone to contamination, hysteresis and drift. The signal produced, being logarithmic, is highly non-linear. The process being controlled invariably ahs a wide range of both concentration and flow rate. The rangeability of flow gives rise to variable residence times. To achieve satisfactory control, all of these issues have to be addressed. +

Figure 2 : pH Sensing Instrument

Application #2 :: Frequency Response Frequency response is an important means of analysis and design for control systems in the frequency domain. In essence, it concerns the behavior of systems that are forced by sinusoidal

inputs. A system may be forced sinusoidally and, by measuring its output signal is as specified. Frequency response is of particular importance for design purposes form a stability point of view. Consider the first order system G(s) (a.k.a Transfer Function) as shown in Figure 3.

( )

( )

Figure 3: First order system.

If

is a sine wave of amplitude A and frequency ( ) ( )

Then the response is given by: ( ) ( ) ( )

By splitting this into its partial fractions, inverse transforming and some non-trivial trigonometric manipulation, the solution may be found. Once the exponential transient has decayed away, the response becomes: ( ) ( )

Which is also a sine wave as depicted in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Steady state response of first order system to sinusoidal input.

In Figure 4, the amplitude of

is

which comprises the amplitude A of the input amplified

by the steady state gain K and attenuated by the factor

The product of gain and attenuation factor

of

is known as the amplitude ratio. The frequency

is the same as that of

but is shifted in phase by an amount where: ta

Since the oscillatory behavior is associated with roots of the form , this fact may be exploited in determining the frequency response of a system, by substituting and form the complex conjugate giving: ( )

This may be depicted in Argand diagram form as shown in Figure 5.

It may also be expressed in polar co-ordinates as follows: ( ) ( ) ( )

where the modulus is the length of the vector, is given by

and the argument, which is the angle of the vector, is given by: ( ( ) )

ta

ta

The derived equation shows the complexity to plot in Cartesian space. Bode Plots Because of the complexity, it is convenient to present information about frequency in graphical form known as Bode Plots. A Bode diagram consist of two graphs; One I s a plot of the logarithm of the magnitude of a sinusoidal transfer function; the other is a plot of the phase angle; both are plotted against the frequency on a logarithmic scale, as shown in Figure 6.

The standard representation of the logarithmic magnitude of ( ( )

) is given by

where the base of the logarithm is 10. The unit used in this representation of the magnitude is the decibel, usually abbreviated dB. In the logarithmic representation, the curve are drawn on semilog paper, using the log scale for frequency and the linear scale for either magnitude (but in decibels) or phase angle (in degrees). The frequency range of interest determines the number of logarithmic cycles required on the abscissa. Furthermore, a simple method for sketching an approximate log-magnitude curve is available. It is based on asymptotic approximations. Such approximation by straight-line asymptotes is sufficient if only rough information on the frequency-response characteristics is need. Should the exact curve be desired, corrections can be made easily to these basic asymptotic plots. Expanding the low frequency range by use of a logarithmic scale for the frequency is highly advantageous, since characteristics at low frequencies are most important in practical systems. Example :: Electronic Filters

The concept of filters has been an integral part of the evolution of electrical engineering from the beginning. Several technological achievements would not have been possible without electrical filters. Because of this prominent role of filters, much effort has been expended on the theory, design and construction of filters. A filter is a circuit that I s designed to pass signals with desired frequencies and reject or attenuate others. As a frequency-selective device, a filter can be used to limit the frequency spectrum of a signal to some specified band of frequencies. Filters are the circuit used in radio and TV receivers to allow us to select one desired signal out oof a multitude of broadcast signals in the environment. A filter is a passive filter if it consists of only passive elements resistors R, inductor L, and capacitor C. It is said to be an active filter if it consists of active elements (such as transistors and operational amplifiers) in addition to passive elements R, L and C. There are four types of filters whether passive or active. 1. A lowpass filter passes low frequencies and stops high frequencies, as shown in Figure 7a & 7b.

2. A highpass filter passes high frequencies and rejects low frequencies, as shown is Figure 8a & 8b.

3. A bandpass filter passes frequencies within a frequency band and blocks or attenuates frequencies outside the band, as shown in Figure 9a & 9b.

4. A bandstop filter oases frequencies outside a frequency band and blocks or attenuates frequencies within the band, as shown in Figure 10a & 10b.

PART 2 The volume, V, in cm3, of a solid sphere and its diameter, D, in cm, are related by the equation V = mDn, where m and n are constants. You can find the value of m and of n by conducting the activities below.

i)

Choose six different spheres with diameters between 1 cm to 8 cm. Measure the diameters of the six spheres using a pair of vernier callipers. SPHERE 1 2 3 4 5 6 DIAMETER (CM) 1.0 2.4 3.8 5.2 6.6 8.0

ii)

Find the volume of each sphere without using the formula of volume. (You can use the apparatus in the science lab to help you)

Archimedes principle states that the upward buoyant force exerted on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid the body displaces. In other words, an immersed object is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid it actually displaces. Using the method of water displacement and knowing the water density is , the volume of a solid sphere is equivalent to the weight of the water displaced (in grams), and thus it can be measured. SPHERE 1 2 3 4 5 6 VOLUME ( ) 0.5236 7.2382 28.7310 73.6223 150.5329 268.0832

iii)

Tabulate the values of the diameter, D, in cm, and its corresponding volume, V, in cm3.

