COLLECTIVE MASS EDUCATION

BY

Gustav Theodor Fechner

ON BEHALF
THE

SAXON ROYAL SOCIETY OF SCIENCES

PUBLISHED
BY

GOTTL.FIEDR.LIPPS

LEIPZIG
PUBLISHER OF WILLIAM Engelmann in 1897.

Content
Part One

Preliminary statements Foreword I. Introduction. 1, 2 II Preliminary Overview of the key points, which are used in the investigation of a collective object into account, and it related names. 311 III. Preliminary Overview of the study material and general observations. 12 IV props; abnormalities. 13-23 V. Gaussian law of the random deviations (errors of observation) and its generalizations. 24-37

VI. Characteristics of the collective objects by their determination pieces or so-called elements. 38-46 The theoretical treatment of collective objects VII Primary distribution panels. 47-52 VIII Reduced distribution panels. 33 - 67 IX. Determination of A a , , a ', m , m ', , , '. 68-75. X. Compilation and context of the main characteristics of the three principal values of A, C, D: also R, T, F 76-86 XI. The densest value D. 87-92

The asymmetry of collective objects. XII. Reasons that significant asymmetry of the deviations with respect to the arithmetic mean and validity of the asymmetric distribution law with respect to the closest value of Din the sense of generalized Gaussian law (Cape, V) be the general case. 93-95 XIII . Mathematical relations of the connection of major and minor asymmetry. 96 XIV formulas for the mean and probable value of the dependent purely random asymmetry difference and 97-101 XV. Probability provisions for the dependent of a purely random asymmetry difference u the outputs from the true center. 102-111 XVI. Probability provisions for the dependent of a purely random asymmetry difference v the outputs from the wrong means. 112-117

The distribution laws of arithmetic principle of collective objects. XVII. The simple, two-sided Gaussian law. 118 to 122 XVIII. The sum of the law and the Supplementarverfahren. 123-128 XIX. The asymmetry laws. 129-136 XX. The extreme laws. 137-142

The logarithmic distribution law.

XXI. The logarithmic treatment of collective objects. 143 to 146 XXII. Collective treatment of relationships between dimensions. Mean ratios. 147-151 Appendix. XXIII. Dependency relationships. 152-155

Second part.
Special investigations. XXIV over the spatial and temporal relationship of the size variations of the recruits. 136-163 XXV. Structure and asymmetry of rye. 164-169 XXVI. The dimensions of the gallery paintings. 170-175 XXVII. Collective objects from the fields of meteorology. 176-179 XXVIII. The asymmetry of the error rows. 180-182 Appendix. The t-table. 183

Preface.

Vorliegendes work has for many years created by me, collected material and to proceed in the same preparation, but this often interrupted by other tasks, all set aside some time and has thus far delayed the completion of the work. To delay it longer, like at my age, not be advisable if the work is to appear at all, nor do I dare say it is it can finally dare after repeatedly coming back to appear, although for not as a perfect work, but as a backing a further expansion of the doctrine discussed here. Particular the following introductory chapter speaks about the task of teaching from, and so like here only the following general remarks can find additional room. With the new name under which the teaching occurs here, I give it not as a new doctrine, only that the current level of development need not put the close, they even set up under a special name for themselves. Everywhere the science so specialized in the way of their growing development and thus requires separating names of their various areas. Well probably the most general, most interesting, Verdienstlichste what existed of our teaching so far, in Quetelet's "Lettres sur la thorie of probabilits" (1846) and his "physique sociale." (1869) to be found, and if you want, you can at

him as the father of collectives, such as weaver to see EH psychophysics, but you will be able to convince from the pursuit of this work, how much occasion was however, not only significantly expanding, but also adjustment transcend it. In this respect I make a page as a main crop of other than Hauptwur-zel throughout the following investigation the opposite hand controlling mathematical reasoning and empirical validity of a generalization of the GAUSS law random variation claims which the restriction of the same on symmetric probability and proportionate smallness of mutual differences is lifted from the arithmetic mean, and previously unknown legal relationships occur, the most important one is compiled 33rd In fact, the general regulator of all coming in the collectives of language relationships in this generalization is also given, as in the simple laws of GAUSS regulator of all physical and astronomical accuracy requirements, and should still ask themselves if not in principle also to the recourse to general law would be what one should not, be ignored in the comments with 8. In this respect, the collectives is based on a combination of monitoring and accounting in mutual relationship, they may be expected to exact teachings. The lessons that are entitled to such a description, but leave at all to a very different level of security of their results. At the head are mechanics, astronomy, physics, physiology is because of the difficulties which confront the complication and variability of objects far behind; further, because even greater difficulties in this regard, the psychophysics. The collectives shared difficulties, without being subject to the same fundamental problems as psychophysics, this offers additional practical interest, however, they are far inferior to their philosophical interest. But it is not missing all the collectives in such a, if the incoming into it subordination of chance comes under general laws here in an area and in a manner to advantage, which have not previously been subject to the consideration. In regard to the shape and width so many versions will be taken into account that the work is not intended for both professional mathematicians, which come here in respect fundamental points are familiar with already, as for those who are to do knowledge acquisition and application of the doctrine is not that they are already in possession of such knowledge. Here Next I would like to promote our doctrine still address a request to the computer compartment. In the known tables which usually the Gaussian probability integral of the random deviations from the mean (observation error) as

expressed represent the argument is t just run up to two decimal places, which have limited use for the physicists and astronomers to make of it, is sufficient to interpolation by consultation with first and second differences, but for the far more extensive use of the collectives is to make it out to the same thing as if you reduce the many bills that are to lead by means of logarithms, the number argument, to which the logarithms are merely two or three digits and interim provisions would prey only

give the interpolation. So it would be desirable if the interests of our teaching, which is incidentally shared by the psychophysical method of right and wrong cases were available, tables, where t least four decimals executed is 1) to avoid interpolations mostly to facilitate part, and in any case I myself have missed such tables in execution of this work painful. Of course, the expansion of the tables would thus grow, but the advantage seemed to grow stronger relationships with them. And should there be no astronomical or statistical institute that has to have mechanical calculating forces, which were to assume the thing! Also could probably make it up a prize. A version of this table to three decimal places of t, with restriction of the integral value to four, respectively. five decimal places, can be found in Appendix 183
1)

I. Introduction.
1 Under a collective object (short K.-G.) I understand an article, consists of copies indefinitely many, varying randomly, the type or generic are held together by one. Thus man is a collective subject in a broader sense, the man of a certain race, a certain age and a certain breed such in the strict sense, as ever, what the extent of it K.-G. may call upon the extent of the genus or Artbegriffs, under which he enters, changes. The copies of a K.-G. may be spatially or temporally different and thereafter a spatial or temporal K.-G. form. Thus, the recruits of a country or ears of corn field as copies of a spatial K.-G. . apply So are the (average) temperature of the first January, followed at a given place by a number of years, as many copies of a temporal K.G.. Instead of 1 January can be any other anniversary, instead of a specific day a certain month, instead of the temperature and the barometric pressure setting etc is that just as many copies temporal K.-G. receive. Anthropology, zoology, botany have it much at all with K.-G. to do, because it can not be a characteristic of individual specimens, but only to the fact that a population of the same plays that. aspects of this or that is summarized as genus or species in greater or lesser length The Meteorology has just referred to examples in their nonperiodic weather phenomena which represents numerous examples, and can even performance art to speak of such, provided books, business cards are among them. The copies of a K.-G. Now on the one hand high, on the other hand, quantitatively, ie by size and number, determined, and only the latter determination is in the collectives. A K.-G.does, in fact, in terms of its quantitative determination, the same claims as a single object, except that in some (though only some) respect the individual parts of the object through the copies of the K.-G. be represented. It applies, for example, recruits a given country, then the question is: how big the recruits are in the middle, how widely different dimensions to their means, how big are the largest and smallest, the behavior of the recruits dimensions to these

provisions in the individual cohorts, as in different countries with each other. These and related, later to be considered questions can each K.-G. pose, and provided a spatial object has to distinguish different parts and dimensions, they can be in any of these parts and dimensions particularly raise and these constitute a special K.-G. treat as skull, brain, hands, feet of a man, height, weight, or volume of the whole man given parts of people, but also quantitative relationships will come into question, such as when comparing the people of different races, the ratios of average height, width, length of the skull take a special interest in the claim. 2 All these individual questions but raises a more general, the most important to which it can act at all in this doctrine and act accordingly to below, is the question of the law, how the copies of a K.-G. distributed by size and number. By the expression, but the distribution is the determination to understand how the number of copies of a given K.-G. changes with their size. At each present in a greater number of copies K.G. come from the smallest and largest specimens, short extremes, the rarest, most often those of a certain medium size. But there is not a common to all or at least most K.-G. applicable law function of the number of copies of the size? In fact, such a leave is up, and go a main object of the following to its conclusion. From the outset, however, one can doubt that at the extraordinary difference in the K.-G. legal distribution ratios are sure to find a certain universality at all. Meanwhile, since according to the terms of the K.-G. such varying randomly from specimens is, in any case find the general probability laws of chance - and every mathematician knows that there are those - use it. In fact, the distribution ratios are the K.G. generally dominated by those, however, only incidental to the provision of security means measures obtained are the same laws of probability in physical and astronomical Mabestimmungen contemplated hereby play a very different and much more significant status as a measurement gauge in the K.-G..Respect, but the coincidence in certain of the various K.-G. various plays external and internal conditions, can, by all contingencies through the various K.-G. distinguished by characteristic, can be derived from their distribution ratios constants. These are the ones where the definiteness of the same resting against each other, and this is it with regard to the general laws of probability to visit. Now it has been taken in this regard has always been the arithmetic mean of the specimens in the eye and diligence on its determination at the different K.-G. turned, besides also probably still rarely taken into account the extremes of the average deviation from the mean. But as important as these determining factors and will always remain, but so far they have been taken into account to one side, while others, no less important principle, this usually ignored. In so far as the treatment of K.-G. after all the previous relations is subject at all other points and other modes of determination carries than in physical and astronomical measures in consideration come, the measurement gauge of K.-G., or shall we say short collectives, as a doctrine of its kind specially prepared and treated be, and this will be folgends the task. Since our notion of K.-G. the notion of a random variation of copies received, you

can anticipate want a definition of chance and explanation of his being. The attempt to give such a philosophical viewpoints from, but would bear fruit for the next little investigation. It must suffice to indicate the, for the following reason to set, factual point of view of more negative than positive for this character here. Under a random variation of the copies I understand one which as a ratio between the size is also independent of a setting on the size of arbitrary determination, regulatory laws of nature. Like one or the other of the provisions of the articles have a share, yet only the changes of independent random. It can therefore be determined by law no coincidence how great this or that single copy, although, where size limits of a given number will keep the same with this or that degree of probability. This will not be denied that there is no chance of most general aspects, by the size of each copy can be viewed as necessarily determined by the existing laws of nature under the existing conditions. But as long as we speak of chance, as we ascend to a derivation of the individual provisions of these general regularities neither, nor to conclude from the facts before it in are unable. Insofar as it is the case, listen to the accident, and listen to the applicability of the laws vorzufhrenden here or is disturbed.

II Preliminary Overview of the most important points, which in the investigation of a K.-G. be considered, and it related terms. 3 The following compilation is to serve, the extent and the nature of the studies with which we have to deal folgends to make certain overlooked, and to orient themselves over most of the to need generic terms anticipated in connection, a more detailed discussion of these points but remains subject to the following chapters. In the random order in which the copies of a K.-G. Maintain perform, neither an overview of the conditions can win them by size and number, nor a methodical processing of the same would be possible if their, generally with a degree to be designated in the same random order in which they were received and in a wanted socalled original list has listed, leave, so they have to be sorted primarily according to their size and so arranged in a table, so-called distribution panel perform. If one now there are no large number of copies of an article, it is each a or but most a appear only once in the panel, and the size of distance between the consecutive be a change very irregular, with numerous developmental objects but that many of which present specimens, as they are for the following mainly presuppose, if not all but many or most of a, which will bear the scale and the estimation, more or less often occur repeatedly, and then aimed at the distribution panel in such a way that in a column of a each a while once only performs, but in a beige discontinued column of z , the number z indicates how often it occurs. , the total number of A , which enter into a distribution panel, of course, correspond to the sum z , which is by adding together all z contains, match the table and is of me with m respectively. The establishment of such a panel is to say that the first step you while processing numerous developmental K.-G. has to do out of the original list. A second step is this: that the, with A determined to be designated, arithmetic average of the individual measurements and the positive and negative deviations, the number z of course with the deviating a match. But to do this, as starting point of the deviations instead of A also some other values which are derived with mathematical certainty from the distribution panel, serve, and by any other choice in this regard are new relationships to the fore, will be to speak of them later. Generally now I call values that are used to develop such relationships as the starting values of the deviations, home values, and denote it by H, which therefore A is only a special case, on the one account so far in the treatment of K.-G. has only limited, but this is an arbitrary restriction of collectives carries, as will be readily apparent from the following remarks later. General I call deviations from which core values they may also be made subject to collective deviations. 4 Easy now convinced you are of the following circumstances. An ever larger meters in the distribution panel of a K.-G. arrives, so will the regular course of the a corresponding z,and so are certain to put out the legalities of which we speak. The ideal case would be that you an infinite m would, where you have a very regular course of z would have to be expected and a very exact fulfillment of the

relevant regularities, which is also ideal conditions and legalities, as they would give an ideal panel and empirical, which consist in a more or less large approximations it has to be distinguished. All probability laws of chance at all, and the distribution laws of K.-G. are those that have in common that their compliance is more certain to be expected, depending on a large number of cases they refer to, but as it were a perfect possess valid only for the case of an infinite number of cases, which does not exclude that already with an empirically well-being procured number of cases, confirming the law shall be held in close approximation. Respect one now anyway, in reality only K.-G. has to do from a finite number of copies, which represent just as many cases, I refer to the deviations that occur from the ideal laws because of finiteness of the number of copies, as insignificant, and, so far as they go indifferent to one and the other side when caused by unbalanced contingencies, however, that I, for the assumption of an infinite number of cases, our case of copies, current regulations refer to as essential or normal. The general feature of the immateriality of a provision is that it disappears the more so the more one the number of cases, respectively. Copies, subject to the conditions that the concept of K.-G. determine enlarged so that you can assume they would disappear completely at infinite number of cases, which only ever vielzahlige items are suitable for investigation of the laws in our case. Even with a small m but the insignificance of a provision proves the fact that in repeating the assay with the same small m size and direction of the provision goes undetermined from getting new copies of the same object, whereas in materiality thereof in the Middle of a majority of times a particular size result and a specific direction out of the same so as to provide a fixed, the larger the number of repetitions and m each is different. We speak of a symmetrical distribution of values for a given principal value of H, if any deviation of a positive-of H equally large negative deviation of another a of H corresponds to, so that equally strong on both sides of H differs a great equal z belong . In a K.-G. of a finite number of copies can be due to the unmatched contingencies did not expect, with respect to any major value to find a completely symmetric distribution, and of course, a symmetrical distribution does not respect more home values also exist, but it is an important object of study, if can not find the main value in respect of which the distribution approaches the more symmetric, the more one the m of K.-G. increased, in the way that at infinite m could assume a symmetrical distribution as really reached in which case you, as an infinite m is not to have, but can speak of a symmetric probability of deviations. 5 But, there is another than the previous considerations, one can distinguish an ideal distribution panel from an empirical and dependent ideal and empirical results. For measurements, the specimens can not go beyond certain limits of accuracy, as they will bear the classification and the estimate of the scale in between. One can, for example, even millimeters, even tenths of a millimeter, or hundredth millimeter but not differ beyond. For that differs only millimeters flow all the individual dimensions that keep within the limits of a millimeter,

indistinguishably together, so he refers the whole z copies that are actually distributed on a whole interval of 1 mm to a single value a that forms the middle of this interval. Is generally i the still recognizable difference in extent, so part of the z each a table of empirical fact throughout the interval of the size i between a - 1 / 2 i , and a + 1 / 2 i on, whereas it is to the empirical table and thus excludes them from exploitation is usually so composed, as if falling into it made a self- z vorkme times. In an ideal, ie walking to the limit of accuracy of measurement and estimation but would i come upon an infinitely small value 1) , the distinct a of the table reproduce herewith their z but shrink accordingly, this is the perfect panel of the empirical representation. An infinitely small value, here presided in the sense of calculus is not to be confused with zero, but, although decreased continuously under any anfhrbare size and its absolute size of indefinable but statement as yet to its relations to other infinitely small values determined. Where now the empirical i is very small, the results of the empirical panel differ, as they relate to the size and proportions of the derivable principal values and principal deviation values not significantly different from those of the ideal, but is the difference generally speaking be considered and will be later this consideration as find out where he comes into substantial consideration. Empirical rules and conditions in which he is not considered necessary, but it shall be considered as if really the z each a this a very zukme, I call raw, those where it is taken into account as far as possible, sharp. 6 In any case, now you have to be sharp on the results of empirical panel to the ideal of the ideal panel, hereby from insignificant to significant, rise of raw search, including a demgeme processing part of the distribution boards. In this regard, a primary difference between reduced and sheets can be done. I understand from primary plates such as are obtained immediately by order of the dimensions from the original list and the same hereby User Data such as these, but just ordered, offer. Reduced signs my name, those in which the z for larger Maintervalle, are distinguished as to the primary tables, and although the total for the same size throughout the panel, the z but these larger intervals the centers thereof, as reduced a, be given written , with the advantages, thus a more regular course of z to get into the panel and a more suitable base for calculations, if not without drawbacks because of conflict with a magnification of i . whereupon come back later Incoming is ever traded on the installation methods and the ratios of the primary and reduced tables in Chapters VII and VIII, with the possibility of different levels of reduction and reduction principles for language comes. 7 In every non-regular or irregular primary reduction panel is made by following you. The smallest z can be found by the two limits to the board, which, as already
1)

touched earlier, the smallest and largest a least likely to occur, the largest z but generally in the middle part of the panel. The maximum z drops to a certain a part in the middle, on either side of where the z continuously towards the extreme, though with insufficient reduction here and there interrupted by irregularities decrease. The value of a one not too irregular primary or reduced distribution panel to the maximum z falls, I call the densest of tabular or empirically densely value of the object, which can be certainly regarded as an approximation to the ideal densely value, the one with an infinitely large m and infinitely small i would get, but no less of A is the board, but even as such, deserves special attention and approach provides the base to a more accurate approximation by invoice later contemplative manner. Be it empirically or ideal approach taken in this or that, I call it common with D. One might think that the densest value significantly, so strictly speaking, from a very large, infinite m and with a very small, strictly speaking, infinitely small i, determined, would coincide with the arithmetic mean, and indeed soft in the majority of K. -G. after determination of both large m and small i little enough from each other that you may be inclined and has previously held, in fact, ensure that the still remaining difference is merely a matter of unbalanced randomness. But it will be one of the most important results of the following investigation, that a significant difference between arithmetic mean values and the thickest is rather the general case, such that the size and direction of this deviation itself characteristic of different K.G. are. Insofar now also comply with the variations in the two values different ratios, the empirical densest value D as an arithmetic mean of A recognize the same table to be distinguished, important main di baseline value of collective deviations. To the previous two main values A, D but still occurs a previous of the two to be distinguished, third, I as a central value or value center with C will denote di the value of a, of as many more a than smaller has over among themselves and in this recognition, the number of A shares through the middle. At the same, it comes out when it is said to be the value for which the number of positive deviations with respect to equal the number of negative. From the arithmetic mean he differs in the two provisions that, while regarding A the sum of the mutual deviations is the same, however with respect to C , the number of mutual differences is the same, and that, while rel. A the sum of the squares of the deviations of a minimum , ie less than dist. any other initial value is here to mar. C. the sum of simple deviations (negative expected it to absolute values) in the same sense a minimum is 2) . With the third main entrees this value to the previous two is now open again new characteristic relationships for the KG will be talking about what. This, not previously noticed, the median property I have in a special treatise on the same evidence [over the original value of the smallest deviation sum; Abhandl. the math.-phys. Class of the Royal. Saxon. Society of Sciences, Volume II, 1878]. Besides these three main values are other, from the distribution panel
2)

mathematically derivable as initial values of deviations and hereby serve as the main values and considered largely independent of the previous one, some with the same may be related, but are certainly the last major, and I remain First there are. In a later chapter (Chapter X), but I'll irrelevant three other main values as vagina value R , heaviest value t and heavy deviation value F into account, which in any case offer a mathematical interest. 8 An animal is characterized by its inner Build to brain, heart, stomach, liver, etc., the size and location of these bodies against each other, the afferent and efferent pathways to do so. So a K.-G. its internal quantitative determination of characterizes them by arithmetic mean, median, densely value and otherwise about zuzuziehende main values, the size and location of these main values against each other and the differences, and these values are no less in mathematics than those organs in an organic context. A K.-G. forms so to speak a mathematical organism which is capable of decomposition, will be going into the hereafter. And if that is not to say that every object has to make the implementation of such a claim dissection, as in any case a general Kollektionsmalehre has with the general aspects to deal with the same. To advance can be noted here that although under a certain condition, the two principal values of D and C with A and therefore all three coincide each other would, under the condition, namely, that the mutual deviations rel. A possessed a symmetrical probability, ie, with increasing m in the form of a symmetrical distribution (in the above sense) approached that one at infinite m could consider such as reached. But it will be seen that for K.-G. rather an asymmetric probability of deviations rel. A has to presuppose, according to which with increasing m not a symmetric distribution, but one to be brought to a certain law, significantly asymmetric distribution approaches. Yes it can be apart from the exception to be regarded only as a significant coincidence of D and C with A absolutely no value for K.-G. find rel. the probability of a symmetric deviations would take place on both sides. Now if you have been in the treatment of K. - G. only on A, taking the deviations from it and about the extremes of consideration, one sees not only already from previous volume, that very important characteristic ratios and differences of the objects covered thereby ignored, but It will also show that a general law of distribution of copies of K.-G. is not to be gained by this limited mode of treatment. But she has not disputed the fact their reason that they transferred the senior aspects of the physical and astronomical measurement gauge on the collectives, without taking into account two important differences that exist between the two, whereby those limited treatment way for former teaching just as motivated as for latter is denied. For the former, the arithmetic mean is A the observed values of its dimensions to be determined each object with the deviations of A, ie errors of observation, the dominant, so basically alone counting, meaning, as you are known by reason, the professional mathematicians and physicists are in the values with respect to which the sum of the squares of the deviations, ie, errors which is the smallest possible, the arithmetic mean, also sees the value, which, to the true values to its determination to

do it in all probability the next , but it is the differences in a means to determine the amount by which the true value but still with a given probability of one or the other side will be missed. So why not take care of this doctrine to other home values, and their differences will help to fulfill the task of teaching nothing! So neither of a densely values, yet central values in the astronomical and physical measurement gauge the speech, regardless of the various observed values of the same object in it, as a taken at equally well to derive a D and C could give rise, as the different copies of a K.-G. But it would be idle to a special viewing incurring the same, and in any case does not happen. For the collectives but has the point, which can favor the arithmetic mean of the deviations from this principle in the physical and astronomical measurement gauge, no meaning. All copies of a K.-G., they may still so far deviate from the arithmetic averages or any other principal values, are equally real and true, and preferably a consideration of one over the other from a void equal for all aspects of course makes no sense . This counter has any other value to other main characteristic and its relationship to the part itself practical significance for a K.-G., thereby contributing to distinguish the same from other objects. Secondly, however, differ according to the physical and astronomical measurement gauge in the course rather postulated or presupposed as proven beyond doubt, symmetrical probability of observing errors mar. the arithmetic observation agent at good observation, the three main values not significantly, but only by unbalanced contingencies of each other, so that in the preferable because of the circumstances invoked arithmetic mean of the observed values at the same time mittrifft the most probable values of the other main values, whereas for the K-G . bemerktermaen an asymmetric probability of deviations rel. of the arithmetic mean to be regarded as the general case is what the different main values significantly fall apart. Incidentally, it can seem even more questionable whether it really is with that postulate in the observation errors in all rights, a question which, although not much concern us here, but later in a special chapter 3) will be considered. [With. consideration of this question is in the second part, Chapter XXVIII, examines the asymmetry of error rows.] But we now return to the essential conditions for the collectives. 9 Sub-elements or parts of a provision K.-G. I will understand in the analysis of such at all following values in the following, some of them already used earlier, names. 1) The general with m labeled total number of copies a one contemplated distribution panel. 2) The generally with H main levels identified or output values of deviations, which bemerktermaen the arithmetic mean A , the median C and densest value D are
3)

the most important. Since the central value generally between A and D to look for is how to show later, the last three main levels will always be generally in the order A, C, D are given by me.For this purpose some, irrelevant to consider the main values, which in X. Chapter are discussed. The arithmetic mean is, from a primary table determines with A 1 , from which a reduced determined with O 2 are known, according to C. In D , no such distinction is made, because he too because of the irregularities of the standing bids primary panels everywhere panels has reduced merely out can be derived hereby everywhere with D 2 would be to call. This counter is. to make a difference to the Herleitungsweise between. After the so-called method of proportion to me, which I will give the most confidence, derived, I call him D p , derived after less secure interpolation method, with D i . From the differences between the two methods of procedure, the speech will still be. All values, which on the positive side of the main value to which they relate, fall, I call with dashes above, all of which fall on the negative side, with dashes below, however I in those who indiscriminately to mutually related, the dashes completely omit whereby a ' has a value a known which H exceeds a , such that by H is exceeded. Under I understand generally deviations from some main values H; under = a '- H ie a positive, under , = a , - H , a negative if the negative character of , is to be maintained, but since generally the , will be to offset negative deviations according to their absolute values as positive, is rather put , = H a , . Hereafter is ' = ( a'-H ) the sum of the positive deviations with , = (H-a , ), the absolute values of the negative deviations, with = ' + , the total sum of the deviations rel. H respectively. 3) The main difference numbers ie, the number of deviations of given principal values of H, which, of course, with the number of different values of a coincident, that is the total number of independent of the nature of the main values are the same m is, while the number of positive and negative in particular, varies with the nature of the main and as positive values, generally m ', as a negative to m , are referred to. Of m ' and m , then the differences are ( m '- m , ) and the ratios of m ' : m , and m , : m ' depending which takes m 'and m , can be cited if from them by consultation of m , the values of m ' and m , follow (see below). 4) The principal sum and difference. resulting mean deviations, ie sums of the deviations divided by the number of them. The total sum of the variances of the two sides together for absolute values, as we believe it always expresses itself through out individually by both sides, particularly by ' and , so that = ' + , . Depending on this are then the simple average deviations or mean deviations par 4) :

The totals of variances does not remain as the total number of meters , depending on the principal values equal to, but do not change less than the one-sided sums depending on the main values. In the physical and astronomical calculation of errors rather maintains a mean deviation simply the root mean square error , rel. A to apply, which I where about being referred to, by following the specification at the following number 5) as a quadratic mean deviation the above given simple distinction and q will denote.
4)

Regarding the arithmetic mean A particular, the mutual deviation sums 'and , equally necessary, because this is even in terms of this means, however, the mutual deviation numbers m ', m , mar. this means are not equal in general, which carries that even the one-sided mean deviations '= ' : m ' , , = , : m , . bez A generally are not equal.The common force for both sides = : m is not as simple averages between ' and , = ( '+ , elliott to find) or to determine how I wrongly in an American treatise on recruits Dimensions (from 5) ) find specified because one does not thereby to

comes back, but this is only the case when in the middle drawing of ' and , which takes into account the weights, which by virtue of them m ' and m , from which they are to receive, send, hereafter shall:

what on the following simple observation = : m returns. As the product of a composition of variations in the number of which is equal to the sum of the difference, that is m ' '= ' and m , , = , , that m ' '+ m , , = ' + , = , on the other hand m ' + m , = m. [EB elliott, On the military statistics of the United States of America, Berlin, 1863. International statistical congress at Berlin.] The greater the average deviation of a home's value is relative, the more average in other soft limits each value a of the same from, or the more they vary around the same average.Besides the absolute size of but is also its relationship to
5)

the H, whereupon refers, ie : H into account what I call the relative fluctuation. The average as relative mean variation for a given m walk Although not proportional for the different core values, but take it, generally speaking, in so far with each other and from that a relative of a certain principal value strongly or weakly fluctuating object also concerning the other main values can be assumed to be strongly or weakly fluctuating, and therefore one can speak without regard to the assistance of a certain principal value of strong and weak in the middle or relatively volatile objects. Thereafter, the following remark. The size of the simple sum of and the simple average error = : m with respect to the arithmetic mean A is not completely independent of the number m of the values of a, from which the corresponding A is derived, but takes on average with increasing m something, you but may at any finite m values obtained and rel. A by multiplying traced back to the normal situation that they mar. a A of an infinite number of A obtained what I call the
6) . While now and = : m are the correction due to the finite m call uncorrected values, so I call with c and c the corrected values:

and

Only for very small m but the corrected values differ significantly from the uncorrected, and since we in general with large m, have to do while one noticeably disappears, I am content in general performance of the units, indicating the common, ie uncorrected values , , resulting in concurrence with the always known m the corrected values can easily find it when it is doing it. A similar remark is unquestionably for the deviation sum and average deviations rel. Another major values as A apply when the direct examination has been in this respect only to the deviations of A is extended. But it is the less reason for citing and recovery of at a given finite m to prefer the corrected values obtained elements, as not only the deviation sum and average deviations rel. the different core values, but also the deviations of the main values themselves from each other under the influence of the same finite m are the same conditions would therefore not be changed by the joint correction. When examining the distribution laws but it has to come to us rather to such relationships as absolute. Where do you want to go on but those have regarding correction of the unilateral values ', , and ' , , note the place to find that they do not respectively by and the, but as of and by has to be done because otherwise by adding the corrected values ', , the corrected sum would not find. Here, too, is below the rational standpoint that the deviation sums each side as members of the sum total deviation of the size of their meters must be influiert together.

It is known that Gauss already long ago for the sum of the squares rel. A and the derived so-called root mean square error of me the correction due to the finite m determined, after which the former by multiplying by m: ( m - l), the latter consistent with our simple correction of the error by means happens. The theoretical derivation and empirical validity of our correction of and but is of me in the reports of the Royal. Saxon Society, MathPhys. Class, Vol XIII, 1861, pp. 57 f happen, and since the probation is done with decided success in collective variations, as they may apply for such doubt. 5) The probable deviation w and mean square deviation of q. Among likely deviation w bez. a main value is that deviation to understand what has just so much larger deviations of absolute values themselves, smaller than them, so dist. deviations of has the same meaning as the central value of C rel. of a sub-square. Means error q I understand briefly the root mean square deviations, ie, the value that is obtained when the total variation of a main values H particularly raises the squares, the sum of squares, ie, (to be distinguished well from the square of the amount of di ( ) 2 ,) with the total number m of the divided quotient and draws the root, just . Held jointly for both sides, these values can just as the. simple average deviation for both sides specially designed and because of the finite m are corrected, which I failed to address here, as I verspare what to say about it, even to the Addendum section on Gauss's law (Chapter XVII), after which these values have certain relationships with each other, which allow a derivative thereof from each other, which will save you money, they still perform particularly after performance of e under the elements. 6) The extreme values of a the table, ie the smallest and largest A of the table, as the former , E ' the latter as E , to denote. After the establishment of the panel but is hergebrachten the values for the higher extreme to bottom, the niederere at the top. 10 If two values of a, to be connected the following way by parentheses, such as a ( ) , this expression is equally valid with a , ie product of a and , but when they are connected by brackets in the following way: a [ beta ] , so this does not mean that a to to be multiplied, but rather a function of is, thus, for example, [ A ] represents a difference of A, [ C ] by such a C , etc, m [ A ] is the total number of deviations rel. A, m [ C ] so that the same dist. C , etc. But at the preferably frequent many other particulars of the principal values of A and D , the relevant expressions and formulas by such infliction would it be

6)

uncomfortable and clumsy, I prefer it in general before, for , m, , depending on their function of A or D equal to several to put a simple name, and indeed this will happen by the following, which is under the main values of these indications, which apply without distinction to the mutual deviations without dashes, depending on them but on the positive or negative side especially belong, yet with a dashes above or below to be provided are: A m D m E

So that means, for example, a deviation of , such of D. Since the total number of deviations is independent of the choice of the home's value, it is generally m = = m ,whereas is not equal , and is not equal to e is. The difference '- , (ref. A valid) is short with u , the difference m ' - m , (ref. D ) with u referred. Of u follows ' and , from u follows m ' and m , by the following equations: , . For the multi considered to be drawn from the upper and lower extreme deviations from the mean of absolute values of the terms used: U '= E' - A and U , = A - E , . Rather than the total number of deviations, it was especially moving to either side or to either side into consideration, we will find occasion it from the main values of only up to certain limits, or between given limits, be it their absolute values or their ratios to m , m ' and m , according to consider what is meant by the use of signs and is particularly discussed later (in Section V). As usual, is in the panels of the small dimensions of a by the larger, ie after the natural position of the sheet advanced from the upper front of the eyes to the lower part of the table, which of course comes in conflict with it, that smaller values than lower , lower, larger than higher, upper summarizes values. So you have to decide

according to the context, or explicit indication of whether the terms "higher", "lower", "upper", "lower values" are based on the location of the panel or the size ratio of the values. To avoid this somewhat annoying formal conflict it would be better in the future, distribution boards with the largest values of a to have to start, but after I was followed by the previous major part of my studies of the customary set-up way, I could not change it without my boards rebuilding and running the risk of confusing myself. The dashes above and below the values refer any case to the size ratio of the values, not their location in relation to the panel. After this is still the meaning and terminology to discuss the following expressions, which play an essential role in our investigations. Under Vorzahl, respectively Vorsumme I understand the number z and sum a of a, which values a given a go ahead to the board in size, under Nachzahl, Nachsumme which the a values given a follow blackboard in size. Of course, these figures and totals change with the values of a the table, which they precede and follow, and the prevention of prolixity I introduce here for the cases that it is necessary to take into account in the applications preferably, a special designations. General like with v , V , n, N the Vorzahl, Vorsumme, Nachzahl, Nachsumme respect to any eligible start a and closing a are referred to a given panel distribution of v , V , n , N , the respective values with respect to the a , where the largest z belongs, ie the empirical densely value D , with v i , v i , n i , N i , with respect to an a, the radius interval is to interpolate the sharp determination of the elements in later to a decisive way, the way in most cases to the previous, the densest values coincide, then where can cease the designation by the index. 11 Finally, the following remark. It will be an occasion, an arithmetic and a logarithmic treatment of K.-G. to distinguish which of these items comes in for the former application, the average deviations with respect to their principal values are small, the other for those to where they are relatively large. The former is not only to refer first to this case is far more frequent, and therefore a greater extent than the second to be considered, but also easier to be treated case, and all the provisions and terms of this chapter, but would without regard also to the second case of throughout the investigation the required generality missing. The main difference between the two modes of treatment is this: In the arithmetic treatment, the deviations of the individual to be a of their principal values in the ordinary sense as arithmetic, ie taken as positive and negative differences of its main values and the core values themselves directly to specified rules from the A of the distribution panel determined. With the logarithmic treatment, the variations with which it operates have been taken as logarithmic, ie, as differences of the logarithms of a so-called logarithmic principal values, ie, the main values to all of the same rules from the log a , as the main arithmetic values simple from the A can be derived. The transition from arithmetic to logarithmic treatment brings some new aspects, rules and descriptions, however, on the later to take after will have presented occasion to refer to it (see in particular Chapter V ( 36) and XXI) .

Under is as usual the LUDOLF'sche number = 3.1415927, with e the base of natural logarithms, number = 2.7182818, under Mod = log. comm. e understood the so-called logarithmic modulus of the common system = 0.4342945, which is often due to the use to be made of it, may be useful to state the common logarithms. One has: log = 0.4971499, log e = 0.4342945, log mod = 0.6377843 - 1 Under t , 't , t , respektiv respektiv are the values:

understood. Under t- table in Appendix A, 183, the following table to which the t standing respect, to be discussed in Chapter V. values specifies the purposes of the Act GAUSS random variation. since the value exp [- t 2 ] 7) is used frequently and more complicated calculation, as may be specified here, the calculation of its logarithm, of which he himself is directly derived. [For the sake of simplicity, here and below, the exponential function ex by exp [ x denotes], according to which above exp [- t ] instead of e t - has been set.] To log exp [- t ] = log 1: exp [ t 2 to find], add 2 log t to 0.63778 to 1 (ie log to Mod), seeking to logarithms in the number and put it negatively, so you have the required logarithm is8) , but in one of the common and divergent for the application of logarithms to derive exp [- t ] itself from improper form. To get it in to usable form, subtract its absolute value of the higher whole number by 1 and add it to the rear differential with the character - too. Thus, when log exp [-t ] = - 0.25 or - 1.25 or - 2.25 would be found, one would have to put it respectively. 0.75 to 1, or 0.75 to 2 or 0.75 to 3 usf In fact, the logarithm of exp [ t ] is equal to t log s , hence the Log of l exp [ t ] is equal to the negative of logarithm of exp [ t ].
8) 7)

Under E is meant the unit in which the specimen sizes a, the main values H and deviation amounts are expressed thereof. Instead probability is usually W . ; take collective object, as already noted, K.G. and instead of Gaussian law for future remark GG set.

III. Preliminary Overview of the study material and general observations.

12 A major difficulty for a study such as this lies in the procurement of material required for this purpose. Such may in fact only a plurality of K.-G. be sought from different areas, each of which is present in such a large number of species that randomness of the distribution by size and number nahehin - because it is absolutely not possible - can be considered as compensated according to the law of large numbers, and in each of which the to be made following chapter contends that other large props can not be considered fulfilled less than nahehin. Finally, it must contain all the information necessary for data processing. But on some types of K.-G., which should not be ignored to give the necessary generality to the investigation, so far nothing was ever before, and if it was not for lack of other information, so for some, like the recruits extent an embarras de richesse exists, but is the same in its present version is not sufficient for all the purposes of the investigation to be placed on her claims. To your own measurements but are only a few items to bid and, since it is to be measured at each very many copies and bring them into distribution boards, find the time and patience for this, just langmhigen and lengthy, shops easily their border. However, it is me but managed to bring on some laborious and cumbersome processing the folgends recorded material for our study together, which of course many of the claims to be made props corresponds only partially so but is also an opportunity to reveal the success of it. I. Anthropology. A. recruits dimensions such, ds lengths of even-aged recruits from certain origins, mainly Saxon, which I knew to give me copies of the Urlisten to gain distribution boards in a form suitable for the investigation of it. Most important for our general investigation in the first part 20 are born in Leipzig student recruits dimensions with a total m = 2047, soon 17 years crossings so-called Leipzig city size, ie with respect to recruit the rest of the Leipzig population, with a total m = 8402 and also recruits dimensions of 3 cohorts, respectively. the Borna and Anna Berger Amtshauptmannschaft with m = 2642 and 3067th To be in the second part Rekrutenmatafeln mar. other countries, where such existed earlier and are treated by Quetelet, experienced as especially Belgian, French, Italian and American, a part critical review, QUETELET'schen different part of the treatment, and measurements of body weight and chest circumference of the recruits are taken into account . B . Skull dimensions that are put to me by Prof. WELKER Hall up for grabs, a) of the vertical scope, b) of the horizontal scope of 450 European men's skulls. C. Weight of the internal organs of the human body , according to BODY's

information 1) .

[Dr. Boyd's Tables of the weights of the human body and internal organs. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 1861].

1)

Botanical II. Measured by myself rye ( Secale cereale ) from the same locations and year underway, 217 six-membered (apart from the Fruchthre) and 138 five-membered; each of the links, particularly measured and partly as a special K.-G. treated, some taken by its relationship to the other members into consideration.

III. Meteorological. a) Thermal and barometric daily and monthly values or variations in the detail to be discussed in 19 and 20 sense. Below are the by Quetelet in his prob Lettres sur la recorded, folgends to be discussed in 21, 10-year so-called ". variations Diurnes "with a m 282-310, this own compilations thermal and barometric daily values from observations on the Peissenberge by a long series of years, and from thermal variations month to DOVE'schen treatises. b) collected daily highs fallen water for Geneva for many years, to the purpose of the Bibliothque de Genve (Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles) from me.

IV Artis table. a) business cards and address cards of merchants and manufacturers, particularly measured by myself on the length and width. b) dimensions, height h and width b , of gallery paintings (specially designed in Lichten of the frame) to the catalogs of the collections of reducing to the same unit of genre paintings, landscapes, still life of me, taking distinguished the case where b > h and where h> b. This is only for preliminary review; special is going into protruding material under specific chapters of the second part, where here to's missing further details to find it, and have to point out when to refer already in this first part of this material is . It may be noted that under the previous objects such exist with which to occupy themselves little or no substantive interest exists. But the point of an objective interest it is not authoritative been here for their selection and treatment, but rather become important only their usability as a base for our investigation, in which respect

some insignificant translucent objects than as the dimensions of the gallery paintings and the daily rainfall heights are. In that regard, but was present a substantive interest in the goods, one must for the same reason, do not expect the treatment of the same tired to see this interest here, even if so many results that will fall into the same into contact, by itself as byproducts of treatment. Each of these objects could give a monographic treatment occasion, but how large plant would only require the recruits measurements, a comparative presentation and discussion should be the same for the different countries and in the same countries for the different vintages or such for cranial dimensions of the various breeds or to be performed for the structure ratios of the various grasses! At penetrations of this kind is not to think here. Other hand, does what explained here on examples from different areas and it is proved, however, claim to find in any broader treatment of the same areas of application and consideration. 2) [Note: The information in this chapter should be added that a partial new procurement of test material was necessary, because except for a fraction of conscripts dimensions and the dimensions of stalks of rye from any of the designated K.-G. Urlisten or primary distribution boards were present kept. Although the study material was, as far as was practicable, supplemented from the specified sources; particular were true for gallery painting the catalogs of the Alte Pinakothek in Munich and the picture gallery to Darmstadt, for the daily rainfall heights of Geneva the Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles the Bibliothque universal (see Chapter XXI, and taken XXVI and XXVII). , but instead of the observations of thermal and barometric daily values Peissenberge served on the appropriate values that are published in Utrecht in the Netherlands Year Book of Meteorology (see Chapter XXIII and XXVII). The replacement for the skull dimensions eventually (see Chapter VII and XXII) I am indebted to Prof. WELCKER, who had the kindness to send me the dimensions of around 500 European men's skulls.]
2

IV props; abnormalities.
13 If a K.-G. allow a successful investigation, it must meet certain conditions, some of which are in his terms, partly to submit to more general considerations. After the introductory statement is sent ahead one K.-G. one under a certain concept more tangible, to be its quantitative determination by Random fluctuating object of indeterminate number of copies. Now let infinitely many copies does not have of him, but one must besprochenermaen as many of him looking to get, so many that the strictly taken to be taken only for an infinite number to complete, ideal laws of chance nor a target for the degree accuracy sufficient approximation can be confirmed. But this condition is sufficiently fulfilled, they must K.-G. still be normal or error from other points of view, as we like to express ourselves short to blend in with the statutory provisions as to the most common for K.-G. be set up, which are not subject to these errors. Among them is that the specimens from any other considerations to K.-G. taken

together, yet such are excluded, as justified in terms of the subject matter is, that so the object vielzahlig not only from previous volume aspects, but also in that vollzahlig was, as all within the limits of its concept that present themselves from him copies are also really counted with , not from this or that side regardless'm one or the other part of the measuring scale elimination, with this, the object will be mutilated so to speak, as it would for example be the case if the so-called sub-moderating should be excluded in Rekrutenmatafeln, however, to hand the object must be obtained as pure and unmixed, ie specimens that come out of his terms in a random direction, must be excluded from it, eg, where the collective term goes to healthy individuals, specimens with pathologically altered dimensions must come in elimination; therefore to be treated by me WELCKER'schen skull dimensions neither barrel shaped swollen Hydrocephale yet decided microcephalic skull with enter. Remarks to make it but are of general scope. 14 It is certain that the line between healthy and diseased skulls is not known with certainty, and a corresponding uncertainty about the definition of the object returns in many other cases again, but if only the uncertainty remains within such a narrow speed limits that the boundaries the uncertainty that one has to put up with because of unbalanced contingencies are not exceeded, then no significant disadvantage throughout accrue, and you may find yourself satisfied by the success when, accrued at our discretion subject to the normal distribution laws inserts, or you can cut as many copies that is the case. However, this raises the following important question: It is of course logically selfevident that when healthy individuals or parts are to be examined by such as skulls, in the allocation ratios of their copies, not those which are identified as sick or accepted it, with may be mixed, and no less self-evident that the determination of the conditions for healthy specimens has a greater interest than for a mixture of healthy and sick, only it seems to contradict the generality of the objective of the collectives to run, to determine the general distribution laws of the K.-G. from only healthy specimens preferable to the subject of a mixture of healthy with sick. In fact, if the diseased skull from the concept come out healthy, they still fall under the definition of skull at all, and what justifies us in exploring the general laws for K.G. eliminate the diseased skull, as we rather only cause the broader term that includes all skull would apply instead of the narrower the healthy, yes there is, strictly speaking, and there are countless other cases where an equal possibility of narrower and wider version is such anywhere since last all K.-G. can unite under the terms of an existing system, which can be narrowed only to different directions. But we would with the attempts of our laws generally issued in the K.-G. very wide versions to prove, bad driving by itself would not prove or imperfect because, while they yet at a sufficiently narrow versions of the most diverse K.-G. remain the same and thus prove their universality. Now the question is, what aspect is decisive for the limitation of the width to be maintained. This seemingly difficult question is to be answered with regard to the following actual conditions.

If we items that correspond with sufficiently narrow version for themselves the common to the various objects distribution laws mix, the following condition must be satisfied if the mixture the same laws yet to meet: by which determines the constants or essential elements, the distribution ratios are, so at least the arithmetic mean and mean deviation of, which the other elements related more or less, may be used for the composing objects not differ from each other than by unbalanced randomness is explained, after which we can distinguish unanimous and disparate objects as such, which satisfy this condition, and what they do not meet, on the other hand consistent and ambiguous than those which made unanimous, and which are composed of disparate objects. Any extension of the term of a K.-G. However, a composition thereof with one or more other, possibly disparate objects with it. From this point of view is now immediately obvious to many items that they can not be mixed. In fact, there is no one come, men and women, or children and adults in the same K.-G. to unite, if the distribution of its copies to be considered in terms of body length, notwithstanding they fall together under the broader term of human beings, but you know first of all that there are significantly different mean values for turning them into disparate objects. And it must also have a healthy composition skull with diseased skulls to a K.-G. be found inadmissible in so far as both disparate behave towards each other. 15 From this point of view it seems to me very instructive results from studies on the extent recruits who, after their above (Section III under I. A) is mentioned fleetingly, in the second part of this work (Chapter XXIV) to be notified of incoming. Recruits dimensions can ever summarized for different countries, times, ages, under the broadest terms of such dimensions, but are also very specialized, and from the outset it is, for example, 18 year old recruits a country will not treat mixed with 20 years of another country, since both are different dimensions through various means, but also the same age recruits from the same country have specializations in different senses. So I have the dimensions of recruits (2ojhrigen), on the other hand treated specially Leipzig students on the one hand and those of the other people in Leipzig, Leipzig city called dimensions. For the first has a very satisfying, for the other one after a certain respect imperfect confirm drawn up general distribution laws, which I call fundamental, result, by has been shown in comparison between calculation and observation that occur relatively frequently in the latter, the small dimensions than it should be the case according to calculation based on the fundamental laws without unbalanced contingencies were sufficient to explain it. The same was found for the recruits dimensions of the mixed population of various districts of Saxony greater. What is the difference of the first of the other cases? The recruits dimensions of the students relate to the limited range of relatively wealthy, a normal Wachstume of individuals means not failing items, and the other to individuals from a mixture of such objects with booths in which it at the conception and birth of more or less lack such means, and abnormally stunted individuals are not infrequent, whose dimensions are included in the Rekrutenmaliste with, though the individuals do not set themselves at the service with respect werden.Indieser likely interested in the following data.