SPHERE 1 2 3 4 5 6 b

DIAMETER (CM) 1.0 2.4 3.8 5.2 6.6 8.0

VOLUME ( ) 0.5236 7.2382 28.7310 73.6223 150.5329 268.0832

Find the value of m and of n using logarithms with any two sets of values obtained in the table above. SPHERE 1 2 3 4 5 6 DIAMETER (CM) 1.0 2.4 3.8 5.2 6.6 8.0 VOLUME ( ) 0.5236 7.2382 28.7310 73.6223 150.5329 268.0832

0.0000 0.3802 0.5798 0.7160 0.8195 0.9031

-0.5236 0.8596 1.4584 1.8670 2.1776 2.4283

Given that the volume, V , of a solid sphere is (1) Taking logarithm on both sides yield ( which can be expanded to )

(2) Using logarithms with any two sets of values ( , ) and ( , ), we have (3) (4) From Eq. (3) and (4), it is obvious that can be eliminated by taking (3) (4)

which can be simplified by the Laws of Logarithms

Dividing both sides with

, we can determine value of n

(5a) Although it is not necessary to find n in the reduced form of

( )

* +

(5b)

Let

) and

), we have

With

, the value of m can be determined by manipulating Eq. (1)

PART 3 (A) In our daily life, the relation between two variables is not always in a linear form. For example, the relation between the volume, V, and the diameter, D, in Part 2 above. Plot V against D using suitable scales.

(B) When the graph V against D is drawn, the value of m and of n are not easily determined from the graph. If the non-linear relation is changed to a linear form, a line of best fit can be drawn and the values of the constants and other information can be obtained easily. a) Reduce the equation V = mDn to a linear form.

in which the reduced equation is a linear form of where ;M=n; ; and .

b) Using the data from Part 2, plot the graph and draw the line of best fit.

c) From the graph, find i) the value of m and of n, thus express V in terms of D,

To obtain the value of m we must know the y-intercept, -0.281, because

The value of n can be determined by calculating the slope of the graph, that is ( )

Thus volume, V, of a solid sphere can be expressed in terms of D as ( ii) ) (6)

the volume of the sphere when the diameter is 5 cm, and

With this value 0.699 on the x-axis, we can look up on the linear graph and interpolate the corresponding value 1.816 on the y-axis.

iii)

the radius of the sphere when the volume is 180 cm3.

With this value 2.25527 on the y-axis, we can look up on the linear graph and interpolate the corresponding value 0.845 on the x-axis.

FURTHER EXPLORATION a) Compare the equation obtained in Part 3 (B) c (i) with the formula of volume of sphere. Hence, find the value of . The formula for volume of sphere is given by

Comparing the formula and Eq. (6), we have ( ) ( ) ( ( ) )

b) Suggest another method to find the value of .

One simple method is to determine the circumference C, of a circle with diameter D. The circumference of a circle is the length around it and the associate formula is given by

To measure the circumference C, of a circle with diameter D effectively, the shadow of a solid sphere can be projected on a screen using a bright light source as shown below. Then, the diameter of the casted shadow can be scaled linearly according to the actual diameter of the solid sphere, because the formula shows the linear relationship.

REFLECTION What have you learnt while conducting the project? What moral values did you practise? Express your feelings and opinions creatively through the usage of symbols, drawings, lyrics of a song or a poem.

INTRODUCTION

One of the mathematical concepts which we must be familiar with is logarithms. Before the days of scientific calculators, logarithms were used to multiply or divide extreme numbers using mathematical tables. For these calculations, ten was the most common base to use. Logarithm to the base of ten is also called the common logarithm. Other bases such as two, five and eight can also be used. The ancient Babylonians had used bases up to 60. Logarithms have many applications in various fields of studies. In the early 17th century it was rapidly adopted by navigators, scientists, engineers and astronomers to perform computations more easily.

REFERENCES [1] J. Napier, Mirifici logarithmorum canonis descriptio, Edinburgh (1614). [2] J. Napier, H. Briggs, Mirifici logarithmorum canonis constructi, London (1619). [3] H. Briggs, Arithmetica logarithmica, London (1624). [4] L. Euler, Introductio in analysin infinitorum, (1748). [5] John Blanton, English translation to Introduction to Analysis of the Infinite, SpringerVerlag (1988). [6] E.A Gonzlez-Velasco, Logarithms, in Journey through Mathematics, pp 78-147, Springer Science+Business Media (2011).