In my capacity to ensure 20 years corridors of Leipzig student recruits dimensions with a total m = 2047 only one individual falls (60 inches) below the level 64 inch 1) , in 17 vintages of measurements of the other people in Leipzig (short Leipzig city dimensions) with a total m = 8402 drop 197 individuals under 64 inches (the smallest at 48 inches), and we reduce 197 on the ratio of total -m, so fall against one individual of the Leipzig students dimensions for 48 of the Leipzig city size under 64 inches. The Leipzig mixed population includes but how any large city, a large percentage miserable proletariat. But further 3 vintages recruits dimensions of Borna Amtshauptmannschaft except Leipzig (preferably small towns and farming villages nestled inclusively) with m = 2642 gave absolutely 50 or, as previously reduced 39 degree below 64 inches (with the minimum dimensions 51 inches), and 3 vintages recruits Anna Berger Amtshauptmannschaft (much mountainous and poor population including factory) with m = 3067 absolute 62, 41 reduced dimensions under 64 inches (49 inches with the minimum dimensions). So by proportion of m we have ever beziehentlich for the specified 4 departments: 1 48 39 41 Measurements below 64 2) , and we go to the arithmetic means (according to the primary panels) over, then the following values are in inches Saxon: Student Lpzg. M. Borna St. Annaberg 71,76 69,61 69,34 69,00. So the arithmetic mean of the Leipzig students is more than 2 inches larger than that of the mixed-Saxon population, and the same is true for median and densely value. On the other hand, the average deviation of the arithmetic mean with respect to a uniform manner for all departments in Saxon inches determination for: Student Lpzg. M. Borna St. Annaberg 2.01 2.26 2.14 2.33. And of course, the difference of two relations would be even more if the mixed population of the last three sections divided into those with normal and those with abnormal Wachstume and both could be placed opposite each other.
1) 2)

[1 Saxon inch = 23.6 mm.]

Less noticeable than with respect to the smallest extent is the difference between the student measures and dimensions of the other three departments regarding the largest, and also agrees the distribution account for the latter up better than down, but lacks a difference in the largest extent not quite. The students completed measures up with the three dimensions 80, 80,75, 82,5, and the Leipzig city with dimensions 79.5 (4 times) and 79.75, with the Borna 77.25, 77.75, 78.25 and the Annaberg'schen with 76.75, 77.25, 78.5. This is not to say that if we have the recruits of the proletariat really well for

himself would have before us as that of the wealthy classes to the students, our fundamental distribution laws are just as good at those as these confirm, because the proletariat itself another further term, which is capable of specialization in different directions, and not a priori is to insure that his specialties are unanimous in the above sense. Yes, from the outset would be the same to say as little of the represented by the students affluent classes, but since the experience itself teaches that specialization is driven far enough into the students measure to allow a confirmation of the laws in question in so far as it ever unbalanced due to contingencies is possible, we must also help soothe, while we would like there to drive here the specialization even further if it was not enough. Also may very well be conceded that, if we only m increased student recruits dimensions right, and then there separated according to various criteria, for example, depending on the origin of villages or towns or from different years or different levels in departments that have a , sufficient m had to discover subtle differences of the essential elements with certainty, there would be no lack of such, which would conflict with a perfect unanimity, and there is nothing to prevent, to make it an object of investigation. But if these differences are small, and the various departments that you can do for the wide range of aspects, herewith the differences between the elements themselves, vary with the nature of randomness, it can be not only reasonably require, but teaches the fact itself that those differences of elements in the inevitable rise indistinguishable unbalanced contingencies and of probation with the fundamental laws oppose a significant obstacle. 16 Less so but we must in the variations that the distribution ratios too far calmer and thus ambiguous K.-G. show of the fundamental laws, see a contradiction of these laws, as it suffices in principle to know the ratios and major elements of composing objects of an ambiguous object, to calculate the distribution ratios of the composite article according to the fundamental laws themselves, so that they thus in this respect, their general validity claim. Generally follows from the above, in finding and examining the fundamental distribution laws that we must not only take care that after various directions apart retreating distribution results too far calmer, untriftig mixed objects against the generality of the for sufficiently narrowly defined, uniform items undrawn law claims making, but also in the choice between the results of a broader and narrower version, under the same circumstances that the preferable closer to the Konstatierung the fundamental laws. The previous considerations in the following order significantly. The origin of the copies of a K.-G. from different areas or times or both at the same time easily leads not only qualitative but also quantitative differences of the same with what a particular attention in this respect deserves as one to a sufficiently large m is to achieve a successful examination, usually caused or forced the K.G. assemble these specimens, which belong to different rooms or times, quite the same space and the same time they can not belong. In this regard, a conflict will now take place. The specimens from very together increase of one another remote or very

wide spaces and times, is in danger of uniting disparate objects and hereby to miss the fundamental relations of distribution, and the specimens from too narrow a spaceand time limits together increase is the unbalanced coincidences too much room, to derive essential elements at all with any degree of certainty. The mandatory limits in this respect, but they do not a priori pull, and ultimately, the success has to decide whether you can take the adopted temporal or spatial distance of the subject to a satisfactory fulfillment of the fundamental distribution laws and if not, the contraction continued driving, and if you order in too small values of m comes into it in order to obtain results of sufficient security, to give up the investigation in order to obtain a larger number of copies. In general, this should in any case be the most practical. 17 A special attention should be paid to the question of whether an object is composed of disparate components, following some of them already touched relations of distribution boards. In our fundamental law is justified that the z continuously with a up to a certain size of a rise, with further increasing a also continuously descend but so that there is a maximum of zin a central part of the distribution panel (the so-called densely values ) and two minima respectively at the beginning and end of the table (at the extreme a ) are. If the a as abscissae, the z as the ordinates takes, you can represent in a known manner by the legal distribution graphically, giving it a curve taken at small i rises smoothly to a peak and from there descends again. But in the so-called by me primary, ie directly derived from the Urlisten the dimensions tables you will insgemein from entering the beginning of the whole panel, an irregular mounting and dismounting of z with continuous growth of a find herewith a bumpy texture of the distribution curve, including the primary distribution tables of Chapter VII provide reasonable examples. The most common, never missing cause of such irregularities is now at least in unbalanced contingencies, and dependent on this cusp of the curve disappear by a sufficiently broad-driven reduction of the table, ie specified by earlier ( 6) a statement Together acquisition of z held for equal intervals of a run through the whole panel as described in Chapter VIII and supported by examples of reduced tables. But sometimes the cause can also be that K.-G. have mixed disparate nature of their main values is. In fact, di can already overlooked from general considerations that if we wanted the extent of the same amount of men and women, very different in the arithmetic mean value of each test as you mix, for example, so significantly, apart from unbalanced accidents, a cause for the emergence of two maximum- z thus two closest values would arise, yes it could by mixing more disparate objects distribution panels with a much more maximum z arise. Anyway, now suitable for testing the fundamental laws of the distribution boards distribution only with a maximum z in the maintenance of a stock of the main panel, while small irregularities to the ends of the table are without major disruption. Therefore are distribution panels, which do not comply with this condition, they are to check the laws useful only after such reduction, that they by reasonable adjustment of the contingencies of the same match, according to the laws in question or may contact the reduced panel very well confirm if the majority of the

maximum z in the main panel really depended on the maintenance of a stock of only unbalanced contingencies. However, it is not to disregard that because their intervals are determined by the reduction of a distribution panel increases, at the same time, related to the unbalanced contingencies of disparate nature of the components of the board, a majority of the maximum z can vanish if this fact on each other near a drop which come together in the enlarged by reducing the interval are hereby indistinguishable, so we need only to the reduction and enlargement of the hereby intervals go as far as desired to achieve the safe. Thus, while the rule is that by reducing it to just a maximum in the allocation under test panel z and from there to both sides descending passage of z be to reduce, maintain, but any deviation from the fundamental laws will still be of a disparate nature of the components of the panel, which has become blurred by the reduction may depend, therefore, in this respect only the study of the distribution itself can be crucial. 18 However, we are having our props does not end there. Objects, which are designed by people with respect to certain purposes or ideas, in short we call them artistic subject, despite the intention that has obgewaltet when they arise, but in terms of size regulations, which still leave blank to chance, the Kollektivmagesetzen; when but secondary considerations or secondary purpose substantially limit the freedom of chance by preference or exclusion of individual dimensions, so the laws can also happen much demolition, which is explained by the following examples. Business cards, as well as the so-called address cards of merchants and manufacturers can be seen on most manifold on the length as well as width varies, and I thought at first to have an excellent object for examination of our laws is because they are in large numbers, either from the daily traffic, whether from the pattern books of their maker of which can be found glued sample copies (which I many have used various Verfertigern to measurements) can be obtained, and thereby provide the advantage that the accuracy of measurement and estimation more than many other objects has in hand. But even though they are, be it on the length, whether measured by width, not quite evade our laws, they offer, but only a very imperfect probation represents the same, which you can find the reason in the following circumstances. With all the variation of their dimensions but the freedom of chance is limited by the fact that the maker of insgemein such dimensions prefer that permit the sheet of cardboard from which the cards are cut, possible exploit, ie as completely as possible to consume, it also may be some particularly popular relationships between latitude and longitude, in particular 2 : 3 or 3: observed 5 (approximations to the golden ratio), and in fact I was in the measurements of these cards that I made to the pattern books of a majority of manufacturers, convinced that occur more often in certain dimensions, each of them, as that one could see it as random. The dimensions of the paintings in the gallery lights of the frame but not subject to the same disadvantage and, after doing a large amount of the same dimensions from the catalogs of the various galleries brought together (see Chapter XXVI), an excellent material for the

logarithmic Magesetze provide probation. 19 In the natural objects on the other hand is one of the requisites imposed by the term itself that the copies are not in a legal nature are depending on each other, which emerges from the laws of chance. This point is especially in meteorological K.G. into consideration. Thermometer and barometer readings and other meteorological values indicate every place a while in detail by contingencies disturbed, but out-tory decided in mean values be legal on and off already at the Track by the hours in a day, no less by the day or month of year. These so-called periodic meteorological values do not fall within the definition of a K.-G., but only the non-periodic, insofar as they are considered random changing. In this regard, we will soon be able meteorological daily data, monthly values and annual values, insofar as they deviate from their multiyear funding, and these differences themselves as daily deviations; differ Month deviations and annual variations, whereupon something specific will respond as is often be the cause. return to such. We make the explanation to the thermal values and deviations, which results in the transfer to other types of meteorological values and deviations of itself. Thermal daily values may be determined by any particular date of its annual day, say for example, the first January. Let us take the temperature of the day at a given place in a given year, just as the thermal value of the first day It was determined from the average its 24 hours or the temperature of a, then consistently be retained, certain hour of the day or the average of the maximum and minimum temperature of the day January. This daily value of 1 January be observed by a number of years in a row. The day after the years randomly changing values represent the copies of a one time K. - G. We draw from the arithmetic mean by dividing the sum of the daily values to the same number, which, with the number of years by which it has been observed coincident. This means the overall thermal hot daily average of 1 January, and the deviations obtained in different years daily values a of the general daily mean A then form the individual daily variations, which according to the given notation with must be described. Provisions may for the 2nd January and every other anniversary will be available at any particular place of observation. Rather than for each day of the year but can be obtained even from long-term observations such provisions for any particular week of the year, for each month of the year and for the whole year, then as a weekly values, week variations, monthly data, monthly deviations, annual values, annual deviations are described. Of these, the thermal month and monthly variations deserve special attention, especially because many of the provisions in many places is any indication. The thermal monthly values as a thus obtained, for example, for January (and similarly for every other month) in particular through a number of years mean temperatures of January, which are the same in the 31 days of winning, and the thermal monthly deviations from the January than in the deviations of a from the general funds of a instead of arithmetic means and deviations, can be, however, other main values and derive deviations from such values. Meteorological K.-G. this type are estimated for the study of their general laws at

all from several points of view, once because of the abundant material, which it is in the sources of meteorology or can be collected from it, secondly because of the detailed provisions of the accessible with the meteorological observation means and methods is, thirdly, because these items have been delivered the only material which to assess whether temporal K.-G. subject to the same laws as spatial. But they suffer from the very important disadvantage that, since the m same with the number of years by which rich observations, coincides, not easily large m the same, yes nowhere yet such is present, as it is for the safety of the resulting would be desirable to be drawn from results. 3) Among the 70 locations for which dove lists the thermal Month deviations in one of his essays, it is merely Berlin, where 100 and m is exceeded by the pursuit is through 138 years hap-pened, and only Prague and London show m about 90, 94 and 92 respectively 20 Now you can, however, a much larger m , obtained from a given number of years, as the number of years is in the following way, which is important not to discard scruples at par. To start from the specific idea of a QUETELET'schen example (see quete-let's Lettres, last vertical column of the table p. 78), we assume that the temperature of all days in January as a way between minimum and maximum temperature every day at a certain places (Brussels) was observed by 10 years, we are in the prescribed manner determining what is believed to be correct, for each of the 31 days of January as K.G., the first, second, third, etc., a m = 10 is obtained, which is much too little to study the distribution laws because, here we are with a m = 310 for the whole month of January as K.-G. obtained if we proceed according to Quetelet's processes in the examples in question so that we put the 31-day temperatures of January as copies of the January daily temperature for the 10 years are 310 copies thereof pull the arithmetic mean by dividing by 310, of which the 310 deviations take and when we want, the other main values of the deviations from it determine. Now, however, a light at the outset that, since apart from the random changes in the temperature of from January 1 to 31 Days grows by law, we hereby obtain a complication of accidental gear with a natural law progress of the daily values, however, strictly speaking, the study of natural law response at major distribution laws shall be excluded. However, can pass well that the changes in the daily temperature, which by the legal progress completed during a month are due to come to the average size of the random changes of the individual daily temperatures too little into account in order to disrupt the random laws significantly, the same in any case not cancel, but just can interfere. But a more important concern arises from the fact that quite apart from the legal progress out a month everywhere betray the meteorological conditions of the immediately successive day a certain dependence on each other, which is not provided for in the laws of chance. In general, several warm, ie on the value of the middle of the temperature of the January standing, and several
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cold, ie under the same falling consecutive days, and carry out the transition follow from one to the other is not leaps and bounds, but by gradual ascent up to a certain height above the middle value, and since the rise but can not go indefinitely, again sinking to a lower level or below the middle value, except that no regular periodicity in this exchange between ascending and descending is visible. Similarly, with all the so-called irregular periodic variations. For this purpose seems only useful to make the observation that there is a very simple way to convince himself just as by the demands of pure chance for such cases as the non-satisfaction of these cases. I got the draw lists Saxon lotteries provides for a number of years in which the winning numbers are according to the order in which they come out recorded.If anywhere, here, chance plays its pure part. We call now the even numbers with a +, the odd with a -, and track the number of characters by a large number of consecutive Winning numbers, we find, apart from a small difference due to unbalanced contingencies, as much sequences of identical characters as the unequal exchange. But we are doing well with the + cases and - cases under the determined from the totality of the cases for center in meteorological day tables so outweighs decided the number of sequences over which the exchange, evidence of emerging from the laws of chance depending on the consecutive meteorological daily data. But further, if we take previous designation of consecutive lottery numbers each exceeding a number by the following with +, every droop of the following below the previous one with - call, we find the pursuit by a large number of numbers (apart from unbalanced contingencies) the number of changes twice as large as that of the consequences, we do, but just as with a corresponding description of the successive meteorological daily data, the number of exchange falls far short of twice the number of episodes, the second proof that the rise and fall of meteorological values from day to day does not obey the laws of pure chance. It completes and strengthens this investigation, which I only suggestive for now, to come back to it in a later chapter, the fact that to the deviations from those laws of pure chance, which strictly only for infinite m are, by unbalanced contingencies to take into account the finiteness of the m -dependent probable and average deviations from the statement of the law determines what can be set up formulas in fact. For an in-depth investigation has me now shown 4) that while the meteorological values of successive days of the same month show the specified features dependency is eminently, even the monthly deviations of successive years of the same are not completely removed, though they are so weak and show little decided to get in using the same no significant disturbance to the random laws may, and but it deserves this subject undoubtedly an even deeper and more extensive investigation by professional meteorologists using those criteria in the interest of meteorology itself, as I have it here for part will be where it happened only in the interest to determine what manner K.-G. at all suitable for testing and application of the laws of pure chance.
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[These are the XXIII. Given chapter documents.]

It is now important to note that on the previous excluded transparent way the random laws of meteorological values, which show a dependence of the type of another, apply, could be restored in the event that at very large m the dependence conditions change itself randomly . Let the explanation thereof an urn before with infinite white and black balls which are designated by numbers, which correspond to us the deviation sizes of a given primary value, and in such a way that the number of occurrence of each of these types balls to the number of occurrence of the corresponding deviation values as they exist for purely random laws equivalent. So in the case of the symmetric Gaussian probability law is regarding deviations from the mean, in the case of asymmetric probability besprechendes our later general law represented in this way, are being presented by white spheres, negative deviations by black balls. Happen right now many trains to random from this urn, then the balls drawn in their circumstances that law, apart from the, only because of the finite number of trains still remaining, unbalanced contingencies represent properly. But the same will be also the case when two, three or more balls that are close to each other in their values, either by a specific rule or without such, glued together so that they can just pull together, only a larger number of trains, a larger m , to belong, to obtain an equally good satisfaction of the laws in question, as it is the case for loose balls. Of course, the question of whether it behaves thereof with the daily values of meteorological analogy can not be regarded as settled by this analogy, showing merely that it could possibly behave themselves. Yet (78 Lettres p.) Not only adds the QUETELET'sche example with m = 310 (in reality rather due to the absence of an observation day 309), on closer investigation by the manner of its distribution z quite well such a condition, but also thermal and barometric examples with a much larger m , the investigation dragged myself into (cf. chapter XXVII) speak for the same so that they can be considered valid for at least the most likely, which is not only our teaching but also for the interests of Meteorology should be.Quetelet himself has not answered the question. 21 By the way, is highly desirable, but that a meteorological example bids to stand, in which the occurrence of numerous individual cases with missing dependency of successive cases of connecting to each other. In the Bibliothque universelle de Genve (Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles) is found in every Monatshefte a meteorological table for Geneva 5) , which among other columns, which are valid for thermometers, barometers, etc., also have a column with the heading, "Eau tombe dans les 24 heures "is given, which indicates the amount of water fallen in millimeters for each month of that rainy day that had taken place in the years concerned. However, now follow generally several wet as dry days in a row, but - and this is what matters to us, and of which the Analog is not the case with successive thermal or barometric daily values - which are caught in the rain gauge rain heights of successive days revealed no size dependence on each other. In fact, you can already see the superficial glance, the rain heights of the respective column to go to the most irregular and often reversed following the massive amount rain one

day a very low or the next day. Critical but of respective terms, our above two criteria, and it is remarkable what other results they provide in terms of understood at previous sense of daily rainfall heights than on the thermal and barometric daily values, to which was later (Chapter XXIII) will find evidence . Another, completely decorated table according to the meteorological station on St. Bernard. I have accordingly not be grieved me the trouble of data contained in the Geneva Journal of the Geneva rain heights from all vintages, through which they extend to undress, and have formed after the 12 months, 12 departments from each of which a particular to be treated K . G. represents. This includes, for example, as copies a (disputed mostly from melted snow), which have occurred in the month of January, but which have taken place in the January months in all years, through which the rain heights are pursued together of January not only all the rain heights, and is thus a very considerable for each month m receive. Now let get of course, that this effort was in vain for our purpose, because yes no a priori could say that the rain heights ever be the same distribution laws paste as recruits dimensions, skull dimensions, etc., but on the contrary it has paid off by that the rain heights with the dimensions of the gallery paintings so far provide the only material that followed our logarithmic distribution law could prove a resounding by providing very strong average deviations with a tremendous asymmetry, which makes falling home values far apart, both in proportion to the principal values , making them the applicability of arithmetic treatment way beyond (see Chapter XXI, and XXVI and XXVII). And unquestionably it has a special interest in that so many different things such as paintings dimensions and rain heights so certain and peculiar distribution laws, as we will have to draw up, submit to together. Very possible way, it is another case of meteorological daily values of the corresponding succession independence, to use these short term, as show the daily rainfall heights to which is needed more so, to take a closer when he mitfllt under the empirical documentation of our investigation and is drawn from Quetelet himself to his, in my opinion, certainly not a valid way in which relationship will be coming back by me several times that. These are the so-called Variations Diurnes of Quetelet, which Quetelet in his Lettres p. 174 fg., With tables p.408-411 is, however, even in the chapter XXVII I'm closer to speak it, but here just the same nature provisionally realize and summarize with respect to the question of independence in the eye. It has been said above that Quetelet the temperature all day, every day determined (for Brussels) as a mean between maximum and minimum temperature, and this continued through 10 years of each month. , the difference between the two temperatures, as its means the day temperature is, is Now what Quetelet " variation diurne "calls (daily variation). In this statement you probably realize that this discrepancy between the two days extremes of each large and small at the same mean temperature between and the same day temperature, may be that, therefore, not
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necessary the succession dependence, showing the daily temperatures on the variation Diurnes to extend needs. In fact, the same daily temperature, eg 10 , as the average of 9.5 and 10.5 , 8 and from 12 , in 5 and 15 indicate what variations resp. of 1 , 4 , 10 is yes, if the temperature remained quite constant in one day, so they could still be as high or low, and the variation would still be zero. As the temperature of the Quetelet now days has followed each month by 10 years, the one as copies of a K.-G. can handle, the corresponding variation Diurnes where you copies of another K. - G. can see. Although Quetelet, the variation Diurnes not specialized for every day of every month, which would have required tables of tremendous expansion, without granting the possibility of clear summary, but he has p. 410, where 411 tables, where for each month is indicated how often during 10 years, the variation diurne between 0 and 1 , between 1 and 2 , amounted to between 2 and 3 , etc, just reduced interval boards in the sense our future (VIII) chapter. If, as noted above, the variation Diurnes appear according to their size significantly regardless of the size of the lying between them daily temperatures, and therefore the succession dependence of the same do not need need to share, as well as such dependence seems to contradict that the tables of the monthly variation Diurnes when m show which varies for each month between 282 (February) and 309 to 310 (January and August), such a regular course and such a good agreement with the otherwise valid laws asymmetrical distribution than is at existing succession depending hardly would expect, however, shows that of Quetelet p. 78 given table in daytime temperatures of July, compared with the corresponding table ofVariations Diurnes p. 411, that the course of z is similar and equally regularly in both tables, so that after the first principle discussed this table would be useful even without the adoption of the independence can view in the sense that it will be done by us. 22 Thereafter, the following general observations: In general, I will score, which K.-G., even at sufficiently large to m, ie apart from unbalanced contingencies that may escape our parole laws, as improprieties or abnormalities, but objects which of them are free, call einwurf free. The abnormalities are seen to be different in nature and can the validity of the law in very different ways and very different degrees affect. It can be expected under the general functions of the collectives to determine the influence of these abnormalities, which partly theoretically with regard to the acknowledged error-free items distribution laws, some can be done empirically, and indeed the latter on a double way. Once you can the success of the abnormalities in the abnormal examples itself, which provides the reality, pursue and secondly, and this seems to me the same time fertile and control the first path itself with zuzuziehende way you can artificially construct distribution boards with given elements, which the error-free distribution laws correspond exactly, then install this or that abnormality of mind and take the success to the values of the elements and their ratios it. Here is a field of inquiry for others before, because I the same thing about the job already so ramified, the ratios of the K.-G. determine under the condition of

lawlessness, have not done enough. In every respect completely error-free objects with large m are possible errors in the manifold probably to procure hard, and are therefore among the objects which empirischerseits to determine parole or the fundamental laws of K.-G. intended to serve, except for the deviations from the ideal legal distribution ratios for finiteness of m of size and i still deviations due to lack of compliance with the props or just because defectiveness extent permit as it lies within sufficiently narrow limits, not the validity of the established fundamental laws themselves to raise doubts, however, about which the subjective judgment will always be a certain amount of leeway. Terms and conditions that both the deviations due to the finiteness of m as due to the size of the i , as are revoked due to lack of compliance with the props, I call hereafter, except the already used printouts fundamental, and normal or ideal if it only in the reality occur in approximations. By the way, may be seen from previous volume, in which the collectives, but that they can expect from the specified point in the preface to the exact teachings, the difficulty is to get it in their applications to very safe results. There are other points, as the physiology and psychophysics exist in this respect, but they have a similar success. After all, it is a privilege of all these doctrines as exact, but even to drive the safety in particular as far as possible, secondly to lead to general regularities. 23 The previous comments related props, which the investigation to be taken in K.-G. have to satisfy yourself, but there are also props, which has to perform the investigation. The distribution boards can be placed in a more or less convenient or usable form, what details in Section VII and VIII is told. The inevitable errors that are committed during measurement of specimens, must be insignificant enough to not interfere in the trial of the law, and the measurement precision is therefore generally have to drive so far that the measurement errors can be neglected against the collective deviations. In the measurements maintain the departments indicated on the scale yet to be divided by estimate, and this is very common that the full and half sections are preferred, what I call the problem of non-uniform estimate, and what I bez examples. Measurements of conscripts and skull dimensions in Chapter VII cited by.Such errors can be detrimental to the accurate determination of the elements, and it is therefore important to be on guard against and, where present, to make it through an appropriate reduction as harmless as possible, what the future more. When the quantity of the appointed Dimensions mistake in the action or whose record is only slightly possible, and there is perhaps no other means, they can safely be avoided, as the measurements twice made independent of each other and thereby control how from me happen when measuring the rye, but since the laborious work will double, you will hardly understand all this. Even harder is to avoid mistake in calculating recovery of a large amount of measurements for the determination of the elements and the probation laws, and at least with respect to any unusual or important outcome is not to spare a check by repeating the statement. In general there is to determine the elements safe and unsafe ways and of course the first preferable in itself, but as ever only approximations to the ideal values of the

elements are accessible, it may be that a small advantage in this regard does not violate the relief is concerned, which provides a slightly less safe way and so can be made practical aspects such it be preferable if it meets a result, what one has in mind, yet be stated with satisfactory security. Astronomical accuracy and safety can now achieve even in this case not, and it may be that is at all unenforceable by the unsuccessful claim, a wanting to achieve but such an investigation.

V. Gaussian law of the random deviations (errors of observation) and its generalizations.
24 After GAUSS 1) is the fundamental law of the so-called errors of observation, ie, not only theoretically set the random errors of observation means, but also the same of Bessel 2)has been proven empirically to astronomical data could be assumed that it applies only, this law the random deviations of copies a one K.-G. of their arithmetic mean of A, ie the to be transferred respect, in order of how to have the Appropriate for the observation error, ie so as to have a law that allowed respect for empirical determination of the arithmetic mean and a major deviation value to the as the mean deviation = : m, the whole distribution of K - to determine G. by size and number, ie, to determine in what relation to the total numberm (assuming that this is not too small) copies in any Size limits of deviation from the mean occur. [Theoria motus corporum Coelestium, in 1809. Lib II, Sect. III. - Theoria combinationis observationum erroribus minnimis obnoxiae; Commentationes societ. reg. Scient. Goddess. rec. Vol V. 1823]. 2) [Fundamenta astronomiae, 1818, Sect. II] Since we are now in the task of a general law of distribution for K.-G. to find, at least from the GAUSS laws (short GG) will be assumed to have repeatedly come back to it and it is indeed in a certain restriction for K.-G. find almost adequately, only finally a more general laws subordinate to see stuff so here is his preface about this law. Professional astronomers and physicists, although it is already known and familiar, by calculating on the basis of the same to made in determining an observation means probable error, but I assume other circles of readers and other uses of the law here, and therefore would have to go, instead of the unpopular integral expression of the law of the easy to understand tabular printouts, into which the same may be translated, and for the practical exploitation in any case must be translated anywhere. Later (Chapter XVII) will be returned to the same integral in the outputs of his prints, for now, the following will suffice. What is said in the law, are only essential elements of the same in the, 4, discussed the meaning; which one but as far as ever the law is, the closer should expect to come ever more the number of values, and hence deviations after which it is based, multiplied. We discuss now the same even in its application to collective deviations. Under the Convention, 10, the general expression can with respect to A with , and with are interchanged, but we stand here in general terms. 25 The general sense of the GAUSS Act, which already made up the hint,
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assuming a symmetrical probability of deviations rel. the arithmetic mean of A and a large, strictly speaking, infinite m what the derivative of A lies at the bottom, the relative or absolute number of deviations and hereby deviating a to determine what is contained between given deviation limits, with respect, that this provision can be empirically altered by unbalanced contingencies more so the smaller the derivative of the A underlying m and hereby m is the deviation itself. 3) Briefly, the Basic Law is a law of distribution of the deviations and hereby deviating a under the above conditions. It may also be the case happen that the A of a large m is derived, but the distribution ratios are examined only for a small number of variations, but I abstract here from this little interest to us, composite case. So you have a numerous developmental K.-G. before him, which meets the given props in the previous chapter, I made the, bemerktermaen with a the arithmetic mean to be designated, copies A = a: m drawn, have the positive and negative deviations of of all individual a of A and taken from the totality of regardless of its sign, ie, from their absolute values, which means = : m drawn, so after you have previously made statements in the so-called simple average deviation rel. A, the mean deviation as a par here applies. 26 To first explain now the application of the law to his statement for a particular case, the number of differences to be found, which from A to, ie from = 0 to a deviation limit = 0.25 enough, or, what is objectively the same, which of : = 0 and : = 0.25 is sufficient, so there is that number for a table, which can be translated into the GG, equal to 15.81 p. C. the total number m = 0.1581 and m , with the proviso that the number on both sides of A is followed up to the same line and summed for both sides. For any other deviation limit as : = 0.25 is the same table another relative deviation number, but first we describe the previous definition of a concrete example. Suppose we had 10,000 recruits had their A and determines the former = 71.7 inches, the latter = 2.0 inches found (as it applies to the nahehin Leipzig student recruits dimensions) so that the GG would under this condition, applies, recruits between 1581 A + 0.25 on the one hand and A - 0.25 fall on the other hand, that is, from 71.2 to 72.2 inches. Be the limiting error in the same direction , up to the one of = 0 at one, equal to 0.5 taken, and consequently : = 0.5, then after the table of the law, the number of the = 0 to then to both sides at the same time reaching deviations and therefore different values a, ie, the number 70.7 to 72.7 inches, 31.01 p. C. the total number or 0.3101 m respectively. And so it is according to the law a provision for any value : as a limit up to which one of : = 0 counts to give. Respect, but not all possible values of : leave with the associated percentage or ratio numbers entered in the table of the law, one finds those taken
3)

equidistant and so close in a table duly executed, that it is possible to interpolate between them. The following table now they are certainly not a sufficient for accurate interpolation near what you have to stick to a more complete table, but enough for the understanding and to Socialize discussion ends here. And I realize that I call the numbers as 0.1581 and 0.3101 short ratios and will denote, with [ : ], if, as in the following table, as functions of : expressed are. By multiplying the ratio with the total number m, briefly m , we obtain the absolute number of : = 0 up to a given limit : . Conversely obtained when the absolute number between these limits is known, the ratio by dividing the absolute with m.

27 [ : ] table or just -Table of GAUSS law. : 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 [:] 0.0000 1581 3101 4504 5751 6814 7686 8374 8895 9274 9539 : 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50 4.75 5.00 5.25 [:] 0.9718 9833 9905 9948 9972 9986 9993 9997 9998 9999 1.0000

In this table, the ratios are angegebenermaen is always for the output of : = 0 up to a given limit values : determined. But in order ratios for intervals between two different : over the deviations of A to obtain, say between : = and : = , we need only the difference of the corresponding -values, ie [ ] - [ ] to take, which generally may be called, according to previous table for example according to the interval between : = 0.25 and : = 1.00 with [1.00 - 0 , 25] to be designated ratio 0.5751 - 0.1581 = 0.4170 heard. The following table contains the -values equal to each other directly subsequent intervals between successive : of the previous -

table from the beginning start. -table of the GAUSS Law Successive equal intervals between : 0.00 to 0.25 0.25 - 0.50 0.50 to 0.75 0.75 to 1.00 1.00 to 1.25 1.25 to 1.50 1.50 to 1.75 1.75 to 2.00 2.00 to 2.25 2.25 to 2.50 2.50 to 2.75 0.1581 1520 1403 1247 1063 0872 0688 0521 0379 0265 0179 Successive equal intervals between :

2.75 to 3.00 3.00 to 3.25 3.25 to 3.50 3.50 to 3.75 3.75 to 4.00 4.00 to 4.25 4.25 to 4.50 4.50 to 4.75 4.75 to 5.00 5.00 to 5.25

0.0115 0072 0043 0024 0014 0007 0004 0001 0001 0001

These figures is the total number m to be multiplied to obtain the absolute numbers of the intervals in question. Refers to the : of the -table, which always : . = 0 assume the first line, just as lim, one sees that within small values of lim. the relative numbers the lim. go almost proportionally, so you go for a more complete -table, as is reported here, with the lim. reduced to less than 0.25, so an even larger approach to the proportionality takes place that. within infinitely small values of lim can be considered accurate; whereas in upgrades to large values lim. the proportionality concerned entirely fails, and a result thereof is that in the -Table the ratios , connecting the first of the successive intervals between the same lim. belong, are almost identical; against this in so stronger relationships, short take off so quickly, going farther one: as it is for equal intervals of : from 0 to 0.25, 0.75 to 1.0; 3.0 to 3.25 etc the values ( 0.1581, respectively;. 0.1247, 0.0072, etc are.

 28 To assess the validity and applicability of the Basic Law on the empiricism is it to come back, that the same requirement of a symmetric W. mutual deviations rel. A lies at the bottom, such that under the condition of a large, strictly speaking, infinite m for each on the positive side of an equal is to be expected on the negative side, and the ratios of and are as an expression for the W. of the occurrence of copies up to given limits of variation of A or at given intervals to see this deviation. This now includes already bemerktermaen not that, despite the fundamental validity of the law under the assumed conditions as he more or less large empirical deviations occur from his demands, because the condition of an infinite m is empirically not apply to it, and so it may derogate from his demands are only those made against the same claims as the magnification of m does not help to bring these discrepancies to the disappearance closer, just only insofar as they are not on unbalanced contingencies for finiteness of m can be pushed, what does not lack clues which are to be discussed at their places. But we go first to the conclusions of law under the presupposition of its basic validity. Explained previously indicated as the ratio and absolute number m for both sides together of the values : depends, they followed up to the to both sides. If this is done merely to one side, as by the assumed W. symmetrical, the absolute number is assumed to be half the size of each side to given limits, as if it were traced on both sides to the same deviation limit. But by the total number of both sides together at a large, strictly speaking, infinite m to of the same symmetric W. m reduced, remain, according to the Basic Law to be calculated, ratios of each page, respectively. and , , is equal to the total ratio , whereas the unilateral absolute numbers m m , to take the Basic Law for half as large as the reciprocal number m to the same limit . Empirically, however, meets the equality of both parties to the same absolute limit due to unbalanced contingencies not, but the GG just abstracted from these contingencies and assumes the case that the difference m '- m , = u to m vanishes. So it would be wrong if you for the calculation of ' equal to ': m ' and for those of , equal to , : m ,would take, but for 'and , as well as a must for from the the totality of value to be calculated = : m act, since otherwise the condition symmetric W., which is the GG to basically contradictory would get different numbers deviation on both sides up to the same deviation limits. Quetelet has also taken otherwise stated in his statement to the comparative tables between GG and observation. . Different course, where an asymmetric W. deviations bez A consists, as is indeed the case in collective deviations, where the Basic Law is applicable only to a still to be discussed modification at all, but above all, it is but, from a purely Decisions GG itself assumed, and we follow its consequences further. From the expected statutory symmetric W . of rel. A further now follows

immediately that the central value C, rel. which the number of mutual differences is the same, much to the arithmetic mean A, dist. which the sum of the mutual deviations is equal to coincide, ie that both can differ from each other only by unbalanced contingencies. For if after each positive symmetrical W. on the one hand an equal is to be expected on the other hand, it must be expected even with the same amount of the same number of variations on both sides. But it is the demand that virtue symmetric W . , the difference u = ( m - m , ) between the number of positive and negative deviations with increasing m not disappear more and more, the absolute size of u, but its relationship to the total number m, ie u: m to obtain because u yourself to known laws of chance on an enlarged m in conditions of growing, but this value against m disappears more so, the larger m is, and at infinite m disappears. Also remains at the absolute Wachstume of u in the conditions of the uncertain direction of the difference itself. That assuming the validity of the Basic Law also has the highest density value D significantly with A coincides follows by the sight of the - Table from the fact that the number of variations and therefore different values of a to both sides for equal intervals is greater, the closer the intervals of the A come, so in the greatest of A itself adjacent and the same comprehensive intervals between them, how small you also take this. 29 Thereafter, even remarking that the table of the Basic Law is not bound by the limits between which express to determine the functions of the standard error means. In the usual tables on procedural grounds instead : rather : or : w 4) is selected, what other tables are than the above, short of me as designated table, and we will look the same to be specified reasons in the future to be made applications rather a table with respect to : than the above dist. : hold, and since you : usually with t referred, I shall such, on t related table briefly t - call table and a running t -tell table in Appendix 183rd From the beginning the beginning they designed for an excerpt from this:

t 0.00 0.25 0.75

[t] 0.0000 0.2763 0,7112 etc

0 , 50 0.5205

[Such, on the probable error w related table can be found at the end of the Berlin astronomer. Yearbook 1834 (herausgeg. of Encke) and Table II, in part by notice in 108].

4)

Incidentally, such a table as a whole according to the - to use table as to explain the above example, where A = 71.7, = 2.0 inches is assumed. Above all, one has with , ie, multiply 1.77245, 3.5449 and is now according to the t - table, for example, the number of , and hence a , between the A and + 0.25 3.5449 A - 0.25 3.5449, ie between 71.7 and 71.7 + 0.25 3.5449 - 3.5449 0.25 is included, short 72.5862 to 70.8138, 0 = 2763 m find. The reason is not us in the future to the to keep table what but it is easiest rail, is that an -table in corresponding version than the t -table yet not at present, and therefore only the simplest explanation, of the -table input was taken that way, if they vorlge run, the only advantage would offer, the multiplication of with spare everywhere. to

A running t - table but can be found in various locations, such as at the close of the Berlin astronomer. Yearbook 1834 and in Quetelet's Lettres sur la thorie of probab. p. 389 flg, both if only to t = 2.00 run. One standing at my command, lithographed table that no longer is but in bookstores are run to t = 3.00 with 7 decimals for 5) . The above -table but is of me by interpolation with second differences from the t -table has been so far this is obtained and calculated directly for even higher values.

[A corresponding table of the same extension can be found in A. MEYER, Lectures on Probability Theory (edited by German Czuber), Leipzig, 1879, pp. 545549, where t by is replaced. Due to the same FIGHTS has mentioned in Appendix 183, in the Philosophical studies (herausgeg. of Wundt), Volume IX, pp. 147-150, first published table calculated, in which the function values truncated to 4 decimal places, the arguments tresp. are, however, extended to 3 decimal places between the limits 0 and 1.51. A table of the corresponding five-digit extension function values are found also in the Appendix. - The first table of this kind, which can be attributed to a source well having these tables, Kramp calculates the integrals of exp [- t dt finite values of t to t = and are the logarithms of these integrals. See: "Analysis of the refraction astronomiques et terrestres"; par le citoyen Kramp, Strasbourg, l'an VII, p. 195-206.]

5)

30 After this I come to the grounds, which are reason to go in collective

deviations from the simple Basic Law, as has been previously explained. Gauss himself the law is not for collective deviations, as deviations of each specimen sizes a of their arithmetic mean, but a noted and known for observational errors, as deviations of the individual observed values of an object from its arithmetic mean erected, and in itself is nothing short course that the transferability of law takes place of the latter on the former. In fact it's from the outset something very different, to have abnormalities on, which are obtained due to lack of sharpness of the measuring instruments or senses and random external disturbances with repeated measurement of a single object from the arithmetic mean of the measurements, and deviations which many the copies of a K.-G. offer from their arithmetic mean, for reasons which, in the nature of the objects themselves, and they are located influencing external circumstances. It was also not at all a priori predict that the nature of these deviations from the mean errors of observation followed the law, but was only a direct test on the same K.-G. make yourself. Meanwhile, as you can easily perceived from the outset that in large m also in collective deviations rel. A as errors of observation, the number of deviations z for a value in the middle parts of the distribution panel is a maximum, from then on, but to the extremes to as regular decreases, the larger m is also no law existed as the Gaussian, in one of the exploration of a distribution law for K.-G. could remember, it was natural that one of this mainly underwent testing. And recruits dimensions have been the first object, and (with the inclusion of chest and lung capacity of recruits) from other hitherto been the only one to which the law has been tried. This multi-page (of Quetelet, BODIO, GOULD, ELLIOTT and perhaps other) 6) made examination of recruits dimensions of different countries now seemed initially everywhere a confirmation of the law revealed by the deviations from the requirements of the law small enough appeared to only insignificantly to apply in the sense indicated, and an approximate validity has the GG anyway for recruits dimensions, only not as far-reaching than has been believed to be able to accept, as I partly by critical revison of the date above investigations, partly through its own analysis vielzahliger Rekrutenmatafeln have convinced themselves procured, while there are other K. - G. is where the simple GG fails entirely, however, but they satisfy a generalization of this Act. [BODIO, La taille of recrues en Italie, Ann. dmographie internally de Paris in 1878. GOULD, Investigations on the military and anthropological statistics of American soldiers; United States Sanitory Comission memoirs. New York, 1869. ELLIOTT, On the military statistics of the United States of America. Berlin 1863.] In fact, however, can be enhanced by my experiences indicate the two following points, which ever make it seem impossible from the outset, the simple GG a general validity for K.-G. concede. The first of these is 7) :
6)

7)

[Second see 34 and 35]

31 If the GG Collective deviations be generally applicable, then should the inferences from the presupposed at the same symmetric W. deviations rel. A arise, confirm generally that is not the case, and if at recruits moderation and not a few other items you could remain uncertain on superficial examination, if not unbalanced contingencies or lack of fulfillment of the requisites debt had it, but other items of this conjecture decided to escape than that one essential symmetry of the variations in A as the general character of the K.-G. could view. In fact, has already Quetelet in his "Lettres sur la thorie of probabilits" p. 166 Note that in some K.-G. the difference of the extreme deviations U ' , U , both sides rel. A constant and statutory positive, others negative, as is compatible with symmetric probability, and I myself have here on in respect to any claim of the symmetric prior knowledge of its investigations W . stated that in some K.-G. the deviation numbers rel. A di m ' and m , , is not constant and only legal, but also more than is explainable by unbalanced contingencies differ from each other. It has been shown both by Quetelet'S as my experience that, depending on the type of K.-G. the difference between U ' and U , or the difference between m ' and m , this or that direction comply, so while it exceeds the size of the value that could be expected due to unbalanced contingencies, also the direction characteristic of the one or Another type of K.-G. 's. Now I refer to it as an asymmetry at all, when a deviation between U ' and U , or m and m , there is, but as such is not easily absent due to unbalanced contingencies, it is essential asymmetry as such, which is not dependent on unbalanced contingencies can be made to vary from insignificant or random asymmetry as such, which can be made dependent. Empirically, the mixed material asymmetry, even where such is always of random, because it always finite m has to do, those which depends on, but since the keydependent difference in asymmetry ratios of m, dependent on the random merely in conditions of growing, the latter value disappears against former more so the more m grows, and enter the dependent asymmetry of essential rules which in the purer, the larger m is, and it can even be considered as a feature essential asymmetry when the case of large m difference found between U and U , or m and m , with a further increase in the same direction reserves. On other features but we will later 8) come from, which make it appear beyond doubt that in the K.-G. areas not always make do with only the assumption of random asymmetry.
8)

[cf. especially Chapter XII "reasons for any significant asymmetry".]

 32 Well first occurs following alternative. 1) One could imagine that in the asymmetry, even when they acknowledge as much, just a failure of the GG, depending on the type of K.-G. should be seen in one sense or another, the add itself to a particular, mathematically be formulated laws. 2) One might think that the essential validity of the Basic Law for collective deviations from the mean but remain the rule, the cases, however, where it did not apply to be considered as exceptions, which either occur or indeed assignable under the case 1), but only exceptionally valid, subject to different laws than the GAUSS. 3) Since the difference between U ' and U , and between m and m , for a given m , it depends on the extent of significant asymmetry, depending on the nature of the K.-G.different size and hereby the essential asymmetry can assume different degrees, so can the essential symmetry, where such exists, as the special case of a comprehensive all possible degrees of general case View the asymmetry, where the degree of the same comes down to zero, and could be think that in the K.-G. areas the essential asymmetry of the general case in its various degrees imagine, the essential symmetry but only a special case, which, if it ever occurs in all strictness, can only be regarded as an exceptional case, where among the infinitely various possible degrees of asymmetry of the total disappearance has an infinitely small W, which does not exclude that the weaker degrees of asymmetry, which can be easily confused with an empirically only disturbed unbalanced contingencies, significant symmetry, are more common than the stronger, which are beyond the possibility of such confusion . In relation to this view, but would imagine that it also give a valid for the general case of a general law, which only the special case handled under the GG is that the asymmetric W. merges into symmetrical. Which of these three ways, and especially if one of the first two, which are modifications of each other, or the third is the more correct, then could not decide without further ado, but it once belonged to the decision of the question whether a generalization of the Basic Law in the event of significant asymmetry according to the same principles by which it is derived for the special case of the essential symmetry is really possible, secondly, whether suitable for empirical testing K.-G. what the props are particularly indicated in the previous chapter to the so-derived laws really add. I have made the investigation to both sides, and both questions can be answered in the affirmative in a good mood together to the benefit of the third case of the alternative. But of course this is a version of theoretical and empirical studies that can not be at once and in a short, but remains subject to the following chapters, and only preliminary in nature, I notice that the most fundamental theoretical investigations of the XIX. Chapters that offered by the empirical reasons, that the presence of significant asymmetry really as the general case in the K.-G. areas to see whether, in the XII. Chapters are included. First, however, it is likely to have an interest, if I have the most significant provisions of the Basic Law of the generalization of symmetric to asymmetric W., hereby from symmetric to asymmetric distribution for large m, to which I put together the combination of theory and empirical research has led, here provisionally beweislos , and although I mention

these rules because several times to be taken out back Bezuges Special laws of asymmetric W. or distribution under special designations, as follows, to, laws, where you can be satisfied unless a considerable relative variation of the K-G . where ( 9) discussed the meaning gives rise to consider a further generalization in consideration of which will be discussed later, but that does not lead to a rejection, but only aggravation of the following laws. 33 Of these special laws are the most important, the first three, which are indeed very established here, but follow from the mathematical prerequisites of collective solidarity asymmetry in connexion, as in the XIX. To show chapter. The rest are part of the same immediately obvious corollaries, some mathematically deduced from them, as also demonstrate later. Special laws significantly asymmetric distribution for K.-G. is not too strong a proportionate variation thereof. 1) Output law . The deviations are held by the arithmetic mean of A from that in the event of a significant asymmetry also materially from A different densely values D can be expected to even comprehensible to a under a simple rule and to get the experience corresponding distribution, a rule that, for the case that the essential asymmetry disappears, where Dsignificantly with A coincides leads back to the rule of the Basic Law. 2) two-column Gaussian law . The distribution of deviations rel. D followed, in short, for every two pages in particular, the same rule as for symmetric W rel. A for both sides is followed jointly. It occurs only here in the place of m, , = : m rel. A positiverseits m ', ', '= ': m , negative hand m , , , , , = , : m , mar. D, are with this consideration still the same tables, the -table and t .-table, especially useful for the allocation statement to each side, as for calculation according to the Basic Law for symmetrical W. bez A were applied jointly for both sides . We now replace in the sense of 10 Convention adopted the general names m ' , m , , ', , , , , who mar. any main values are, by m ' , m , , ' , , , e ' , e , unless it is related to D is, it shall pass on the positive and negative relative deviation numbers 'and , , and absolute numbers m and ,m , , likewise ' and , , ' m ' and , m , each of these functions in hand over names. 3) proportion Act . The mutual deviation numbers m ' , m , mar. the closest value behave like the simple average deviations e ' , e , , ie as : m and , : m , mar. D , thus , which are the following corollaries. a) The squares of the mutual deviation numbers, ie, m ' 2 , m , 2 behave like the mutual deviation sums ' , , so:

m'2:m,2=':,. b) The densest value D can be determined as the value itself, meeting the mutual deviation numbers and average deviations of the laws of proportion. Yes I think so, generally speaking, for its not comfortable, but accurate determination give way and later (Chapter XI), how it is run. For brevity, it may be called the proportional and thus determined D , if it is an explicit reference to this provision means, with D p are called. This D p can then use the empirically determined directly D , ie the values on which the maximum of the number z , compare falls in a distribution panel, and the fact that it still deviates only within the limits of zuzugestehenden uncertainty, one of the proofs find for the validity of our asymmetric legalism. 4) The distance laws . The distances between the three main values determined in this way. Let m "means the total number " the total sum, e '= " m " the means of using Cor A (whichever is the distance of the C or A look of D) equilateral deviations rel. D , ie which the same side of D depart, after which C or A dista it, this may be the positive or negative side, however, the index of two dashes may have the corresponding meaning for the scalene values below, we find by 131: C - D = T "e" where t "is the value of t means that in the table of t to , briefly to is "also.: ,

a value which is proportional to the laws with 2 "e" agrees as to show in 131, which you can also use: . According to this, A - C as the difference of the two previous intervals: A - C = ( A - D ) - ( C - D ) = (2 - t where 'and t " are determined in the manner indicated. 5) The -law . For the usually occurring case that the distance of C from D a small (strictly infinitesimal) relative to the mean deviation e ' or e , the side to which C of D dista to briefly e " a bird in the noticeably: )s,

Aside from accidents and unbalanced abnormalities, which in chapter IV is intended, so these ratios, as set out here, all laws may be altered, these ratios would strictly apply when ( C -D ) 2 : 3 s 2 -on-1 completely could be neglected at all so C D small compared to e ' .'s respect, but this disappearance but never fully takes place, are the above -functions of D ,C, A respectively to substitute actually. , wherein is a positive value which exceeds 1 in small proportions. The theoretically derivable condition that proportionate assuming smallness of C D against e " , the value

Approximate = = 0.78540 must be heard at the general public, in which he finds himself empirically to the most striking confirmations of our asymmetric distribution laws, and the value of p is therefore given in the future, especially panels of the elements of the objects treated by me in order approximation of the same to be to convince. An exact match so that is not too demanding in principle, in theory it should, as noted above, a trifle larger than emerge from the experiments, but this small theoretical overweight can easily be outbid by unbalanced contingencies, and so he has (proportional to accurate as possible determination of D as D p ) in the K.G. taken from different areas that could be examined in relation to the validity of the above laws (skull measurements, dimensions recruits, botanical, meteorological measurements), different from the reduction stages and reduction of the distribution boards layers between 0.6 and 0.9 have been found. Instead of p to hold, you could also contact the other two - hold functions, except that because of the smaller ratio, which A - C to C - D and completely against D - A , these other functions in greater ratios has unbalanced contingencies can be affected. From the third - equation which , can be derived a very simple way, D approximate yet another way to determine empirically or as directly proportional, which is that, after A and C has determined is the distance of the desired D of C 3.66 times as Large increases as the distance from the A of C is found. In brief, we may thus determined D -value than D , respectively. - Meanwhile, this provision is too uncertain to resolve their value at all, especially since other than the laborious determination of D as D P , there is another relatively simple way very approximate determination of the so-called D i , is to bids,

which in Kap.XI. will be discussed. In order to receive instead only approximate, exact provisions of the three distance conditions, one has to go back to the exact values of the three distances itself, which are listed under the laws of distance, after which: , ,

These relationships have two limits between which they hold themselves, the first of which the case m ' = m ' , ie the case of vanishing asymmetry, where = 1 corresponds to, and the second the case where m " against m " vanishingly small , and therefore can be set = 0th This gives for 1.Grenze: 2.Grenze:

= p 0.7 8540 0.84535 0.21460 0.15465 3.65979 5.46609. The value of p can therefore normally not at all covered by 0.78540 and 0.84535 not rise. 6) Location Act . , the central value C and the arithmetic mean of A lie on the same side of the densest values D from, and such that C between A and D drops (see 134). 7) Reverse law . . The asymmetry of the deviations bez D has the opposite sign than the deviations rel. A , ie, if m '- m , rel. A (ie, '- , ) is positive, then m 'm , mar. D (ie, m'- m , ) is negative, and vice versa (see 134). Further, the difference between the extreme deviations rel. A , ie, U '- U , , the opposite sign as the difference between the deviation numbers, ie u = '- , (s . 142). 8) The extreme laws . [If the number of above respectively. below D lying deviations equal m ' . resp m , so the probability of:

ensure that: U ' = t'e ' the extreme value of the top performing deviations. According to the W. is to ensure that: U,=t, s, the lower extreme of the deviations is equal to: . After this is the probable value of the upper resp. lower extreme deviation equal to: resp. If t ' and t, by means of the T -table: resp. are determined. (Cf. Chapter XX)] 9) [Through the brackets, as in the "Preface" was already mentioned, the amendments and additions made by the editor indicated.] Apart from the -laws 5) and extreme laws 8), which I only owe the theory, but afterwards was also proven empirically, the previous laws have been found by me first empirically what these laws also an empirical validity ruthlessly all theory can benefit from hand and can give confidence for a coincident that theory. In vain, however, one would by crude determination of primary, interspersed with large irregularities boards an accurate determination of D to obtain and thus related values and find herewith a check of the previous laws to win, so it will still have to discuss how to Appropriate reduction and interpolation of distribution boards is for the purpose. 34 Has been specifically mentioned that the previous laws for the case of excessive proportionate variation in the K.-G. (Within the meaning of 9) can be considered sufficient, with strong proportionate variation but a further generalization of the GG call. Now is not specified, which may give rise to this, and how to take this generalization. The G-G can by its nature, even at infinite m only be an approximation law and is itself only explains by Gauss for 10) , because it sets the size of the deviations from A to both sides no limit, but only allows the W. the deviations decrease with increasing size of the same more and more. But it stands to reason that if the deviations of A into the negative is greater thanA itself should be the different values a are less than zero, which is impossible. So the GG can take a priori any unlimited
9)

validity in the claim, though remain valid with the greatest approximation for cases where the deviations from the arithmetic mean of the stay, at least in numbers far the largest in the nearby and very small on average. But the same thing in this regard as to the negative deviations of A applies to the pure GG, is no less true of the negative deviations rel. D and the previous generalization and hereby modification of the Basic Law, and there are K.-G., where the relative fluctuation in D is so great that it is no longer sufficient with the previous principle of generalization. Theoria motus corporum Coelestium; Lib II, Sect. III. artic. 178th Theoria combinationis observ. error. minimal. obnoxiae; pars prior art. 17; Comment. societ. Goddess. rec. Vol V. Hereafter is a generalization of the GG for applicability to K.-G. to distinguish between two directions or in two senses: 1) if collective deviations not the errors of observation attributed to symmetric W. show respect to the arithmetic mean, the case of asymmetry can be regarded as the more general but that the symmetry only as a special case among themselves understand, and 2) if collective deviations, if also show the majority of K.-G., but not with all the observational errors rightful low relative variation around the main values. Since the KG in which you do with a generalization of the GG in the first direction, not only by far more numerous, but also much easier to treat than those in which it is necessary that further generalization in the second to have direction take hold, and as facilitated by anticipating the generalization in the first respect, the representation of the principle of generalization in the second respect, this anticipation is here done now but to give our investigation at all the required generality, the respond generalization in the second way, namely encounter from the outset two points to give the idea of a direction as this generalization would be to grasp. 35 So far, we have always had merely arithmetical discrepancies regarding any core values in mind, ie, which can be taken as positive and negative differences of them, and usually are those that will also happen here as well, understood as such deviations. I call angegebenermaen generally with . But one can also speak of ratio variations in a given principal values, ie, conditions in which a given principal value H is exceeded or increased, we generally want to call. So if = a - H is an arithmetic deviation is = a: H a ratio deviation, and while we 'and , differ as positive and negative arithmetic deviations, depending on a > H and < H , we distinguish to the same aspects and , as the upper and lower ratio deviation. While now lead down strong arithmetic deviations from a main values to negative below the size of the home's value and hereby are impossible, this is not strong lower ratio deviations that may rather as far as they go down, only up to ever-smaller fraction values of the home's value lead which but just stay as positive as the main value itself, to which they refer, for negative ratio deviations are not at all, but only positive, which exceed 1, and such that (as proper fractions) 1 does not reach. What
10)

did think of the fact that the distribution law in order to relatively strongly fluctuating K.-G. down even just to remain as applicable to weakly fluctuating, in principle, can take on arithmetic deviations would be referable to ratio deviations. But with this the following empirical mathematical aspects meets in the same direction. Are errors of observation, generally speaking, at least with respect to the measurement of spatial length, substantially independent of the size of the measured object, unless with the size of the gauge means change, get together, complicate, because of course the observation error in measuring a mile will be greater than Generally speaking, however, are the observation errors in measurement of a highthermometer or barometer is not greater than that measured a low, with a foot length measurement, but only because more and more sedate operations belong together for measuring the former. Against this vary K.-G. generally essential function of their size, if it is understood in the sense of the following examples. A flea is an average of a little creature, and so do the deviations from the mean of the individual specimens flea Flea are on average only small, only a fraction of its moderate size, and the whole difference between the smallest and largest flea remains small. The mouse is on average much larger than the flea, the horse etc much larger than the mouse, a tree much larger than a cabbage again, and everywhere an appropriate remark returns. The deviations of the individual mice specimens of the middle mouse are on average larger than that of each flea copies from the central flea, etc. Also, makes this dependence of the average size of the variations of the average size of the subject to understand the fact that the inner and outer changing causes on large find items more attack points than small. Has even the quality of the articles by the greater or less facility with which it yields to the changing influences, influence, and it may change the accessibility of external influences on the circumstances vary. So an exact proportionality of the average size of the deviations of the average size of the objects to be expected from the outset. But in any case the size of the objects remains a major factor for the size of their changes, and even if their average size at different K.-G. not mean size of the objects is purely proportional, but is very conceivable for the same, the simplest possible law of distribution of the deviations for each particular when given to him easily to follow the changing influences and accessibility rather on ratio variations as arithmetic referring deviations. 36 First, of course, takes this idea the apparent difficulty contrary, that the GG its nature is obtainable by only deviations which can be grasped as positive and negative differences from their initial values, hereafter can not come as a special case under a law which refers to ratio deviations and yet we are looking for a law that goes for the case of vanishing asymmetry and weak proportionate variation in the GG or its mode of distribution reproduces. But we translate the ratio deviations = a: H in their logarithms, log = log a - log H , we briefly as logarithmic deviations with might call, and noted:

1) that the logarithmic deviations = log a - log H the character of arithmetic , share, can be grasped as positive and negative differences from a given initial values, except that this itself is a logarithmic, not H , but log H is; 2) that as long as the arithmetic differences are relatively small compared to its mean value, ie, a relatively small variation around the same takes place, as it is provided in the Basic Law, the ratios of the arithmetic differences with those of the corresponding logarithmic noticeably match, which not only mathematically provable, but also to the logarithm is empirically detectable by which compares the differences of the logarithms of the corresponding numbers. So we would even with relatively weak variation of the logarithmic principle, as the allgemeinst zulnglichen may exercise with advantage, this advantage only at relatively low variation is too small to be worth the increased effort, which brings the logarithmic treatment, however, he emerges decided at relatively high fluctuation, for which the empirical evidence will follow, for of course no empirical evidence could the previous view at all appear only as a hypothesis built into the air. The application of the logarithmic to the empirical treatment but this is. It would reduce the individual dimensions given a K.-G. of their logarithms a = log a , looking in the same manner as it in exploring the densest value of D from a done what later certain to take the closest value of a , which D hot, and, as later to explain certain not with log D is confused, take this value of D , the logarithmic deviations = a - D = log a - D , which will be partly positive and partly negative, looking from the to each side in particular, di ' and , the simple arithmetic average or so-called mid-logarithmic deviations s ', s ,respectively: , ,

wherein m ' and m, the number of positive and negative deviations, not as used to be a of D, but of a by D means, and then determine the distribution of the logarithmic variation ', , on each side, in particular also in relation to e , e , , m ' , m , to zwiespltigem GG as above ( 33) is given in 2), except that e ' , e , , m ' , m, here logarithmically in the manner indicated, instead of the previous are determined arithmetically. For these applicable to the logarithmic deviations provisions then follow through translation thereof in the belonging to the logarithmic numbers provisions for the relationship deviations and their principal values, what not to take for now by the required versions remain about reserved for a later chapter, what ever the logarithmic treatment of K.-G. closer comes in (Chapter XXI). Besides the logarithmic densely values D can then also the logarithmic mean G as a : m , ie the arithmetic mean of the logarithms of a, and the logarithmic median C , as the value of a , the same number of a and has over among themselves , determined.

Of the logarithmic values can also be the number of values that belong to them by the logarithm, passing over, and establish specific terms of what is not idle, since these values have their notable importance. Due to this the to D corresponding numerical value of J called densest ratio value by having the significance that in the same ratio distances from it to each side more values a and hence a are united as in the same ratio distances from any other a The to the logarithmic center values C associated numerical value matches the arithmetically certain C match, because when a value of a , ie, C , regardless of a and has over among themselves, so too has the logarithm of C , ie C , regardless of logarithms of a , ie the same amount of a , over and under itself. With the G to be designated, as a numerical value to which G belongs, is the geometric mean of a dar. 37 So we have to distinguish the following three general laws or Prinzipe, each of which follows as a generalization and sharpening of the foregoing may also be considered, and their essential differences to be here sums up briefly. 1) The pure, simple, primitive Gaussian law or principle, the requirement for symmetric probability of double arithmetic deviation ' , , from the arithmetic mean. Here, the output from the arithmetic mean of A taken determines the mutual deviations of the arithmetic mean deviation = : m for both together as a quotient of the sum of the mutual differences of absolute values by the total number of them directly (or after a known formula of the sum of squares as calculated) and after the t -table determines the distribution. To express the relationship of the distinction deviations A I replace the general terms m , , by , , . 2) The arithmetic generalization of the Basic Law, for the condition of asymmetric W. deviations ' , , from the arithmetic mean, generally valid for different degrees of asymmetry, but only adequately for relatively weak fluctuation around the main values as most K . G. plays. Here is the output of the arithmetic densely values D taken from the dimensional values of a contemplative manner in later l1) is obtained without having them previously translated into logarithms. The mutual deviations of ', , are used as arithmetic in both directions of D in particular made, their mean values '= ': m' and , = , : m , determined, and then for each side, in particular the distribution of the two-column GG ( 33), setting of t ' = ': ' for positive side of t , = , : , for negative side of the t -table determined. To express the relationship of the distinction deviations D I replace the general terms m , , by m , , e
11)

[p Chapter XL]

3) The logarithmic generalization of the previous law or principle, valid for arbitrarily large asymmetry and arbitrarily large relative fluctuation. Hereafter are all single dimensional values a the logarithms a = log a to take from this the densest

value D to determine the logarithmic deviations ', , to take both sides thereof means the same e ', e , to take and ona , D , ' , , , e ' , e , apply all relevant provisions than in the previous, the arithmetic generalization to A , D , ' , , e ' , e , . Among the logarithmic values can then come to the ratio values as related to the logarithm numbers. Now as a principle strictly I see really only the logarithmic generalization of the Basic Law, ie, 3) to, but it is very awkward to use, and relatively weak fluctuation one can very well proceed according to the arithmetic generalization 2), as will be proved by experience . At least enough everywhere the simple GG 1), however, it is easiest applicable because the arithmetic mean of A as output values of the deviations lighter than the densest values D and D is to be determined with relative accuracy, with weak asymmetry but soft, the results of 1 ), 2) and 3) from each other slightly. Depending on the treatment I folgends an object under the condition of symmetrical deviations W. mar. Now A, ie after the first principle, or bez assuming asymmetric W.. A had, after the second or third principle in mind, I will briefly of treatment speak to a symmetrical or asymmetrical principle, and depending on the treatment I use arithmetic deviations, ie after the first or second principle, or application with logarithmic deviations, according to the third principle, have in mind, I will speak of arithmetic or logarithmic treatment. In general, we find the following for the treatment of objects and list of sets performed after arithmetic principle, the transition to the logarithmic principle and the treatment of such objects is essential but challenging the Chapter XXI specifically reserved.

VI. Characteristics of the collective objects by their determination pieces or so-called elements.
38 We go to the earlier (Section II) with respect to the characteristics of the K.G. made general observations now a certain something. If a K.-G. be completely determined by size and number, so it would ever apply, not only to count the same all present, but also has been and future copies and take from each the measure of the respects that give a quantitative determination of space, as such size after the three main dimensions, weight, density, duration. This is generally impossible. The amount of copies of a given object is usually indeterminable at all large, and of this large indefinite quantity is usually only a very limited number of measures in mind to bid. This is evident that if, for example, the brain weight of European and Negro is to be compared, this can not be done by one facing the weights of the weights of thousands of European brains thousand Negro brains. It is a common result. So it is indeed apply to earlier remarks made so many specimens to be examined and measured to compare objects as possible without arbitrary exclusion of certain sizes, which you can do too much in order not to give too much space unbalanced contingencies of the to arrange measurements obtained in the manner indicated in number and size in distribution panels, and as this but only

leads to have overlooked the passage of values in general, from these distribution panels certain values, called the determining factors or elements of K. - G. derive which provide a characteristic of the object and its comparison with other objects can for quantitative relationship. In fact, one has to see it as the fruit of many individual and Mabestimmungen to offer. Content themselves now, as is often the case, with the indication of the arithmetic mean of a K.-G., one however has this as an important and negligible in any case determination value and the comparison value to other objects, but it can be two K . G. whole or in close agree very soft and yet apart by other relationships. Now it could appear earlier enough, the average fluctuation size and a whole range of fluctuation K.-G. into account by specifying the mean deviation from the mean and the extremes in order to have the essential characteristics exhausted, and in fact, this is sometimes done. But with the knowledge of the K.-G. in such great generality and in such various degrees by one or the other direction zukommenden property of asymmetry is not yet perceived need occurred, the KG, which are considered at all a thorough investigation and comparison value, also in this direction to characterization, ie respect thereto to summarize the different main values whose distinctness is due to the asymmetry, and the deviation values in the eye, which is not to say that every object has to be interested enough to engage in such an expansion of its characteristics, however, must be addressed in any case, a general collectives it. 39 If you then the general collectives in the earlier usual, limited consideration of non- A can remain and the discrepancies related thereto, and yet, was added as above, not everyone K.-G. can make a claim on account all the possible determining factors, which are specified in Chapter II, it will not be at all easy opportunity to respond to an all-round consideration of the same, unless in a K.-G., the one a very special attaches importance, and should serve as an example of the feasibility of all-round consideration itself. So can you ask for a senior point of selection to be. All together now, I believe that where you want to save with provisions, and it is a convention to which main value is preferably suitable for the characteristic distinction given K.-G.to keep the arithmetic mean and its deviations will always remain in the formerly perceived preference, just that along with ignoring the other pieces provision of insight into the quantitative constitution of K. - loses G. and characters in mind can be the same, which in itself are no less important than that to build on the arithmetic mean, and lift up on the implementation of a general distribution law. For clarification thereof will be back with widening and explanatory analysis indicated on the already above (section II) the main characteristics of the different values. [This is described in X. Section happen. But while there, the main characteristics of each value are presented for yourself, here is a comparative evaluation of the main values themselves back in terms of their benefits to the characteristics of the K.G. For this reason, merely come to the arithmetic mean A, the central value C and the densest value D into consideration, because the vagina value of R, and the worst value T and the deviation focus value F are from the outset because of their lower importance of measures to be selection at page leave. However, it is to make a

difference between whether those three core values with respect to a presupposed as valid law or distribution without regard to such should be regarded as depending on a whole different appreciation takes the same place.] 40 [You Lets namely drop the requirement that a law of distribution of the response of the z regulates levels of a distribution panel, then the latter principle only as a random collection conceive of values, and it may therefore the main values only get the meaning, as the mean random those together in more or less complex and more accurate way to represent. But then, no doubt, is subject to that determination of A is more valuable than that of C or D. Because A is the arithmetic mean of the average shows that can actually be put in place each value, if the same are combined into a sum to. C however is merely the value center, which is just as often exceeded than fallen, and thus represents the table values with lower reliability, because it's not like A depends on the sum, but only on the number of mutual differences. D may eventually not be admitted as deputy average, since it referred only to the empirical value in its densely regulated by any law of randomness and its location is not determined by calculation, but can be found just by seeing the blackboard. In general, his actual presence in a randomly running board is to be regarded only as a lucky coincidence, which no importance is to be attached.] [The situation is different if the existence of a distribution law is assumed. Although reserves then A , the average importance as it has in the random table without winning anything directly. The importance of C is greater, however, since it. now with regard to the coming into force of probability terms, as a middle value represents the probable value In the center of interest but moves D, since it denotes that value empirically densest value, at least approximately, ie apart from the unbalanced contingencies, which has the largest W.. D thus stands in solidarity connection with the distribution law, the maximum value principle must coincide with it. Also evident immediately that a double way of determining their establishment of a true law of distribution D is open: one based on the law, the maximum value theoretically represents the most likely value, and the other due to the panel, the densest empirical value indicating the most probable value . It is immaterial whether the transfer of z in the table reveals the densest value directly or only the tendency to produce such. As a result of which came into force law are the a and z in a functional connexion, so that according to known rules of the densest z can be calculated by interpolation from the given table values if his raw determination fails from the immediate sight of the panel or appear inaccurate. Now in so far but want to match this empirical determination of the probable value with that theoretical, which have D all the properties are attached that make the maximum value of the distribution law, so that a part the calculation of D by interpolation provides a means of cogency of established distribution law to corroborate other part, drawn up prior knowledge of the law, the knowledge of the properties of the empirical konstatierten D of the panels can give clues to the discovery of a law of distribution.] 41 [This solidarity link between the characteristics of the densest value D and the distribution laws of the D ensures absolute priority over any other home values, even

in the physical and astronomical theory of errors to occur daily. Same considered known as the true observation value, the arithmetic mean of the observed values, their deviations from that are the observation errors. , the but true value is nothing more than the most probable value to an error number that is sufficiently large to detect a legitimate response leave, are empirically densest value to identify themselves. So it is up to the principle that the true or most probable value, the arithmetic mean A is, the A gained the importance both of the densest value D to be. This requirement of the basic collapse of A and D will now GAUSS to law of error, as for example, Encke's 1) can be seen the method of least squares, illustration. On the basis of the same then continues to follow the agreement in principle of the central value of C with A and D , whose united position for the passage of the panel symmetry rel. A conditionally while her apart of asymmetry has the consequence.]
1) [Berlin Astronomical Yearbook

for 1834, pp. 264 ff.]

[That principle must, of course see the confirmation experience. However, this does not require that for error rows, sets its extension to the stand to provide a densely value by the direct sight of the series or by interpolationsmige calculation, the same exactly with A coincide, have because you will always take on unbalanced contingencies consideration, which can cause an empirical apart of the main values without questioning both the validity of the established principle in question. Moreover, it is a probation rather in accordance with the principle of actually existing in the error response of the series values with the progress required by law, as in the empirical coincidence of A and D seek and find, as we also eg in Bessel the "Fundamenta astronomiae" by opposing the passage of the error according to the theory, and after the experience of a probation GG has given. Namely, the unbalanced contingencies, especially with sufficient reduction in the error table, influence the course of the table values in the whole little while is to be expected that they interfere with the position of individual values sometimes erbeblich and easily a relatively considerable splaying of the main values, the collapse of the theory is required, which can cause.] But there also occurs such splaying, arithmetic mean reserves the privilege of it, that as the most likely value of those looks after GAUSS principles with respect to which the sum of squares is the smallest possible, or with respect to which the sum of the variances of the two is sides is equal, but both values coincide on the arithmetic average, symmetry or asymmetry may occur with respect thereto. So the preference for the arithmetic mean remains even where it does not coincide with the other main values, the same in any case decided in the physical and astronomical measurement gauge on the purposes. However, [This is true under the assumption that, in principle, the arithmetic mean is to be regarded as the most probable value. Loses this principle its validity, as well as losing A 's preferred position, because, although it retains its original meaning as an average, but with regard to the distribution law now enters that value in its place, which takes over the now drawn up Prinzipe according to the role of the probable value principle and coincides with the densest values. For example, the median C or

another "Potency value", with respect to the preparation and discussion of the paper 2) : Reference should be "over the original value of the smallest deviation sum" as the value considered, the largest W. to come, it shall In connection with this, each time a different distribution law in force, by its existence, the underlying most probable value quite as well as with application receives the supremacy of the Basic Law, the arithmetic mean.] Memoirs of math.-phys. Class of the Royal. Saxon. Gesellsch. the Scientific. Volume XI , in 1878. (In particular, Section VI, "Remarks on the question of validity of the principle of the arithmetic mean" and Section VII: "The laws of probability bez deviations of the various power resources under the assumption of the validity of its principle."). 42 [For the collectives is now in the same way the densest value of fundamental interest, as soon as the distribution of copies of a K.-G. dominant probability law comes into question. As for the determination of the properties of the densest value and to be founded on the same derivation of that law can not but here the principle of the arithmetic mean, or any other principle a priori be established. For the KG are given only by the experience, and it is a priori not even certain about that for the same total a certain value is found as the most likely value, or that - in other words the most extensive empirical value in the K.-G. different can be characterized by the same properties. It is therefore to be regarded as a fundamental result of the experience that the various K.-G. who were remanded in, in fact, allow the determination of a probable value, and that the latter coincides close enough to that of values for which the relationship of mutual average deviations ( e 'e , ) is equal to the ratio of the mutual deviation numbers ( m ' : m , ) . , the closest value is thus in principle in the collectives of the arithmetic means different and is rather in principle, the required compliance with the by the proportion of e ': e , = m ': m , defined values. The latter (which by the finding in Section II setting with D p can be described as D i the interpolationsmig calculated empirically densely value table names) thus claimed here nmliche attention as the arithmetic mean of the error theory. He also has very similar meaning, for on the basis of the principle that the most probable value of a K.-G. the proportion e ': e , = m ': m , satisfy, or that D p = D i should be, you can find a distribution law that already preliminary in nature, established in the previous chapter Advanced Basic Law in a similar way as on the basis of the principle that the most probable value of the arithmetic mean, or that A = D i should be, the simple law of error arises as GG.] [Only insofar as may A also claim supremacy in the gifted with weak asymmetry as it K.-G. so close with D p coincide, it is sufficient to bring the simple approximate GG instead of the two columns in use.] 43 Do not disregarded the degree of ease and certainty remain with which they
2)

are to win in the choice between the different main values. Does it depend on just raw determination, as is that of the densest value decided the simplest and easiest, since you're in a distribution panel only after a need to see what the largest z listened; soon follows in this regard the determination of the central value, why only one counting the A or from both sides of the center to the obtained equality of m and m , needs, on circumstantial that of A, since the addition of all the individual a of numerous developmental distribution panel or, what amounts to the same thing, formation and addition of products , descending to obtain the sum a, with which m must be divided, with a large m long and tedious operation. But otherwise, yes, on the contrary, there is the relationship when you sharp, wants to go to the ideal as possible approaching regulations. From the raw determination of the densest value after falling on him maximum z is even expected only a very uncertain approximation to the ideal value, the sharpest but, on the ratio m ' : m , = e e , to be established, is While bringing to a specific account and not difficult to lead, but is unstreng in execution, urges reduction and interpolation, the last still leave a little room for the result to computing. Also, the sharp definition of C , although much simpler than that of D , can not do without such aids, whereas the determination of A such is not required. The fussiness of the formation of the products za can be avoided by a later (Chapter IX) to imaging technique. 44 After a previous meeting of the features and benefits of the various main values is still something to be said from the point of view from which the extremes and deviation functions come into consideration. There are two K.-G. very close or identical in its main values and yet the range of fluctuation and variation of the average value of the items to their main values to be very different, which are by no means indifferent distinguishing characteristics. Thus, the mean temperature an island in the ocean and a location in the middle of a continents may be the same, but the deviations of the individual temperatures of the coolant temperature hold at the first within narrower limits and are, on the average smaller than in the second, after which we maritime climate and continental climate differ. [You will now be inclined to such differences by giving the largest and the smallest value, ie, the E ' and E , which in a number of copies of a K.-G. appear to characterize in a simple manner.] As recommended but an indication of the extreme values of E ' and E , is to indicate the limits within which has fluctuated, the size of the specimens, yet the benefit of a relationship is more than precarious and limited. Once subject to these values large contingencies, so you can not expect it, considering the extreme and extreme fluctuation in a new series of species with the same m determined to find the same values again, and secondly, the specification of the same the only ever for the number copies, the m , from which the same are derived, a value by at larger m , the scope of the changes is larger, so that with larger m are generally more widely spaced Extreme, a smaller E , , a larger E ' and hence a greater extreme fluctuation E '-

E , gets smaller than m. Suppose now, for example, you want a measure of the absolute and relative variability of K.-G. in the values of E '- E , or ( - E 'E , ) : Asearch, as is done well, and after several K. - G. compare, we will commit the greatest errors when the objects a different m have and I am mistakes of this kind, which also led to erroneous conclusions, really encountered elsewhere. 3)

[This paragraph is an expos Fechner's taken over medium variations and extremes, which was reported in 1868 by Prof. WELCKER and made this available to me.] Better than the variation width of E '- E , therefore, the mean variation is identical with a medium deviation to the extent of variability of an object because it quite independently ofm , and can be made by a suitable correction completely independently. However, this amount varies according to the principal values of which you want to calculate the deviations, and is, generally speaking, different for positive and negative side. The consideration of the latter variety, but one escapes when all the total sum of the deviations on both sides, divided by the total number of deviations to both sides, used to say after our general designation as a mean variation or mean deviation per se with respect to a given main value is: . Whether you want to use the deviations of one or another main value comes down to what one wants to refer to at all, and one does not exclude the other. As you can see, the level changes at a given m by the total sum of the mutual variations in the different main values, up to now we have only made use of the deviation of the arithmetic mean, and we remain first there are, as we as average fluctuation value in as per above description: . Now, however, is not completely independent of the size of m , but it is this: The value of A , from which the deviations are taken varies slightly depending on the number of a,hence the m thereof, of which he is the means , and the most accurate possible A could only an infinite m are obtained. With the size of the finite m, so in any case inaccurate A but also changes the size of the deviations, and therefore the sum of them, by their division with m the value of is obtained, namely teaches theory and experience 4) that and therefore = : m with increasing m on average in the ratio grows, after which , and to the normal case where the determination of A with its deviations from an infinite m would have happened , may return by respectively. with , appreciably =

3)

2 m (2 m - 1) times, which is the correction due to the finite m calls. The corrected as hot c , and is, therefore: .

In both these cf. my treatise in the reports of the Royal. Saxon Society of Sciences, Volume XIII, 1861 ["On the corrections to the accuracy of the determination of observations, the determination of the variation of meteorological individual values around their mean and the psycho-physical Mabestimmungen by the method of average error"].

4)

This correction shall not in any individual case, but the averages of the cases, and because it has no means it applicable to accurately determine for each case, one must adhere to the value that it applies in the averages of the cases, and can therefore, if you are not afraid of the small effort of correction, even in the collectives prefer to c as at hold. If the average fluctuation in C or D are determined, one has first without correction if = : m , second, if e = : m , the correction but would so much I overlook, remain the same. The average fluctuation in C has the interest to be smaller than with respect to A and D , even the smallest, is because after earlier made specifying the sum of the variations in Cis even the smallest, and this on its quotient by m transfers. Generally speaking, although it may suffer exceptions, and a precise proportionality does not occur, increases with the size of the average variation of the objects, and it may be of interest to eliminate this influence as far as possible characterized in that the average fluctuation divided by the size of the volatile object in addition to the absolute hereby relative variation means into account. 45 A more and more important as the degree of the variation of an object around his main gain values as the average deviation means member for determining the distribution of the object. The physical and astronomical measurement gauge makes for the purpose by the mean deviation regarding A or to related values use, but this is only allowed for the prerequisite in this doctrine symmetric W. errors of observation, whereas the collectives after for them actually existing general condition of asymmetry only on the mean deviation with respect to D , not common for both sides but each side can make particular use (see 33), ie:

. Here, too, is, strictly speaking, a correction due to the finite m to install, but the corrected values are not, as one might think to put,: , but: , In fact would otherwise related to the deviation correction amounts of the two sides do not agree with the common correction of the total sum thereof. For the sum total of man wit: . We wanted to put the mutual deviation sums particularly: , as would be obtained by summing these values: , what with the above values for c is not true. 46 Lastly, there is some value to remember, which are repeatedly touched on already, but to be discussed later in detail, very important asymmetry in relationship rules. For the time being only the following about these values. It is the first difference '- , = u between the number of positive and negative deviations of A and the difference U - U , = ( e - A ) - - (E A , =) E '+ E , - 2A between the magnitude of positive and negative extreme deviation of A, which come into consideration in this respect. Even more important than these absolute differences are relative: and . , ,

Only provisionally the following in regard to the later use of it to be made about it. Of a difference between the sum of the positive and negative deviations of A, di 'and , of course, can not speak, since A is specifically designed so that both sums are equal, but that does not lead with that both numbers at the same

time deviation ' , , are equal to each other, and most random one will find it again. What is, however, at least in general, or with the exception of the average random variations in the joint with respect to A takes place is that ' - , having the size of m increases. Assuming equal W. positive and negative deviations namely teaches the probability of returning the case to the urn with the same number of black and white balls that - , its absolute values for average in the conditions of growing. But the more m increases is, the smaller the ratio of : m , so that, at infinity m , zero and one is. One consequence of this is that one later in the following investigate whether the positive and. negative deviations rel. A really have an equal W., not simply the absolute difference ucan hold, which is not generally lack even with the same W, but in its relation to m , which must not exceed a certain size, to the gleicheW . not be very unlikely, what more will be said later. So far, we have the inequality of the reciprocal number of deviations rel. A di ' , , and accepted as a feature in some respect as a measure of asymmetry. Of course you could by an asymmetry due to inequality of variance sum ' , rel. A out of the question because, in terms of A is that '= , so A must be determined so that this equality occurs, on the other hand could also be a characteristic or measure of asymmetry is not a disparity in the number of deviations rel. C be established because, in terms of C is that the reciprocal number of deviations in relation to it is the same; against this would prevent them from nothing, which asymmetry place with respect to the arithmetic average A of the densest value Dafter the inequality of the deviation numbers m , m , to determine, in the case of both main values sufficiently soft from each other; with the advantage with respect to D in the laws of asymmetry reasoned stronger apart of the deviations m , m, of each other, as the deviations ', , rel. A to receive from each other, and m ' , m , to be able to deal with the two-sided G. G in relationship, while from taking place against asymmetry A neither the simple, two-sided deviation of the Basic Law regarding number of A is more valid. Bearing in mind that if rel. A on , overlaps, conversely m , about m overlaps. However, since A and thereafter ' , is much easier to determine than D and thereafter m ' , m , , and marked asymmetry of a greater or lesser. A always a larger or smaller, but in any case the asymmetry rel. A . excess inequality bez D from the opposite direction can be closed, it seems generally more practical, at first the results of the determination of the asymmetry by - , . bez A hold, insofar as it already on the inequality of m and m , . bez D can be closed, unless it but to do accurate determination, this is yet to be investigated particularly for theory and empirical research.

VII Primary distribution panels.

47 [In the previous chapters the main points of the study were presented

preliminary in nature. Now it is time to actually conduct the investigation. Since the same is not based on hypothetical assumptions, but completely based on the experience, so they can only be of the empirically given K.-G. out themselves. But the latter are in their home-country form neither to derive, yet suitable for parole theoretically applicable laws. It must therefore be taught mainly their computational treatment. The same is concerned, a part of the production of a grade for the examination form of representation by establishing primary and reduced distribution boards (Section VII and VIII), other cases they are rules to calculate the principal values and variance functions, in which the characteristics and properties of the K.G. present themselves (Chapter IX - XI). Here, for simplicity, only the arithmetic treatment of K.-G.Be speech, because the logarithmic treatment, with which only the full generality of the method of investigation is achieved coincides with the arithmetic in the main, by the logarithms of the measurements occur only in place of the degree itself]. [Herewith a suitable basis for the theoretical investigation is now recovered, so has the first task that the asymmetry in the K.-G. to discuss and establish criteria for distinguishing major and minor asymmetry (Chapter XII - XVI). But then the valid during major symmetry and asymmetry Veteilungsgesetze are essential to develop (Chapter XVII - XX). Here, the generally held lower case proportionate variation of the individual values is provided to the main values.] [This main part of the study is followed by a discussion of the modifications that are caused by the transition to the logarithmic distribution law. A logarithmic treatment primarily require the KG with strong proportionate variation, but also the relationships between the various dimensions of K.-G. need of such (Chapter XXI and XXII). Appendix way finally the dependency relationships of the K.-G. discussed (Chapter XXIII).] 48 [If you want a K.-G. take into investigation, are first the individual copies of the same in the random spatial or temporal order in which they present themselves to measure, and with a recorded measurements to be designated in an original list. It is to ensure that the props given in Kap.IV be fulfilled, ie in particular a sufficient number of dimensions is matched to the exclusion of abnormalities.] [Such is original list, as has already been noted ( 3), not suitable for the mathematical treatment. However, it is valuable in other respects, since it allows the determination of whether the copies of the K.-G. vary independently of each other or are in a dependent situation. 20 rules specified in In this regard, obtained a further embodiment in Chapter XXIII. In the interest of computational processing, but you have to arrange the dimensions according to their size and hereby restore the original list from a distribution panel. It is used to distinguish it from the reduced table, the preparation and treatment is taught in the next chapter, called primary distribution panel. In the same make the measurements a smaller one of the progressive values of the larger column, the every A contains only once, while a beige passed the corresponding column numbers z lists that specify how often each a occurs.] [This primary table now is the starting point of the whole investigation. However, it

is usually still subject to strong irregularities, and usually has such an extent that their release would take up too much space. It is therefore looking to meet both of disadvantages by making reductions and limited generally to the demonstration of the plaque in its reduced form it.These are but about getting to know the nature of the primary panels and to gain an insight into the characteristics that may occur, and it should therefore four, serving as examples K.-G. the primary plates are presented.] 49 [The first two panels I and II give the dimensions for the vertical and horizontal extent of 450 European men's skulls. It should be noted that here and below consistently retained term "vertical scale" would be more accurate to replace "length of the vertex bend" by not the total amount, but only on forehead, crown and occiput to the front edge of the cord hole extending arc, thus the reduced vertical scale to the base of the skull is given in the table. As in III. Chapter notes, the dimensions of Prof. WELCKER were provided, which has collected a rich, uniform material treated under adherence of the same measurement method. 1) The unit of measurement is the millimeter. Used a tape measure to measure. The dimensions themselves refer to WELCKER's statement on "normal" male skull. Skull with Nahtabnormitten even head seam skulls were excluded.] [cf. H. WELCKER, growth and structure of the human skull, Leipzig 1862; also: the capacity and the three major diameter of the cranium in the various nations; Archives of Anthropology, Vol XVI]. [Table III contains the recruits dimensions of 2047 twenty year's Leipzig students from the 20 vintages from 1843 to 1862. From the original list of these measures is to be noted that, by giving them a way to manufacture the Aushebungsgeschfte, pure randomness is excellent in the wake of the benchmarks, so the same in Chapter XX is used to probation of extreme laws. The unit is of Saxon inch = 23.6 mm, but not only the whole, but also half and quarter inch were measured]. [In Table IV, the dimensions for the top link (internode) of 217 six-membered rye stalks are listed. More details about the production of this material can be found in the second part, Chapter XXV. With the measurement method just described there with the fact that the half-inch as a unit occurs.] 50 [The four panels are denominated in sequence: 2) ] Table I. 450 Eur. Men's skull; vertical extent . E = 1 mm, m = z = 450, A 1 = 408.5. a 368 371 376 z 1 2 1 a 400 401 402 z 13 12 13 a 425 426 427 z 8 7 3
1)

378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395, 396 397 398 399
2) [As

1 1 2 1 2 3 3 8 2 6 4 5 7 7 7 2 8 12 4 7 14 3

403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424

6 10 18 8 8 16 13 20 9 15 8 12 21 6 5 16 9 15 8 7 5 12

428 430 431 432 433 434 435 438 440 442 443 447 448

4 3 3 2 5 5 4 1 3 1 1 1 1

neither the Urlisten, even the tables of the primary treated here K.-G. to vorfanden (see note to Chapter III), the above panels had to be reconstructed. Table I and III were from the five respectively. reduction of four layers, which in the following section ( 64 and 65) are reported to be restored, for table II and IV the corresponding edits were not available in sufficient completeness. However, found in Table IV, the logarithms of the a -values. The values of Table II were obtained from the hand of Prof. WELCKER sent me dimensions of 500 European men's skulls. It had but 63 dimensions to their likely belonging to the corresponding vertical dimensions are supplemented, as only such an agreement with the reduced panel of the next chapter ( 58) could be achieved. However, this way may be related, minor variations do not affect the image of the panel, which is also not essential in the following into account.] Plate II 450 Eur. Men's skull; horizontal extent. E = 1 mm, m = z = 450, A 1 = 522.2.

a 481 484 485 486 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509

z 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 4 5 1 4 1 2 8 4 3 6 9 8 4 3 6 7

a 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534

z 13 12 14 7 6 13 11 7 9 10 15 6 8 14 17 21 9 8 7 8 13 5 6 7 8

a 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 545 546 547 548 549 550 552 553 554 555 558 561 567 576

z 10 11 5 8 9 14 6 3 4 3 4 3 2 2 3 6 1 1 4 2 1 1 2 1

Table III. Student recruits dimensions . E = 1 inch, m = z = 2047, A 1 = 71.77. a 60.00 z 1 a 70.00 z 70 a 76.00 z 24

64.00 64.75 65.00 65.25 65.50 65.75 66.00 66.25 66.50 66.75 67.00 67.25 67.50 67.75 68.00 68.25 68.50 68.75 69.00 69.25 69.50 69.75

2 4 6 3 5 5 8 6 9 19 7 11 25 15 35 27 37 34 43 48 57 54

70.25 70.50 70.75 71.00 71.25 71.50 71.75 72.00 72.25 72.50 72.75 73.00 73.25 73.50 73.75 74.00 74.25 74.50 74.75 75.00 75.25 75.50 75.75

65 71 61 78 75 81 89 79 81 82 63 79 79 68 56 64 42 55 33 43 26 25 17

76.25 76.50 76.75 77.00 77.25 77.50 77.75 78.00 78.25 78.50 79.00 79.50 80.00 80.75 82.50

17 9 7 14 9 7 3 3 2 3 1 2 1 1 1

Table IV The top element of 217 sechsgliederigen rye stem. E = 0.5 cm, m = z = 217, A 1 = 86.54. a z a 75.6 75.8 z 1 2 a z a 91.7 91.9 z 1 2 a 99.0 99.2 z 2 1 42.9 1 49.7 1 85.4 1 85.5 1

52.8 1 55.6 1 57.6 1 58.9 1 59.0 1 61.4 1 61.9 1 62.2 1 62.3 1 63.0 1 64.1 1 64.3 1 65.5 1 67.4 1 67.7 1 67.8 1 68.1 1 68.3 1 68.9 1 69.6 1 69.9 1 70.5 1 71.4 1 72.0 2 72.1 1 72.5 1 72.9 1 73.7 1 73.9 1 74.1 1 74.8 2 75.1 2 75.2 1

76.1 76.2 76.4 76.7 77.0 77.2 77.5 77.6 77.7 77.9 78.0 78.1 78.4 78.8 79.0 79.4 80.0 80.4 80.7 80.9 81.3 81.9 82.0 82.1 82.3 82.4 82.8 83.0 83.1 83.4 83.7 83.9 84.6

1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 4 2 1

85.7 1 85.8 1 85.9 1 86.0 2 86.2 1 86.3 1 86.8 2 86.9 1 87.0 3 87.1 2 87.4 2 87.5 1 87.8 1 87.9 2 88.0 2 88.3 1 88.6 1 88.8 1 88.9 2 89.2 2 89.3 2 89.4 1 89.7 2 89.9 2 90.0 1 90.2 3 90.4 1 90.5 1 90.6 1 90.7 3 91.2 1 91.3 1 91.4 1

92.0 92.3 92.8 93.0 93.1 93.3 93.4 93.5 93.7 94.4 94.6 94.7 95.7 95.8 95.9 96.0 96.1 96.2 96.3 96.5 96.8 96.9 97.0 97.1 97.5 97.6 97.7 97.8 97.9 98.0 98.2 98.6 98.8

2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

99.3 99.4 99.5 100.3 100.5 100.8 100, 9 101.0 101.1 101.3 101.5 101.9 102.2 102.3 102.7 102.8 103.3 103.4 104.0 104.2 104.4 105.3 105.5 105.6 105.8 106.0 106.2 106.3 108.0 110.0 111.2 112.0 112.2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

 51 [A comparative look at these tables also shows respect to the passage of z with respect to how the juxtaposition of a substantial difference in the first three panels of the past.Namely, the former having a central main component, the z grow against the panel center to generally and its a form, to the exception of the ends of each interruption to an equidistant range. For example, the equidistant extending I. a continuous sequence in 378-428 and 430-435 while the z , but with a constantly recurring variations only grow and then decrease again. Second in the series of equidistant is a 488-550 and is, after interruption by the lack of a = 551, 552-555 continued, while in turn the z show a similar transition. Table III. finally stands of corresponding behavior of z between the limits 64.75 and 78.50 through undisturbed equidistance of a from. This includes major maintenance of a stock in each of the three panels at the beginning and at the end a relatively small number of A -levels, whose distances change randomly, and their z 1 are largely the same: they provide Endabteilungen with scattered a dar. In the fourth panel, however, the stride a consistently at irregular intervals before, and it can only be noted that the smaller more frequent intervals in the middle than at the ends broadened, while the vast majority is z equal to 1 One can thus boards that a major component of equidistant a Endabteilungen with scattered next to a own, and those in whicha disperse through the whole panel by irregular differ. As representatives of the first type, the panels have I to III. to apply, the second type, the panel IV dar. Both types are significantly different from each other, for it is shown that panels of the second type require a much more extensive reduction than those of the first, if their treatment is to be successful. ] [The definition of the main holdings of a panel is now to be considered, however, that he did not detaches in sharp determination of the Endabteilungen. While it could be any ambiguity by placing the cone counter that the main ingredient should extend so far as to exactly when the equidistance of a range. However, it is clear from the outset that such a provision would be no significant hit. Because in many cases it may happen that even towards the middle of the table to the equidistance by a lack of a disturbing, yet often is from the middle towards the beginning or the end to a missing a once a series of equidistant a follow, as indeed for I and II due to the absence of a = 429 resp. a true = 551st In such cases, the main component would be either limited in the above rule for holding or made completely in question. On the other hand, it is also possible that a run though gaps, the course of zallowed but their exclusion from the main maintenance of a stock appear desirable. It must therefore be left to the determination of the main holdings within a certain play area of arbitrariness, as a rule can be set up only to the extent that the equidistance of the a values not subject to significant interference and respect of z, at least as a whole, a growth toward the middle to be identified. However, as you can because the boundaries of the main stand for I 378 and 435, settle for 488 and 555 II, III for 64.75 and 78.50, with the remark that these limits very well allow a shift.] [Incidentally, the equidistance can a least formally even in the absence of a will

made when the lack of a , with z = 0 provided, are included in the table. It is pushing this as empty aare called. For example, the main component of I and II in this manner fully equidistant when in I 429, II 551 in a z = 0 is inserted.] What further the progress of z in the main maintenance of a stock of boards I - III concerns, as has already been noted that the increase towards the center is subjected to constant fluctuations. Now, however, is a continuous weight loss and re-grow not to be expected because of the never-failing unbalanced contingencies. But should herein are solely the cause, the unmistakable prominent periodicity in the fluctuation of the remain z inexplicable. Therefore, it must still be another underlying cause. The same is evident from the following observations.] [In the main maintenance of a stock of I occur throughout the 18 relative maxima, minima on 17 intermediate, 8 maxima fall into such a, represent the whole or half centimeters, while no single minimum such a listen. Of the 17 peaks of the main holdings of II drop 10 on any of the 16 minima a the designated Article This is enough to show that when measuring the skull by means of the tape measure, and apparently the millimeter were obtained by estimation, whole and half inches were preferred, because otherwise the probability of the maxima and minima would distribute evenly on the subdivisions of the centimeter. In the non-uniform estimate, ie in favor of the full and half divisions of the scale used, one thus finds the source of recurring irregularities in the way of such This is confirmed in the Table III. Of the 19 main maxima of their holdings fall on whole 9, 7 to half inch, of the 18 minima are joined by only 2 ganzzolligen values, while the remaining - or zolligen values belong]. [One will therefore have to beware when processing the distribution panels from the mistakes due to non-uniform estimate and must be considered on its removal by an appropriate reduction. As a result, according to divide the panels, the period of non-uniform estimate departments. The same must go on, for example, in tables I and II from 5 to 5 mm, in Table III by half an inch or better for a whole inch. In general, it is to start this major departments with the maintenance of a stock of the main panel. It can then be found advantageous to circumscribe the major component so that it just summarizes a full set of departments. Then I have three values, for example, maintenance of a stock panel cut from the as defined above, and as the values 380 and 434 selected as the boundaries between which are main sections 11 space, as indicated in the panel itself.] 52 [Finally, there are the following, to mention valid points for each distribution panel in its whole extent. Limits the accuracy of each measurement is made, so that a can not continuously lined up but by an interval whose size depends on the degrees of accuracy of the measurement, have separate trajectories. This interval is called the primary interval and iare called. It is constant for the whole extension of the panel, since it is indeed caused by the scale only, not by the size of the measured items.] [In his existence one has to look for the reason that a major component in the equidistant distribution panels is possible. Because the interval of the main stock is

nothing other than the one primary i, which can not be reached, but only so as emerges clearly the greater the number of copies of the measured K.-G. - The m of the panel - is. The primary i is of course also for panels without major component of the a -values can be seen directly. For example, Table IV, it is equal to the tenth part of e , di = 0.05 cm.] [The essential significance of the presence of a primary interval is now in the fact that it is the membership of z to A , which is attached to those enrolled in the panels in the right light.It can be seen, namely, that a are to be construed as merely representative of the primary intervals, whose centers they are, and it is therefore also the z as the non- a, but rather than bya designated primary associated interpreted intervals and interspersed within the latter uniformly to think, because there is no stopping at each for a different design, legitimate distribution. Insofar as the primary interval that a surrounding or encircling, it is within the interval of a called. Their mutual boundaries are a - i and a + i ; join same through the entire table with one another directly, so that the first boundary with the second interval of any of the preceding coincides]. [The a - and z -values are thus bound by means of the associated interval within each other. If this connection is broken and a are considered and understood on its own, so it is as naked a are referred to.] [The just-described affiliation of z to a now allows an accurate geometrical representation of the distribution panels. Namely, the a to apply in a abscissa and by highlighting the valuesa - i and a + i the radius intervals accompanied them; subsequently are on the latter rectangles to build, the content of which the A of the table beige signed z must represent, in this case can, of course, both the dimension of a as well as the construction of an arbitrary scale rectangles serve as reference since it only applies to gain a picture of the ratios of the table values.] [Is thus obtained, for example, the following representation of the middle part of Table I:]

Figure 1

VIII Reduced distribution panels.

53 Part of the distribution boards more to move into the narrow and thus to take a smaller space for them to complete, partly to compensate for the irregularities in the way of their values and to make any non-uniformities of the estimate harmless, some of calculating the determining factors or so-called elements of K. -G. ease, one has to move from the primary distribution panels to the reduced and to have them stand up for those, and can be used notwithstanding all replaced by certain relationships a primary table by not reduced, the reduced panel reserves but in fact in specified relations benefits before the primary advance, and it becomes necessary to deal with their preparation method, its conditions and its recovery manner. We first summarize the reduction of such primary tables in the eye, which as I to III a major component equidistant with a Endabteilungen with scattered from a can be distinguished.To restore from a primary table of this kind reduced, dividing, as has been done already above preliminary in nature, in 50, the main constituent thereof into departments, which in hera column, an equal number of equidistant [if necessary, by insertion of empty a homemade equidistant) , so-called naked a contained, and summed the z each of these sections in particular. Hereinafter deemed reduced i the size of the entire interval in which the number of primary a is including its radius intervals summarized as a reduced z , the sum of z, which the data contained in the reduced interval a fall when reduced a, wherein the reduced z is beizuschreiben, the average of the entire bare a or, what amounts to the same thing, the average of the extreme bare a, which enter into the interval. Serve to explain the reduction of a specific department of the main holdings of the primary table I, as such:

bare a

380

381 1

382 2

383 3

384 3

primary z 2

By summing the primary z we obtain the reduced z the number 11, while the reduced a the average of the 5 primary bare a the department concerned or, because of equidistance same amounts to the same, the average of the outermost A , 380 and 384, therefore is 382, which reduced the z = beizuschreiben 11th The boundaries of the reduced i but not the extreme bare a 380 and 384, and thus the reduced interval not 384-380 = 4, because even in the reduced interval, the radius intervals of the boundary- a to enter, resulting in the entire interval of one side and the other is a primary i expanded, since now the primary i = 1, as are the boundaries of the reduced interval after Page 380 - = 379.5, after another 384 + = 384.5, and the reduced size of the whole of the difference between the two interval = 5 So while the reduced a self as a means of primary extremity naked a gets, which enter into the department to be reduced, it can be the size of the interval is not reduced as the distance between two boundary- a get, but only extension of this distance to each side by half, ie a total to an entire primary i This is well observed and has not been anywhere really noticed how still to notice. If n equidistant naked a and hereby ni are combined in each department of the primary panel, so too is i of the reduced panel n times the i of the primary panel. Now, in each department of table I and II, depending 5, III 4 each nude a included in each department, the primary i at I and II is 1 mm, wherein III inch, so that i the reduced plates for I and II equal to 5 mm, and III is equal to 1 inch. 54 Accordingly, as at the primary panels you do not accept for the reduced and that the reduced a even so in some cases is occurring, as the act annexed mandatory reduced zstates, but that on the interval, as indicated by the reduced A is represented, z values of a distributed which is maintained between the limits of the reduced interval, and if the a of the primary panels basically represent an entire interval on which her z distributed, only a smaller reduction than a, is basically between primary and reduced a just a relative difference.Instead of the reduced a but may in the reduced tables also specify the interval itself, which is represented by it, and it is present in the previously reduced panels before the one and the other, which I a distinction boards and panels interval. Merely because of some brevity, I prefer mostly the form of a panel before, a substantive difference but not between A -boards and interval tables, and you can easily get from one form to the other, provided that the reduced a the a - the middle panel is the boundaries between the intervals of the reduced, however, the limits of the intervals, as in the primary panels a - i, a + i are, in this case reduced in that only a and i at the primary site of contact, as per se explained in the following examples, wherein the reduction is continued on the declared principle of a division on, and you hereby make the following related to each other a receive-interval column and column:

Ed a 382

red. Intervals 379.5 to 384.5

387 384.5 to 389.5 We are now in our examples, the reduction on the same principles continue through Table I continued, we get to each other duly following reduced a- and interval table: a 382 387 392 397 402 407 412 417 422 427 Intervals 379.5 to 384.5 384.5 to 389.5 389.5 to 394.5 394.5 to 399.5 399.5 to 404.5 404.5 to 409.5 409.5 to 414.5 414.5 to 419.5 419.5 to 424.5 424.5 to 429.5 z 11 25 31 40 54 63 64 57 47 22

432 429.5 to 434.5 18 It can be seen in this example that the intervals of the panel reduced by coincidence of the boundary of each second interval to said first interval of the next line as close to each other as the respective interval limits of the primary panels (see 52). But not everywhere you can find elsewhere, the interval bounds on the previous rule set correctly, but with neglect of radius intervals the limit a reduced departments themselves expressed as interval limits, in the otherwise estimable Belgian Rekrutenmatafeln, but this so far seems justified, as the experience immediately but only this boundary a are, from where you can easily go for recovery of the panels on the real interval limits, but it would seem more advisable, just to give the true limits itself to rule in the previous panels. If the name of the interval boundaries happen under the Belgian panels at our tables, we would in our previous example, the a have connecting panel to set the interval panel: a 382 387 392 I ntervalle z 380-384 385-389 390-394 11 25 31

etc But it occurs to us here the same disadvantage of this notation contrary, that the intervals are not close together, but leave gaps of each one unit between them, but in which also includes dimensions in reality, from which the table is no accountability. However, it highlights this inconvenience and can therefore point out that you do coincidentally these limits by means of drawing the boundaries of the successive intervals him to the Belgian dimension tables. 55 What we have now vorstehends explained by an example of Schdelmatafeln, will apply to all tables use which ever one main component with equidistant a have. But we make this application on the Studentenmatafel III, as occurs an inconvenience that can be countered by a method to be indicated in a way that I shared with the reduction z want to call. We hold us to explain to the first two sections of the main holdings of the primary table III. They are: Naked a 65.0 65.25 65.5 Primaryz 6 3 Wherein i = 0, 25 inches. 5 65.75 66.0 5 8 66.25 66.5 6 9 66.75 19

Now we reduce these departments under the previous rules to four times the primary i, we obtain the following highly uncomfortable with fractures prone a- interval and board: reduced a 65.375 Intervals 64.875 to 65.875 z 19

66.375 65.875 to 66.875 42 In fact, the reduced a = 65.375 the average of the primary limiting a 65 and 65,75 and reduced the interval limits are equal to 64.875 and 65.875 reduced a = 65.375 half the reducedi [To address this inconvenience, it should be noted that the main component of a blackboard with equidistant a not in sharp contrast of the scattered Endabteilungen with a presents.So you could the main constituent of table III instead of 65.0 as well with 64,75 or after insertion empty a can start with 64.5 or 64.25. Such a shift of the main stock by one, two or three whole primary i would not lead to the goal, because even after the shift due to lower would be a as well as the limitations of reduced intervals in the middle between two adjacent primary a drop and after his remains subject to the uncomfortable fractures. Note further point is that, as has been noted several times, the z of the table not the beige signed a heard directly, but on the whole interval radius of a spread. It is thus permitted, the primary i share, and the subintervals proportional shares of the z to transfer. In particular, the primary one ihalve so that instead of the interval with the limits of a - i, a + i two intervals with the boundaries of a - i, a and + a, a i contact, to each of

 z listened. The latter occurs in the primary table III, we obtain, for example, instead of: primary Intervals 64.875 to 65.125 65.125 to 65.375 65.375 to 65.625 z 6 3 5 etc belonging together the following interval and z range: primary (halved) Intervals 64.875 to 65.0 65.0 to 65.125 65.125 to 65.25 65.25 to 65.375 65.375 to 65.5 65.5 to 65.625 z 3 3 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5 etc Now you move the main component instead of a whole half a primary i, and the same is allowed to start with 65.0 instead of 64.875, which values interval limits and not a mean-values, we obtain the following a- interval and board: reduced a 65.5 Intervals 65.0 to 66.0 Z 20

66.5 66.0 to 67.0 41.5 However, the main component is allowed to start with 64.5 as the interval limit, we obtain: reduced a 65.0 Intervals 64.5 to 65.5 z 15.5

66.0 65.5 to 66.5 26 In this way, by shifting and division of the intervals can always be achieved in that

at least the interval limits, or the a -values of the reduced panel to be an integer, if only the reducedi the underlying unit or a multiple thereof is equal to the same.] 56 But there are also tables such as Table IV for the rye, where the extent to dissipate through the whole table very where a major component with equidistant a priori does not exist and only a practically hardly feasible involvement of countless empty a could be made . Then you will have to proceed as follows. First, one has ( 60) points drawn up by the soon to decide on such a big i want to reduce. Nahehin a regular course of the values z to get, you will be at our table with i should not go below four units. Let us now turn to the first primary a = 42.9 still include them in the first reduced interval, with the first line as far back that this purpose is achieved, what is enough, the first line of the first red. Interval = 42 to accept by then 42.9 in the first interval 42 - 46 drops 1) . The reduced z this interval is then the sum of the primary z , in the interval 42 -. falling 46 di 1, the red A in the middle Between 42 and 46, ie 44 The second red. Interval thereafter 46 - 50, worein again only a z . falls, hence the red z is 1, & c, which is a priori reduced following table: reduced a 44 48 52 Intervals 42-46 46 - 50 50 - 54 z 1 1 1

56 54 - 58 2 If the interval boundaries randomly with a collapse of the primary table, then only half the primary z this a in the reduced z occupy the interval by the other half z (such as after the split method z ) belongs to the neighboring interval. the same purpose, one could even go further back to the first line, to 41, to 40, to 39, then where would be the first intervals respektiv 41-45, 40-44, 39-43. In each of them but fell 42.9. This reduction are different layers, which afterwards, but in any case is enough 42 as the first interval limit purposes. 57 Now we come to distribution panels such as I, II, III back in which a major component with equidistant a of a of Endabteilungen with scattered column A can be different, it is still necessary to specify how to deal with the latter. This can happen in two ways. Either ) makes it the a the Endabteilungen by switching empty a equidistant as well, as is the case in the main divisions, and reduces it thereafter all the way to preceding principles, since they then not differ in principle from the main departments, or ) you is the reduction by the Endabteilungen discontinued, but is content with information about Bausch. The latter method is, as I can see, so far the only common, but that the former is preferable for reasons to be
1) For

stated and followed in the future by me alone. Thus one sees everywhere by the process with recruits moderation) the reduced major maintenance of a stock Bausch indication of the number of dimensions precede that are smaller than the first boundary of the reduced major holdings and close the table using the Bausch indication of the number of dimensions, which is greater than the second boundary the reduced main holdings are without specification of these dimensions: whereupon but should not be limited because you still the central value, but can not determine the arithmetic mean then, not to mention other disadvantages, but rather should, if at all on the will carry out the reduction without the Endabteilungen, excluding the sum of the number of the dimensions, are also shown the sum of the dimensions themselves which are included in the Endabteilungen, and is not practicable to add the primary extremes. Let us denote the one hand as Vorzahl v and Vorsumme V , the number ( z ) and summation ( az ) of the primary a, which are smaller than the first limit of the reduced main stock, the other as Nachzahl n and Nachsumme N the number and sum of the primary a, which are larger than the second boundary for this stock, as E , and E 'is the smallest and the largest a around the primary table at all, so is the reduced major component nor by specifying v , V , N , N , E , , E ' supplement, which one makes the table more useful, but of course it to the advantage of brevity, only the pure , loses grant process. The method ) is not only methodological, by then may be the reduction of the whole primary table without the always somewhat arbitrary distinction between the main component and Endabteilungen and without a supplement last kind of the same principle to perform, but are strictly speaking only as reduced boards useful for the distribution to be made bills. If I go now to this principle, the reduction to a i = 5 mm through all the panels I and II, with respect, by involving empty a not only a to make the whole table equidistant, but also the first primary current a so many empty a to let go before that the first primary a (at I 368, at II 481) still falls into the first reduced interval, so you can to fulfill this condition, depending on the chosen reduction layer 1, 2, 3 or 4 empty a heading can and will, if allowed to go ahead, for example two, the first blank by a complementary departments have to write the primary table I as follows:

primarya 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 primaryz 0 0 1 0 0 2 etc 0 0 0 0

The first red. Interval thereafter, with respect to the radius intervals of the primary boundary- a , 366 - to 370 + , ie 365 - 370 , the second 370 - 375 ,., the red a of the first interval is 368 as a center 366-370, the second 373, and by summing the primary z obtained for each department reduced z is the first Division 1, the second 2, which is reduced as the beginning of the panel:

reduced a 368 373 Intervals z

365.5 to 370.5 1 370.5 to 375.5 2 etc

Accordingly, we are in Table II, the first two by empty a complementary departments have to write this: primarya 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 primaryz 0 1 0 0 2 2 1 0 1 2 hereinafter referred to as the beginning of the reduced table: a 482 reduced Intervals 479.5 to 484.5 z 3

487 484.5 to 489.5 6 58 Now let's do this reduction through the whole panels I and II, we obtain by restriction to the form of a reduced boards following tables, each of which is a very useful for later use column S , is attached, which arises from the fact that the z of the z -column from the top to enter the A (incl.) of a column, for which the corresponding S , is added, adds: Reduction of the primary panels I (vertical scale) and II (horizontal scale) with red. i = 5 mm. I II a 368 373 378 383 388 393 398 403 408 z 1 2 5 17 24 36 41 59 65 S, 1 3 8 25 49 85 126 185 250 a 482 487 492 497 502 507 512 517 522 z 3 6 10 13 30 28 52 50 60 S, 3 9 19 32 62 90 142 192 252

413 418 423 428 433 438 443 448

65 51 40 17 19 4 2 2

315 366 406 423 442 446 448 450

527 532 537 542 547 552 557 562 567 572

53 39 43 30 14 12 3 1 2 0

305 344 387 417 431 443 446 447 449 449

577 1 450 The comparison above reduced plaques with the primary from which they originated, are the following observations are of general scope occasion. I understand at all under a regular swing of z such that it uses ascending a grow without interruption by descending to a maximum, and from there to lose weight but also uninterrupted by rising again, like to give a smooth distribution curve within the meaning of 17, to show all panels reduced at first sight against the primary from which they are derived, the most striking advantage of regularity. And only after the passage of the values by reducing at least around the center has become regularly, will speak the same from a legalism, the same can determine or verify an voraussetzliche legality of it. I like that two adjacent maximum- z shows only the regular random and is not going in the way, as would be the case if they by intermediate a smaller z were divorced. II has, as usual, only a maximum z . Watched closer, I shows only towards one end a minor exception to the regular way, if the z = 17 and 19, their size would swap to follow to properly, and rarely missing from the ends all the way to such small irregularities without regard to recovery of the panels much comes down to it, more so when those in the area of densest a, ie what is the largest z has to take place, and we understand the brevity of the core of the panel's densest A with its two higher and two lower neighbor A , we shall preferably seeds of this have to demand regularity to find confirmed with satisfactory approximation of the laws of our normal distribution. Now, while the core of I, which for its double maximum z six asufficient extends condition of regularity, that is the upward direction with respect to II (according to the smaller dimensions) not, and also followed down the number 43 incorrectly against the limit number 39 of the core. After this it can be concluded from the outset that the Table II for horizontal extent to the normal mode of distribution do less well and will be less suitable for the normal parole laws, as table I for vertical extent. 59 Now back it suffices Table I and II to double i as before, instead of to reduce

5mm to 10mm to make both panels invariably regularly, which can be done very simply, that two successive A on the i = 5 mm panels reduced to their means and their associated z combined for total. If this is done in with the panel I ( 58) from above, there remains due to the unpaired number of bare a this table, a = 448 with z left = 2, but there is nothing to prevent that a panel continue consistently over 448 addition, by adding to the one a = 448 to a 5mm larger a = 453 with z = 0 adds, the Mean a 448-453 are then reduced to a = 450.5 with a reduced z = 2 In fact, one obtains the following tables: The panels I and II, at i = 10mm reduced. I II a 370.5 380.5 390.5 400.5 410.5 420.5 430.5 440.5 450.5 z 3 22 60 100 130 91 36 6 2 S, 3 25 85 185 315 406 442 448 450 a 484.5 494.5 504.5 514.5 524.5 534.5 544.5 554.5 564.5 574.5 z 9 23 58 102 113 82 44 15 3 1 S, 9 32 90 192 305 387 431 446 449 450

From the previous tables you will, by the same principle, to i = 20 mm can derive reduced panel, so on what I call the different levels of reduction. With each new stage of reduction decreases the table until you at least one red. A with a single red. z comes. To do this just for table I, is obtained upon reduction respektiv to 20, 40, & c mm from the reduction for i = 5 mm following a -panels: 20 mm 40 mm 80 mm 160 mm a z a z a z a z

375.5 25 395.5 160 415.5 221 435.5 42 455.5 2

385.5 185 425.5 263 465.5 2

405.5 448 485.5 2

445.5 450

And so it is at all, if at reducing to a given i no regular course of values nor z is to obtain, by increasing the i arrive at such a or but can approach the same. And how easy to consider, is the same from the outset the possibility of reduction to a different great i We could have at I and II, the primary i at the first stage of reduction by more or less than five times in III by more or less than four times that i can increase, by more or less equidistant (or by inserting empty a equidistant made) Primary A together took it. So are aspects that can determine the choice in this regard. Quite general and solid that present themselves for each particular case can not now be well, but following up, which may limit the choice up to certain limits and rules. 60 There is a certain conflict between the advantages and disadvantages of the increase or decrease of the reduction i instead. From certain viewpoints, it is most beneficial that ikeep as small as possible, because plowed by earlier ( 5) discuss the ideal distribution laws strictly speaking this case require, and in this respect deserves even the primary table in preference to any reduced, the always a multiple of the primary i contains, yes would be best if one i could even reduce to infinite smallness of the primary table, which now of course not. Following circumstance also contributes, other things being equal, the reduction to small i prefer to let the reduction to larger. If the fact that on a given a written number z actually listened to an entire interval in which primary and reduced the size of the panels i grows, be considered in determining the required elements, so must what later (Chapter IX) execute the relevant interpolation interval are taken to help, and you might have to keep the intervals small enough that it is sufficient with a simple interpolation, because the collectives would be practically almost impossible, to determine if all the elements and the comparison between calculation and observation interpolation would all catch up with second differences. And although I will specify the method that later, I have not made use of it in general, after I applied a restriction to the variables of the i retributive able to gain advantage of the no toil of use and fussiness of presentation. The contrary, the adjustment of the contingencies which the regular course of z interfere in the primary table and the comparisons are with the legally required in the way of progress, but only by reducing the magnification and hereby i will be scored, and a not too big i harm in this respect, much less than for a large irregularity. After this you will do your best in all that i so big and not to take more than that a regular transition takes place at least within the core of the reduced table, for irregularities in the way the outermost small z ever have, and determination of the elements statutory conditions not substantially interfering effect. Where now but, as with our first three example panels, even those come to the irregularities due to unbalanced contingencies for non-uniform estimate, nor shall add the special condition that i is not smaller, and hence the number of summarized equidistant a not to be taken less than the period of non-uniform estimate corresponds, and enlargement of i do this only after all Multiplis it, because only under this condition for adjustment because of non-uniform estimate of the error is to be expected. Now return to the skull measurements of Table I and II according to 51, the maximum

measure- z after every 5 progressing by 1 mm a, with students recruits dimensions of Table III for each 4 progressive by 0.25 inches a primary table again, so the reduction to the smallest place-like i in I and II only on i = 5mm, with III only happen to 1 inch, as in the tables ( 58 and 62) is the case, a larger i but to respond, would only one occasion, when so no regular course of z would be reduced to achieve. 61 Although you will now find out the reasons stated no grounds to proceed with processing our sample boards to these higher levels of reduction, it may still have an interest to see the same, how far at all from such a progress, a change of the elements is to be expected, and I give hereafter first and foremost for the following Table I Comparison of key elements depending on their derivation from different levels of reduction. The determination of D p is done because of fussiness only for the first two reduction steps. After changing the main values of course change the dependent deviation functions, u , u and p , the earlier ( 10 and 33) have defined, from which ' , , , m ' , m , with the concurrence of the total number of meters in the specified way to conclude. The derivation of m ' , m , and hence of u , as well as e ' , e , is anywhere from D p , but not from D i happen out. The derived from the primary panel A , ie, A 1 , is indicated in the heading with. All elements are derived by the method of the so-called sharp Kap.IX and X by a simple interpolation of the intervention interval. Are all more completely according to the following tables of the elements to understand. Elements of Table I, depending on the discharge of different reduction stages . E = 1mm, m = 450, A 1 = 408.5. i A2 C2 Dp Di u u e, e p 5E 408.2 408.6 409.7 410.5 + 10 - 29 11.9 10.4 0.74 10 E 408.1 408.6 2) 410.1 409.8 +12 - 40 12.4 10.4 0.75 20 E 408.2 409.1 410.6 + 20 40 E 409.2 411.6 414.7 + 31 -

It might appear as a mistake that C 2 for i = 10 quite the same value as for i = received 5th [However, this is stirring so that the interval in which C 2 falls for i = 10,

2)

twice as large z has as the interval in which C 2 for i =5 falls, which through the two adjacent same maximum z the reduction step i = 5 is due.] It is seen that, apart from the last considered here reduction step to i = 40, where the reduced panel shrinks to three values only differ by the main values depending on the stage of reduction to negligible and random translucent sizes of each other; while u , u and therefore, , , ', m , , m ' is not insignificant change after which it can be inferred that, if it is only to determine the principal values, not much depends on the reduction step if you just are not up to the highest degrees goes with it; whereas the distribution of invoices must be materially influiert of the reduction steps, and you will be doing for this reason, probably, if it applies, watching with calculated distribution compare with the lowest possible level, which have a uniform distribution in nuclei are to remain standing. Where the lowest level is not now by considering an approximately known nonuniform estimate due, as in Table I, II and III, one is not bound, the first selected i to double straight to enter for the purpose of regular core, which only the formal advantage is that you simply can derive from the previous lower level to the higher level. But if you have a regular core by means of a weaker reduction than doubling the previous i can get, so you will not resort to this doubling, but then have to go back to the derivation of the relevant reduction in the primary table. 62 To see now how these results with other K.-G. find under other conditions, we turn from Table I, for which skull dimensions with m = 450 is 3) to Table III for student recruits dimensions with m = 2047. Table II I pass, not only because it presents similar conditions as I, but also because it offers because of irregularity in the cores of the primary table less secure evidence. In Table I, we were forced by the behavior of non-uniform estimate of the primary i = 1 mm at the first stage to five times to reduce, in Table III we have kept the same reason, the primary i = 0.25 inches to four times , ie, to reduce 1 inch, and from the reason stated above, 55, the method with split z is applied. This is when we go out with such a situation the first reduction 4) that a same occur without fracture, the following distribution panels and elements.
4) 3)

The possibility of reduction of various documents will continue to be discussed.

On different levels reduced Plate III. E = 0,25 inch m = 2047, A 1 = 71.77. i = 1 inch i inch = 2 i=4

inches a 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 z 1 0 0 0 2 15.5 26 54 108 172 253 290 330.5 296 223.5 142 75 38 13 3.5 2 1 0.5

i = 8 inches a 60.5 62.5 64.5 66.5 68.5 70.5 72.3 74.5 76.5 78.5 80.5 82.5 84.5 z 1 0 17.5 80 280 543 626.5 365.5 113 16.5 3 1 0 a 61.5 65.5 69.5 73.5 77.5 81.5 85.5 z 1 97.5 823 992 129.5 4 0 a 63.5 71.5 79.5 87.5 z 98.5 1815 133.5 0

83 0.5 Elements of Table III to derive from different levels of reduction . E = 1 inch, m = 2047, A 1 = 71.77. i A2 C2 Dp 1E 71.75 71.81 71.99 2E 71.76 71.83 72.06 4E 71.77 71.91 8E 71.64 71.58 -

Di u u e, e'

72.04 + 39 -120 2.16 1.92

71.98 + 41 - 147 2.26 1.96

72.16 + 70 -

71.54 - 29 -

p 0.75 0.77 As you can see, are confirmed by the conclusions drawn from this table the reduction steps for I-circuiting. 63 What Table IV regarding the rye with m arrives = 217, so I've been through multiple trials found that, in order to arrive at a regular core, not well under a reduced i = 4 I can go down, where e = 0.5 cm is, and what, at the beginning of the table with a reduced a = 42, are the following results:

On different levels reduced panel IV E = 0.5 cm, m = 217, A 1 = 86.54. i=4E = 32 E a 42 46 50 54 58 62 66 70 74 78 82 86 90 94 98 z 1 0 1 2 3 5 6 8 15 20 25 25 32 19.5 24.5 a 44 52 60 68 76 84 92 100 108 116 z 1 3 8 14 35 50 51.5 40 13 1.5 a 48 64 80 96 112 z 4 22 85 91.5 14.5 a 56 88 120 z 26 176.5 14.5 i = 8 E i = 16 E i

102 15.5 106 10 110 3 114 1.5 118 0

From this I am content to derive only the principal values, which also show a very small change, depending on the stage of reduction.

Main values of Table IV, after reduction at different levels . E = 0.5 cm, m = 217, A 1 = 86.54. i A2 C2 Dp Di 4E 86.48 87.60 90.25 89.44 8E 86.67 87.60 5) 88.76 16 E 86,67 5) 87.53 89.25 32 E 86.30 86.96 87.41

[The conformity of the values of A 2 for i = 8 and i = 16, as well as C 2 to i = 4 and i = 8 is due to the nature of the table IV as follows, the similarity of the two A 2 therefrom that in the reduction step i = 8, the sum of the first, third, fifth z etc accidentally equal to the sum of the second, fourth z is etc, while equinumerous z of step i = 4 (for a = 82 and 86) the identity of the two C 2 condition.] 64 Meanwhile, in addition to the choice between the reduction steps are already made by another remark about the choice between reducing layers. The difference is based on the reduction layers that, depending on the output value of one of the primary business together naked a change, the reduced panel fails different. Consider this first in terms of the main components of the primary table I. The interaction of business a started in 53 with the first examples a = 380, the first main division, and we were so reduced as a 382 with the reduced z = 11 Let us now consistently so ago, so the reduction is the second major division of the five naked a 385, a 386-leaf reduced to a = 387 with the reduced z = 25 give. Now, however, nothing prevents the beginning of the combination of five nude undertaking a a a advancing, thereby reducing other departments to occur, namely, to

5)

stop at the first two: bare a 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 2 3 3 8 2 6 4 5 7

primary 1 z from which it follows: a

reduced Intervals 380.5 to 385.5 385.5 to 390.5 z 17 24 etc This is, as you can see, another panel of the main holdings reduced than the previous one, which primarily with a = 380, reduced to 382 raised, primarily those that take place at 381, reduced with 383 lifts. Next you could also, instead of with primary a raise = 380 or 381, lift with 382, 383 or 384, and only if you made a beginning with 385, you would fall into the first reduction way by this, starting with 380, with 385 commencing includes a continuation. Reduction throughout so many positions are possible, as the number of primary a or i is that which i is the reduction stage summarized. If now the i = 1 mm of the primary table I in the first reduction stage to i = 5 mm is increased, here five reduction layers are possible in reduction to 10 mm ten layers would be possible, etc. And if we according to the method ) the primary Endabteilungen by supplementing with empty a treat in a uniform connection with the departments, the number of relevant documents expands with reduction to this. In order to exhaust the possible reduction of layers of a given reduction step, we have not only the gaps between the primary a by empty a supplement, but also behind the first forcea so far and in so many ways to empty a return that the first applicable A still increasing along the a with is included with di five possible positions according to the position respectively with four, three, two, with an empty a TafelI So we are, where applicable, the first 368 a with z = 1 is set to have for the first layer: a 364 365 366 367 368

383 388

z 0 0 0 0 1 with red. A = 366 as the center 364-368, and. red. z = 1 as the sum of the red. Interval contained z , the second pushing forward with an a : a 365 366 367 368 369

z 0 0 0 1 0 . red with a . = 367, red = z 1, & c, which are carried out following five principles: Table I (vertical scale) reduction in five layers with i = 5 mm, e = 1 mm, m = 450 a z a z a z a z a z

366 1 371 2 376 2 381 9 386 23 391 28 396 45 401 47 406 60 411 65 416 60 421 44 426 34 431 13 436 10 441 5

367 1 372 2 377 3 382 11 387 25 392 31 397 40 402 54 407 63 412 64 417 57 422 47 427 22 432 18 437 5 442 5

368 1 373 2 378 5 383 17 388 24 393 36 398 41 403 59 408 65 413 65 418 51 423 40 428 17 433 19 438 4 443 2

369 3 374 1 379 5 384 18 389 29 394 33 399 49 404 55 409 66 414 62 419 53 424 39 429 13 434 16 439 4 444 2

370 3 375 1 380 7 385 22 390 30 395, 33 400 55 405 50 410 73 415 52 420 55 425 35 430 12 435 14 440 5 445 2

446 2 447 2 448 2 449 2 450 1 To distinguish the different layers should be thought of something of designation by the beginning of the reduced table, ie the smallest reduced a or reduced E , operate, what to say the first of the above reducing earnings by E , = 366, the second by E , = 367 is to indicate so on. [The influence of the reduction position on the values of the elements is shown in the following table:] Elements of Table I (vertical scale) with reduction to five different positions. E = 1 mm; i = 5 mm, m = 450, A 1 = 408.5. E , 366 367 368 369 370 Means

A 2 408.6 C 2 409.1 D p 410.7 D i 411.0 m , 246 m ' 204, e , 12.3 e u u p 10.2 +13 - 42 0.76

408.7 409.1 410.5 410.1 244 206, 12.1 10.3 +10 - 38 0.78

408.2 408.6 409.7 410.5 240 210 11.9 10.4 +10 - 30 0.73

408.5 408.9 410.4 410.2 244 206, 12.1 10.2 +11 - 38 0.79

408.6 409.1 410.3 410.1 242 208 12.1 10.4 +16 - 34 0.71

408.5 409.0 410.3 410.4 243 207 12.1 10.3 +12 - 36 0.75

Note that the A 1 of the primary table equal 408.5, and that the A 2 hereof for all five layers and thus differ only slightly from each other, but on average with all A 1 vote. Also, show the other main values depending on the location of the various little difference; slightly different figures to illustrate the bias and variance amounts and resulting mean deviations. But you can already notice that so little the values of A, C, D distinguish the same situation, but they occur in all layers in the same order reduction. Namely D is greater than A, andC falls between two values, as required by the laws of asymmetry. Also, the asymmetry already occurs thereby clearly that all m , > m is, yes, it also meets the applicable for the case of asymmetry requirement that p = ( D - C ): ( D - A ) = very approximate = 0.785 is. 65 While we are now at such a formative Panel I by virtue of the increase in primary i fivefold given the option of five different panels reduced, we get to III due to increase four-fold reduction in the ability of four layers. Table III reduction in four layers With i = 1 inch, E = 1 inch, m = 2047. a 59.5 60.5 61.5 62.5 z 0.5 0.5 0 0 a 59.75 60.75 61.75 62.75 z 1 0 0 0 a 60 61 62 63 z 1 0 0 0 a z

60.25 1 61.25 0 62.25 0 63.25 0

63.5 64.5 65.5 66.5 67.5 68.5 69.5 70.5 71.5 72.5 73.5 74.5 75.5 76.5 77.5 78.5 79.5 80.5 81.5 82.5

1 8 20 41.5 72 137 215.5 271 323.5 305 274.5 183.5 101.5 52 27.5 7 3 1.5 0 1

63.75 64.75 65.75 66.75 67.75 68.75 69.75 70.75 71.75 72.75 73.75 74.75 75.75 76.75 77.75 78.75 79.75 80.75 81.75 82.75

2 11.5 22.5 43.5 94 151.5 237.5 280 327 304 248.5 165 87.5 43 18.5 5 3 1 0 1

64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83

2 15.5 26 54 108 172 253 290 330.5 296 223.5 142 75 38 13 3.5 2 1 0.5 0.5

64.25 4 65.25 18.5 66.25 35 67.25 60 68.25 123.5 69.25 192 70.25 263.5 71.25 309 72.25 318 73.25 285.5 74.25 205.5 75.25 119 76.25 62 77.25 35 78.25 9.5 79.25 3 80.25 1.5 81.25 0.5 82.25 1 83.25 0

Elements of Table III after reduction in four layers. E = 1 inch, i = 1, m = 2047, A 1 = 71.77. E , 59.5 A2 71.76 59.75 71.75 71.80 71.96 71.92 + 33 -104 60 71.75 71.81 71.99 72.04 + 39 -120 2.04 60.25 71.76 71.80 71.97 71.97 + 28 -106 Means 71.755 71.80 71.96 71.92 +30 -101.5 2,045

C 2 71.79 D p 71.91 D i 71.74 u u + 21 - 76 2.05

e , 2.12 e 1.97

2.14 1.93

2, l6 1.92

2.15 1.94

2.14 1.94

p 0.80 0.76 0.75 0.81 0.78 It is seen that the results of Table I by the previous Table III confirm well. This also shows D i everywhere with D p -provoking almost exactly, with the exception of the position E ,= 59.5, quite exceptionally where D i is not only relatively strong of D p is different, but in the opposite direction of the essential asymmetry is less than A 2 and C 2 is. 66 [As for Table IV, the irregularities caused by their reduced i = 4 E , the primary i = 0.1 but e is so reducing 40 positions are possible here basically. Of the same the following four principles will be selected: Table IV reduction in four layers with i = 4 E , E = 0.5 cm, m = 217 a 41 45 49 53 57 61 65 69 73 77 81 85 89 93 97 101 105 109 113 z 1 0 1 1 3.5 5 3.5 9 11 23.5 19 23 35.5 22 24 18 12 2 3 a 42 46 50 54 58 62 66 70 74 78 82 86 90 94 98 102 106 110 114 z 1 0 1 2 3 5 6 8 15 20 25 25 32 19.5 24.5 15.5 10 3 1.5 a 43 47 51 55 59 63 67 71 75 79 83 87 91 95 99 103 107 111 115 z 1 0 2 1 3 7 7 9 17.5 18.5 21 30 30 22.5 22 13.5 8 4 0 a 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 100 104 108 112 116 z 1 1 1 2 4 6 8 9 21.5 15.5 24 33.5 27.5 23.5 18.5 13.5 4 3.5 0

Elements of Table IV, after reduction to four layers. E = 0.5 cm, i = 4, m = 217, A 1 = 86.54. E, A2 C2 Dp Di u e, e p 41 86.50 87.90 90.19 88.92 - 41 11.70 8.01 0.62 42 86.48 87.60 90.25 89.44 - 41 11.86 8.09 0.70 43 86.59 87.87 91.31 89.00 -52 12.28 7.56 0.73 44 86.52 87.85 90.58 88.45 - 45 11.82 7.76 0.67 Means 86.52 87.805 90.58 88.95 - 45 11,915 7,855 0.68

This table also shows in stronger apart of the main values than in I and III, the relative constancy of the main values and deviation functions in the various layers, the regularity in the succession of A , C and D , and the proximity of D i and D p . Meanwhile, p consistently smaller than the theoretically required value 0.785.] 67 There now arises the question as to which of the various reducing layers you have to keep in deriving the elements or test the established laws, what is again quite general, fixed rules can not be expected, but he probably will be common to say. First, can be on the look show itself, that in so great our boards m, as our tables are subject to the changes of the elements are irrelevant and, depending on the reduction situation in general of the order of the uncertainty that allowed the determination of elements at all , so that it appears with respect thereto pretty indifferent to which reduction is able to talk, and has only to observe the rule to determine all the elements that are to be remanded in reduction from the same location. But sometimes it happens that under different reducing layers of one or the other in respect to the periodic passage of a disadvantage against the other z shows how for example, under our five panels I ( 64), the last one with E , = 370 is a deviation from the regularity that they bear the consequence of the reduced z: 55,50,73 receives, instead of the z should increase continuously up to the maximum 73rd However, all the remaining four panels show nothing of the kind, and are therefore preferable that. This makes now point out that if you accidentally hit a core with an irregular way, you can see if you do not go better with a different situation. Ever will be the one to choose when comparisons of different reduction documents showing the slightest deviation from the general distribution laws.Each choice could be the way by entschlagen, bringing the possible reduction in account all documents and the

mean of the results draws, only that it is tedious to perform and lead rewarding intricateness little with it. Now let's take a comparative look at the value of primary and derived tables reduced, it follows that, for a full treatment K.-G. both to complement each other rather than have to replace, which is only to be regretted that the large room, take the primary tables in general, usually obliges to give up their message and to be content with reduced. In any case, one has in the primary table, the direct experiential support for the whole treatment of a given K.-G., and since the reduction of the size of i, the position of the intervals, whole and halved on zcan be made either way, remains the primary table if there is any still free to choose what he wants to meet, and he retains the ability to modify and control still has a choice made after that. Also, the arithmetic mean can be obtained as safe board as reduced by any of the primary, and the difference in numerous developmental items may be negligible. Here you can counter in pursuit of the legal transition of the values of a K.-G. a general reduction in the panel and in the determination of the elements that are involved in local irregularities in a special way, not dispense a local reduction, and the reduction of the table will in any case have the advantage to bring a regularity to Vorscheine that in the primary panel is not visible.

IX. Determination of a , a , , A , m , , m ' , , , ' .

68 To illustrate the application of the rules folgends to be given each of the existing distribution panels could be used. It simplifies and hereby but facilitates the application of the rules with the shortness of the boards, so I first let a small, generally only after the schema of a collective distribution panel, by the way arbitrary, from just eight a of a follow-column constructed panel to which like to make the following remarks, taken correctly, can be found on any real collective distribution panel application. The columns of S , , S ' are auxiliary columns, which will immediately receive their explanation. Small, arbitrarily established distribution panel . i = 2, m = 80; A = 912 a 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Intervals 2-4 4-6 6-8 8 - 10 10 - 12 12 - 14 14 - 16 z 1 2 5 10 30 20 10 za 3 10 35 90 330 260 150 S, 1 3 8 18 48 68 78 S' 80 79 77 72 62 32 12

17 Sum

16 - 18

2 80

34 912

80 304

2 416

In previous panel is the meaning of the values in columns a, . Interv, z, za according to previous statements known, the values of S , , S ', but explained this way: The first S , is equal to the first z , the second S , same as the first + second z, the third is equal to the first + second + third z so on, so that the last is equal to the sum of all z = herewith and m is.Thereafter, each, a given a corresponding S , by summation of the preceding a corresponding S , with the z of that a receive. In the column of S is the same method, but applied to summing down in the opposite direction. 69 Well, apart from the total sum A and the total number m to distinguish a raw and sharp definition of the relevant values in the sense earlier indicated, a raw, if you so calculated as if the number z, on each a a primary or reduced table is written, the same quite belong, a sharp, if it consideration is given that it is in the radius interval of each actually a is to think distributed, according to the value of the elements to be determined in the interval in which the determination engaging the same is short, the operation to determine interpolationsmig interval, as shown in the following. Date, there has not be discussed, hereinafter will be to take advantage of it and be proven. The to be interpolated with sharp definition interval, so-called intervention interval, I will generally its position and size according to I , respectively. In our example table, it is consistent with the continuous through the table i 's size to = 2, while his position on the nature of can change task. Was his general, resulting from the first column of the intervals border with g 1 , his second with g 2 called, so if 10 - 12, the engagement interval, g 1 = 10, g 2 = 12 Was also generally: z o the value of z, wherein of the engagement interval I falls, a o of the column a the respective I associated value of a, which is the center of I is z o . a o the demgeme Dimension product which on I falls v the so-called Vorzahl, ie the sum of z and V the sum of the za, which from the beginning of the table until the beginning of the beginning I enough n the so-called Nachzahl and N Nachsumme, which by the close of the I to the close of the table enough, x = H - g 1 , Eingriffsma, the amount by which the in I falling principal value H the beginning of I, ie g 1 handed, y = m , - v , intervention number, the number to which the from the beginning beginning to H reaching the number to the beginning of I handed reaching,

Y engaging sum, the sum of a , which from the beginning of the I to H ranges. Generally we have: v+n+zo=m, V + N + z o a o = a = za. Now provided the following explanation for the interval 10 - 12 Our I will present, we have: m = 80; a = za = 912; g 1 = 10, g 2 = 12; z o = 30, a o = 11 , z o a o = 330; v = 18, V = 138; n = 32, N = 444; x = H - 10, y = m , - 18 As H any value can occur, but we will explain preferably on the arithmetic mean of the panel as H socialize, which by dividing the za = 912 z = 80 is equal to 11.4, and thus x = 1, 4 gives, but is also the central value as H serve. 70 Determining a value sum a This determination is done directly by summing the za, so that A with za is used interchangeably. With such small plates as our example panel now makes the formation and aggregation of za no problem, but if a table runs far, the a of a column, and hereby forming Maprodukteza are very numerous, which specifically meets the primary panels, this is Education and summation extremely cumbersome and easily subject to calculation mistake. Just try it with any of our primary boards, and even with the reduced panels to make the same difficulty, albeit to a lesser degree, also argues. Is therefore highly desirable that a uniform law applicable to primary panels such as reduced every level and location method is to bids, a (and hereafter A) with all the same values, but in far more convenient way to find than for the previous method, which I of the descending want to call, while I folgends the auseinanderzusetzende of the south call. It belongs only to what the procedure for the za is not essential that the tablets on which the method of S should be applicable, equidistant or empty by switching a are made equidistant, which can be confined to the inconvenient method of za be limited to cases where the equidistance is not produced. One can now freely of S , or S ' for determining the sum a use. If the first determination is done according to the following formula:

a = mE '- Z , i , (1)
second case according to the formula:

 a = mE , + Z 'i (2)
In it the letters have the following meaning. Under m is the total number of a understood, the sum is to be taken, ie z , with E ' the largest a and upper extremes (which of course is in the table below), while E , the smallest a or lower under these extreme a which values when about to sum a should represent only a piece of a whole distribution panel, are to apply only to the piece, not the whole panel. Furthermore, let Z , the total sum of S , which the to sum a to belong less to the south , that to 'E is, or what says the same, the total sum of S, excluding the extreme south , ; also Z 'is the sum total the S exclusive of what to E , is, i , the constant difference by which the a of a diverge column. Let now the a taking of the whole sample panel, that is m = z the same 80, E ' = 17, E , = 3, Z , = 304-80 = 224, Z ' = 416-80 = 336; i = 2 One may now apply the first or second formula, we will according to these values A = 912, consistent with the direct sum of certain za find that under the column za stands. Quite the same way can be the sum a for each piece of the example panel found, except that the values of m , E ', E , , S , , S ' have to modify accordingly, just as if the summation only for the four a of a column have to be done from 5 to 11, would be: m = z = 47, E = 11, E , = 5, i = 2 , the column of the S , , S ' , but would be to form: S, 2 47 7 45 17 40 47 Total: 73 162 therefore, which are: S

30

Z , = 73-47 = 26; Z ' = 162-47 = 115; = a 465th

For very long lines, you can find it uncomfortable in progress to very large values of S having to ascend, which however can be easily remedied by dividing the number in two or more departments, and their a particularly examined vorigem way to finally unite the same. But as more practical, we recommend the combined use of column S , and S ' in the following way. One particular somewhere, most practical about the middle of the table, a value a from which c hot, run the column of S , up to this c , excl same, and also the column of S ' excl ccontinue, summing the resulting S , as S ' especially; former sum hot as before Z , the second Z ' , then one has:

+ a = mc ( Z '- Z , ) i , (3)
from which:

, (4) wherein m , the total number of all of summing a is. 71 I have the S -method in a treatise on American recruits dimensions (of ELLIOTT) 1) led found no indication of how the author has come to this, and without proof of its general validity. Now this proof can probably lead, but, although elementary 2) , but rather cumbersome and tedious to follow, I will pass over it, therefore, as the method is any empirical test, but add the same to ensure its application add the following remarks. [EB ELLIOTT, On the military statistics of the United States of America. Berlin 1863. (International statistical congress at Berlin). S. Note on the construction of Certain tables, p. 40] [In fact. merely necessary za detail by z 1 a 1 + z 2 a 2 + z 3 a 3 +. . z n a n represent equidistant and a 2 , a 3 , ... a n by a 1 + i , a 1 + 2 i , ... a 1 + n - 1 i to be replaced, suitable to carry contraction of the limbs, the transformed sum of the form: a 1 ( z 1 + z 2 + ... z n ) + i ( z 2 + z 3 + .. z n ) + i ( z 3 + ... z n ) + ... iz n and thus the empirical formula: e , m + Z i get. In a similar manner, e'm - Z , i , if a 1 , a 2 , a 3 ... a n - 1, respectively. by a n - n - 1 i , a n - n - 2 i , a n - n 3 i ... a n - i replaced].
2) 1)

1 Of course, the accuracy of determination of depends A and follow-setting of A of the correctness of the south - from columns. Is an S in the order wrong, then all the following also wrong because any earlier S enters into all later, and upgrade to high values of S can easily be an oversight occur. But it has a light and never to be missed means of control is that when using a S - the extreme column S , in which Z is not received, with m must coincide, the combined procedure of S , and S ', but the last, in Z with no incoming values of S , and S , which can be accessed with the z values of c , the total number m must be. 2 The S - process, although equally applicable to panels with and without switchedempty A , and the formation of S - Split Happens both if by the same rule, but it will still be useful to the application of the rule in the event occurring empty a with z = 0 more particularly to explain to address any misunderstandings and consequent mistake to advance. After the specified rule to each one is given a of a corresponding column of S as the sum of the preceding a corresponding S with z of that a receive. Is now the latter a an empty with z = 0, then of course after a previous rule be S a mere repetition of the previous S, and so many empty a follow each other, so often

repeated, the south of them preceding applicable a Notice two sample boards (in 68 and 70) to give explanation thereof no reason, because they, like most tablets reduced, no empty a contain, the more opportunity to provide the primary panels, especially in their Endabteilungen. For short explanation but we also find a small table with some empty a randomly on and cling to it the empty a related, repeated S for easier distinction from the other one without it but with formation of S and hence Z of the summation may be excluded because they like rather much like the other count:

a 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 Sum

z 2 0 0 10 30 5 0 3 50

S, 2 (2) (2) 12 42 47 (47) 50 204,

S 50 (48) (48) 48 38 8 (3) 3 246

When, how often, in the Endabteilungen primary panels a greater number of empty A and therefore repeated parenthetical S follow one after the other, you will find it easiest this to bracket the same in sum, only that one has to guard against the subsequent S then not as the sum of the sum of S with the new z , but as the sum of the preceding switch-naked S with the new z to be determined. Thus, the number of S , assume previous board following form: 2, (4), 12, 42, etc, Thus, to the a = 9 with z = 10 corresponding S , = 12 to not be formed by addition of 10 to the previous accumulated (4), but the switching to the two preceding naked, a rule that is to be considered good. Let us now apply this to the input of our primary Plate I (Chapter VII), and it shall be required to (in your mind executable) closure of the empty a, whose two 368-371, four 371-376, one between 376 and fall 378, the number of S , make this: 1, (2) 3, (12) 4 (4) 5, 6, etc. In the primary table III, where i = is 0.25 inches, fall between the first two force a, ie

60 and 64 whole inches respektiv with z = 1 and 2, even 15 empty a further 64 to 64.75 two , and is designed in the early S , series like this: 1 , (15) 3 (6), 7 usf It is important to consult with. this use of the empty a to make familiar and to control the correct carrying out the same in every case real use by careful revision, because it is all too easy in bands, and because the above check for correct formation of the S -columns that her last value of m agree, even at start up empty a still must be true, so it is not negligible, but even if it is true, not against incorrect use of the empty a ensure. 72 Determination of the lower and upper sums, respectively. a , and a ' with respect to a given main value H. For example, let A main value, in our example, Table 11.4, we have all the raw determination of a, which are smaller than 11.4, ie from a = 3 to include a = 11 to sum, ie the corresponding descending to sum to a , have, however, one a by summing the descending of a = 13 gets to the end, ie a , = 468, a ' = 444 Except by direct summation of the relevant za can these sums in the manner indicated by the S - get method. For sharp definition you have the sum a , to think composed of two parts, the Vorsumme V , which from the beginning of the table inside until the beginning of the engagement interval I is sufficient, and the engagement sum Y , which from then up to H , to our case A , ranges and is obtained by simple interpolation by setting that the engagement sum Y for the total sum of the interval I , ie at z 0 a 0 , behaves like the Eingriffsma x to the total interval I , therefore: Y : z 0 a 0 = x : I , (5) ie: , (6) hereafter: . (7)

In our example table is V = 138, z 0 a 0 = 330 , x = 1.4, I = 2, thus:

a , = 369; a = a - a , = 912369 = 543,

which differs from the very crude terms.

Should take A any other main value H occur, the previous formulas would remain the same, except that x = instead of A - G 1 , but = H - g 1 would be to take. Be e.g. the sharp-specific C as H taken. According to 82, there is something for our table, with rounding at the last decimals little something different from A , equal to 11,467, thus x = 1.467, are:

A = 912 - a , = 532 to 0.055, where have eliminated the small additions to 380 and 532 because of rounding them only the C depend in the last decimal place. [If you wanted now, a more accurate determination of interference sum Y to receive, instead of the simple interpolation, sharper, allow, pass through pinch second differences, this would not be permitted. Because this was the first differences to basically laying Products az represent the sum of an interval i values covered a only provided figured that these values are evenly distributed over the entire interval. Thus, it is through this idea, the dependence of the interference sum Y of the intervention measures x already regulated and in particular an influence by the interpolated intervals preceding or following product values az, as they would be provided with the concurrence second or even higher differences withdrawn. Will you, therefore, from the same considerations, the summing all impinging on a whole interval of a subject; engaging sum Y determine with the greatest possible clarity, we must the values involved in the formation of the interference sum a , the number of the engagement number y , and in the following Paragraph equal z 0 x: I is found in the middle of a Eingriffsma xdesignated part interval, ie, in g 1 + x think, united, and thus (8) instead, as above, equal to z 0 a 0 x: I . put the sum of a, then one finds the same: , (9) where the summation sign attached index may serve to distinguish it from the formula (7). In proportional determination of Y is therefore a , by the amount

taken into account too large, so that the more accurate determination means (8) provide an advantage in question generally. In fact, one obtains for the A of our example table = 11.4 a ' = 362.7 against a , = 369] But [not enough for the so achievable accuracy, it is not only Y but also V and N be defined on the idea that instead of the uniform distribution of a one

conditional within each interval by considering the neighboring intervals, continuously to changing occurs. Thus, to reach the next highest degree of accuracy when the concurrence of one of the two adjacent intervals directly adjacent intervals, for example, that, in progressing from the smaller to the larger a limited interval immediately following. Then, the previous provisions shall be replaced by the following.] [Refers z 1 the number of values that fall on the interval surgery intervals following, and adds one to the value of the first, the Extreme E , belonging, and the values of the past, the extreme E ' do not pull the enclosing interval into account must, at the beginning and end of the table a blank interval z = add 0, then the sum of the determined a the whole operation interval equal to a 0 z 0 - 1 / 12 I ( z 0 - z 1 ), the Vorsumme equal to V + 1 / 12 I z 0 that Nachsumme equal to N - 1 / 12 I z 1 , where V and N are calculated as above, and the total sum of acalculated is thus equal to the above a procedure to calculate the sum of further is the formula: (10) Finally, out of which: (11) follows. 73 Determining the deviation numbers m , , m . After determining there is raw m , easily by adding the values z , the values to which a part, smaller than H are, and we will in our example, Table A for = 11.4 H , then this is , = 48 and = m - , = 80 - 48 = 32 It applies the sharp determination that shall m , composed of the Vorzahl v , which until the beginning of I ranges and the engagement number y , which from then until H reaches.But this is, to the knowledge of x = H - g 1 obtained by interpolation on the approach of proportion: Y : z 0 = x : I , (12) thus: (13) and thereafter: . (14)

We take for H the value A = 11.4 and thereafter the values above v = 18, x = 1.4, z 0 = 30, I = 2, we obtain , = 39, = 80 - 39 = 41, a provision which in turn differs from the very raw, so the excess weight dropping on the opposite side. Should m not by deducting m , of m can be determined directly, which can be useful to control, but, one has generally sharp: (15) at what setting of H = A virtue of n = 32 to

returns. Be held A rather C than H taken. After a sharp determination in X. Chapter it is in our example table a little something different from A , equal to 11,467, thus x = 1.467 than the other values, however, the same for A stay. These are:

. Both values are in keeping with the terms of the central value, equal, equal to m = 40, this again by the small positive and negative additive only by rounding of C depends, in decimals. [This determination of the number of engagement y by simple interpolation has to be considered as exactly as long as the distribution of a picture in each interval may be assumed to be uniform. However, this is not the case, then by sharp interpolation using second and higher differences, any degree of accuracy can be achieved. Because the intervals summarizing the numbers of a to the z -values, which are to serve the interpolation as first differences is based is not, as the corresponding combining the totals of a to za - values of a certain condition on the distribution of a dependent within the corresponding intervals. Is obtained because in concurrence second differences, ie regard also to the intervention interval immediately following interval, the z as above same z 1 will set the formula: . (16) But also taking into account also the immediately preceding interval whose z by z - 1 'll put so used to calculate y the formula: (17) in which third differences are drawn. It should be noted that such an intensification in

the calculation of y , the corresponding tightening in the calculation of Y, V and N reasons. In particular, the use of formula (16) the entry into force of the formulas (10) and (11) result.]

74 Determination of the mutual deviation sums ', , mar. main value of a given H. We directly obtain the sum of positive deviation 'mar. an arbitrary initial value H, if we individually determined differences '= a - H sum, the folgends always absolute values to be taken negative deviation sum , when we individually determined differences , = H - a , sum, but the single determination of the many differences is tedious and subject to individual computing easy mistake; encountered both by determination using the following formula: = a - m H , = m , H - a , (18) In fact, the sum of the positive , di 'is recovered characterized in that the value H of each of the m ' value a ', the di a which is greater than H are so throughout the m ' times Hfrom A ' is removed 3) , which is the first of the above equations. On the other hand, is the sum of the negative obtained by absolute values when the sum of m , values of a , d . ithe values of a , which is smaller than H , are of m , times H is withdrawn, which is the second of the above equations.
3) Not

of m'a what could only happen if all a have the same size.

These formulas apply to both raw and sharp definition, but with the difference that for raw determination m , and m , a , and a ' be raw, for determining determines sharp sharp. Let us now return A as the main value for our example table, in which case, for m , for is substituted, we can use for raw as sharp determination of the already previously determined values, which raw , = 48, ' = 32; a , = 468; a = 444, are: raw , = 48 11.4 to 468 = 79.2 = 444-32 11.4 = 79.2 Both sums are equal as it corresponds to the terms of the arithmetic mean, after sharp definition one has , = 39, ' = 41; a , = 369; a ' = 543; hereafter: sharp , = 39 11.4 to 369 = 75.6 = 543-41 11.4 = 75.6

So again equal amounts of both, except that the sharp certain sums as are the raw certain smaller. [However, If you put in place of the proportional calculation of Y closer to the above mentioned reason, it is therefore 'a , = 362.7; ' a ' = 549.3, we obtain, albeit here to distinguish it from deviation above the sum total mark an index is attached: sharp , = 39 11.4 to 362.7 = 81.9 = 549.3-41 11.4 = 81.9, thus two mutually equal sums that are greater than the given raw.] This result is rel. A as H ever taken generally, and namely: 1.in the event that A > a 0 , therefore :

sharp , = raw , [Sharp , = raw , + 2.for the case that A < a 0 , thus sharp , raw = , [Sharp , = raw , + ::

= raw , - k (19) = raw , + ]

= raw , - l (20) = raw , + ]

The somewhat cumbersome and penibeln proof 4) hereof I go on, you can confirm the accuracy of the formula at any home-made examples, such as in our example table, however.Here, A = 11.4, a 0 = 11, and consequently A > a 0 , at the same time is I = 2, x = 1.4, and therefore x > I . So the first case occurs. Now we had raw , = 79.2. The subtracted from this value k, to , keen to go, but calculated according to the above expression with respect, that z 0 = 30 to 30 0.6 0.4 = 3.6, and this, of 79 2 subtracted 75.6 are found from the formula above. [The value of further to the ' , sharp results, can be found according to the above definition equal to 30 0.6 2 = 2.7, and this gives added 81.9 to 79.2, as it should be. ]
4) [He

follows, together with the enlargement of any principal value of H , with

respect to which the lower and upper deviation sums , respectively. ' are, by direct calculation from the formulas: raw = ( v + z 0 ) H - ( V + a 0 z 0 ), if H > a 0 = v H - V when H < A 0 ; sharp- sharp ,

where analogous formulas for the upper deviation sums standing to the side.] The difference between only in the special case disappears , raw and , sharp, where A with one of the two boundaries of I coincides or with the center, where x = 0 or I or = I , whereas after a maximum equation of the difference of maximum, when the first case x = I = second if I by both, if the value of 1 / 16 z 0 I receive. [It also disappears the difference between , raw and ' , sharp if A with one of the two boundaries of I coincides, whereas this difference its maximum value 1 / 8 z 0 I obtained when A in the middle ofI falls. ] So floats the whole difference k or l between 0 and 1 / 16 z 0 I [the difference or between 0 and 1 / 8 z 0 I ], but in general is the difference with the same I and x in simple ratios to z 0 . Now you can see that the sharp , [resp. ' , ] can also be determined that one determines only the easier-to-find raw, hereafter k or l which draws [resp. or to added], the when A> a 0 or A <a 0 . If H is not equal to A, then one has equality instead of two sums rather expected inequality. Take, for example, C. Forms for determination of the same are here: (21) . According to Section X. will C result for our example table after a sharp determination = 11,467, however m = 's 40th And we now determine a , and a ' sharply specified rule, we obtain: , = 40 11.467-380 = 78.7 '= 532-40 11,467 = 73.3 . [Resp ' , = 40 11.467 to 374.13 = 84.5 ' ' = 537.87-40 11,467 = 79.2].

 75 We now make use of previous modes of determination of one of our K.-G. and we examine to what extent the sharp determine benefits before the raw granted in respect to the conformity of the elements in derivation of various reducing earnings, it appears that they in respect to the determination of , (from which '= m , follows ) highly significant in regard of , (which ' equal) but is absent or remains doubtful [in regard of ' , however noteworthy emerges]. I made the rather tedious compared to the 5 principles of reducing vertical distribution panel of the skull circumference, which are embodied in 64, and their sharp-specific items are just listed there.

Comparison between the raw and sharp certain values of , and , . E, A , raw , sharp , raw 366 217 218 2531 367 230 220 2509 4292 2513 368 250 220 2471 2465 2505 369 193 219 2492 2479 2518 370 201 217 2531 2509 2540 Means diff. 0.7 87.2 5.2 218.2 218.8 408.6 408.7 408.2 408.5 408.6 408.5

2506.8 101.2 2494.6 95.6 2521.4 56.4

,sharp 2528 ' ,shar 2531 p

The column diff. is the sum of the deviations of the mean of five individual determinations determination, and hereby a kind of measure of the variation depending on the situation.The drawback to raw spicy for , is hereafter in fact enormous, for , too low in order not to be in doubt [for ' , however sufficiently large to allow accurate determination of the follow appear advantageous manner]. Incidentally, you'll notice that the position of E , = 370 might be better excluded from the comparisons remain, because the distribution of this panel in accordance with 67 shows an abnormal irregularity in the cores does not make them well applicable for the calculation of the elements. The primary table is not drawn to the comparisons, because they do not allow for reliable determination of the great irregularity and unevenness of the estimate. However, one could ask if not yet the A = 408.5 for the same derivation of all , and , because the reduction in preferred locations in the 5 no advantage, but rather a somewhat greater uncertainty in the determination of A brings. However, I believe this for the following reasons not to be appropriate. For the derivation of the other main values as A , the disadvantage of the irregularity and estimate equality of the primary panel is certainly prevalent, and one must still adhere to a reduced panel, and then I believe consequently also A derived from the same reduction stage and location, which was adopted to reduce is not to old

center the ratios of the various values with the main inconsistency in this regard. Anyway is usually only a reduced panel to derive the A before as the other elements. Incidentally, since the A to the reduced tables according to the results of compilations 64-66 of the primary A little different, in general, can be also no significant difference between the one and the other following the procedure expect. I have, at least in this respect , comparatively studied in the same table, which results in the previous application of the 5 special A for derivation of , is given by I the same everywhere from the primary A derived here = 408.5, and received the following results , according to which , raw has changed from earlier nowhere, here against , has sharply changed so that the correspondence between the different layers is thereby somewhat reduced unless diff. previously was only 5.2, 11.6 folgends is what undoubtedly carried out only to the detriment of the primary application A to the special application of the reduced A can be interpreted.

E,

366

367 230 217

368 250 224

369 193 219

370 201 216

Means 218.2 218.6

diff. 87.2 11.6

, raw 217 ,sharp 217

The mean deviation anlangend, we have a doubling of , first and thereafter: and . (22)

Untriftig it would be like ELLIOTT done in his treatise on American recruits dimensions, as a means of , = , : , and = ' : ' di = ( , + to want ') determine, for not only runs contrary to the intent of the original GAUSS rule, but you neglected while the different weights, what the , or depending on their derivation from ,and come 'values, which means the right: (23) 's.

X. Connection of the main composition and properties of the three principal values of A, C, D, furthermore R, T, F.

 76 In addition to the throughout of my favorite three main values, the arithmetic mean A, the central value C and the closest value D will folgends three are secondary account of mine, which I divide value R, heaviest value T and deviation focus value F performers. Clearly arranged according to their main differences are the following. Sheath value R , the value of a , with respect to the a '= a , = a , and therefore the sum of the larger values of the sum of the smaller and therefore each of them is equal to half of the total amount a is. Arithmetic mean A , the value of a with respect to which '= , ie the sum of the positive deviations is equal to the sum of the negative, and mar. the 2 is a minimum. Center value C , the value of a of which with respect to m '= m , , ie the number equal to the number of the positive deviations of the negative deviation, and is minimum. You tester value D, the value of a with respect to which the deviation numbers of both sides m , : m ' the same as the average error e , e ' behavior, and the dimension z is a maximum. Severe a value T, the value of a , the Dimension product za is a maximum. Differential gravity value F, the value of a , with respect to the z is a maximum. I will, however, these values are not in the previous order, but according to the sequence A , C , D , R , T , F treat. Apart from A , the previous values as the values of the previous chapter a raw and sharp definition capable, while at A can not distinguish such. The same small allocation table as there are here for explanation of the derivation, and the designations used here will be in the, 9 and 10 indicated sense. Misc A go here m , , m ', in , , ', and , , 'to , , 'above. 77 Arithmetic average A . The arithmetic mean of a set of values a united following three properties: 1.The property itself, after which it is defined to be the quotient of the sum of a number by the same m is , therefore:

(1) or, insofar A by summing the za to win = az: m ; 1.that the sum of the positive deviations 'from him the sum of the negative , is of absolute values, ie:

 = , or - , = 0, (2) 3) that the sum of the squares of the deviations from it less than any of the other values is, in short: 2 = ' + , 2= mini mu m (3) The previous properties of A hang together in solidarity so that the one with the other at the same time are given, and he can be derived with the same identical results to each, except that the derivative with respect to the first property is the most practical. Also, they are independent of a specific distribution laws of a and apply the collectives out not only for an assumed to be infinitely perfect, but also a finite number of A in a random distribution. The context of the second and third sets with the first definition is given by the way. Second set . Any positive deviation of A is A '- A , any negative values for absolute A - A , , hereafter developed: = (a -A) + (A -A )+ (4) ,= (Aa,) +

(AA' )+ therefore, if ' , the number of positive , which is the negative deviations, = a - A ,= , Aa , - , = a+a,(+,)A( 5) or because a + a , = a and + , = m , - , = a - m A , (6) and because A = a : m - , = a - a = 0 (7) Third sentence . Be the value rel. the 2 is a minimum, initially as unknown = x set, we have: = ( a - x ) + ( a - x ) + +

( a , - x ) + ( a ' - x ) + (8) While you should, if we take the negative deviations of absolute values as positive, any negative deviation instead of a , - x , etc. Rather, x - a , etc. are set, but ( a , x ) 2 is equal to ( x - a , ) 2 what allowed the previous value of to develop in the specified manner. Now we obtain the minimum value of 2 by setting the differential expression of his mar. xequal to zero; gives this: 2 [( a - x ) + ( a - x ) + + ( a , - x ) + ( a ' - x ) + ] dx = 0 (9) therefore, by summing all a and - x

A - mx = 0,

. (10 ) 78 If even the arithmetic mean for the collectives can not take a same overriding interest in the claim as to the physical and astronomical measurement gauge, so it granted but the connection of its three main characteristics even for those of a mathematical se interest, which is growing more so by the fact that a relationship between the two doctrines is produced by him. Against D he is still particularly by the greater ease and simplicity of its accurate determination in the advantage, from C it is still surpassed it, but that with the number at the same time enters into the size of the variations in the equality provision in the second property, it is a more significant interest than the C. too can be the following notice. If you any number of a , in a given number of fractions from the same lot by the random order in which they are included in the original list a has divided and from each of them the A specially designed, so does the arithmetic mean of A with the general resources the number of a match. But is done in accordance with the determination of C, so neither does the median, yet average of the different Intresting C. Generally speaking, from the totality of a derived C match. Is done in accordance with the D, so true, although the D, but not the mean of specialyD with D the totality of a match. Finally linked to the determination of A following practical advantage. Having the A a K.-G. from a distribution panel with not too small m determined, one is not only the overall size "Gr." the object of this table by multiplying the A with m, but also based on the probability, the overall size of the object for each larger or smaller m by multiplying that only certain Awith the new m obtained only with larger

so as probable errors, one vary the smaller m is, and the more the m, to which one closes deviates therefrom. Conversely, it is the number of species m, which belongs to a given overall size size. to give to close to chance by putting m = Gr. : A ; since a = mA = Gr . , hence m = Gr. : A. These sets can be useful for example if one wants to determine the space that summarizes a given number of people randomly varying size. Neither the median nor the densest value can be used accordingly. 79 It may be that one of the A different K.-G. or even the most certain A different departments of the same K.-G. wants to draw a common means, and has, if this A from differentm are obtained to distinguish whether the definitive means with or without consideration of the diversity of m should be drawn. Are A 1 , A 2 , A 3 ... special means respektiv of m 1 , m 2 ,m 3 ... drawn dimensions. Regardless of the variety of m is the mean of the respective A to be: (11) where N the number of A, with respect to the difference of m but it will be: (12) and agree with the agent, which is obtained when the total of all a sum total of all the m divided. The former means the name is singular, the latter being the summary. Depending on the nature of the task can be one or the other type of funds overdraft be preferable. Set the mean of the body length of the Chinese, Negroes, Malays, American and European Caucasian race to be determined, but are by Europeans to 1000 degrees, of each of the other races only 10 - 20 degree front, so would the second, the summary Type of expenditure contraction be inadmissible, because, as the easier to understand, the average body length of these different races because of the disproportionately vast weight of what Europeans through their great would m obtained almost entirely agree with the Europeans, and indeed the definitive means mainly, by special agents with the largest m are determined, which contradicts the nature of the task. Here the singular nature of the compositions draw is only the first, useful, and that not all meters are the same size, just reduced the certainty of the determination to the case that all of the m is equal between all A divided. Ever disparate objects (see 14) will give rise to more first than second determining means, whereas the Special A can be combined from different departments of a unanimous object to the principle of the second determination means. It may also be that one. rather different from A an arithmetic mean of various C or D has to draw, and it is then for the corresponding distinction between singular and summarischem means, and subject to the same considerations favor of one or the other. 80 Central value C.

The three main properties of the arithmetic mean A united against the central value C following three main features: 1 The definition given by its property, as well as much greater a ' about as small a , to have among themselves. 2 The ability to have the same amount of positive and negative deviations dependent on them, so that m '= m , = m. 3 The property that the sum of the positive and negative deviations from it by absolute values smaller than any other values, thus inscribed. the same is a minimum. These properties are in solidarity with each other and are valid for any number of a ruthlessly on a particular distribution law, according as the three main properties of A applies. The conclusion of the second characteristic of the first is self-evident and needs no Erluterung.Der context of the third order, but concludes that way. Is the value of the property is the third, first as unknown = x is set, the sum of the deviations with respect to x to absolute values should be set as: = ( a ' - x ) + (a - x ) + + ( x - a , ) + ( x - a ' ) + (13) To obtain the minimum of this sum, we have the same differential rel. x set equal to 0, which gives: - m'dx + m , dx = 0 , (14) thus: m = m , , (15) which corresponds to the concept of the central value. I first this property of the central value in a paper 1) on the same proven and respond by generalization of the path which leads to drawn general conclusions to which I have here, however, no reason. the original value of the smallest deviation sum, the provision, use and generalization; treatises of math.-phys. Class of the Royal. Saxon. Gesellsch. d Scientific. XI. Band, in 1878. P l - 76] 81 You can attach the following meaning the central value for the collectives. You would think all the copies of a K.-G. done in a large urn, for which one can view the world itself, and pulled out a copy by chance, the probability would equal standing, a larger and a smaller copy as C extract, and in very many trains would really these same probability preserve whereas values greater respect than C , the probability of pulling out a small object, with respect to smaller values than C outweighs the probability of pulling out a larger copy. After this you can C in the same sense the probable value of a K.-G. call it what is called the probable error
1) [over

of an observation means that, insofar as the probability of its excess and shortfall is the same. In the common usual way, so set up the Verteilungstafelm of KG, especially Rekrutenmatafeln that of the copies that go above and below a certain size limit, only the number, not the size sum is specified, falls off the possibility of an accurate arithmetic mean to pull, and then, instead of that of the central value, which can be determined just by the mere number to pull it out, See, eg, between different years and locations where the measurements come, a method, which I at processing longtime Belgian has served recruits dimensions of the various provinces of Belgium, the course and parallelism to take note of these dimensions through time and space. 82 The derivation of the C of a series of values of a , which are ordered according to their size is, in principle, to take place in that it is counting down from each end of the row towards the middle irrespective of values and the value or intermediate value between two values as C increases, where both counts meet, unless herewith the terms of C, to have the same amount to both sides deviations and therefore the same amount of different values about themselves and among themselves, is apparently sufficient. But there are two different cases: first, where the a , on the one comes with this double counting, or the two a , between which arrives the result of counting, are simple, or where, as in general at our distribution panels the case with z> involve first We first summarize the first simple translucent case the eye. For the first sight of the above rule now appears to imply this, that if the number of values of m is m values, it counts down from one side or the other, and m- th value as C increases. Meanwhile, one can easily see that this enumeration, according as they happen from one side or the other, leads to a different value. For example, the following is set of four values: a, b, c, d given, it would the m -th, ie inside the 2-th value from the left = b, right = in. c find. Or suppose instead of a straight one odd m, such B. 5, by erecting following series: a , b, c, d , e , as one would the 2 -th value from left to come inside between b and c, of Right In between c and d are, however, only c the general rule corresponds to one side as many larger values above him, as by one of themselves to be have. However sufficient to the requirement of one like the other side on the same C to come on straight as odd m when the ( m + 1) th value (ie the average of m m + 1) for takes. In fact, in our example with the straight m = 4, such as coming from a side of the other to a value between b and c , in the example with odd m = 5, if both the value of c . Suppose now but the second, we actually only case of interest, which takes place at our distribution panels, that the count from both sides in an A arrives or between two A arrives with a z are afflicted> 1, we would according to raw determination by this z entirely on the question a think for themselves falling, and the C first with that

if a coincident or even second if between those two a fall and have to take the responsibility for lack of means between two given stop. And so would have to be considered in our example table ( 68) 11 as the central value by if we follow previous rule 40 81 = count of both sides of this within the a ascribed = 11 z = arrive 30th But to get a sharper definition, we have to take into account that z = 30 copies are distributed throughout the interval from 10 to 12, and get with regard thereto by consultation interpolation this as I commissioned interval to a matching C by counting from both sides, not from ( m + 1) , but by m copies as from the outset seemed most natural. In fact, in order from the top down (the location of the table) for 40-keys (di m to get data) values, we have taken into account (which is directly in the column S , can be read), that up to end of the previous interval, and therefore up to the beginning of the I reach 18 copies, so 40 is still lacking to fulfill the 22 specimens in the interval I spread. Now we include how this interval to cross 22 to 30 Total number of I behave so to the beginning of I, ie to 10 still zuzufgende value x, the so-called Intervention in I, the size of I, ie to 2, thus: 22 : 30 = x : 2, ie x = 44 / 30 = 1.467 C = 10 + 1.467 = 11.467. Are we going with the counting from below upwards, so rich in 32 copies to the interval I , ie missing another 8 to 40, in the interval I fall themselves, and that part I - x take it that from x to second boundary of I, di is up to 12th Now we close it: I - x : I = 8 : 30th Since I = 2, one has 30 (2 -x) = 16, resulting in the increase in x to the first limit above 10 = 1.467 determined, leading to C = 11,467 returns. Since the second determination means for m up from below leads to the same result as the first, but this is easier, so we can contribute to the determination of our C content with this, and obtain for the determination of C the following formula 2) :

(16) wherein g 1 as before the initial value or the first boundary of the interpolation

interval, z 0 , the z this interval, y is the number of engagement with the same, that is the number by which the Vorzahl v must be increased to m to go. instead of the simple interpolation, sharper, 2nd using differences occur, so would x = C - g 1 by solving the equation (16) of chapter IX held as above by solving the equation (13) give the same chapter be obtained.]
2) [If

83 You tester value D. We define the densest value first briefly than the one in a series of a most abundant, or to the largest z falls, it may not like the previous two major values from any number of such value a can be derived and has ever only for a collectives eligible for them but very important significance 3) . In fact, we provide eg following random series of five A to: 1, 3, 4, 6, 16, we will have as the arithmetic mean A = a : m = 30 : 5 = 6, as the central value (by coincidence counting of the right and left) C = 4 But what value should we take as densely value, because each value occurs only once, so all z are only first Other rows can be set up arbitrarily, in which, although different z for different a case that the same maximum z but with several a repeated what not to decide which of the D to look at. But at distribution boards of K.-G. with large m , satisfy the necessary requisites to a successful investigation, such cases are either completely absent or can be, but if it is the case with primary panels, one of which examples in the tables section can VIIfinden, by necessary reduction in eliminate such that the maximum z only one reduced a fall. It is of course not to forget that with the fact that you all maximum- z on the reduced a, where it is attached wrote, referring, only a rough determination of the densest value obtained, which is more or less approximate to the ideal, the one assuming an infinitely large m at infinitely small i would get, and one must look to approach in a decisive way possible to later. In general, one can only say that this value is to be found within the interval, the interval in the table for the reduced a substituted as its radius interval.
3)

If the course is not yet disputed assumption that the observation error free singular observations have a symmetrical W rel. are the arithmetic means of observation, be erroneous, as would the great importance of the Dextend to the physical and astronomical measurement gauge. [Here About cf. chapter XXVIII.] That for symmetric W. . deviations bez A value of the densest D significantly with A and C coincide, is mentioned several times, according to the generalization of the Basic Law for the asymmetric W. K.-G. but it differs widely talked about now and then does not have the three basic characteristics, it was the A or the C, however, the enumerated in 33 properties, of which the most important solidarity related are: 1)

that it is precisely the densest in the sense indicated , 2) that the proportion Act, and 3) that the two-column GG is the same respect, which then depends on that to win a simple distribution law for collective deviations, the deviations, as of rather of him A or C must be made conditional. One can add that D the most probable value of a K.-G. representing the following aspects. Are accessed from the totality of a one K.-G. a copy by chance out, the value is D more likely than any other to be made and the close to him a with a, the his, coming close to the same, but verschiedenenW., depending on it one or the other side of D fall. Thereafter outbids the importance of D for K.-G. from more than one point of view, the main value of each other, without blocking so that they remain notable by the properties which it does not share with them and the full characteristics of a K.G. include; also he is in so far as all the other disadvantages that its accurate representation is cumbersome and computing work demands, which it is not necessary for the other. Then would now be going into details, but I prefer the rather cumbersome verspare discussions on its derivative at all on a special chapter to discuss, the following three main values. 84 Sheath value R. The value of an equal amount of a has to be among them, and which therefore the dividing line between their size according to parent minor and major A has to be created if by summing the smaller a the same overall size to be produced, as by summing the larger a. [He is above C. because the number of above and below C located a is both appropriate, the terms of the C according to equal m, is therefore: , so that a tie for the lower a value of the sum is larger than the upper C can be reached. It is thus also above A above or D, depending on the A or D is less than C is, whereas it may be located below the one or the other of those two values as the one or the other is greater than C is. However, his first position with respect to the usually known as presupposed A to determine Assume that R above A lie.] Now let a , , a ' totals below and above R, A " and a " totals below and above A, so we count = ( a "- A ") up to di the greater value of about A from to R to go. Evidence . After contemplation of the line scheme || AR is the lower sum of a mar. R equal to the lower sum rel. A plus the sum

between A and R, what hot, di a,=a"+. . The upper sum bez R but is the same: So, there a , = a ' , a " + = a "- , (17) Since A ' = , A - , A ' = A + ' , one has also: (18) These specializations are ruthless to a particular distribution law, except that a determination can be rough and sharp distinction is made in the usual way. [They retain their validity also for the case that A above R is; but is then negative and, therefore, is taken to its absolute values, ie, down to the smaller values of about A . count to reach R] In our illustrative example is after previous determination A = 11.4; a " = 369; a ' = 543, hence u ur those of the present? = 87, this sum we have upwards of 11.4, ie by the larger A to to count to R and to get to the interval 10 12 with za = interpolate 330, which leads to 2 87 : to add 330 = 0.527 to 11.4; gives R = 11,927. [If, however, as before ( 72) 'a ' = 362.7; 'a' = 549.3, therefore, = 93.3, then logically the difference R - A = x from the equation: 93 , 3 = (11.4 + x) 15 x with the values found 0,533, with the above values are substantially coincident R = 11,933]. [Now, instead, as happened here, R as a function of A to be determined, it can get as a function of C or D are found, then of course A " , A " and according to the deviation numbers and deviation sum mar. C or D instead of rel. A to take. Obtained as the outputs of C determination: = (ref. C ) , the outputs of D , however: = ( m ' - m , ) D + . Moreover, R directly, without following be found to a predetermined other main value. It this is done by obtained by adding the a of both ends of the distribution table, the interval visits, in which R comes to rest, and then the engaging amount in this operation interval Y type determines that the Vorsumme increased by the engaging amount equal to half the total amount of a is. This leads, defined using the ( 69) names to the formula: a=a-,

(19a) or (19b) whichever taken in harmony with the provisions of 72, the Eingriffsma x , ie the amount by which R the lower limit g 1 of the interval I overlooked, according to the proportion x: I = Y: a 0 z 0 or more precisely by the equation:

calculated and g 1 is added.] [Finally, deserves to be mentioned that the position of R in any other way than that of A, C and D by a dependent of the distribution panel. Namely, each one increasingly a to one and the same amount, and is A, C and D is greater by a same amount, so that the position is maintained within the panel, whereas the indicated propagation causes an approximation of the R to C of the species that unlimited increase in R with C coincide. This follows directly from the fact that between C and R preferred sum of a , ie, , constantly equal to (ref. C) , and thus with larger a distributed on an ever smaller and smaller interval.]

85 The heaviest value T. Each value of a is a suitable distribution to our research panel, generally speaking, depending on its size and z , how often it occurs, a different product za , and you can now after aquestion for which this product is a maximum. First, lets remember that it coincides with the largest values. But in this there is only the size of z , not the za to. There are values of a that are greater than D , and although they occur less frequently than D , but gives them up to certain limits the size of a as to the za what they provide an advantage. In any case, T only after positive side of D lie down, because when walking down the values of a in D both a as z decrease. After raw determination would in our example table Twith D at the same time on a = 11 fall, provided the maximum for this za = 330 finds. After determining sharp but both fall from each other, and one has to when the two-sided GG is assumed to be applicable to use down the following evidence at all following formula:

. (20) From our example table 68 is found after the next chapter to be set apart proportion method D = 11.6, s' = 1.9; hereafter T = 12.1. Now one may ask, what's the empirical importance that the thus determined value of T the maximum of za falls. In this respect, one has to remember that after a sharp considering each a distribution of a table actually an entire interval of the size of the i represents this table, the question of which a is the center. So is the value T = 12.1 for our distribution table which i = 2, said that in all intervals of the panel 2, the size of the interval, the center T = 12.1 is therefore the interval 11.1 - 13.1 a larger za contains, as every other interval of size 2 [This can now be found but not confirmed, because the descending interval of 11.1 to 13.1 is equal to 296, while the descending interval of 10 - 12 is equal to 330th However, this is not the inaccuracy of the above theoretical determination of manner of is T detected, but only suggested that the theoretically required position of the heaviest value does not match exactly with his, in Table empirically presented situation, though it is not to be expected from the outset. Given that this empirically even in the K.-G. boards not significantly different, is evident from the following example.] The distribution panel for the vertical extent skull with i = 5 mm ( 58) is upon determination of D by means of the proportion method: D = 409.7, T = 410.1; which here on the interval from 407.6 to 412.6, the largest za falls. Whether this really is, can be empirically examine the distribution table, and we choose to compare the interval of the densest value 409.7, ie, after appropriate provision from 407.2 to 412.2. Since the descending of the corresponding intervals are not given directly to the distribution panel, because these intervals themselves with their za are not given it, but the interval of the worst value, as well as that of the densest value overlaps between two intervals of the given table, it must interpolationsmig to calculate what proportion of this za provides each of the two intervals, and by summing these shares both the descending of the interval, which for D than what T has set, find what I want here detailing 4) . After this I found the above example, the descending of the densest value 26631, which of t equal to 26656, that is, as expected, the latter very little, however, as to require but little larger than the former. [But still the theoretically determined from (20) T different to be removed from the board of the empirical, because for a = 413, there is the even greater value za = 26845th]

the present case, due to the simplified for a = 408 and a = 413 common z = 65 this bill, and we find the za for D respectively. T equal to 65 D , respectively. 65 T .]

4) [In

. Proof Since T is greater than D is, we set T = D + , (21) where is a positive deviation of D , and determine , by za = z( D+ )( 22) Set this value to obtain a maximum equation with respect to differentiate and set the differential equal to zero, where we for simplicity the dashes up to z, a, , e omit that are actually attach to the location of these values above D to denote . So we have: (23) of which the last value z is. In order to find, has z as a function of be expressed, which can be done by us according to the Basic Law, the likelihood ratios for twocolumn positiverseits from D to complete. After this is known, the probability a value (24) where h = 1: s expressed, thus . normally presupposed In the large m but can by z: m ' are

(25) from which it follows: (26) and, as

(27) ie: (28) where z cease to be a common factor, and one with a reversal of the sign and consideration that h = 1 : e , is replaced by the quadratic equation: 2 + 2 D - s = 0, (29) from which can be determined. This is first: , (30a) of which only the upper sign is useful, or: (30b) and: (31) 86 Heavy deviation value F. One can even speak of a characteristic deviation values, which the heaviest a values is similar and is calculated analogously, hereafter the worst deviation value can mean. There, they asked, to which a fall is the largest za , here you ask, on which falls, the largest z , and provided at the output of a given principal values of H with at the same time a = H is given, in which a fall the largest z , a value which is far from the worst a coincident values. Meanwhile suggests the analogy fails in the following points. The maximum of za is independent of the main values that one wants to prefer such as this so the actual values of a and related thereto z nothing changes, except that a simple calculation of the greatest za just under output of D according to our general distribution laws possible 's. Against this, the value depends z wants to count from one to the deviations, since the values of starting with the main values, depend on their size even after it. It remains with the calculation of the heaviest a value equal, that they also at the hardest -value only in the outputs of D done on the basis of our general distribution law, and applying the result can be disturbed by the lack of fulfillment of the props. Finally, the analogy is not holds down insofar as it normally only a maximum of za ' can be in each distribution plate, while there is a maximum of z for any particular side of the

selected primary value of , respectively. of z ' 'and z , , short-F ' and F , are what give in output of D is subject to all relevant calculations. To illustrate, we take the reduced table for the vertical extent of the skull ( 58) with E , = 368, i = 5, for which according to 61: D = 409.7, = 14.9, = 13.0;

Values are used in the calculation as well, and we make according to the a and deviations of a from D, d . i , following each table in that table associated values: D = 409.7, a, 383 388 393 398 403 405.5 - D a' D - 410.5 413 418 423 428 , 26.7 21.7 16.7 11.7 6.7 0 to 4.2 ' 0 - 0.8 3.3 8.3 13.3 18.3 z, 17 24 36 41 59 55 z 10 65 51 40 17 = 14.9, z, , 454 521 601 480 395, 115 z'' 4 214, 423 532 311 = 13.0.

You can see here that and z insofar take a reverse gear, as is approached his a to D decreases on each side, z grows, and conversely upon removal of the a of . D If now z and follow here an inverse relationship, so z would remain constant through the whole range of values, but this is not the case, as one can verify from the last column, which for a , page a maximum of z , , , short F , , at , = 16.7 and a , = D - , = 393, and on a ' page a maximum of z ' ' , short F ' , at = 13.3 and a ' = D + ' = 423 takes place. [The same values also mark with a sharp determination by means of a simple interpolation of the maxima of the z .] As you can now see, is not empirically determined as the maximum value of z , , = F , very close to the above values e , = 14.9, and the maximum

value found empirically by z ' '= F' on a ' - side very close to the values given above, e ' = 13.0, and in fact the result of the later to be justified on account of the validity of our basic law of distribution that , (32)

But [one determines the values of the interpolationsmig , = 14.9 and ' = 13.0 corresponding z , , and z ' ' in consideration that i = 5, we find, to z , , = 563; z '=529, the comparison with the actual maximum values of the table can be seen the degree of agreement between the theoretical and empirical required presented values.] [Proof. If, on the basis of presupposed as valid two-column GG: (33) where h '= 1 : e ' , then to obtain the maximum equation for z ' ' a value of: (34) with respect to ' to differentiate and set equal to zero the differential. One obtains: (35) So, since the coefficient of (1 - 2 h ' ') by its nature can not disappear or Similarly, it follows for the lower deviations: . (37) But it is e ' and e , the reciprocal mean square deviations, so that the significance of the differential focus theoretical values F ' and F , with respect to D is just to illustrate the square average deviation of the upper and lower values.] . (36)

XI. The densest value.

87 [Since the densest value as the starting value for the K.-G. plays a fundamental role in the collectives whom a claim is proper distribution law, it is a discussion of its meaning and its mathematical, the latter needed to be founded on mathematical determination. This is essential as the D i called you empirically test

value that will bear the panel from which the D preferred theoretically probable value, the law requires the distribution to divorce and to treat each separately.] [The existence of D i is based on the fact that the z of the table, for a K.-G. the number of copies of the size of a state, are not constant throughout, but rise and fall. So long now with raw determination z directly as the beige signed a conceived belonging and accordingly the measured between the a of the panel covered a -values than not regarded occurring, only the largest can z -prone a self claimed as the densest value , and there is then no means the case that several consecutive a nmliche the maximum z have the doubt that a reality now constitutes the densest value to lift, 1) . But considered that the intervals between the measured a only a relatively small number of specimens measured and the inaccuracy of the measurement owe their existence, while the unlimited set of copies of the K.G. without interruption to all, lying between the extremes of a distribution, one has to look in the given table values only the base on which a functional relationship between z and a built up. Produced is the same, then the closest value is easily constructed as a maximum of the function.] occurrence of two equal to each other, separated by intermediate values of maximum z is not to be considered as these require the presence of two different densely values and so a mixture of disparate K.-G. to which the distribution laws no direct would apply, to view.] [In the preparation of this functional relationship is now to make sure that - what is already conditioned by the inaccuracy of the measurement and the consequent existence of the primary intervals - z of the table rather than individual values of the unknown function, but as the sum of values, and the to refer to the corresponding intervals, and therefore as integral values taken for the limits of the intervals have to be considered. Moreover, the principles of interpolation to be brought into use, what comes out, the number of copies of the size of a,generally with will be denoted, within a certain range as a rational integral function of a the vorauszuset-tion and then by means of given z of table their coefficients to be determined so that the sum of , d i, its integrals between the boundaries of the proposed intervals, with the given z of the panel according to these intervals correspond, taking the number to be considered the successive intervals of the degree of the assumed function or the number of coefficients to be determined dependent, and it grows with the rising number of those at the same time, the degree of accuracy achieved.] [If so provided that a value for the area A is in the interval with the center a 0 and a z equal to z 0 lawn, is either constant, or by a linear function of a displayed or by those of the second degree will, as in the first case, only the z 0 of the interval itself, in the second case, the z of the two adjacent intervals, in the third case, the z use of the two adjacent intervals, in order to determine the constants. It is found that when the z of about located on the upper extreme interval of z 1 , which lies in the opposite direction with z - 1 denotes and is claiming in extension of the entire panel interval
1) [The

size after previous determination i is known, in the first case: , (1) in the second case: or = in the third case: , (3) Formulas whose validity region in each case over the interval with limits a 0 i and a 0 + i extends]. [If you wanted to, due to the functional dependence thus constructed the densest a determine the interval, so only the formula (3) proves to be useful for this purpose, because (1) consistently delivers constant, (2) growing or constantly decreasing values. From (3), but results in the maximum value or densest value: , (4) if only 2 z 0 - z 1 - z - 1 > 0 . latter value is less than zero, is a is a minimum, but is 2 z 0 - z 1 - z - 1 = 0, then (3) is linearly and determining a maximum unusable. Should also, as required, the maximum within the studied interval are, we must both z 1 and z - 1 , each for itself, less than z 0 be]. [Instead of the center a 0 can determine the closest value on the boundaries of the interval: g 1 = a 0 - i and g 2 = a 0 + i relate. One finds in a - g 1 = x is set: , (5) , (2)

resulting in the simple proportion: x ( i - x ) = ( z 0 - z - 1 ): ( z 0 - z 1 ) (6) follows.] [The determination of D i done himself accordingly by means of the above formulas by first interval with the maximum z , ie the raw certain densest value sought, and then the position of D i within this interval by the approach of proportion (6) or is calculated from the equations (5) or (4). There is only one maximum z , the

accuracy achieved is sufficient, and the assistance of sharper interpolation taking into consideration the z of four or more adjacent intervals is generally not necessary. Yes you win and even then still a viable destination when two adjacent maximum- z leave the crude determination of the closest value in the dark. Namely, when z 0 = z - 1 , x = 0, and when z 0 = z 1 , x = i , so that it is always the common boundary of the two, the maximum z- affected intervals as D i to in Claim is taking.] 88 [In this way the values D i of the different levels of reduction and reduction principles of Chapter VIII calculated. Otherwise it will be held in the later chapters. It may, however, be desirable in the case that two adjacent maximum z- occur to have a sharper formula available. Yes, it would be such an imperative if - which is hardly to be expected and, when necessary, can be avoided by changing the reduction location three succedierende maximum z the failure of the above formulas would require. Then there is another interval to increase to the previously considered to to be determined as a function of the third degree can. It was this that on the interval z = z 1 with the following interval z = z 2 . If we now above a = g 1+ x or = g 2 - ( i - x ), where g 1 and g 2 , the lower and upper limits of the interval with the center of a 0 and z = z 0 are, the result is : =+(i-x)-(i-x)2-(ix}3; 12 i = 7 z 0 + 7 z 1 - z - 1 - z 2 , 12 i = 15 z 0 - I5 z 1 - z - 1 + z 2 4i=z0+z1-z-1-z2,6i4=3z03 z 1 - z - 1 + z 2 . (7) It follows as the maximum value, for example, if z 0 = z 1 and z 0 > z 2 > z - 1 : . (8) You will also: If z 2 = z 1 = z 0 ; If z - 1 = z 1 = z 0 (9) that the location of D i changes, depending on which one of the three maximum z takes the following or the previous interval. This uncertainty can be addressed only through call in the two neighboring intervals.] [This is done by z 0 = z 1 = z - 1 accepts and except the following interval with z

= z 2 nor the preceding interval z = z - 2 into account, we obtain for the determination of the maximum, for x = a - g 1 , the equation: 2 + x + 3 x + 4 x = 0; 12 i = - z 0 + z - 2 , 8 i = z - 2 - z 2 , 6 i 4 = z 0 - z - 2 , (10) 24 i 5 = - 2 z 0 + z 2 + z - 2 ; with the proviso: 2 + 6 x + 12 x <0]. 89 [As such, the existence of D i is independent of the existence of a distribution law and its determination can be achieved in successive approximations by interpolation, the existence of is D p just required by the assumed distribution law, our case by the two-sided GG, and its calculation from the given table values is recommended due to its properties mathematically formulated. It would indeed when the inevitable, unbalanced contingencies would not prevent an accurate Applying the law of distribution, the closest value from the outset the properties of D p have, therefore D i = D p be, and it would then no reason exists, in addition to D i still D p to calculate, if not the properties of strongly worded in this case Dp would offer greater security than the approximations of Interpolalionsverfahrens. Respect, but never fully corresponds to the transition of the table values to the demands of the law, soft D i and D p apart, and it must be independent of D i and D p are determined by both the differences in their situation a benchmark for applying the law of distribution to win, as well as in D p a more suitable Augangswert as in D i get to apply that law.] [It will be D p as defined in connection with the two-sided solidarity GG by the property that the numbers of the upper and lower variations in the same are proportional to the mean values of the lower and upper deviations, or in that: m ,: m ' = e , : e . (11) Since this property of the probable value theory is an emanation of the distribution law, it is clear under the assumption of the validity of this law from the outset that one and only one such value exists in our distribution panels and in the vicinity of D i is to be found. But it has an interest in proving that D p on the one hand not like A or C, exist in any panel and on the other hand can occur in multiple editions.] [For this purpose we put an equidistant distribution panel with a forward whose z the one constant throughout time, the other time throughout the nmliche multiples of the corresponding a pose.] [In the first case are the z to distribute evenly throughout the panel, and it is, therefore, between the limits a = b and a = c : =,

where is a constant, and for any a we can find: e , = ( a - b ), e '= ( c - a ) m , = ( a - b ), m '= ( c - a ) , so that each a characteristic of the D p has.] [In the second case follows by interpolation of the continuous distribution: = a and is chosen as the limits a = 0, a = c , we obtain with respect to an arbitrary a: ;; ; so that as the solutions of the equation: e, m '-e'm,=0 only the two values a = 0 and a = c result for which e , and m , resp. e ' and m ' are equal to zero. These limits, however, in each panel from the outset the condition equation for D pfulfilled without one as they D p -values takes to complete. There is therefore in this case not a D p in the table.] [As a result of this occurrence, it may seem desirable to have a criterion for the presence of D p to own. Such features in a simple manner by the following consideration. Is for the beginning of the table detectable s , : m , > e ' : m ' , for the end of s , : m <e ': m ' , it must have an average value for s , : m , = e ' : m ' be, since the quotient s , : m , and e ' : m 'due to the continuous distribution of z on the individual intervals constantly change with the position of the value to which they relate. Now, however, when z The z of E , , z that of E ' is, and the lower limit of the interval E , with b and the upper limit of the interval D ' of c is referred to, for the beginning of the table : ; for the end of the table: , . ; ;

There exists, therefore, in any case, a value D p inside the panel when: , is] (12).

 90 [For the calculation of D p can initially serve only the proportion (11), since it defines this value. It can, however, due to that proportion of the following properties of the value Dp demonstrate that can be used in the same way of calculation: 1.The arithmetic mean of below D p lying a , di a , : m , , increased by the arithmetic mean of the above D p lying a , di a ': m , is equal to the arithmetic mean of all a,increased by D p itself Thus:

. (13 ) 2) The difference between the mean values of the lower and upper deviation of a with respect to D p is equal to the difference between the values of D p itself and the arithmetic average of a, thus: e , - e '= D p - A. (14) The latter compound of formula (11) leads to the further destination: (15) where u = m ' - m , . Through Addition and Subtraction of (14) and (15) further to Win

(16) The proof of (13) is achieved by substituting the values , (17)

resulting in the proportion of the (11) equation e ' m , = e , m by means of a simple calculation the equation: (18) and derived in the same ; is set. In fact, as follows from the resulting equation:

(19) by dividing by m ., the formula (13) but this formula is obtained as follows from it if a , : m , and a : m ' from (17) by D p and s , respectively. e ' expressed are directly the equation (14).] 91 [To the mathematical determination of D p now has the equation (13) the most convenient approach. This, however, a knowledge of the interval in which D p falls, necessary because the properties of the desired value based on the deviation and deviation figures sums and not an absolute determination as to A is possible, allow. It must therefore, where such knowledge, for example, by prior calculation of D i can be purchased, missing, tentatively, the approach taken for any one interval and, unless by chance the correct interval was hit repeatedly, for a different interval are, however, being the result of the first run, failing statement should influence the choice of the interval when repeating the experiment. Provides the board no major abnormalities, so it will be in these experiments only the choice between adjacent intervals.] [If one has therefore a certain interval having its center a 0 , the lower limit of g 1 and the z equal to z 0 is selected as the engagement interval and for the same v , n , V , N is calculated, wherein crude determination, in accordance with ( 13): , (20a) or: , (20b) depending D p is less than or greater than a 0 . Thus, it is the former formula true when a 0 - D p < i, the latter, if D p - a 0 <i results. For sharp definition but is of the approach: (21) assumed, where Y is the total engagement, y means the engagement numbers. If, after this chapter IX, formula (8) and (13) when x = Eingriffsma the D p - g 1 indicates 2) : ; we obtain the following equation for x = D p - g 1 ; x - x + = 0; ;

; , (22) ; with the proviso that x is positive and less than I is.] [If one wanted the translucent easier, but less accurate formula (6) of chapter IX, namely Y = a 0 z 0 x: I , use, so would instead of (22) is a cubic equation for x result, it would therefore loss of accuracy also a loss of computational convenience the result.]
2)

[However, this provision is not convenient manner, to D p to any interval lying in the same main values H are related to due to the special properties of the selected H to obtain simpler equations.] [For this purpose, like the numbers and the sum of the above and below H located a by m ' , m ", a " , a " designated, further D p - H = x ' , and between D P and H lying atheir number is equal to y ', their sum is equal to Y ' be set such that: , One then obtains from the approaches: (23) for x '= D p - H equation : x - x + = 0; ; , (24) ; for H = g 1 merges into (22). In the same has a x ' showed either positive and less than g 2 - H (where g 2 , the upper limit of the interval is engaged), or negative and its absolute value of less than H - g 1 . is] .

[This equation now leads when either the arithmetic mean A or the central value C or the vagina value R in the interval of D p and falls as H is selected, the following provisions: 1.It should be: H = A ; x = D p - A , then:

, (25) where , and ' the deviation figures, the total sum of the deviations rel. A imagined. 1.It is then: H = C, x D = p - C, then results: , (26) where A " and A " to C refer to. 3) Finally, it should: H = R , x = D p - R, then we have:

, (27) where m ' and m with respect to R are to take.] [The scope of these specializations will be expanded when the case that D p , a displacement of the engagement interval makes and fall of major value to which the bill refers to adjacent intervals or, in other words, the engagement interval of contiguous parts composed of two neighboring intervals. The z 0 this composite interval then consists of the proportional certain z together its parts, while the mar. remain the main value of current regulations.] 92 [From these formulas will be preferable in general (26). Because (27) refers to a little interest principal value, after Chapter X (19b) requires the exact calculation itself the resolution of a second degree equation, while (25) thus stands at a disadvantage dasss A the location laws in accordance of D p by C is isolated and thus less frequently than C with D pwill be in the same intervals. It is also a disadvantage not to feel that the equation (26), knowledge of the two values A and C erheischt, since one next D p and always A and C is calculated.] [It is appropriate therefore that the knowledge of C and A to be founded calculation of D p to bring (26) to the simplest possible form.] [For this purpose we divide (26) by m x and write the equation as follows:

(28) If we now: , Ie one obtains: (29) whereby a continued fraction representation of is given, which converges rapidly as 2 z 0 ( C - A ) : ( In .) for our panels representing small values] [The passage of the bill is thus the way to set up that on the basis of ; in order: 1 = - 1; ; , etc. determined and when the bill came to a halt, from the found values of the value of x = D p - C is derived. At the same time, in a simple way, then the value obtained from the same .] ,

[From equation (26) follows also that of the empirically determined values of the main A, C and D p the situation is settled law from the outset with the provisions applicable to our boards proportions. Bringing namely that equation in the form: , it follows wofern , that A - C and x , that is, D p - C, either at the same positive or negative at the same

time may be. Therefore, it is because the specified condition is in fact satisfied by the distribution boards, either A > C > D p or A < C < D p , Act as the situation demands it.]

XII. Rationale
ensure that significant asymmetry of the deviations with respect to the arithmetic mean and validity of the asymmetric distribution law is about the closest value D in the sense of generalized Gaussian law (Chapter V), the general case. 93 According to the ( 4) made differences between essential and non-essential provisions may be inclined also an essential and non-essential (or random) variations in the asymmetry of a home's value, such as the arithmetic mean or closest value to distinguish. We report here the first observation in this respect to the arithmetic mean A. Certain it is that even with symmetric W. deviations rel. A by unbalanced contingencies is a difference between the distances of the extreme E ', E , of A and a difference u between the number of mutual deviations ' and , can emerge, and so you can search by features ask what makes a substantial asymmetry rel. A, does not depend on unbalanced contingencies of a minor or incidental, which depends on different. Apart now from those described in Chapter II general, somewhat vague characteristics, which are to distinguish essential from non-essential provisions, you can here it be based that the resulting by mere unbalanced contingencies difference u between ' and , a probability determination is capable and that the probable size can specify the same. Pursuant now, as this probable difference is exceeded, it is likely that the asymmetry is merely a random, and there are even rules to determine the degree of improbability, though without an absolute certainty that this is achievable, what I'm on the remarks in 31 (historically) as back and refer to the probability formulas of Chapter XIV.And so you could stand as a guiding point of preponderant probability, only those cases of asymmetry with respect to A to maintain essential and seek a parole laws significantly asymmetric distribution of where the relative A resulting probable value of u is not exceeded irrelevant. In fact, I have taken the matter from the outset that, but afterwards convinced me, as noted in 32 that this initially as natural, indeed commanded appearing completely misses the real point of view. It would be tough if the symmetric W. variations in the A would be the case generally presupposed, and just as one might assume from the beginning in and will be provided by Quetelet, exceptions would suffer, which would be particularly sought out and treated reckoning. But the case turns out, when understood in the light of the already expressed preliminary in view of the significant asymmetry is the general case, which among the innumerable

degrees, in which the asymmetry is possible to where it disappears just as special, in all strictness perhaps never occurring case contains. 94 Then, a fundamental difference between major and minor asymmetry is not to make, all K.-G. may, indeed the asymmetric W. must be treated under the condition with regard only that for finite m because of unbalanced contingencies, the magnitude and direction of asymmetry can vary randomly from that which at infinite m would turn out to be significant, and the resounding reason to believe it is so, that even in cases where, according to this probability formulas concerning the asymmetry A could possibly be by chance, the laws listed in 33 of the asymmetry is confirmed in an unexpected universality myself. Now, I confess, however, that it is itself seemed strange, and even a mystery can be found in the fact that with so weak asymmetry, as frequently in the K - the VII and VIII Section G. occurs in conflict with the inevitable contingencies because of the finite m , but the above stated laws of asymmetry are confirmed with remarkable universality and approximation. Take for example the skull dimensions. 450 copies of European skulls give the vertical scale (for i = 5 mm, E , = 368), 220 negative, 230 positive deviations of O 2 , the same skull for the horizontal scale under appropriate conditions even 226 negative, 224 positive differences, differences that are much too insignificant, are not to be overgrown by unbalanced contingencies, and yet give these cases, and many others of the same order of differences, no less good confirmation of the established asymmetry laws as examples of greater asymmetry, which I previously only be explained as know that the different elements on their ratios refer to the relevant laws, affected by the unbalanced contingencies in connection, be changed from this in the same direction and at the same nahehin sizes or in the same proportion, so that only the absolute values rather than the legal differences or ratios of the elements suffer, which is not alleged that these same or exactly proportional change successes, but only to the extent that the scope that make the laws left, is not exceeded. This view may have a more thorough mathematical discussion of his need, in anticipation of such remains in any case, the fact that even the weakest degree of asymmetry with respect to A yet to prove the established distribution laws of the asymmetry of their validity and thus contribute themselves, the general public a more than merely to prove random asymmetry 1) .
1) [Man

cf. in this context, the theoretical derivation of the asymmetric distribution Law 136, after which the principal values only by quantities of order i or 1: distinguished, the latter are presupposed so small that their squares i 2 or 1: m finite sizes over, may be neglected.]

But there is one such in the sense indicated for the KG, the application of mathematical probability formulas to distinguish essential and insignificant

asymmetry is actually idle.Always wants to objects characterized by weak asymmetry be detectable that the asymmetry with respect to A could possibly be by chance, and what is done with it, if the factual investigation proves that they obey the laws of essential asymmetry, however, since these formulas but a certain theoretical retain interest for our area, I will go without folgends practical reason in the following chapters it to have to be based on it. 95 Rather than an essential symmetry point, I now have all the reasons together, which causes us to have a significant asymmetry with respect to A and allow a generalization of the Basic Law in the sense of 33 mentioned laws, there are following. 1) Since it anyway cases of so great u: m is where you can not help by far the greater likelihood reasons, the presence of significant asymmetry with respect to A . permit, the general case, not inscribed in substantial symmetry can A be sought; well but if anything General for K.-G. should apply in this respect, in the substantial asymmetry, among which appear essential symmetry and asymmetry weak as special cases. 2) When one and the same K.-G. a comparative distribution account by the applicable essential asymmetry, two-column GAUSS distribution laws ( 33) and the applicable essential symmetry, simple GAUSS distribution laws ( 24 flgd.) subjects, the former distribution account from the outset is thus an advantage that it is empirically different m ' , m , mar. Dreflects both sides exactly, whereas the latter for the empirically different , , rel. A same value ( '+ , ) = m are, so that for a side by as much against the empirical deviation number too large than on the other must be too small. This, in principle, the compared calculation methods established advantage for the bill after the generalization of the Basic Law of the asymmetry would now indeed prevent it not, that in the individual distribution provisions of the m ' ' and m , , ( 27) are so large and throughout the vast disadvantages against the bill after the simple manner of the Basic Law do th, but so far I've made the comparison, the opposite is the case. 3) The laws of the essential asymmetry that 33 for the case of a sufficiently large m are established and compliance specified in Chapter IV props and will continue to find their theoretical justification, confirmed in the present study material generally with such approximation to the ideal claims as can be expected only when the excludable but not quite unbalanced contingencies, and at the same time prove the correctness of this theory. So it is first and foremost about the proportional law. According to the explanations given there is that as to the value to which the largest z falls short with respect to the closest value, the number of mutual differences as the size of their mean values, ie, m , : m ' = e , : e 'behaves, which reversed the value with respect to which this relationship is true, with the by itsz -maximum determined directly densest values must coincide. Now that we have a distribution panel by appropriate reduction on such a regular course of z have brought that an investigation of its laws and

conditions is possible, we find it given by the condition value that is relative to the same m , : m ' = e , : e ' behave in the interval falling, on which the largest z falls as you can convince yourself, if on the one hand listed in the tables of elements, all of that condition certain D p , on the other hand the shape of the interval panel placed distribution panel from which the derivative is done, take in mind. By means of chapter XI specified interpolation but can the D in the intervals in which it is located, determine more precisely than doing it directly on the size of its z sought to determine which one then of course in the tables of elements not another may find confirmation of the proportional law is that concerning the densest value listed in D p is really m , : m ' = e , : e behaves as D p is itself than the value determined in respect of which there is this ratio. Now, however, may, exceptionally, this value is under the influence of strong imbalanced accidents and unfavorable reduction position held in the interval with the maximum z itself fall into the neighboring interval, but then hands it generally toward to change the reduction able to make it relevant to the bring in interval. Next however, we find in the sharpest possible given on the basis of that proportion values D p a baseline for deviations which satisfy the two-column GG, with random perturbations, however, the so nowhere may be missing, but only those of the same order, as well as in the distribution the observation error in the arithmetic mean occur and be tolerated, as the Bessel comparison tables 2) prove between observation and calculation.
2)

[astronomiae foundations, cesarean section II, p. 19th 20]

What the organic law is concerned, according to which the central value C and the arithmetic mean A set-off to the same side of the densest values in such a way that C between Aand D p falls, one is there with its consequences without exception, even in the weakest u: m in Find confirms the tables of the elements, and might be inclined to see this as the allerschlagendsten evidence of significant asymmetry, since essential symmetry rather D p , C , A could differ only by unbalanced contingencies, and then in the indefinite mutual position of each other. But to this is nothing to give. It can be shown, namely, that the organic law a necessary consequence of the proportional Act 3) , and where D p is determined in the tables of the elements through the proportional law must then of course also the organic law relating to the same press, without being able to prove it, that this value is the maximum zcorresponds to what fundamentally can always only be done by direct comparison.
3)

[cf. the conclusion of the previous chapter.]

Against this setting, the -laws, whereby the distances between D p , C, A certain values are found, the validity of the two-column GG ahead without that this is a necessary consequence of the proportional law, and therefore, they carry far in the

experience Confirm with such approach, as it allow unbalanced contingencies, but significantly, to prove the existence of significant asymmetry, unless such is in solidarity with the two-column GG. Finally, therefore, the essential from the tables of the elements and the related thereto comparison tables between observed and calculated distribution features to be gathered for the presence of asymmetry come back to: a) that for the proportional law certain D p with the right specific D i so close coincides, as it allow unbalanced contingencies b) that the deviations from the former in certain ways as accurately as possible D p the two-column GG meet in a satisfactory manner, c) that - law is fulfilled with reasonable approximation. Of course, in all of the fulfillment of the requisites of Section IV must be assumed that even a successful investigation of K.G. must be met. If now generally apply the criteria specified under these conditions, however, a general conclusion on the occurrence of essential asymmetry be learned. 4) Understand we related K.-G. pursuant to the following examples, so there are not a few cases where the u at the same disposal to m is too small to have any particular not with the possibility of dependence on merely random asymmetry left, in the direction but in all such consistently, or Abwandelung the following items so by law, is incompatible with a mere randomness. So I have, so far they are from recruits dimensions across different countries to be considered as complete, the asymmetry with respect to A found always positive, daily and monthly rainfall (Geneva, Freiberg) is negative for all months, for a variety of abdominal and thoracic organs in humans ( by BOYD) always found negative. In the thermal Month deviations on the other hand, the direction of the asymmetry of returns in the months progress through the year to the law, so that they positively in the winter months, less negative in the summer months, between is Swaying in the interim months. When the rye is u top this positive element, weakens the descent to the lower limbs and beats at the bottom to negative. Common ground could indeed the m all these cases are taken small enough that the constancy or legality would be disturbed or be lost unless the smallness of m win the unbalanced contingencies a growing influence, but the meters , which stood at his command, has been sufficient to prevent it. But had no significant asymmetry was present, they would have with any size of mcan win such a constant or legal superiority over the contingencies. Multiple occurrences of such cases has first led me out of the essential asymmetry at all a general role in the K.-G. areas attributable, and indisputably the cases of this kind would accumulate if only sufficient studies with sufficient meters were available regarding it.

XIII. Mathematical ratios of the compound of major and minor asymmetry.

96 Be some, a value H taken as the starting values of the deviations, and there is asymmetric W. (significant asymmetry) of the same respect, it would without access unbalanced randomness (random asymmetry) of the difference u between the mutual

deviations simply proportional to the increase or decrease respectively. grow or decrease. In fact he was at a given output -m equal to x, so he would at n -fold repetition of the observation at each new copies of the same object the same value xn achieve times, consequently also in the composition of n series of observations into a single continuous, the difference x to nx proceed. If however, the quite substantial asymmetry would remove, and would depend on the difference only of imbalanced randomness, then if we output the m difference y would find that this difference in n -times is not equal to m ny may be because the direction and magnitude of the difference random changes in the repetitions, and, though generally speaking, an overweight, uncertain to which side, is, this, thus the definite difference changes, as long as you are moving in large numbers of variations, and on average, even with small numbers of known principle rather than in relation n rather in proportion . Perform we are now the to ver- n -fold end m as the unit of comparison- n the-simplification and describe the size of the n -dependent values one) : of n to use as an index, we will have for the case only significant asymmetry: u n = nx 1 (1) for the case of only minor asymmetry: (2) and for the case of overlapping of both: (3) where y 1 generally speaking with x 1 may be equal or unequal sign, for while x in the transition from x 1 to nx 1 's, it retains a positive or negative direction, can y 1 in passing in y 1 by Random its retain or transfer without a general decision exists between direction, and we take y 1 for absolute values, we are with regard to this doubtfulness have to put: (4) and the output m itself, where n = 1, u 1 = x 1 y 1 . (5) We are now once n = 100, sometimes = 1: 100, so we will get respektiv: u 100 = 100 x 1 10 y 1 , (6) . (7)

So when hundredfold increase of the output m by (6) the output x to 100 times, the output y only increased to 10 times, and should n be increased indefinitely, as would the final y, ie, the dependent unbalanced contingencies difference against the dependent significant asymmetry x disappear and, conversely, according to (7) for reduction of the output m to 1 : 100, the output x to 1 : 100, the output y is only to 1 : 10 come down, and the former would, upon further reduction of m noticeably can disappear against the latter, which only insofar not quite parallel with the increase of m is, as m increases to infinity, but can only be shrunk down to 2, is it still a difference u are. But in general it follows that the essential asymmetry lighter at large, the insignificant at small m prevails, unless we of that, this as an enlarged into strong relationships as a scaled-down in strong relationships output meters may consider that you should always take it , which of course depends on the need for the widest possible m applied to obtain the essential asymmetry of minor disturbance as possible. 1) The value of x has consistently here with the above notation, the index 1 provided that you transfer when removing gangs- m , where n = 1, taking place value of x means, according to y. [Also note that formula (3 ) will give only a schematic representation of the mixture of major and minor asymmetry without stating dasss y 1 the same value as in (2) represents. In fact, both values are different. Because based on the asymmetry of minor element y 1 is nothing more than the expected according to W. average fluctuation of the value of u n, while grounded in the essential asymmetry member nx 1 the most likely. Value of u n is, the average expected variation around the most probable value is dependent on the latter, and therefore has different values, depending on the-the most probable value is zero or is a finite size. Comp. addition to this, the following chapter ( 101).]

XIV formulas for the mean and probable value of the dependent purely random asymmetry difference u .
97 If already above characteristics are given to distinguish the essential from the inessential asymmetry, is to confess but that they have not absolute. Also, you can in fact never absolutely assure you that a significant asymmetry is present, but only that an overwhelming probability for the same is a more so vast, the more there are the above distinguishing features of the random and meet. In order to make it a little more definite probability judgment, it is useful to know what difference you can expect to find at major symmetry by mere randomness by W. and averages already.

Under probable difference I see one that as often undercut in a large, strictly speaking infinite number of cases (not reached) than is exceeded; below average or average the obtained when the given in frequently repeated experiments with m obtained values of u added irrespective of the sign and the number n of the divided made repetitions. In fact, it has one or the other of the two values in the case of essential symmetry determined generally, one will every, obtained in a given means of determining value u can compare with it. He outweighs those values in strong conditions, we shall have to find it very unlikely that he could be reached at symmetry, because the improbability of it grows with the size of about climbing, here against a significant asymmetry of the sign of u may think very likely. It remains considerably below these values, one has to conclude with a large W. symmetry or asymmetry of doubtful small sign. Yes, you can still draw accurate conclusions. , the theory teaches, and experience confirms it, that the likelihood ratios, which are made according to the Basic Law for the observation error in terms of known tabulated representable integral itself, with substantial symmetry on the u transferred in the manner leave that exceed the average or probableu up to the same limits given W . governed as exceeding the simple average or probable observation error. This is detailed and accurate proved in the following two chapters theoretically, empirically proven, and the application thereof are shown. Here I will limit myself to borrow preliminary in the following main clauses thereof, which are capable of giving the most common indication. . 98th One may have to distinguish two cases, the really only ideal case that the values of from the true A be expected, as it would be to gain from an infinite number of single values, ie in the absolute normal case and the case of reality, where they incorrect in some way from the A to be expected as it is to obtain from a finite number of values. First case does not matter what laws the distribution obey the individual values by size and number, not the size, only the number of them at the same W + and - would be considered, and it is the well-known bag with an equal number of white and black balls instead of + and - take as a reference for the calculation. Last case has the theoretical calculation of the mean and probable u a particular law of distribution can be used as a basis, because thereafter an average and probably expected deviation of the false from the truth A aimed, and these return to the size of the average and probable u of is influence. Accordingly, if we place second for the GG distribution of random deviations from the means of observation of which is represented by the well-known integral, since this distribution is considered normal for the ideal case of a substantially symmetrical K.-G. may apply. Now let U the mean, V the likely u the just ( 97) specified purposes under condition of the first case, U and V under the condition of the second case 1) , we have, up to a very smallm noticeably applicable following standard provisions: , (1) , (2)

, (3) , (4) log 0.79788 = 0.90194 to 1, log .67449 = 0.828 97 - 1, log 0.48097 = 0.68212 to 1, log 0.40659 = 0.60916 to 1. The values of U and U is the upper sign of respectively 0.5 and 1.5 for odd, the lower straight at m use.
l) V

and V THEREFORE here have a meaning other than that listed in 10th

99 For this the following remarks. All four formulas are in principle only as approximate for larger m derived and in this derivation the afflicted with corrections 0.5 and 1.5 the values of U and U (justifiably against the larger m disappears) not found. But it is found empirically that by attaching the same to the relevant formulas to much smaller m - . almost to the smallest - are noticeably reduced N than without The success of the correction of 0.5 V is that the value thereof for each odd and even the next larger m is equal, and the success of the correction of 1.5 V , the value of each odd order and the 3 units higher even m are equal. By drop to very precise formulas for U, but which at larger m are too cumbersome to use, it can be proved that the first success usually of the smallest to the largest m is strict and universal, and what the second is concerned, as I can not say the same with the same security, but only according to the following empirical results in chapter XVI, which as near this success, as might be expected after such uncertainty results show, also is the theoretical derivation of the formulas given for Metroand V is not quite as safe as for U and V, is yet to make because just from those alone for our present study, a practical application and, while that for U and V gain greater importance in other studies, it is this connection to the after very peculiar, very tedious method of mine obtained, probation empirical results for U and V refer to in 115th It will be useful to note that the previous formulas can also be applied to the case when instead of m a single series the summatorische m of several funds received in respect of various series, either with the same or different meters in front of him, by then this is m for m substituted in the previous formulas, just like the condition must be satisfied that the contingencies in which the individual series on the size of u have influence, which can be considered as independent of each other, and thus at aggregation of several meters tend to compensate accordingly, as when the m enlarges the same series. 100 Still want to have to raise some theoretical concerns that could easily impose upon consideration of the previous formulas.

After presupposed in previous formulas equal probability of ', and , one in his sack with infinitely many white and black balls, which are the 'and , can represent to assume an equal number of both, and if the whole infinite number would be pulled the meters of the train so would be infinite, should hereafter the difference u be zero and that be with each repetition of such a turn zero, so also the mean and probable difference is zero, whereas the formulas a, with m indefinitely growing and m = infinite value of U , V, U , V can be found. From other side, however, is clear that with increasing m , also the scope of a possible accidental difference between ' and , increases, and in this respect, however, a growth of the mean and probable difference with m can be expected, which is in sight no limit, hereafter at infinite m , in fact, an infinite difference can be expected. This apparent antinomy that sets it apart, though, the mean and probable difference at infinite m the formulas in itself becomes infinite according to it but as with proportional size than the second order, against m both ' and , which even with m are of the same order, disappears, so that the widest possible from this mathematical aspects ', which can be drawn is still equal to , or ' : , can be set equal to unity, as a condition of symmetry hold, if already of , differs by a tiny size against both. Also, maybe you can take the matter this way: Since infinity can be thought multiplied by an infinity, which represents an infinity, it follows that we simply subtract an infinite number of balls, not that it pulls the whole number, and could at least in the absolute infinity, the number of white and black balls be the same without at m = this equality one devices, if the did not mean the absolute infinity. Anyway, you can not match the experience other than through the above form of the formulas, and the same hereby is justified against any objections to the theory, which may remain from previous volume considerations. Second, one can establish that, as with increasing m , the difference between the true and false A is more and more reduced and at infinite m is vanishingly small that the wrong but according to the above formulas, A projected metro to the true A calculated U at a larger m has noticeably constant ratio, whose exact limit for infinite m instead of 1 rather (5) 's. This, however, has the following reason: The number of deviations which lie between the true and the false means, and what the difference between U and U depends, of course, decreases with the approach of the false to the true means, but with the size of m to, and thus the approximation of both appropriations by the size of m is due to compensate for this so that that constant ratio

with increasing m comes out, and may even at infinite approximation of both agents by virtue of the infinity of m still an infinite number of infinitely small deviations between both are thought mathematically lying. In this regard, the experience is the way decisive. According to the mentioned in 115, with comparable values of each U andU are found for m = 10, 50, 100, the number nor the value U : U equal to 0.554, 0.558, 0.608, which is only from the theoretical ratios and the constancy of differs within the limits of the expected uncertainty that is natural for the ratio of two values significantly greater than for the individual values. Third, the following fact can be noticed. Depending on whether one expects deviations from the true or false means, the sum falls differently from the same, and that the smaller the wrong remedy for the bill from the true center, the smaller average account for m and the false thus is the means. But the difference is already at moderate m almost vanishingly by, as I said in a separate treatise 2) theoretically and empirically shown that the true total average is as wrong to behave that ratio with increasing m , the unit quickly approaching.This appears counter-striking that the mean difference between the number of positive and negative deviations is considerably different when, after the above limit ratio U : U = 0.6028 yields.
2)

["On the determination of corrections regarding the accuracy of the observations", etc. in the reports of the Royal. Saxon. Society of Sciences. , 1861.] This can make themselves understood as follows. If the deviations obtained in reality, could be calculated from the true center, would at finite m not only the number but also the same sum to be equal on both sides by chance. Now the provision of false means so happens that the sum of the artificially makes to both sides the same, since this is indeed the condition of the arithmetic mean, and you would have to expect hereafter, that the sum of differences and the speed difference in the account of false means entirely disappear when both were proportional differences. Now this is not the case, but in any case we see a that the disappearance of the sum of the difference in the transition from true to false means very well may be associated with such a significant reduction in the number difference, as they are in the ratios U : U turns. As far as the essential asymmetry, it takes only a small proportion of this reduction. As mentioned above (Section XIII) noted, neither significant nor insignificant asymmetry can indeed far too small m develop right, but average by as often happens, the deviation in the wrong sense, as against the sense of the essential asymmetry of the true means is with a largem , a compensation of the influence thereof, instead of the essential asymmetry. 101 [Additive. Finally, to the modifications suffered by the above formulas for the case of significant asymmetry to specify and also to prove the soundness of the scheme given in the previous chapter, the mixture of major and minor asymmetry, note that at substantially asymmetric K. - G. not the arithmetic means, but by the

densest values is in principle assumed. With respect to the latter value, the chances of positive and negative differences are then not equal, but, in agreement with the theoretical determination of the closest value, the mutual ratios of the simple average deviations e ' and e , to take. Because the proportion of e ': e , = m ': m , defines the densest value, so that the total number of copies in the circumstances 'e : e , distributed on both sides of the densest value, and therefore precisely this ratio, the probabilities p and q = 1 - p determined for positive and negative deviations. It is accordingly a K.-G. with a given e ' and e , rel. the closest value 3) : , (6)

Then, first the most probable difference between positive and negative for any deviations is m equal to: m ( p - q ). (7) Is also the mean and probable deviation from this value in the same way by U and V denotes, as above concerning the mean and probable deviation from the zero values happened, we obtain by putting aside the corrections: (8) V = 0.6745 There are thus the likely limits of the differences u equal ( p - q ) m 0.6745 - 0.6745 and less than ( p - q ) m + 0.6745 (10) was]. (9)

ie it is one to bet against 1 that an observed u is greater than ( p - q ) m

3)

[For a more detailed discussion teaches that weak asymmetry in the treatment of an arithmetic K.-G. allows p and q only to sizes of order 1: where m , the total number of copies of the K.-G. is from are different.]

[This provision of the probable limits can cause both the mixing ratios of the major and minor asymmetry seen when in harmony with the statements of the previous chapter under significant asymmetry of the likely non-zero difference value u, is understood to be insignificant asymmetry of the probable variation around this most probable value . It shows that, in formula (3) of the specified chapter, x 1 = ( p - q ) m, y 1 = 0.6745 is set, and in that then in the formula (2) where p = q = is

likely , y 1 = 0.6745

has to set.]

[One reaches to the specified provisions of the likely u, and the mean and probable variation around this value when the probability that among m deviations m ' positive and m , find negative is that thus u = m '- m , , equal to: (11) and from this is assuming a large value of m the approximate value: (12) derived]

XV. Probability provisions for the dependent of a purely random asymmetry difference u the outputs from the true center.
102 Generally found in K.-G. between the number of positive and negative deviations ', , mar. the arithmetic mean A is a difference u = '- , from which wonders if he is not at much the same W. mutual differences merely by unbalanced contingencies for finiteness of m is explained, or whether the involvement of an asymmetric W. deviations in both directions should be taken into cooperating, since unbalanced contingencies in the finite m, with which one always has to do, can not be missing without it but that alone need to condition the difference found. Here About to probability rules can specify that although our theory no fundamental importance, but still have an interest for the reason given in 94, which caused me without exhausting the subject here and want to follow in his mathematical depth, up to certain limits respond to it. The most general, what can be said about it is that the greater the difference u the absolute values of the ratios for the total number m , and the larger m is even, the less likely is the dependence of bare unbalanced contingencies, or, as we briefly may say, the mere randomness of the difference, the more likely the Mitabhngigkeit of asymmetric W., without, however, being able to reach an absolute certainty in this way at all. But probably can specify how big at significantly W. symmetric random medium and the probable difference ubetween ' and , is that according to the existing meters can be expected when under moderate differences, short U is understood to be the difference that after repeated repetition of the observation under the same circumstances with the same m from getting new copies of the same object as the arithmetic mean of the various thereby obtained values of u seen (the absolute values of); under probable differences, short V , the value as it often exceeded as is exceeded, the first of which regard the u -values the same as A rel. the a -values, the second the same as the median mar. the a -values. In ever greater proportions now

that after the probability determinable, purely random medium and probable u . shown in a distribution panel, respectively U and V, encountered by the u is exceeded, the less likely the dependence is the same from mere randomness, and it can be even indicate degrees of improbability in the proportion of such excess, what the rules are known to mathematicians, but which I will not go into detail here. Now it seems at first, of course, in the determination of the ratios of u assumed known from the urn of probability under the condition that it infinitely many in number but the same number of white and black balls are contained by at draw of each m a balls equal W . to train white and black balls is what the speed difference u would be the balls to zero, randomly but with repeated, say s trains of each m balls soon, the number of one and then the other balls more soon, soon weighs less, just a random difference u is obtained from a random size in a random direction. It can not only be calculated, but also proved by experience, as in the case of many large (strictly speaking, infinitely many) trains middle and likely u are the absolute values of, and it is obvious that the result thereof to the mean and probable value of u to be transferred, which by mere coincidence between the number of positive and negative deviations from the arithmetic mean values of K.-G. assuming symmetric W. with respect to the same is obtained. Now, however, will continue ( 109), a fact to be stated, which makes the pure transmission of the result from one to the other case impracticable, but we still go out of the case just discussed, with some interesting, if I'm not mistaken, so far will prove to unknown conditions to later on the more complicated, which offer the collective deviations to move in short, we be speaking first, the result of the train of balls from the urn under the prescribed conditions, and I in respect to the results for larger m on sentences support that I in the "Recherches sur la probabilit of jugements" POISSON and the treatises of HAUBER in the 7th, 8th and 9 Ties of Nuclear Physics and Mathematics of BAUMGARTNER and Ettingshausen find common ground and also elsewhere 1) are to be found, however I for smaller m , for which the foot of my knowledge there is no investigation on their own to study.
l) [For

example, in Meyer's lectures on probability theory, in connection with the treatment of BEBNOULLI'schen theorem,. chapter III] 103 Now I find initially justified the general result in those sources that the likelihood ratios of u at very large m and n each other follow under the conditions specified in their relationships the same law of random variation when the deviations from the arithmetic mean of the Basic Law of the observation error, and that therefore, if Q 2 - the average of the squares of all possible u , for a given m , is also between Q , U and V at large m and n have the same ratio exists as to GG, between q 2 , and f, if q 2 the mean square error : m, the simple average error : m, and w is the probable error. What: U= 0.79788 = Q log 0.79788 = 0.90194 to 1 (1)

V Q = 0.67449 log 0.67449 = 0.82897 to 1 (2) V = 0.84535 V = 0.84535 log 0.92703 to 1 (3) After its own investigation but I find the following two, in itself not uninteresting sentences, which for very large, strictly speaking, infinite n remain strictly valid, like m be large or small, will therefore find themselves approximate thus, the more often the train one of each m balls repeatedly, it is that every time there are 2 or 10 or 100 etc is: 1) that Q 2 = m 2) that U matter for a given odd and even more to 1 m, that is, for m = 1 and so on is 2, 3, and 4, 99 to 100. 104 Following the way how to get math matic hand on previous records. Be every m, for example, 4 balls drawn from the urn in question, the following 5 cases can arise: Special type number of white and black balls 4 w. 3 w. 2 w. 1 w. 0 w. o black. 1 black. 2 black. 3 black. 4 black. +4 +2 0 -2 -4

In general, for given m, the possible U -values m + 1, when the positive and negative u can be distinguished, however only m + 1 for straight m ( m + 1) for odd m if u for absolute values will therefore be equal to the positive and negative counts. For each not too large m the potential are u easily found empirically on the previous scheme, and now the question is how often at very frequent trains from m, so this case of 4 balls each of the possible u in proportion to the total number of possible u occurs or briefly what each W. u has. This is W .been found to be indicated in the same way. Multiplying then each u with his W. and adds these products, so you have it by a known principle of probability theory, the exact mean uwhat we U call. At first it may seem that the sum of those products even with the sum of W . would have to be divided to the middle u get but every single W. presents itself as a fractional value of 1, and the total sum of these fractional values are 1 what makes any particular division necessary. Similarly, one obtains the average u 2 , we Q 2 call by summing the products of the individual u 2 respectively in their W.

It is therefore important to U and Q for a given m to find the possible can u recorded in the sense above example, to determine the W. of each as follows, and then take as given the sum of the products. To the W. of now u just W [ u ] or W [ '- , ], under separation of positive and negative values for given m gain, one has the following, the mathematicians known formula 2) : , (4) wherein 1 . two . 3 ... m , the product of all integers from 1 to up to and including M means in accordance with and , in which case, however, that , or , = 0, the value of 1.2.3 ... ' or 1.2.3 ... , is set equal to 1.
2) Less

pressed to the same formula as follows:

If we apply this to our example, m = 4, Accept ' for the number of white, , for the black balls, 1 2 3 4 = 24; ' 4 3 2 1 0 , 0 1 2 3 4 , we obtain: u +4 +2 0 -2 -4 W[u]

Now let us take u to absolute values reckless on its sign, as we do, because U is taken as the average of the absolute values, doubles, for odd m the W for each, u, with straight m, as for m = 4 is, for each u with. Exception of u = 0, and we have to write the previous example as follows: U W[u] 4

2 0

The corresponding implementation for the odd m = 1 to 5 and higher even m = 6 are: for m = 5 U W[u] 5 3 1 for m = 6 u W [ u] 6 4 2 0 But [Consequently U = 1 , Q = 4 for m = 4, V = 1 7 / 8 , Q 2 = 5 is m = 5 and D = 1 7 / 8 , Q = 6 for m = 6, then find that confirms the above sets by Q = m for m = 4, 5 and 6, andU for m = 5 and 6 shall be the same value. In the same way, for any other m confirmation by direct calculation can be achieved.] [However, in order to prove the two sentences in their general validity, we denote by Q and U back clearly the dependence of m by Q m and U m , and put first: , (5) where the summation is over all pairs ( ' , , ) = ( m, 0), ( m - 1.1) (1, m - 1), (0, m ) is expanding, for which '+ , = m. Consequently, ( '- , ) = ( + ,) - 4 , = m - 4 ' , and is obtained by substitution of the latter value: , (6) Since

, if = 0 or , = 0, the second sum only nor the pairs (is , , ) = ( m - 1, 1), ( m 2, 2) (1 , m - 1 to extend), and one can therefore Q m 2 represent the following form: . (7) But it is the first sum is equal to (1 + 1) m : 2 m , the second is equal to (1 + 1) m2 : 2 m-2 , as can be seen immediately, if the dividends are developed according to the binomial theorem, and the value of each of the two sum is one. Therefore, we obtain: 1) Q m 2 = m 2 - m ( m - 1) = m . It can also be set for an even m , which is equal to 2 will be accepted: (8) for the smaller odd m = 1 to 2 - 1: (9) and erstrecke first if the summation of the value pairs ( , , ) = (2 , 0), (2 - 1, 1) ( + 1, - 1), second if any the pairs ( , , ) = (2 - 1, 0), (2 - 2, 1) ( , - 1). It is now possible in the first case = + 1 + , , = - 1 - , in the latter case = + , , = - 1 - set, where both if the values - 1, 2, has to accept 0, so that one gets the following representations:

, (10)

, (11) However, since for any positive integers and v 3 ) : (12) so is:

(13) and is obtained by simple reduction:

1.

.]

105 In the previous two sets not contained on the number relationship that, (3) on the basis of the applicability of GG to the likelihood ratios of the formulas (1), (2) u between the values of U, Q and V are set up, and has gone before is not even in the [simple] dependence of the values of U and V on the size of m before, but such as we need. But now we substitute in the above formulas by Theorem 1) the value of Q , then we obtain the following two formulas, which provide the Required 4) : U = 0.79788 (14)

V = 0.67449 , (15) Formulas that can be derived from the formulas of the indicated sources by the way, so that nothing essentially new is offered it; against this can be on set 2 ) following, I think, establish previously unknown correction of the formula (14), to which preface the following.
3) [Man

proves this identity by first

is then, in turn,

for = 1, 2, ... - 1 by

replaced.]
4) [We come to the same formula for U , if in the above representation of U 2 , because of the simplicity in the unreduced form

'm assuming after Stirling's formula (2 )! = (2 ) 2. exp [- 2 ] and ! = microns microns exp [- ] reduction is, then you get on the required

or

However, since it is only an approximation to the true value of U 2 U = 2 - 1 is obtained, it is appropriate for smaller values of 2 2 or - 1, due to the more accurate formula
,

the approximate values of (2 )! and ( )! or a factor

resp.

attached, then one obtains

;

Thus, for even m the formula:

;

for odd m has the formula:

.

Thus one gets in this way the given under (16) correction for U. ] .

While the above sentences 1) and 2) for arbitrarily small and large m only at sufficiently large n remain valid, set the formulas (14) and (15), as well as the formulas (1), (2) and (3), from which they follow a large, strictly speaking, infinite m ahead, without a larger n to demand as first Were they to be so small but on m ie at infinitely large to use as 3, 4 or 5, they would be even in the middle of infinitely many trains, n a noticeably bad result, however even with a single course of a very large m a noticeably correct result give. But we replace the formula (14) by the following: U = 0.79788 (16)

using the upper sign for straight, lower for odd m, we thus correspond to the requirement of the theorem 2) and at the same time find empirically that this formula even to the smallest mdown though not absolute, but almost exactly with the exact

theoretical numbers is correct, the above principle in exactly the same way specified for small as for large m are obtained, except that for large m is no longer feasible the bill. In fact, one receives, the following comparison table: Comparison of the exact values of U with the calculated according to (16).

m 1 and 2 3 and 4 5 and 6 7 and 8 9 and 10 11 u.12 15 u.16 25 u.26

exactly 1.0000 1.5000 1.8750 2.1875 2.4609 2.7070 3.1421 4.0295

0,797 88 0.9772 1.4927 1.8712 2.1851 2.4592 2.7058 3.1413 4.0291

diff. - 0.0228 - 0.0073 - 0.0038 - 0.0024 - 0.0017 - 0.0012 - 0.0008 - 0.0004

As you can see, all of formula (16) soft computed values of U in the minus of the exact off, but even with m = 1 and 2, the difference is very minor, is at m = 25 and 26, only 4 units of 4 Decimal and decreases with increasing the m further. Course the uncorrected formula (14) at small m much larger deviations from the exact values, with m = 25 it is still - 0.0401, with m = 26 or + 0.0389, and only at much larger m it is to formula (14) as in formula (16) remarkably negligible. 106 As the value V is concerned, as the same would be provided in principally the same characterized in that the value of u given in respect of which the probability of greater u is equal to the probability of smaller u, but we try it on Examples small m, like the above, with m = 4, 5 or 6 apply, so give the same no such value here, but what values we want to take it, so the probability sum of the larger and smaller is u unequal, and would have been the same if you ever require a specific value for between two from u to look for which are separated by 2, eg when m = 5 between u = 3 and 1, with m = 6 between u = 0 and 2 without, as far as I can see, a rational principle for a more accurate determination exists, what it does not prevent such a large m, 2, however that disappears for finding the formula (15) allowed. Meanwhile, it seemed of interest, a provision for smaller m trying the following principle. The number of values of z, the value of a a a K.-G. is written, whether in a primary or reduced panel is actually distributed to previous debates on a whole interval to think its borders equidistant from a center between the two a fall. Let us now

compare the equidistant u with the equidistant a so can be prepared by analogy with the probabilities that each u come to think distributed over an interval of size 2, and thereafter, in exactly the same way as we the central value of a of by interpolation interval in which it falls, find (see 82), as the central value of u, di V; find by interpolation of its interval. I'm not saying that this consideration is strictly, for those distribution z at K.-G. is given by the nature of things as necessary against this at the u se required by anything, and not to confuse a provision found by interpolation with an accurate. However, it could be an attempt to do what comes of it, and so could be found for given values of m for the large m by formula (15) given compare. But instead of merely interpolation with first differences I have with the more accurate second differences applied there and get the following results: Comparison of the interpolated V calculated in accordance with (15).

m 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 25

interpolated 1.0000 1.1716 1.3837 1.5072 1.6667 1.7912 1.9117 2.0372 2.1328 2.6168 3.0241 3.3733

0.67449 0.9539 1.1682 1.3490 1.5082 1.6522 1.7845 1.9077 2.0235 2.1329 2.6123 3.0164 3.3724

diff. - 0.0461 - 0.0034 - 0.0347 + 0.0010 - 0.0145 - 0.0067 - 0.0040 - 0.0137 + 0.0001 - 0.0045 - 0.0077 - 0.0009

It is seen that the comparison is in fact not unsuccessfully, by the interpolation obtained by V -values even at very low values of m with those corresponding to the formula (15), almost exactly agree. And it only remains striking that the differences between the associated values follow no regular course, and while most calculated according to (15) values are a trifle smaller than the interpolated values at a few (for m = 5 and 10) the reverse takes place, which is not based on computational mistake, as I have satisfied myself by careful revision. [It is this universal agreement, however, shows that the interpolationsmige provision is applicable only insofar as the formula (15) the probable value

of u represents with sufficient approximation. But this - the derivation of that formula to follow - only then is the case when sizes of order 1 : may be neglected, as it is for smaller m not use the formula (15), yet the interpolation method with advantage, rather prefer to accurate determinations of V talk. These can be divided into successive approximation to the true value using the empirical formula of MAC LAURINO, which is also called Euler's formula, win. Namely, there is the basic meaning of that Formula is that it. Calculating a discrete sum, returns to satisfaction of certain conditions, to integration and differentiation and thus a constant change enabled expression using in place of the interval-by-interval leaps and bounds changing sum value If this is done for the sum of the values of W [ u ], it is possible that of u can be determined to which the sum of the values upstream and downstream is equal to , thereby precisely V is found.] [It is now, as in the First Amendment ( 110) is demonstrated, for even and odd m: V = 0.674 489 - 1, (17) wofern sizes of order 1 : take into account such of the order of 1 : m are neglected. In that event the sizes of the order of 1 : m further you will find: 1.for even m = 2

, (18a) 2.for odd m = 2 - 1 , (18b) where the value of c by means of the T -table, in both cases for a given = m resp. (m + 1 ) of: (18c) . is found , the two formulas (18a), (18b) to the analogue form (16), and they have the effect that the nahehin V for an even m and the next successive odd and equal to each other and would be identical if c with neglect of the link 1 : 16 would set in (18c) is equal to 0.67449]. [The comparison of the three approximate formulas (15), (17) and (18), the V , in turn, as V 1 , V 2 and V 3 are referred to, the following composition is used: m 4 5 V1 1,349 1,508 V2 0,349 0,508 V3 0,565 0,529

6 9 10 11 20 100 1000

1,652 2,023 2,133 2,237 3,016 6,745 21,329

0,652 1,023 1,133 1,237 2,016 5,745 20,329

0,827 1,043 1,267 1,257 2,111 5,786 20.333

107 Because apart from the interpolationsmig produced V all previous provisions are based on unequivocal arithmetical principles and sentences, as expected, an empirical probation them to not be necessary, however I will still respond to such, partly because the method of parole in itself a peculiar interest likely to offer by replacing the probability urn, partly because their results give some indication of how far you the exact values of Q and U for given m, which is basically a provision of infinite n , at large, but still finite require n as it is empirically bids can expect later on. Indisputably granted the urn with infinitely many, in number equal white and black balls a very appropriate idea on which one can explain the previous sentences, but such polls can not be prepared, and also when they are finite by an urn with a number of balls replaced, in which one the m zurcktut balls after each course, which can be done well, would be the method for very many trains extremely boring and the production of a completely random mix of balls before each new course hardly attainable in short, the real always be impracticable application of the method, even I do not know that was ever made use of it. But it is the equivalent of the urn in the lists drawn Winning the lottery numbers to it, from which the even as white as the odd black balls, or in comparison with positive and negative deviations from the same W, the one positive, the other can be taken as negative. To this end I have (in the 50s) of the relevant authorities the lists of ten Saxon lotteries of 1843 and by 1852, depending 32000-34000 numbers ver-creates lists, in which the winning numbers for the random order in which they are taken were, are, as such 28904, 24460, 32305, 16019, 157, 3708, 16 928, etc. Although now the number of numbers each annual lottery is always only a finite number, and the numbers drawn are not returned to the wheel of fortune, such changes but the use of the old numbers not in the likelihood ratio of the later, as it would be in the application of the urn with a finite number of balls of the case, and you can watch it as if an urn containing an infinite number of balls vorlge 5) . The ticket numbers in Glcksrade face, as far as I can see at a therefore made visits to the hospital, displayed as small pins which speaking, closer, little rolls are composed of tightly rolled and inserted through circular tubes of paper, on which the numbers are included. Perhaps this description is not entirely accurate to the memory,
5)

but what comes to nothing-here. Before the draw, these numbers are ordered according to their order on boards, each 1000 on a board. These boards are emptied into irregular, determined by random call of an official order only in one case and from here to the wheel of fortune, so that from the outset an irregular mixture held by thousands has, then turned the wheel, and this is taken after every 100 numbers repeated. On the axis of the wheel are mounted four broken wings that rotate in opposite direction of the wheel, thereby carrying Mengung irregular. If you look at how this happens and drop the lots by each other, so one feels tempted to believe that already suffice quite a few twists to make the mixture quite irregular, but should, according to the officials at the first drawings, in which the lottery is divided, neighbor numbers appear more often in succession, while in the last draw after the Mengung is caused by a hundred times more spin of the wheel, nothing is noticed the way. We first illustrate the application thereof to the simple case of m = 3, where only the two u = 1 and 3 with the theoretical W [ u ] = 0.75 respectively 0.25 are possible, which can be found on the specified rules . In 2000maliger repeat the determination of m = 3 from getting new numbers, that is n = 2000, the following results were obtained in all: Empirical number of times a u in n sets of each m = 3 values occurred, as compared with the theoretical number m = 3, n =, 2000. U theoretically Empirically 1 1500 3 500 1494 506

Dividing the numbers obtained with n, we obtain from previous table, the following provisions: W[u] U theoretically Empirically 1 0,750 3 0,250 0,747 0,253

resulting in then Q , U, V, as stated earlier, can be determined, so, for example, theoretically Q = 1 0.750 +9 0.250 = 3, and D = 1 3 + 0.750 1.5 = 0.250 . Accordingly, the following results are with larger m and different, but still

very large n to understand and treat. Empirical number of times a u in n sets of each m values occurred, as compared with the theoretical number

m = 10, n = 5000

m = 50, n = 1000

m = 100, n = 600

theoretically Empirically theoretically Empirically theoretically empirically 0 1230 2 2051 4 1172 6 439 8 98 10 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 5000 1201 2027 1225 442 97 8 5000 112 216 192 158 119.5 84 54 32 17 9 4 2 0.5 1000 110 217 194 154 120 65 62 41 21 10 3 2 1 1000 48 93.5 88 80 69.5 58 47 36 27 19 13 8.5 5.5 3 2 1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.1 600 46 104 85 67 68 63 51 31 34 13 14 8 7 4 2 1 0 1 1 0 600

The possible values of u in the previous table are for m = 50 and 100 not performed up to the end, but still noticeably missing from vanishing W., so that an enormous n would have been necessary, should such occur one time or another.

From previous table, the following table is the empirical Q U, V derived in comparison with the theoretical values. m n Q U V

theoretically empirically theoretically empirically 0,674 empirically interpol. 49 3 2000 3.00 3.02 10.13 52.02 101.68 1.50 2.46 5.61 7.96 1.51 2.49 5.71 8.05 1.17 2.13 4.77 6.74 1.18 2.19 4.76 6.94 10 5000 10.00 50 1000 50.00 100 600 100.00

The close match of the empirical values with the theoretical dispute is satisfactory and only striking that for all values of m are the empirical Q and U is a little larger than the theoretical one, which is probably the only reason why the case because the series for the major m largely by merging the series, which for the smaller m were obtained were obtained, so that it could extend their influence on the former with that due to the squaring of u wherein the determination of Q 2 must be noticeable than U , where Corresponding to the shows, to a lesser degree. 108 The previous considerations and formulas can be useful in many cases of use in statistical studies. For example, it was necessary to examine whether the difference which exists between the number of births or deaths or suicides in two different seasons, or between the number of male and female births, or between the number of storms in two different localities, is purely coincidental , or whether the nature of the seasons, sex, locality has a significant influence on the magnitude and direction of the difference. Be in Summa distinguished for both conditions a very large number, say m , cases have been observed, and in this case found that on one side of ', on the other , cases are, therefore, the absolute difference u is, it is pointed depend on whether the difference found u in the absolute values of the probable V exceeds or drops below, and in what circumstances this is the case, to make the following conclusions probability type. Would the W. of ' and , equal, and therefore the difference found u by chance, it would be just as likely that he was the last to specific formulas for this condition symmetric W., probable difference V be beyond and would increase, and if the observation with the same m would often repeated, he would on average with V are found substantially equal; here against a purely random difference is, of course, the less likely, in ever larger proportions it the particular under the condition of mere randomness probable V exceeds-hence the W., that he was not merely by chance, the greater will be held in ever larger proportions of this top, and when conditions purely random u at large m harmonize with the conditions of the observation error to GG,

also according to a table of the Basic Law, which are the likelihood ratios of the error as a function of the ratio in which the probable error w of them exceeded or fallen rose, under substitution of V for w can hire more definite probability calculations in previous relationships. Against these general propositions, in my opinion would be not lift durable objection, in respect to the particular interpretation but I folgends the ratios u: V give the benefit of their practical utilization, probably at the great ease of incorrect terminology and fallacies in this field, the fundamental revision by a probability completely familiar with the professional mathematician probably be even more desirable. Include for example m = 1000 thunderstorms during the same period of time at two locations together for both observed on a ' = 530, at the other , = 470, so u = 60, so is the formula (15), the likely difference V, we expect to mere coincidences and, under the same condition for symmetric W. u and for which w can use the error table: V = 0.6745 = 21.33. 21,33 This value is considerably ratios of differences found u = 60 exceeded, by 60 = 2.81 V is, so it is much more likely than the opposite, that the difference is not purely random, but a local influence on his Conclusion share has, without being allowed but it is therefore highly likely to find that he was merely based on the local influence, but just that a local influence of a certain direction exists, which anticipated the merely by chance with symmetrical W. expels . On the other hand, the difference would be found, u is less than the probableV, such As ' = 505, , = 495, hence u = 10 = 0.47 V, however, V = 21.33, remains as a predominant W. would not stand for it that just a random difference exists, but that the random effect is large enough to outweigh any possible local influence, however, no probability for this is that the difference found was it was merely accidental or merely dependent on local influences. Short, these are the W. whether one or the other influence outweighed, if not just one or the other there. But if the W. that the predominant local, is very large, so it is of course also the W. huge that one is available, and are thus calculations of this kind of benefit for the probability of the existence of other evidence than just random influences . If this weighs against the W. that the random effect does not outweigh the accidental, it remains doubtful whether such was present at all, and you have only one chance evidence that he was ever small. Let us apply this approach and go with it back to the previous examples, we find on the first case where the difference found u = 60 and V = 21.33, hence u: V = 2.81 is, according to the table of the Basic Law that W., the difference u will remain as inferred from this value behaves to the W. to the contrary as 0,942 against 0,058, and if that value u is reached yet, you will be able to bet against 6 in round numbers 94, he was not merely coincidental. In the second case, where u = 10 = 0.47 V , is given by the table in question that W., the difference u will remain as random values from this, to the contrary, behaves like 0.249 to 0.751, but if he does not has remained

below this value, finds the opposite W. this place that he has reached a random this value, and will be in round numbers, only one can bet against 3 that a local influence have the chance outbid, 3 against 1, but for to the contrary, but without being able to bet that was not at all been there a local influence. I did not know at least how these conditions were to hold otherwise both practical and efficient. Let W the W. that or u under precondition W. symmetric under a given fraction or multiple of w or V will remain, one has to make a small excerpt here from the corresponding table6) to give the GG to each belonging: u 0.10 V 0.25 V 0.50 V 0.75 V 1.00 V 1.25 V 1,50 V 1.75 V 2.00 V W 0.05378 0.13391 0.26407 0.38705 0.50000 0.60083 0.68833 0.76214 0.82266 u 2.25 V 2.50 V 2.75 V 3.00 V 3.25 V 3.50 V 4.00 V 4.50 V 5.00 V W 0.87088 0.90825 0.93638 0.95698 0.97163 0.98176 0.99302 0.99760 0.99926

One has but to beware when using previous determination against erroneous application of the same in the following sense. You have set, it was some two months or any two seasons without the other, in respect to the number of thunderstorms remanded in so nothing will prevent the previous determination in regard to the question whether the difference in the two months or seasons a have other than just random influence on the number of storms, just to bring it into use as if it is the local influence of the locality. But suppose you have the observation of the storms number of given m made for all 12 months, so, even if the same for all months W. of thunderstorms number so that u fail in comparison of any two of the same differently by chance, and it will include can find two months that the biggest u give what could be as large easy to see that after his relationships with V close to vast W. a substantial influence. But this conclusion would be erroneous in so far as among a larger number of cases, but also at low W., large deviation differences occur. In any case, the question then remain months because of a specific influence suspicious, and to ensure the observation but would be particularly extended and continued, for example, up to double the number of them in my opinion, to see whether the probability inference confirmed 7) .

[This table can be found in the Berlin astronomer. Yearbook for 1834, pp. 309 flgd.]
7)

6)

[cf. to this paragraph the second addition ( 111).]

109 First, now, that seems to make use of the previous considerations and formulas also directly applicable to the task of the magnitude of the difference u between the number of positive and negative deviations + and - . bez the arithmetic mean A is to close after W. whether the difference may depend on chance only, or whether in the nature of the object and its conditions of existence of an influence is due, the if not sole on obesity the number one or the other deviations but has been complicit, or short, whether there are substantial differences in the share of asymmetry. And in fact, if we were assured from the outset that the deviations of copies a of their arithmetic mean A same symmetric W. demonstrate to both sides, as the white and black balls at drawing the same, so the previous considerations and formulas would be very be applicable to it, but that is not the case according to the following considerations. We call for the purposes of a known language use true middle A the average of an infinite number of copies, wrong means A m are the only standing to bids from a finite number m.W. Let now the symmetric deviations rel. the true mean forward, yet, both the mutual deviation sums as the mutual deviation figures rel. the same chance to be unequal and normally when changing the total number m of deviations not proportional to each other, but in a functional connexion to the same direction, ie change in gain or loss 8) . Is now of a finite number of a pulled the wrong way, so it disappears the difference between the mutual deviation sums because the is indeed in the nature of the arithmetic mean, it makes up the sums so to speak, artificially equal, and if sums and figures changed proportional to each other, as would the differences between the sums of both sides at the same time, the difference u disappear between the mutual numbers, which is not the case, not only by experience, but is not expected due to non-proportional change. But in any case reduces itself to repeal the difference between the mutual deviation sums of functionally related difference between the mutual numbers against the case that the deviations were taken from the true center, for which the above formula applies, and can thus be predicted that the average and probable value of u rel. the wrong means of which we can only expect it but, at the same m must be less than dist.Thus, the true, and that the above formulas can not be authoritative for that. We consider that while the true means always of an infinite number of A is drawn to think, but the number m of withdrawn deviations may be a more or less finite.
8)

Meanwhile, yet can be from previous volume initially draw the following two conclusions: 1) the W. is a significant influence on application of the above formulas

to the deviation difference u rel. the arithmetic mean of A m for a given m to take on even greater than it appears according to the above formulas, because V, in proportion to what u would be considered, with respect to A m in any case less than rel. A is what the above formulas apply. 2) Let dist. the wrong agent A m as well as mar. the true A are the prerequisite W. symmetrical, but then call the above with respect to the former with u, Q, U, V indicated values when they rather mar. the latter are determined respectively. V , Q , U , V , so it will only apply them accordingly as a function of m rel. A m to determine as those relating to A were determined in order to obtain formulas which can serve many other particulars appropriate. 110 [First Amendment. Determination of the probable difference V by means of the empirical formula of MAC LAURINO or EULER:] [This chemical formula 9) :

(19) where b = a + nh , and B 1 = 1 / 6 , B 3 = 1 / 30 are the Bernoulli numbers]. [Order now W [ u to sum] according to this formula, is not the original form (4), but this application on the basis of the approximate formula: (20) or when members of the order of 1 : n considered, on the basis of the corrected formula: (21) to remove resulting shape is based.] [If we use first (20), then for m = 2 , = + v , , = - v , u = 2 v : , . (22)

The sum of W [ u ] between the limits + n 2 and - 2 n, or the sum of the W [ u ] between the limits 0 and 2 n is thus given by: . (23)

But now, by (19) when in unison with given by (20) members approximation of order 1 : can be neglected: . (24) Consequently, we obtain: . (25) Gives the right to a more convenient form when x 2 = 2 , n 2 = t 2 , dx = d substituted. One gets then an expression of the probability W, that: , Or the determination: . (26) [EULER dissipates it in the Institutiones calculi differentialis, pars post, Cap.V. Reprod. 226 eg in Schloemilch's Compendium of higher analysis, the second volume, p]
9)

According to her, the probable value of u, ie is V, is given by: (27) if t the condition: (27a) sufficient. For it is then the W. that u < 2 t equal to . In order to derive t to compute, we set t = c + , and determine c from , so that the t is equal to 0,476, according to table 936, then the integral divided between the limits 0 and c + in two integrals between the limits 0 and c and between the limits c and c + , and the result is:

. But since a size of order 1 : is, we obtain a sufficient accuracy when exp [- 2 ] is kept constant in the extension of the integral and equal to exp [- ( c + ) 2 ] is set. It is therefore, after division by exp [- (c + ) 2 ]: or Due to this, we obtain 10) : . (28) Initially, since m = 2 has been set, it might seem that this formula only for even m is true. However, results for m = 2 - 1, the same result by, as is to be expected, since only quantities of order 1 : to be considered]. [This same formula is also MEYER in the lectures on probability theory in the treatment of Bernoulli's theorem, p.107.]
10)

[But if you want sizes of the order of 1 : m into account, one must take (20) using the approximation formula (21) and the case that m even, of the case where m is odd divorce.] [First case is assumed (22) after the local regulations of the factor (1 - 1 : 8 ) is attached. Then can be found by means (19) taking along the first derivative:

(29) when members of the order 1 : be left aside. This results when n 2 = t 2 , x 2 = 2 is set as an expression of the probability W that: or , . (30) In order to derive V to win, is W = to accept, then t from the equation:

(31) to calculate and (31a) to set. Suppose now above t = c + to, determine c such that after dividing the equation (31) with (1 -1 : 8 ) or, equivalently, by multiplying by (1 + 1 : 8 ) (32) and find from: . (33) This equation takes in consideration that small size of the order of l : division by exp [- ( c + ) 2 ] the simple form: or (33a) is, after

to, from which, since B 1 = 1 : 6 and m = 2, as a probable value for even m: (34) follows.] [If m = odd 2 - 1, so if '= + v , , = - v - 1, u = 2 v + 1:

= (35) and the probability of u (between the limits + 2 n - 1) and - (2 n - 1) holds, it is determined by: . (36)

Thus, on the basis of (19) when n = t

, the probability: (37)

ensure that or Is determined again t from the equation: (38) by as in (32) c calculated and t = c + is, as results from: (39) with neglect of the members of the order 1 : , , (39a) therefore . (37a)

and finally: , whence in view of m = 2 - 1 as a probable value for odd m (40) results] 111 [ Second Amendment . The discussion of 108 is based on the problem to determine from a large number of observed cases of unknown probabilities. The same stands for the inverse of the theorem in BERNOULLl'schen relationship, which can be specified for the unknown W. limits and also the degree of probability can be calculated, that is used to search within those limits, the unknown W.. Namely one has two mutually exclusive events A and B in a large number m of observed cases, while the event A 'times, the event B ,times found, one can first W. for the event taking place A equal to ' : m , the W for B equal to , : m set without the contingencies that the determination of 'and , to take account adhere. In fact, you can ' : m and , : m only as the most probable values of the unknown W. x and 1 - x interpret and describe it as likely that, in a repetition of the observations from a number of other cases are now likely resulting values are close to the previously

found. Instead of this vague statements now are the inverse of the Bernoulli theorem, the following provisions.] [There is a W. (41) ensure that the unknown probability x for the occurrence of the event A between the limits: and (41a)

is, the opposite probability 1 - x is then simultaneously between the limits (41b) to seek, while for the W. W expected difference u between the reciprocal number of cases, the inequality: (41c) applies. Substituting in particular W = , then c = 0.476 936, and the substitution of this value is the probable limits for x , 1 - x and . u ] [Thus obtained for m = 1000 storm observed at two locations during the same time period as the probable limits for the values of W, which we expect for the one or the other places the occurrence of a thunderstorm is: 1) on one 0,541 locations and 0,519 to 0,459 and 0,481 to other places, when thunderstorms were observed at the former locations 530, the latter 470th 2) at the places a 0.516 and 0.494 to 0.484 and 0.506 to the other places, if the observed numbers on both sides of the storm 505 respectively. 495, respectively. Accordingly, the probable limits for u in the first and second case, 60 21.29, respectively. 10 21,33]. [These provisions is the requirement under that the number of observed cases was sufficiently large to permit the assumption that the observed difference u is not purely random, but by the difference of the unknown W. x and 1 - x circumstances, in , as already indicated, provided that the most likely values of x , 1 - x and u indicate the observed values of ': m , , : m and - , . are] [There is no compelling reason before but, just assume these values as the most likely values. For before hiring the observations had any hypothesis about the probable values of x and uthe nmliche W., and in view of the observations made in one of these hypotheses can be distinguished from the other only by larger W., do not take but a certainty for themselves . It is thus even the degree of W. To determine the hypothesis, the observed values are the most likely, in comparison to other

hypotheses that introduce other values than likely has. For this purpose, the principle that is used in the Encke treatise on the method of least squares 11) are in the following form, keeping in mind that the deviations of observed values are called the most probable values of the error.] ["The words of two, before the observations made equally probable and mutually exclusive hypotheses behave just like the W. of them resulting from error or fault systems."] [For comparison, the hypothesis is intended that the most probable values of x and 1 - x equal to each other, are thus equal to , according to the most likely difference u = is expected 0th It has then the actual observed difference u W.: . (42) Due to the recent hypothesis that the probable values of x and 1 - x respectively. ': m = p and , m = q are concerns, however for the observed u , the maximum value of W, namely: . (43) It behaves the west . that the observed u is purely random, ie equality of x and 1 - x had revealed themselves to the W. that the observed u the most likely differential value of the mutual numbers ' and , representing as

or and wants to bet, so the stakes must have the specified ratio.]

, (44)

11)

[Berliner Astron. Yearbook f 1834 p 258]

[In other circumstances, the probability provisions are based in 108 First, it should be noted that there u will be taken into account with its absolute values, it therefore remains undecided on which side of the vast number of cases is to look for. Next, it must be remembered that with the assumption that the observed difference u is not purely random, apparently assuming the same will consistently hold this value, may also take larger values (thus the lack of pure randomness is only likely), but not under these can fall short, it seems the observed value as a lower limit to apply, which is below only pure randomness in accordance with the Basic Law. If we now require on the one hand, the observed difference u = ( '- , ) is purely random, so there is after G . G. W. W that this value is not reached, and the W. 1

- W he attained or exceeded. If, on the other hand requires that difference was not by chance, but by its very nature the same u or greater than u, then the W. that he reached or exceeded is to set equal to 1. It thus offers on the W., the observed value of u is by nature equal to or greater than u, W., he was merely accidental to W , so that the overwhelming probability W for the lack of pure randomness of the probability 1 - W faces of the existence of pure randomness, and in this situation is compared to pure randomness and then bet.]

XVI. Probability provisions for the dependent of a purely random asymmetry difference v the outputs from the wrong means.
112 Let's go now to the determination of the likelihood ratios of the random difference, which is to be expected between the number of positive and negative deviations from a mean of a finite number of values, if the probability of deviations from the true mean, as of of an infinite number values would follow, in both directions is equal. By the false, ie, from the finite m obtained from the true mean by a random (in different series going soon after, soon after the other) different size, the deviations are of two different agents in each series, and it remains from the same W. false means the + even in accounting and - are, if they existed for the true means, but the likelihood ratios of the difference v between the number of the same change. This is easy to understand the considerations set out in 109 of consideration because the wrong remedy is determined by the condition that the sum of the variances should be granted the same on both sides, while in the account of the unknown true for finite means they m in general as is not equal to presuppose. Due to this artificial adjustment of the sums of + and - , the numbers of the same would be balanced if the number and sum suffered proportional changes, which is not the case, but in any case the difference is v by the transition from true to false remedy for the difference u reduced. In order to assess to what conditions this reduction by W. expected to a certain law of the distribution of the true must be placed on the number and size to reason that from this depend on the likelihood ratios of the difference between true and false means, but from this again the likelihood ratios of the difference v. now it is known that for the deviations which the individual copies of K.-G. show is not too irregular distribution with respect to its mean value, which by the integral (see Chapter XVII) certain law of probability of error can be used as a basis when a large m and has approximate symmetry, and therefore this law is also in the following are used as basis. 113 A study of these relationships is far at all either before or shake me out preliminary studies known to completely handle the task then. You can now find in addition ( 116), an investigation of my led, according to approximate that with Q 2 medium to be designated by the square of the difference v is equal to m (1 2 ) results, and after continue to be communicated experience trial has shown that

this provision itself up to a m = 4 down enough very approximate, was wondering if from the values of Q , the other likelihood ratios of vcan be derived accordingly, as in the account of the true means the likelihood ratios of u from the values Q = . Again, this has been confirmed by experience with sufficient approximation. Namely, for the probable value of v, which is V hot [if one uses the interpolationsmige provision for comparisons], nor a correction to this dissipation needed than for the value of V for the discharge of Q , for the simple average v but which U hot, only a slightly larger correction than for the simple average u, which we U called. Finally, also the distribution of the individual panel calculates v the number and size enough to approximate this condition. The demgemen fundamental provisions are as follows: Q= Q= U= V = 0.40659 m = 0.36338 m, log 0.36338 = 0.56036 to 1, (1) 0.60281 = , = log 0.60281 0.78018 to 1, (2) , log = 0.68212 to 1, (3)

0.48097 =

, log 0.40659 = 0.60916 to 1. (4)

For the determination of W [ v] we have the difference of to take values that in the table of t to and include where for Q , the above value is to be substituted, for W [ v = 0] but in particular to the t = 1: Q corresponding value. W [ v ] , ie the W. that the given value of v is not reached, one finds as the -value, which at t = ( v - 1) : Q and W a [ v ], ie, for v even and below v existing values lying W. than the one to which (v + 1) : Q is. In the formula for U the upper sign of the correction applies 1.5 for odd, the bottom for even m, and a consequence of this correction, and the reason is the same experiential date, however, what to look for another theory that each value of U on a straight m markedly coincides with the smaller values of three units U for an odd m, for which the following documents below. Unfortunately, there are far to control for these approximation formulas with respect to v not just as regards its for u detailed in the previous section formulas for small m for bids, a tofhlbarerer such deficiency, as the theoretical justification and derivation of the above formulas in the additive is patchy, and the correction

for U may even seem strange. I would therefore, the same offer with little confidence, if I had not been able to replace it with a very extensive empirical validity of this deficiency to the extent that you can be sure to commit the same not eligible error in use, though a more detailed justification and revision of the theory by a professional mathematician would be very desirable. The empirical validity based like that of the previous function values of u on a use of lottery lists, but which was without cumbersome as compared to the values of the previous chapter. For it was to the numbers in the first place, each list of values + and - in the way to translate that for the whole list, the integral came out corresponding distribution of the number and size of invoice from the true means by which the t - table is represented in the Appendix 183, then for each series of such random deviations of a given m to determine the wrong way to count the positive and negative deviations from this false means and the difference between the number of both the v to take. Some detail thereof in addition ( 117) is traded and the example of a determination of v for a random series taken with m = there may 6th 114 After this I will first and foremost follow in some tables the totality of the empirical data, which I received directly regarding our task to after the derived principal values together with the calculated values according to the above formula to join. Therefore, when many figures occur at a fraction values 0.5, as this stirs that if by chance, as sometimes occurred, the wrong way with a true deviation values exactly met, the deviation from the mean with wrong + 0.5 and - 0, 5 had to be counted by both sides, creating a v was what in the middle between the distanten by 2 values of the v -scale fell, but was then dispersed with 0.5 on the two neighboring values.

I. Number z, how often a difference v between the number of positive and negative deviations from the wrong means of m values for n -fold repetition of the determination occurred. a) for odd m

v m=5

m=7

m=9

m = 11 m = 13 n = 15 1) m = 17 m = 19

n = 2,400 n = 1700 n = 1320 n = 820 n = 840 n = 800 n = 600 n = 600 1 2155.5 3 244.5 5 7 9 1388.5 300.5 11 966.5 324.5 29 552 235.5 32.5 562.5 231.5 41.5 4.5 ? ? ? ? 351 187 57 5 327.5 197.5 63 10 2

b) straight m

m=4

m=6

m=8

m = 10

m = 12

m = 14 m =16 m = 18 m = 20

n = 3000 n = 2000 n = 1500 n = 1200 n = 1000 n = 850 n = 750 n = 660 n = 600 0 1950 2 1050 4 6 8 10 1040 905 55 648 753.5 96.5 2 494 588 112 6 379 489 126 6 314, 382.5 127.5 25 1 247 333 148 20 2 179.5 325.5 120 28 7 176 256.5 130.5 33 3 1

1)

[The values of this column were disfigured by irresolvable contradictions] II The same information for some larger values of m. v m = 30 m = 50 m = 100 n = 120 19 31 13 22 18 9 5 2 1 m = 500 n = 24 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 5 0 1 1 1

n = 400 n = 240 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 24 28 34 94 169 90 36 8 3 49 84 51 32 14 8 3 -

The same series with m = 10 , 50, 100 had given the following results from the true means for the account of the deviations, which are comparable to very directly with the previous one, calculated by the wrong means, however, that given in 107 results by consultation or other series, Therefore, with larger n, are found.

III. Comparable with the previous tables table for the difference u in account of the true means.

m = 10

m = 50

m = 100 n = 120 10 17 14 13 22 16 10 2 5 4 2 4 1

n = 1200 n = 240 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 28 301 467 299 102 29 2 23 52 44 42 28 16 17 7 10 0 1 -

In the two tables for the account of the wrong agent is the number z , how often a v had the same sign with the deviation of the false from the true mean, and the number z , how many times it had the opposite sign, in short, how often a v with the wrong A was equilateral or scalene, the number z = z '+ z , drawn together. We now give the values z = z '- z , for the values of m = 6 to m = 30, as for the other, the separation of z ' and z , has not happened. Under ( z ) is a sum of z for absolute values of z understood with regard to the sign.

IV difference z = z - z , between the number z ' of the wrong means equilateral and the number z, the so scalene values of v equal size, which is the z unite in previous tables, from m = 6 to m = 30 a) for odd m v m=7 m=9 m = 11 m = 13 m = 15 m = 17 m = 19

n = 1700 n = 1320 n = 820 n = 840 n = 800 n = 600 n = 600 1 3 5 7 9 + 33.5 +46.5 0 + 0.5 - 4.5 +1 6 -3 - 33 + 9.5 - 0.5 43 - 24 - 25.5 + 21.5 - 8.5 + 0.5 56 - 12 + 29 -7 + 7.5 + 1.5 45 + 31 +1 - 10 -5 +3 19 - 11 - 20.5 + 11.5 - 15 -4 -2 53 - 30

( 80 z) (z + 80 ) v m=6 m=8

b) straight m m = 10 m = 12 m = 14 m =16 m = 18 m = 20 m =30

n = 2000 n = 1500 n = 1200 n = 1000 n = 830 n = 750 n =660 n = 600 n = 400 2 4 6 8 10 - 24 +13 +42.5 +11.5 0 54 +54 + 20 + 16 -4 40 +32 +8 +8 0 16 +16 +1.5 +0.5 +3 +1 6 +6 - 29 - 14 +2 +2 47 - 39 - 35.5 - 16.5 -8 +2 +1 46.5 + 1.5 -1 -3 -1 23 +5 0 +4 -2 -1 12 +6

( 37 z) ( z - 11 )

- 40.5 - 20

It may seem somewhat remarkable that the values of z and hence also z in the smaller, namely even-numbered values of m are almost all positive. Probably, but this has the same reason, which was for an analog phenomenon ( 107) asserted, namely, that the series of smaller m in the series with a larger m to go, so that the series with different m are not completely independent of each other, but, however, not only to each series for which a v gave, but all n -series for a given m are ordered together

purely by chance. 115 The first two tables, the following main values are derived from the composition of which can be used with the theoretical values bystanders, according to the above formulas, to examine these formulas. m Q
2

V obs. 2) 0.40659 0.72 0.89 0.96 1.03 1.19 1.21 1.27 1.36 1.38 1.37 1.46 ? 1.65 1.64 1.78 1.80 1.85 2.14 2.63 4.64 9.00 0.81 0.91 1.00 1.08 1.15 1.22 1.29 1.35 1.41 1.47 1.52 1.57 1.63 1.68 1.73 1.77 1.82 2.23 2.88 4.07 9.09

observed 0.36338m Observed 0.48097 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 30 50 1.40 1.82 2.25 2.57 3.09 3.49 3.63 4.25 4.19 4.65 5.33 ? 3) 6.06 6.17 7.09 7.22 7.66 10.06 17.87 1.45 1.82 2.18 2.54 2.91 3.27 3.63 4.00 4.36 4.72 5.09 5.45 5.81 6.18 6.54 6.90 7.27 10.90 18.17 36.34 181.69 0.70 1.20 1.02 1.38 1.27 1.58 1.38 1.73 1.52 1.78 1.69 ? 1.86 2.05 2.05 2.21 2.11 2.27 3.25 4.87 10.42 0.76 1.23 1.02 1.40 1.23 1.56 1.40 1.70 1.56 1.83 1.70 1.95 1.83 2.07 1.95 2.18 2.07 2.57 3.35 4.77 10.74

100 37.87 500 178.17

2)

[as in l 06, as has been interpolated here with concurrence second differences.]
3)

[cf. the remark to Table I a]

You should find the average compliance of the empirical values are very

satisfactory with the calculated. But if here and there also not insignificant deviations occur, this can be with the careful revision of these values are not written to oversight, but it is in the nature of things that, among many, calculated according to W., random values even greater chance Deviations from the normal values occur. [Moreover, the relatively strong deviations are found among the values of the last four lines, on account of the low n are the same set.] [Considering next to Tables I and II compare Table III, we find the following, comparable with other values for the main output from the true and the false media: m 10 50 Q Q U 2,495 U 1.38 3.25 4.87 V 2.19 5.04 7.49 V 1.27 2.63 4.64

10.32 3.63

52.48 17.87 5,825

100 97.47 37.87 8.00

The same point that the transition from true to false means in fact, a reduction of the mean difference and likely with it, which is sufficient in accordance with the theoretically required reduction. It is namely: m 10 50 100 Q :Q 0,352 0,341 0,389 U:V 0,554 0,558 0,608 V:V 0,577 0,522 0,619

The theoretical contrast ratios are excluding corrections for U and U, Q 2 : Q = 0.363, U : U = V : V = 0.603]. One can cite as a curiosity that the value of U , which is for the account of the wrong agent near agrees with the simple average deviation from the applicable account of the true meanU or that U nearly equal to [ U ] , but only with such a large m, that the correction of 1.5 is no longer considered significant. This arises both from the comparisons of the formulas for both values: U = 0.48097 and 4) :

[ U ] = 0.48262 as it empirically for larger m confirmed.

[Due to the above compilation of the values of U and U in particular gives [ U ] for m = 10, 50, 100, respectively. equal to: 1.64, 3.44, 4.40. It is thus in the same order [ U ] - Urespectively. equal to: 0.26; 0.19, - 0.47]. Also can not assure you that the number coefficient for both values is not really to advantage than to assume the same, since both derived in different ways, and thereafter somewhat different resulting coefficients only ever deliver on both sides Approximativbestimmungen, therefore are not absolute. [cf. 120 subs in Chap Since there even after the given destination [ U ] = 0.60488 U and since on the other hand with neglect of the correction: U=U ,
4)

as follows based on the compliance of [ U ] and U that, as stated at the point approximatively Equal to 0.60488 can be set.]

Probably extend similar relationships to the other main values and the reported monitoring data provide the opportunity to examine it, but I had failed to take it, partly in the expectation that the theory only this method more take possession of, partly in order not already extend further as extensive investigation. Finally, here follows some distribution, the comparison tables according to the account and experience.

Comparison of beobachtetenZahlen of v with the calculated pursuant to 113 in the above tables for some values of m. v m=4 m = 10 m = 20 m = 30 m = 50 observed. calc 49 44.5 80 57.5 33.5

observed. calc observed. calc Observed. calc observed. calc 0 1950 2 1050 4 6 1779 494 1182 588 38 112 6 480 176 581 256.5 128 130.5 10 33 174 94 267 169 121 90 32 36 95

159.5 84 93.5 51 38.5 32

8 10 12 14 -

3 1 -

6 -

8 3 -

13 0.5 -

14 8 2 -

16 6 2 0.5

116 [First Amendment. The theoretical determination of the mean and probable value of v.] average 0 and a difference value v to, the latter indicates how much the number v 5) of the above 0 values lying the number below the 0 values lying beyond. The values of v = v - can therefore each value of the series: m - 2 , m - 4 .... 4 - m 2 - m represent, so that the whole m - 1 positive or negative v are values, while the corresponding number of u -values m + is first Here, the case requires, where i ( i = 1, 2 ... m ) with 0 coincides, no special consideration because it is regarded as a limiting case of the presupposed continuous variability of these parameters, either the case that i above 0 , or the case that i less than 0 is located, is should be numbered among. For example, for m = 2 , the value of v is always equal to zero, for m = 3, however, is v is either equal to +1 or equal to - 1]
5)

[Each system of m positive or negative variables 1 , 2 ... m is an

[ v and replaced here 'and .]

[On the other hand, associated with each v = v - a variety of systems, 1 , 2 ... m that can be determined as follows.] [Refers 0 between the - and + varying mean, also provides represents a positive value, all values from 0 to can take, and ultimately represent 1 , 2 ... - 1 , 1 , 2 ... v - 1 independently of one another, the positive values of 0 to 1, one set: 1 = 0 - (1 - 1 ) 2 = 0 - (1 - 2 ) 1 ............... -1 = 0 - (1 - -1 ) 2- . . 1 = 0 - -1 -2 . . 1 (5) +1 = 0 + (1 - 1 ) + 2 = 0 + (1 - 2 ) 1

............... m- 1 = 0 - (1 - v -1 ) v -2 . . 1 m = 0 - v -1 v -2 . . 1 . First, one obtains all value systems 1 ... m , the first values are below the respective mean value, while the v last values exceed the same. In fact, due to the variability ranges set 1, 2 . . smaller than 0 , + 1 , +2 . . . m is greater than 0 , so is also the sum of first equal to 0 - , and the sum of the v last equal to v 0 + , thus the sum of all the equal to m 0 ].

[To then all value systems 1 , 2 . . m to be obtained, for which any which values in the number of and below the remaining v are above the respective mean value is only necessary to all the possible permutations between the in the system (5) first and the v last pre, leading to m! : ( v! ) equations leads of the form (5), each of the nmliche diversity of value systems 1 . . m with a different order each time the group, and their association to the overall diversity of the v = v - belonging determined value systems].

[There are now i ( i = 1 ... m ) can be interpreted as deviations from the true center, for which the GG applies. Then the W for the occurrence of a single value is equal to: .

It is also the W. of the occurrence of the system of m values 1 . . . m equal to: ; because - according to the known theorem of probability theory - the W. for the coincidence of several of the other independent events is equal to the product of W. for the arrival of each event. It is finally the W. of the occurrence of any system 1 . . . m , belongs to a well-defined, continuous manifold such systems, equal to:

d 1 . . . d m (6) where the integral is to be taken over value of the continuum systems, a value occurring in the region of the system is covered. For the W. sure that any one of a number of mutually exclusive events occurs, is - as the probability teaches - the sum of the individual events W.]. [But it is (5) according to the equations:

, if the abbreviation ( a , ) = (7a)

. (7b) This yields an expression for W that of m deviations 1 . . . m the first below, the v last above the mean 0 are the integral: . (8) , where more than 0 by - to + through of 0 to and each of and of 0 to integrate to 1. In accordance with this, the suppressed W. that any of m deviations below and vabove the mean are, consequently that v = v - , by: , (9) where the integral between limits is to take the very same.] [Since the integration over 0 and can be immediately run by: ; and for even m : ; for odd m :

; is obtained for W [ v ] the simplified expression: (10) woselbst:

; for even m : ; for odd m : ; and where the integration each and is to extend from the lower limit to the upper limit 1 0]. [The formula (10) is first tested in the simplest cases, for m = 2 and 3, the W [0], respectively. W [1] is a priori known. Namely, it is because for m = 2 always v = 0, w [0] = 1, and since v for m = 3 is either equal to +1 or equal to - 1, and both values are equally likely, W [ + 1] = W [ - 1] = . And, in fact, obtained from (10) for m = 2: ; Furthermore, for m = 3: .] [From (10) then follow by performing the integrations, the values of W [ v ] for large m . It should be noted that the sum of the W [ v ] for a given m is 1, and in that W [ + v ] = W [ -v ] (11) since v in - v goes from with v is reversed which the value of the integral does not influence]. [After this we find for m = 4: ; ;

. It follows: W [0] = 0.64908, W [ + 2] = W [ - 2] = 0.17546; Q = 1.40368, U = 0.70184. In a similar way is obtained for m = 5: W [+1] = W [-1] = 0.451075, W [ + 3] = W [ - 3] = 0.048925; Q = 1.7828, U = 1.1957. For the two cases m = 4 and m = so the exact values are for 5 Q 2 and U offered their comparison with the corresponding values of 115 permits to assess the reliability of the provisions therein.] [But in order in this way in the same way as it happened in the last chapter of the true mean for the deviations, formulas for W [ v ] and thereafter for such Q 2 , U and V to win the dependence of these values of m explicite represent that (would have m - 2)-fold integral of (10) are in general valid version. Now, however, can be such a design, the most convenient of (9), winning by development in rows. Since the same but leads to prolixity, it is appropriate to the value of Q 2 to determine directly to then - with the admission that it remains a safe for the objectives pursued here gap - U and V derive under the assumption that for large m , the likelihood ratios of v are governed by the Basic Law. This condition is acceptable because after (11) the probability law v is symmetrical with respect to the maximum value of v = 0 , and further since the following from the GG relationships Q 2 , U and V , the formulas (1) to (4) underlie, have a sufficient empirical validity found. However, it is then also a theoretical justification for the U waived given corrections.] [Direct determination of Q 2 can be achieved as follows. Note that for any system of deviations 1 , 2 ... m , the arithmetic mean 0 is the difference v = v - between the numbers above and below the 0 -lying i ( i = . 1, 2, m ) can be represented by: , (12) because each ratio ( i - 0 ) : is equal to + 1 or equal to - 1, depending on i above or below 0 is. It is, therefore:

(13) where the integration over each i from - to + is to extend]. [Now, however:

where the summation over all i and k of the series of numbers from 1 to m, except for the values i = k, is extended. It is, therefore, as , and all m ( m - 1) integrals:

equal to each other: (14) where the limits of integration are as specified above to take.] [For now, the m -fold integral to evaluate, we put:

1=0+1 2=0+2

.................. (15)

Thus, substituting independently between the limits - and + varying 1 , 2 .. m which also independently from the same; varying limits 0 , 1 , 2 ... m-1 and we obtain:

, Where: (16) From this is obtained by carrying out the integration mar. 0 , 3 , 4 . . m :

(17) However, since 1 2 : = + 1 if 1 and 2 are simultaneously positive or negative, and since the nmliche quotient represents the value -1 if the two sizes of 1 and 2 , the one positive, the other is negative, we obtain after simple transformations:

(18)

or, where

(19) Now is:

Thus ultimately results when t 1 2 = 1 and t 2 2 = 2 is set:

(20)

From this results, however, the required value of Q 2 , as represented by the formula (1) obtained when sizes of the order of 1 : m are neglected. By expansion in powers of 1 : m is obtained namely:

, (21) Thus, to a first approximation: . (22) From this it will follow immediately the formulas (3) and (4) for U and V - but without the for U empirically found correction - when the G. G . likelihood ratios for the v at large m is claimed]. 117 [Second Amendment. Notes to the empirical probability of parole provisions for Q , U and V by means of the lottery lists.] First, it might even seem impossible to find a principle of empirical probation for it, since the formulas require substantial symmetry and validity of the GG random variation, but on which objects you want to try the probation, you can for the deviations from the mean A , neither the one nor the other condition to be met from the outset presuppose. But you can artificially produce an item that meets these conditions, the following principle. Think you look at first to explain the principle in intelligible form possible, into an urn a very large number, I want to say well done 15 000 white and many black spheres, of which the first positive than the last negative values may include; there are these balls be described but with positive and negative size values, each size in such repetition, as corresponds to the W. of the corresponding fault parameters for the

GG. As a real mean of the errors increase their output, this is the null value. Now we draw m balls and call positive sum ' the sum obtained when considering any positive defect size with the number of times it is drawn, multiplied, according to the negative sum of , . Unless now 'and , are not the same as found by chance, to the average (appears '- , ) : m, which value c hot, increased or decreased, depending on '> , or vice versa. The wrong Mean is So instead of 0 equal . c So if you have such a formative c determined, we can now count how much error is greater and how much smaller than c are and thereafter a ( '- , ) or v for this find case and, after n has done trains, both from this a mean v as a probable v find that only the latter calls for an interpolation. Now, such a process with the urn and so many white and black, size values described with balls would be impracticable, but you can keep replaced by even and odd numbers the urn by the Lotte Rierad, the white and black balls. You can also to establish relationships among the 30 000 numbers, which correspond to the probability of error conditions, all the numbers from 1 to 338 including the size 0.25 enclose all of there until 1015 including the size 1, all from there to 1691 size 2, because until 2366 all of size 3, etc. and bring them into a translation table, which immediately gives information for each lottery number on that one meets in going through the list of what size it represents. [The preparation takes place by means of this table, t -table ( 183), as follows. First, a decision must be made, after which the intervals are based on legends t- values are to proceed.For the sake of convenience, the interval will be 0.02, with the initial t = 0.01, chosen. Since the assumed number of lottery numbers as so many copies of a K.-G. to interpret, 30 is 000, the corresponding interval of the limits -values to be multiplied by 30,000 to obtain its successive differences in the numbers of deviations which fall in the successive intervals.The deviations themselves are but how our K.-G. consistently happens to think in the middle of the interval in which they are united. It would therefore, since t = : , the first equal to 0.005, the second equal 0.02, the third equal 0.04 to put etc, but since the size of the mean deviation determined arbitrarily may be, then = 1 : 0.02 = 28.2095 are adopted, after which the first equal to 0.25, the second is equal to 1, the third is 2, etc. is found. To finally get this the frequency of occurrence as the GG according to the trequired to secure table, each as many lottery numbers are assigned, as the number of deviations is associated. This assignment could be made to be quite arbitrary, since each of the 30 000 numbers of the wheel of fortune nmliche W. has to be considered. Naturally, however, the natural order of the numbers is observed here and it will be therefore the first , the first 338 numbers, the second , the 677 following numbers etc, as stated above, begotten, so that a table is created, which provides in relevant part as follows:]

Height 0.25 1 2 3 4 5 10 11 12 13

Number 1-338 339 - 1015 1016 - 1691 1692 - 2365 2366 - 3038 3039 - 3708 6356 - 7005 7006 - 7650 7651 - 8289 8290 - 8922

Height Number 14 15 8923 - 9548 9549-10167

Height Number 47 74 75 24347-24626 28872-28946 28947-29018

25 26 27 28

15351-15877 15878-16393 16394-16899 16900-17394 143 29998 29999 30000 100 29854-29865

45 46

23756-24056 24057-24346

150 160

Actually, however, the deviations change continuously while any deviation by 1 size differs here from the following, but this deviation interval is in proportion to the simple average deviation, ie after the hit ratios 1 : 0.02 = 28.2095 small enough to have a noticeable about to give concordant results with continuous resizing. There have now been me Saxon lottery lists of 10 years to bids, each 32000-34000 numbers, but the numbers which I have left over 30, 000 in the lists as not present at side. [These10 lists were previous method by means of the empirical data of the above Tables I and II and thereafter the probation terms of the probability of Q , U and V won.] [It is true, for example, the determination of v for m = 6th One then has six consecutive numbers of the lists together increase the numbers will not be considered over 30, 000, so if the numbers 28 904, 24 460, 32 305, 16 019, 157, 3708, are taken 16928, with putting aside the 3-th, as it exceeds 30,000, the remaining six in the above table sizes deviation implement to be positive even-numbers take, negative for odd numbers. It therefore provide the numbers described the sizes + 74, + 47, 26, - 0.25, + 5, + 28 represents the mean + 21.3; therefore with respect to the latter, ' = , = 3 and v = 0 . This provision, executed 2000 times, was found in Table I, b with m = 6, n = 2000 values listed.]

XVII. The simple, two-sided Gaussian law.

 118 If even the simple Basic Law, which we 24 - 29 have explained, because of the generally at K.-G. presupposed asymmetric W. collective deviations rel. A not directly K.-G.is applicable, but the two-column GG ( 33) is for them to take to complete, after which all provisions of the Basic Law on simple K.-G. be transferable if the deviations of D instead ofA decreases and the common inscribed by GG easy for both sides. A force values , m , = : m rel. each side respectively in particular. by ', m ', e' = ' : m ' and ,, m, , e , = , : m , replaced. With respect thereto, we go to the information given already in the fifth chapter about the simple GG, which are presupposed here, still following additions thereof. It has been argued that the far present, executed distribution tables of the Basic Law, ie the -table and -board, not mar. : , for which they were given 27, but rel. : , short t, are installed. Such a panel is communicated in the Appendix ( 183). The same is below the fundamental Gaussian determination that the W. or proportionate number of a single value short is a certain size, equal to: , (1) wherein , . Them between given limits of to have you last expression with d to multiply and take the integral between the limits of which concerned; generally are: (2) or replacement of h by 1 : , through t, d by (3) and the W. or proportionate number of between t = : hereafter: , Short = [ t ]. (4) This probability [ t ] is now up for the different values t expressed by the table in the appendix. To the absolute number of between the limits t = 0 and a given t have to, one has [ t ] nor with the total number of meters to be multiplied. The integral expression for [ t ] may be known, not integrated into a finite form, but rather be of the following infinite series which so long strongly converged and hence for the calculation of is useful as t = : is smaller than 1, thus < , di <1.772 45 is: = 0 and a given t is dt:

(5) Since the folgends mar. always t are taken, the addition [to t ] are ignored. All powers of t are positive because t = : , and but also be positive and negative. Now it is important to note that if, as many of our applications of the case, the value of , which in t = : comes in, very small compared to the mean error , thus t itself is very small, all members of the series ( 5) can be neglected against the first, which approximate: (6) . (7) But the value is in this neglect of the higher terms, according to (5) determines a trifle too large, and so we have to put more precisely: , (8) where is a very small positive value. From (8) it follows: , (9) which t , neglecting , ie, according to the approximate values (7), is found a bit too small. 119 The value after GG has certain normal relations with some other, derived from the distribution panels values insofar as they are subject to the Basic Law, whose confirmation is all the approximate expected, the more m grows. Let q = the root mean square deviation, which is regarded by the astronomers as the mean deviation per se, and w the so-called probable deviation, ie the deviation, if one takes both positive and negative deviations for absolute values, as many larger deviations has to be smaller than them, so basically the central values of the deviations, not to be confused with our central values par excellence, with C is referred to by this deviation is not a , but an A is. It now has the following standard relations: = 1.253 314 , ie noticeably = 5 / 4 ;

0.797 = 885 q , thus markedly = 4 / 5 q , (10) q = 1.482 604 w , w = 0.674 489 q

= 1.182 947 w , w = 0.845 347

By substituting the previous expressions for in t = : without changing the associated set: or t = (11) can therefore also

Thereafter, it appears at first indifferent to which expression for t keep to. Only it's not quite indifferent whether one first q of the squares of the deviations, 2 , determined to after or w by means of the previous formulas to find, or vice versa or w from the simple deviations to any of these values, the To find others, but the direct determination of q from the squares of the deviations has a somewhat greater security than that of as a means of simple variations, and the latter a not inconsiderable larger than that of w by counting the variations on what is the derived values according to the above formulas transfers. Therefore, one considers the physical and astronomical measurement gauge prefer the value t = : q , by direct determination of q from the squares of the deviations, but should gain the same security through application of the other expressions for t when or w according to the above is determined directly from the formulas q is derived, while the safety is lower when or even w in the expression of t determined directly from a simple variation, and nothing is gained by use of the expression t = : q where q therein by application directly from the previous formulas given or w is derived. Although now on the previous use of the value t = : q , by direct determination of q , a principal advantage of safety over other modes of determination of t has preceded, it is nevertheless in the collectives generally prefer the value t = : after direct determination of from use, because with the large amount of variations with which we are dealing in general in this measurement gauge, squaring them would be too cumbersome, the advantage of security when using the right given q before the directly determined but is insignificant, and in great m any significant loss its meaning. In fact, while the probable error of the directly given q equal

is determined is that of the right and equal to that of the

determined directly w equal

1) .

derivation of this probable error is Gauss in the Journal of Astronomy Vol I (plants, Vol IV, pp. 116, 117) and Encke in the treatise on the least squares (Berliner Astron method yearbook for 1834 S. . 293 and 298). It should be noted that the numerical value of w, which is found at the location specified in GAUSS, is disfigured.]

1) [The

120 Previous All things are known. But it may not be without interest, this still some to add of my own derived from the Basic Law sets. One must beware of the sum of squares 2 with the sum of squares of the deviation ( ) 2 to be confused. Now if you take the trouble, except the latter, simply by squaring of unwinnable values to obtain also the former laborious by determination of squares so you can with consideration that ( ) 2 = ( m ) 2 and 2 mq = 2 , from the equation:

easily the interesting equation: (12) or, if the expression on the left side P calls P= (12a) inferred that the 2 m, the double differential di number of squares multiplied sum, divided by the square of the deviation amount is equal to the circle ratio is. Short like the formula, the P -formula hot. On the other hand, is obtained by the previous formula directly laboriously calculated sum of the squared deviations from the slight deviation sum of squares to be determined according to the formula: (13) only that the direct sum of certain 2 is determined by something safer than the previous formula of ( ) 2 derived.

To the two center errors, the simple = : m and square , can still be a third

(14) paste, whom I will call the circle center error, and according to the above expression is obtained by one., the sum of squares with the sum of the deviations or, what amounts to the same thing, dividing the square of the root mean square error with the simple mean error I give it a name above, because in terms of the P -expressed equation circle ratio represents a turning point in the following sense. We use first, the equation is satisfied exactly by the existing deviations, then in the event that deviations greater than what are growing, P greater than , however, is P less than , when deviations smaller than are growing.The change is the deviation of distances of the respective proportionally. The proof of this I'm going 2) .

2)

[It follows that P in its dependence on any single deviation values i , reaches its

minimum when or = .. At the same time it is evident that P reaches its absolute minimum with the value 2, when each of the i = is.]

I have the P -found proved admirably pure equation of numerous developmental defects of the psychophysical method of average error. According to the three expressions given error means have the following relationship: (15) and it can be shown that the deviation sums above this mean error for the total sum of the deviations of Chapter XVIII have the following conditions, where e is the base number as always the natural logarithms: = 0.72738 rel. ; = 0.60653 rel. q ;

= 0.45594 rel. ; of which the first two values are very close to the ratio 7 : 6 have. The corresponding ratio of the lower deviation sums is of course obtained by

deducting previous numbers of 1, and then it shows that the lower and upper deviation is bez sum. qvery close as 2 : 3 behaves. Regarding w is the ratio of the respective upper deviation sum of 0.79655 and the value but in respect of which the upper deviation of the sum is equal to the bottom, is 1.17741 q . The upper deviation figures for the total number of deviations have the following conditions: . 0.42494 bez ; 0.31731 rel. q ; 0.21009 rel. , 0.5 ct. w ; which these conditions for w , , q, very close to 5 : 4 : 3 : agree 2nd Nor can you as an average deviation of the second-order 2 to be designated funds from the differences of the individual by means define the same, ie [if " and the sum of " , the number of , which is smaller than are, according to " and "the sum and number of , which is larger than , denote, so that " - " = "-'' = m 2 ]: (16) approximated with

provoking. So how to get the value can be represented by a function of the deviations of the Basic Law, including the value of e. Unless namely according to the above specification, the deviation sum above q divided by the total variance sum equal to the total variance sum is inversely divided by the upper mar. q and the quotient squared equal to e . 121 All previous records on the GG set to its full validity a large, strictly speaking, an infinite number of variations expected from which the relevant variables are derived, but which, as noted earlier, does not prevent already at a very moderate number of deviations a very approximate empirical confirmation of the previous sentences was to be found, and as to the successful treatment of a K.-G. at any rate a considerable number m of copies of a and hence deviations of the same on both sides of D belongs, so you can not only very approximate confirmation of the previous sets expect this [after replacement of the simple GG by the two-column], but also see. Meanwhile, make the deviations from the so-called true values, ie, from which an infinite m follow, or so-called error, which, depending on the size of the finite m to either side and the m ' and m , in particular, still remain on each side, least significant consideration, and there refer to it sometimes the so-called probable error, sometimes the corrections of the determination of finite m , depending on the error change the

true value indifferent and chance to positive or negative or in a certain direction by one of the size of the m -dependent value, it is larger or smaller 3) .

3)

[The corrections for the mean deviation values were reported in 44 and 45, and the probable sensible error for , q and w can be found stated above, 119. Also worth mentioning is the probable error in determining the arithmetic mean A of m is expected values, and the same w : is set if w, as usual, the probable error ie, the probable deviation of the individual values (see above under (10)) imagines.

122 [For now, the cogency of the two-sided GG compared with the previously solely as a distribution law of K.-G. to test-utilized simple GG should, on the basis of the panels I and III of Chapter VIII tables comparing the observed and calculated z values are produced. There are those panels to such comparisons, since they have only a weak asymmetry and thus justify the expectation that all due by the application of a two-sided act advantage at higher asymmetry will be reflected to a greater extent.] [From the 5 reduction principles of Table I ( 64) I choose the position E , = 368 and from 4 Reduction Principles of Table III ( 65) the location of E , = 60 with the remark that the former is the relatively weakest, the latter having the strongest relative asymmetry in comparisons with the other documents. For both panels are now both in relation to A , the values t = : and thereafter [ t ] and with reference to D p values t ' = ' : e and t , = , : e , and hereafter [ t ] and [ t , ] is calculated, where , ' , , of A or D p up to the respective interval limits a i (not up to a itself) extend. There are then the differences between consecutive -values than are to be designated values, is formed and detected [ t ] with m, the [ T ' ], respectively. [ T , ] with m ' , respectively. m , multiplied. In this way, the result calculated by the simple and to the two-sided GG z -values in comparison with the observed values in the table following two tables. Here are the numerical values of , e and e , without correction down to basically the same as the attachment for the size of m is irrelevant and the desired levels of accuracy: Comparison of empirical z of table I (vertical extent of the skull) with the theoretical after simple and double sided GG E = 1 mm , i = 5, A = 408.2, D p = 409.7, = 11.1, s '= 10.4, e , = 11.9, m = 450, m ' = 210 , m , = 240th

empirical z

Theoretical z

Difference

Misc A 363 368 373 378 383 388 393 398 403 408 413 418 423 428 433 438 443 448 453 Sum l 2 5 17 24 36 41 59 65 65 51 40 17 19 4 2 2 450 0.5 1 3 6 13 22.5 35.5 49 60 64 60 50 37 24 13 7 3 1 0.5 450

rel. D p 0.5 1 3 7 13 22.5 34.5 47 58 64 62 52 38 24 13 6 3 1 0.5 450

rel. A + 0.5 0 +1 +1 -4 - 1.5 - 0.5 +8 +1 -1 -5 -1 -3 +7 -6 +3 +1 -1 + 0.5 46

Misc D p + 0.5 0 +1 +2 -4 - 1.5 - 1.5 +6 -1 -1 -3 +1 -2 +7 -6 +2 +1 -1 + 0.5 42

Comparison of empirical z of Table III (recruits) with the theoretical after simple and double sided GG E = 1 inch, i = 1 , A = 71.75, D p = 71.99, ; = 2.04 e = 1.92, s , 2.16, m , 2047 = m ' = 963 , 5, m , = 1083.5. a empirical z theoretical z Difference

rel. A

rel. D p

rel. A

rel. D p

60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 Sum

1 0 0 0 2 15.5 26 54 108 172 253 290 330.5 296 223.5 142 75 38 13 3.5 2 1 0.5 0.5 2047

1 3.5 10 26 58 110 179 252 304 315 282 217 143 81 40 17 6 2 0.5 2047

0.5 1.5 4 12 28 59 108 174 243 298 318 291 226 145.5 80.5 37 15 5 1 2047

-l 0 0 +1 + 1.5 - 5.5 0 +4 +2 +7 -1 + 14 - 15.5 - 14 - 6.5 +1 +6 +2 +4 + 2.5 0 - 0.5 - 0.5 - 0.5 90

-1 0 + 0.5 + 1.5 +2 - 3.5 +2 +5 0 +2 - 10 +8 - 12.5 -5 + 2.5 + 3.5 + 5.5 -1 +2 + 1.5 -1 -1 - 0.5 - 0.5 72

As you can see, the total sum of the deviations between observed and calculated values, in absolute value in both tables is taken after, smaller for the two-sided law as for the simple, especially when the difference of the first comparison table is already insignificant. But what falls more into the weight, the greater fidelity, which is

achieved by the two-sided law in comparison to the simple representation of the core of both panels, the Endabteilungen over.] [Incidentally, the comparison shows z -values of the two-page law with the corresponding z -values of the simple law in both cases consistently that of the from table center for growing a those first larger and then smaller for decreasing a those first smaller and then larger as they are. The reason for this is the common direction of the asymmetry of the two panels, and these ratios it would just turn around when the asymmetry would receive the opposite direction.]

XVIII. The sum of the law and the Supplementarverfahren.

123 So far, the GG as much as I know, only for the determination of the relative or absolute number of deviations of A has been used between given limits of deviation, but it can be associated with it, and as a sort of corollary which also formulas for the relative and absolute sum the deviations of A develop between given limits of deviation, which, like the formulas rel. of the GG at all, so long remain valid and applicable together for the mutual deviations, as a symmetric W. deviations rel. A exists, but take the case of asymmetric W. again after the two-column GG valid for each page in particular claim, if the deviations rel. D instead of rel. A takes, and m , , , t for each particular page respektiv by m , , ,, s , , t , and m ' , ' , e ' , t ' is replaced. But it deserve the results in terms of the sum of the deviations of the more attention, as they do not share the drawback of the results in terms of the number of deviations, only by a finite term not recyclable integral or an infinite series, will hereinafter be tabulated to, since they are rather expressible in finite form, also by the Supplementarverfahren ( 128), which enable them to be important, it is namely to the bottom apart to be set the following way. 124 To the sum of the deviations to a certain deviation limit of densely values to one side, say the positive, ie up to the limit ' to determine what the equivalent is true for the negative side, suppose you the total sum of the deviations of this page, di ' , form the simple average deviation from this e '= ' : m ' , suppose t
2 ], then the absolute sum of = ' : e ' , fancy it down following rule to exp [- t the deviations of '= 0 to the given ' equal: ' (1 - exp [- t ]) and the addition of ' to lying right: ' exp [- t ], and the proportionate sum up ' but, ie the previous absolute, divided by the total ' , which with T will be denoted, equals 1 exp [- t 2 ], also exp [- t 2 ].

Instead of the absolute and proportionate sum up to a certain limit ' to determine and beyond, can this provision also to a certain number of deviations which z ' hot, make, provided with large m ' , as it is assumed here , z : m ' determined in

accordance with the previous example, t and vice versa as in the t - table can be found. So let z ' : m given, we search in the t - table, the t and use it in the previous example, the sum provision. In this respect, each value a in the a - column of the distribution panel actually a whole interval i represents, in which on a written z - spread values, which we the radius interval concerned a call, so is the limit up to which we are the sum have to take such number of deviations, not by a the a - column itself, but by the border of the radius interval, making it to the radius of the adjacent interval a connected, as determined display. Instead of summing up to given limits of D to determine from either side, they can also determine the number of each hand, as each side between any limits exactly the same way by subtracting the limits corresponding to the former provision manner sums of each other. 125 To exp [- t 2 ] to find, add 2 log t to 0.63778 to 1, the number in this search logarithms, take it negatively, that is, they draw from the next largest whole number from the back and add these as negative added, looking back on this number, so this is exp [- t 2 ] . This calculation has to be of course no difficulty, but, as you can see, a bit awkward, and in order to spare for each case, however, then you can for equidistant t =: or to the multiplication of with to spare for those of : the corresponding values of

and thereafter 1 - exp [- t 2 ] specify and take the equidistant values close enough to then interpolate between them. Here is such a table whose values must of course be even closer to each other to allow a very accurate interpolation.

Table of the deviation sums of to , the Totalsummme as a unit Set exp [- t 2 ] 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 1.00000 0.99920 0.99682 0.99286 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 exp [- t ] 0.72738 0.70403 0.68035 0.65641 2.00 2.05 2.10 2.15 exp [- t 2 ] 0.27992 0.26245 0.24568 0.22961

0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95

0.98735 0.98030 0.97176 0.96176 0.95034 0.93757 0.92350 0.90820 0.89173 0.87417 0.85558 0.83606 0.81569 0.79455 0.77273 0.75031

1.20 1.25 1.30 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.50 1.55 1.60 1.65 1.70 1.75 1.80 1.85 1.90 1.95

0.63232 0.60813 0.58395 0.55983 0.53586 0.51210 0.48861 0.46545 0.44270 0.42038 0.39855 0.37726 0.35654 0.33641 0.31692 0.29809

2.20 2.25 2.30 2.35 2.40 2.45 2.50 2.55 2.60 2.65 2.70 2.75 2.80 2.85 2.90 2.95

0.21425 0.19960 0.18566 0.17241 0.15986 0.14798 0.13677 0.12621 0.11628 0.10696 0.09823 0.09006 0.08245 0.07536 0.06877 0.06266

exp [- t 2 ]

exp [ - t 2 ]

exp [ - t ]

3.00 3.05 3.10 3.15 3.20 3.25 3.30 3.35 3.40 3:45

0.05700 0.05176 0.04694 0.04249 0.03841 0.03466 0.03123 0.02809 0.02523 0.02263

4.00 4.05 4.10 4.15 4.20 4.25 4.30 4.35 4.40 4.45

0.00614 0.00540 0.00474 0.00416 0.00364 0.00318 0.00278 0.00242 0.00211 0.00183

5.00 5.05 5.10 5.15 5.20 5.25 5.30 5:35 5.40 5.45

0.00035 0.00030 0.00025 0.00022 0.00018 0.00015 0.00013 0.00011 0.00009 0.00008

3.50 3.55 3.60 3.65 3.70 3.75 3.80 3.85 3; 90 3.95

0.02026 0.01811 0.01616 0.01440 0.01281 0.01138 0.01009 0.00893 0.00790 0.00697

4.50 4.55 4.60 4.65 4.70 4.75 4.80 4.85 4.90 4.95

0.00159 0.00137 0.00119 0.00103 0.00088 0.00076 0.00065 0.00056 0.00048 0.00041

5.50 5.55 5.60 5.65 5.70 5.75 5.80 5.85 5.90 5.95 6.00 6.15

0.00007 0.00006 0.00005 0.00004 0.00003 0.00003 0.00002 0.00002 0.00002 0.00001 0.00001 0.00001

6.20 0.00000 126 The derivation of the sum of the Act in response to A after simple GG is this. After the simple GG, both parties taken together absolute number of deviations is between t = 0 and a given value of t = : : In short m [ t ]. (1) In order to have the corresponding sum, one has previous value under the integral sign with to multiply what are: . (2) But since t = : , therefore = t for in previous integral: , we have by substitution of this value

. (3) The general integral of 2 t exp [- t ] dt is with consideration that tdt = d t 2 , integrated in finite form, that is - exp [- t 2 ], and hence between the limits t = 0 and t = t is equal to (1 - exp [- t 2 ]), which with m = multiplied, are: (1 - exp [- t ]), (4) the sum of between t = 0 and a given t.

Be brief 1 - exp [- t ] = T (5) set is T (6) the required value. Now is expressed in infinite series: , (7) it acquires a very small t di : for very small t is noticeably: is sufficient to retain the first two terms, which t = t . (8) In the case of asymmetry one has of D instead of A to go out and apply the twocolumn GG, d, instead i to put ' or , and t each side equally of e or s , to depend, as before, by . 127 To compare observation bill, it is, of course, to determine the deviation amount even to given limits. Now applies to the empirical determination of total each side (according to 74): , =m,D-a,; ' = a '- m D , (9) Formulas for the determination of up to a given limit , or ' change each side only so far as to m , and m ' is no longer the totality of derogation numbers each side, but only the deviation numbers up to that limit, and a , , a 'is not the totality of a each side, but to understand again only up to the boundary are given, rather than merely what we call the respective values with two dashes above and below, with respect to the totality with dashes. If now D falls into the general in a certain interval, which is part of m ' , m " , A " , a "who falls into that interval, as previously described ( 72 and 73) indicated to determine by interpolation , while the remaining portion is provided by the self-monitoring. We illustrate this on the board I of 450 skulls. [For the reduction position E , = 368 ( 64) falls D p = 409.7 in the interval from 405.5 to 410.5. There is thus a 0 = 408; z 0 = 65; i = 5; g 1 = 405.5; x = 4.2, and we obtain for the of D p reaching up to the first interval boundary 405.5 " , for di y D p - Y, where y and the number Y is indicative of the sum of the engagement interval, according to the formulas (13) and (8) of the chapter IX. y = 65 = 55, Y = 55 407.6; yD
p

- y = 55 2.1 = 116

Accordingly, the following table gives comparison between theory and experience for the lower deviation sums of Table I: Comparison of empirical " with the theoretical case of table I (vertical extent of the skull). E = 1 mm, i = 5, D p = 409.7, e , = 11.9; , = 2840th " 0 to 4.2 "9.2 116 511 " empir. Theoretical 111 491 1034 1599 2079 2423 2636 2749 2806 ":, empir. Theor. 0,041 0,180 0,349 0,561 0,744 0,904 0,960 0,982 1,000 0,039 0,173 0,364 0,563 0,732 0,853 0,928 0,968 0,988

Difference -5 - 20 +43 +7 - 34 - 143 - 89 - 50 - 34

Difference - 0.002 - 0,007 0,015 + + 0.002 - 0,012 - 0,051 - 0,032 - 0,014 - 0,012

"14.2 991 "19.2 1592 "24.2 2113 "29.2 2566 "34.2 2725 "39.2 2798 "44.2 2840

It can be seen, with what approach the absolute and relative deviation sums as they will bear the panel are represented by the sum law. It is important to take into consideration that the empirical values under the assumption of a uniform distribution of a , respectively. were determined within each interval, while the theoretical calculation based on the assumption is that the distribution corresponds to the Basic Law within the intervals. ] 128 Addition. The Supplementarverfahren. If, as usual, in a distribution board just the number, but not the total sum of a, which over and falls below a certain value, just only the Vorzahl v and Nachzahl n , but not VorsummeV and Nachsumme N is given, can indeed be C , but neither A nor D p obtained directly, nor the deviation functions with respect to these values, therefore no distribution statement will be possible. Today you can to as follows, though somewhat laborious, method, which I call the Supplementarverfahren, go. Is determined instead of D p rather D i , which is typically of D p as little deviated in order to be substituted for may initially can be a rear view of v, V, n, N aside, but

determines the incompleteness of differential numbers m " , m ' and variance sums ' , " by a known method only sharp from the executed part of the panel. But it also determines the total deviation numbers m , = m ' + v and m ' = m ' + n , hereafter v: m , and n : m '. these values belong can be seen in the following table values of find, the calculation after specified is, by the table but should, at least for some values are spared the trouble of calculation. The Table is merely to small values v: m , and n: m extended, as it is in most cases far are only those, where the box is not sufficient, has can be calculated directly. Thereafter, we find the full sum of the lower and upper deviations D i as follows: , Thereafter, 1) : , ; . (11)
1)

. (10)

[Since this presupposed validity of the two-column GG regarding D i the existence of the proportional law: e ' : e , = m ': m , has the consequence may bearing in mind instead of the above, applicable without regard to this law formula also right: A = D i + e '- e , to be set, which compared with the above derivation of A granted an indication for the safety of determination].

Some of the numerical values of v : m , , n : m ' associated sum fractional values deviation of each side with respect to D.

0.1626 0,1105 0.0726 0.0461 0.0282 0.0167 0.37726 0.27992 0.19960 0.13677 0.09006 0.05700

0.0095 0.0052 0.0028 0.0014 0.0007 0.0003 0.0002 0.0001

0.03466 0.02026 0.01138 0.00614 0.00319 0.00159 0.00076 0.00035

The calculation of happening like this: You look to m ": m , , or m ': m ' , whichever it is the negative or positive side, as [ t ] taken, the value of t , and take = exp [- t ] . This provision means is dependent on that one for each side of the deviations of D i holds out the simple GG to the number and average deviation in particular found on this page for valid short statuiert the modified GG for the totality, and suspended from the ones in the switching principle developed. [The three values: 1) the relative number of deviations, 2) the relative sum of the deviations, 3) the ratio of the difference itself, to which one of D i and the sum of the relative speed are determined and from the mean deviation , are provided in dependence on one another such that each two of the third can be calculated. Namely, it is on the basis of the deviations for GG one side, for example the positive: , , , (12)

where m ' and ' imagine the total number and sum of the deviations of this page, " but the difference is, up to which the incomplete number m " and the incomplete sum '' be extended. It may therefore, in the manner indicated above, to m ': m ' , respectively. m ": m , through the mediation of t the value of '': ' respectively. " : ,calculated and from this, if " respectively. " is found empirically ' respectively. , are determined by (10).] To illustrate a specific example of this determination, it is in the board's Quetelet French recruits 2) v = 28 620, n = 2490, m = 100 000th [It is now D i = 1.6273 m, ie m , = 55 951;m '= 44 049, m ": m , = 0.48848, m ': m '= 0.94347; hereafter from the t - table first if t = 0.46420 and 1 - exp [- t 2 ] = 0.19385; second if t = 1.34843 and 1 - exp [- t 2 ] = 0.83769.Consequently, we obtain from (10) the total sum , = 3740.5; '= 2410.7, since " = 725.1 and " = 2019.4. Finally, it follows, by (11) e , = , 0.0669 e '= 0.0547, A = 1.6140. It is therefore D - A = 0.0133,

while e , - e ' = 0.0122, both values should be equal, but their moving apart therein for a reason that the output value D i of the given proportional D p differs slightly . Quetelet himself, who passes through evaluative comparison of the observed probability values with the theoretical values of its probability table to establish a distribution performed panel, says: "la taille moyenne est de 1,62 m environ"].

2)

[Lettres sur la thorie of probabilits, p. 401st "Waist Conscrits francais".]

One might think that even in cases where a complete set exists, the observed values but abnormal are down too small, as is the case in Leipzig and Anna Berger recruits dimensions, you only Supplementarverfahren on the higher part of the range, but still on the same side of D is to apply need to be a , to get down what is uninvolved or adapted to the effects of the abnormality, as if the normal relationship between the number and size of the deviations, what is up presupposes also submitted to the lower end. But this is not the case, but one can only be expected from Supplementarverfahren a useful result, as the excluded in the calculation of lower part of the series, which b hot, is just as normal as the committed early in the calculation, which is a hot. In fact, we assume that the proportionate number of deviations from a certain deviation values to the end, that is, in part b is too large, then the proportionate number above, in parts a, abnormally to be small, the Supplementarverfahren but continues to assume that it is normal, which contradicts itself. Therefore, it comes when it only acts by Supplementarverfahren with such abnormal rows to absurd conclusions. Of course, the value obtained directly reduced in such series by the Supplementarverfahren , and increases the value of A. - So I have at the Leipzig group as a part taken by the negative side of the D = 69.71 to 66.5 range, as b the part from there to the end, where you can remember ( 15) 66 that the value below which fall under moderate. Derived from the totality of the value of , was 9935, after the 9097 Supplementarverfahren derived, substantially equal to the values of '= 9070 which follows, from the respected than normal positive parts of the series. The totality of the series directly from the derived value of Awas 69.62, after the Supplementarverfahren gained 69.70, so the values of D substantially equal. Would now but D really mean, so the median would also coincide with it, so m ' = m ,be, whereas m , = 4257, m ' ='s 4145th

XIX. The asymmetry laws.

129 [In the previous two chapters, the GG was so far advanced that there be a

suitable instrument for the distribution statement of K. - G. is also well prepared with essential symmetry than essential asymmetry of the deviations of Use. Since experience shows that in fact the Gaussian law of error at low fluctuation of the individual values is the true law of distribution about its mean, and that even with weak asymmetry, in which it remains doubtful whether only a failure of essential symmetry or significant asymmetry exists, the law grants a two-sided advantages over the simple laws, so you can two-sided GG than enough to bewhrende distribution law of K.-G. up with weak proportionate variation. This fundamental law of distribution for K.-G. then relies only on the experience and needs no theoretical justification. It therefore remains from the empirical point of view merely has the task to derive preliminary in the previously mentioned (in Chapter V) special laws significantly asymmetric distribution as consequences of the Basic Law. [If, however, even this basic law is sufficiently supported by the experience, it is surely of interest to theoretical requirements concerning the K.-G. to develop in order to justify the two-sided GG in a similar manner as was done for the simple error of law in theory, theoretically. This will be done in the additions to this chapter to derive the special laws.] 130 [The special laws significantly asymmetric distribution fall into two groups. The first contains provisions of the initial value, according to which the latter 1.the densest value, ie the maximum z having 2.has the pronounced in the proportional property laws. The second group are relationships between the main values, the arithmetic mean values of A , the central values of C and the closest values of D, thus determined the distances of these values and their relative position in theory and properties of the A and D are associated deviation figures developed 1) .]
1)

[In addition to these laws, the laws were extreme in 33 also listed. However, the same have just as well as with symmetry with asymmetry of the deviation values are valid and therefore no laws significantly asymmetric distribution. since they also give rise to more detailed discussions, they will receive special treatment in the following section.] [For the derivation of these laws is the two-sided GG shall be based, as the law of distribution of copies of K. - G. to obtain the following form:

. (1) Mean here, as usual, m and m , the numbers of above and below the initial value D located deviations ' and , that their absolute values to taken distances of

the deviations of D ,h ' and h , by finally the reciprocal values e ' and e , where e ' and e , the mean values of ' and , are. But it is like the output value D shall not apply from the outset as the densest value even as the law determined by the proportional value, since both properties are to be proved. Rather, it is D regarded as a baseline for the time being arbitrarily chosen, the proof is only on the basis of the law (1) as the afflicted with those two properties value. Yet it should be noted that 'and , meaning no numbers, but only to the geometrical interpretation in ' respectively. , imagined as abscissae corresponding to the latter vertical ordinates of the distribution law. However, the numbers of differences are always based on intervals and are represented by surface strips, so that the equations z ' = d ' , z , = , d , (2) specify how much the deviations (1) According to law between the infinitely near boundaries ' and '+ d ' respectively. , and , + d , on the iron of the latter interval of sized ' respectively. d , fall. Also determined according to the W. W and W , that a deviation between the specified limits can be found. It is:

(3) respectively.] [By the equations (1), for any finite value of ' and , the corresponding value of 'and , and thus the corresponding value of z 'and z , or W and W , determined uniquely .For the output value itself, however, the deviation values ' = 0 and , = 0 belong to missing this uniqueness, unless that h ' m ' = h , m , or For it is for this value: , (5) (4)

so that a continuous transition between the two curves which represent the equations (1), in fact, takes place only when the condition equation (4). But that this condition equation must necessarily be fulfilled, is evident from the following consideration.] [It will be appreciated that intervals of a given size and a given situation can only belong to a certain number of variations. This has the consequence that an infinitesimal interval, that is to be regarded as a boundary of a finite interval, the

nmliche number has come, it may be seen in the upper or extending into the lower part of the distribution board interval as the boundary a. But for the output value ' different from , so the number of errors for the said output value associated interval is dependent on whether the latter on the part which is intended reaches above or the part of the located below baseline deviations. Since this is not allowed, so must '= , be, and thus the condition equation (4) are met.] [Untriftig it, hold the opposite, so much so that one of the numbers, but not for the W. of the deviations would be achieved uniqueness. Because the probability rules (3) relate to each side of the deviations especially without taking into account the other side or to be pulled from their affected. If you want a mutually considered jointly determine the W., as must the same on the total number m = m + m , the deviations refer, and it is set then:

, (6) so that, as it must be, for '= , = 0, the uniqueness of the likelihood determination on the basis of (4) is obtained.] [It is thus retained in the distribution law (1) the condition of equation (4) to be attached. Thus, however the performance of the output values of the proportional law e ' : e , = m ': m , (7) demanded. At the same time, this value is seen as closest possible value, since both ' and , for the zero value of the deviation variable ' and , reaches the maximum.] [To illustrate the distribution law may serve the following two curves, the first of which the course of the above D situated values indicating the probable and mean deviations w = DW , e '= DE' , q = DQ , the second is the development of both sides of D lying values, indicating the two main values A and C in addition to D , and the two simple average deviationse ' = DE ' , e , = DE , introduces eyes.

It should be noted that the ordinate relative values introduced by the place of the values of 'and , of the formula (1) by 2 h ' m '= 2 h , m , divided values ' : 2 h ' m ' and ,: 2 h , m , are set. It has also been h '= 1, h , = 2 / 3 was adopted. Therefore, the maximum value DB in the two curves is equal to 1 : further comprising: e e , = 2 : 3, s = 0.564, e , = 0.846, D - A = 0.282; ,

D - C = 0.222, . The unit is equal to 5.6 cm for the second equal to 3.2 cm for the first curve.] 131 [Only exceptionally are the numbers m ' and m , the above and below baseline D be located deviations are equal. In this exceptional case, the central value are C and the arithmetic mean of A with D combined. For it is m '= m , so that the central value characterizing condition is met, from the equality of m ' and m , but continues to follow due to proportional law that also e '= e , and hence m ' e ' = m , e , . This means that the mutual deviation sums are equal to each other, whereby the arithmetic mean is determined.]

[However, as is presupposed in general, m ' of m , are different, the two main values are A and C Never D together, and it can be their distances from D from the GG derived as follows.] [Let us denote the larger of the two numbers m ' and m , by m ", the smaller of m " and characterizing the on side of m " values lying , e , h and t in harmony with the earlier ( 33) adopted provisions . then by two dashes above the central value is C than to seek the value that the associations with D defines an interval ( m - " m " ) contains discrepancies, because it is: , (8) so that above and below the certain kind of value deviations are much the same as it is to call for the central value. But from the distribution law follows if = C - D the distance between the values of C and D indicates regardless of their relative positions: , (9) or if h " '= t, h " = t " is set: . (10) You can find, with respect, that h " = s " , , (11)

C - D = = t "e"

where either to compute directly from (9) or t " by means of the t -table on the basis of (10) to determine than that value, to the short to " part.]

[The distance C - D is therefore essential to the quotient of ( m '- m ' ) : m '' dependent. The latter is equal to zero, then also equal to zero, and C falls, as already noted, with Dtogether. However, this ratio is not equal to zero, but probably sufficiently small so that its second power can be neglected, as it is allowed, [ t " ] as the size of the same order approximated by: or display, and hence: (13) or: (12)

(14) to set. On the other hand, achieved C - D to the maximum value when ( m '- m " ) : m "takes the value 1, ie, if m ' = 0 and m ' = m , that is, when all of the deviations on a same side of the initial value . located, and the asymmetry is consequently infinite, it is in case of this border (10) of the simpler equation: (15) so that t '= w: e " , where w is the probable value of the variance that is equal to 119 0.845347 e " should be set for the distance. C - D is obtained THEREFORE the equation: C - D = w = 0.845347 s . "] (16) [This provision of C - D is also in the general case (11) as in the two limiting cases (14) and (16) completely based on the two-sided GG as distribution law. It will be the empirical determination of this distance distribution table in a previously introduced, after having made the direct calculation from about C and A by means of the equation (26) or (29) of the XI.Chapter is done, result in a different determination of the theoretical value found here in general. It is different with respect to the distance A D between the arithmetic means A and the output values of D, since the formation of the formula for this distance only on the properties of A and D is based, which are also of the empirical basis for calculation, while a use of the Basic Law provides no reason to.] [One Notice namely that the larger of the two deviation sums ' and , due to the proportional law on the same side of D can be found on the larger of the two deviation numbers, namely m ", is to seek what the larger of the two sums by " , the smaller by " is called, so you can set: "= a "- m "D " = m "D - A " (17). It follows by subtraction: "- " = a "+ A "- ( m '+ m ' ) D = a - mD , and, after dividing by m , taking into account that: , equation: (18)

but the property of D to satisfy the proportional law, not yet included. For this purpose we put in (18): "= m "e" ; " = m "e " or what is the same as m '= m - m ' and m ' = m - m ' : "= me" - m "e'' ; " = me " - m "e " . One thus arrives at the following equation: (19) in which, according to the proportional law: m " e'' - m "e " = 0 , so that finally A - D = e "- e " (20) results, a relationship that is already in the XI. Section was set up, as it is the exploitation of the properties of D p acting in the interest of its determination from the empirically given table values.] [Because of the proportional laws: e "- e " = ( m "- m " ) then the equation (20) in the form: (21) or, as above: ,

is set in the form: A - D = 2 " e " (22) be brought.] [The determination of the distance A - D is thus in fact of the existence of the GG independently, so that for each distribution panel, equation (20) must be made, if different from Aas the mean and D as D p , ie the proportional law according to calculated have been.] [Also for A - D can specify the limits. If m '= m ' , it follows from (21) that also A = D, in accordance with the remark already made, after which C and A simultaneously with Dcoincide. If, however, m " = m , and m ' = 0, the asymmetry is consequently infinite, then

A - D = e " (23) thus equal to the simple average deviation, while for (16) C - D is the probable deviation. Further, in the case that ( m '- m " ) : m a small size, the second power can be neglected, contact the formulas (12), (13) and (14) in place, so that, from ( 21) or (22) the equation: (24) can be derived.] 132 [Based on the above determination of the distances C - D and A - D can be also A - C are calculated as the difference of the two previous intervals, after which the distance laws for the three principal values of A, C and D can be given in the following form: 1) for all desired values of m ' and m " , that is, for a very any degree of asymmetry, one has according to the formulas (11) and (20) resp. (22): C - D = T "e" A - D = e " - e " = 2 ' e " (25) A - C = (A - D ) - (C - D) = ( 2 " - t " )e'; 2) for m ' = 0 and m '= m, ie exist for the case of infinitely large asymmetry of the relations (16) and (23) it is thus: C - D = 0.845347 e " A - D = e " (26) A - B = 0.154653 e " ; 3) if ( m '- m ' ) : m " a small size imagines their second power can be neglected, ie, when the asymmetry is very small, you can set according to formulas (14) and (24):

, (27) 4) in the event that any asymmetry is present, in which case m '= m , is finally: C-D=0 A - D = 0 (28)

A-C=0. It should be noted that, while, as for the derivation of the deviation A - D and D C can immediately recognize A and C at the same time on the side of the m " are, but that only the absolute values of these distances are determined, and therefore, there is provided, if A and C in the positive or in the negative direction of D , the former is the case, differ, though. m > m , the latter, if m , > m ' ]. 133 [From this distance, the distance relations laws and especially the leave Laws by dividing win. One obtains: 1) for the general case where any condition of the degree of asymmetry is subjected:

(29) ; 2) in the case of very weak asymmetry:

(30) ; 3) for the case of infinitely large asymmetry:

(31)

. The under 2) and 3) communicated values represent the limits between which vary the provisions applicable to the general case. Especially those concerning weak asymmetry relations of interest, since in this case the presupposed here small fluctuation of copies of K.-G. is so common that it can be referred to as a control. Therefore, the relations (30) to receive a special name and the names

of the - . Laws] [Of the three quotients of standing in the first place is usually taken into account and therefore for simplicity by a special. Letters, namely p respectively. It is therefore to be expected that p or ( C - D ) : ( A D ) is not less than 0.785 and not greater than 0.845, wofern not interfere with irregularities the course of the empirical values of a distribution panel and the agreement with theory, the is relevant only to the above provisions, affecting.] 134 [The fact that C and A on the same side of D lie has already been noticed, but that C between A and D is evident from the following statement.] [According to formula (29) is quite general: (32) where t " to the " in the t - table associated value. One considers now that ' can only represent values between 0 and , because , as a glance at the t - table that consistently t "< " (33) because only the values of = 0.6209 from the three-digit t -values greater than the related - values to remain higher until the close of the table. Moreover, since: <2 and thus all the more: t so, in fact: C - D <A -. D (34) <2 "

This law according to which C is always between A and D is, the situation is the law.] [The organic law has the consequence that the asymmetry of the deviations rel. D has the opposite sign than the deviations rel. A. Indeed, since with respect to C , the mutual deviation numbers are equal to each other, there is, for each value above C , the inequality m ' < m , and for each value below C , the inequality m ' > m , . , it is thus, if A aboveC is,

 < , that is, '- , negative. But then is D below C, so that: m > m , ie m '- m , is positive.

Conversely, if A below and D above C is. This reversal of the asymmetry with respect to A and D is called the inverse law is therefore an emanation of the situation the law.]

[Additive. The theoretical justification of the two-sided GAUSS law.] 135 [So far, the two-sided GG was due to the experience as the law of probability is sufficiently bewhrende K.-G. positioned. Now you want next to the empirical probation nor a theoretical justification of this law, they must hypotheses concerning the K.-G. be developed that allow for a derivation of this law. The preparation of such hypotheses is justified in the fact that they lead to the same laws and be derived as contained in the bud. And if the experience alone decides the accuracy of the established law, yet is such a subsequent theoretical justification insight into the nature of the K.G. promoted.] [First, I certify that it meets the specific to the proportional value as law D p presupposed as the most probable value to derive the two-sided GG in the same way as in the theory of errors, the simple GG from the assumption that the arithmetic mean is the probable value, it is inferred. The hypothesis of the arithmetic mean of the error theory is thus in the collectives, the hypothesis that the proportional law the most probable value of the copies of a K.G. determine, entirely equivalent to the side.] [To prove this, assume that m copies of a one K.-G. exist for which a specific value of the proportional law D p = a 0 exists. There are then m , values of a, namely a 1 , a 2 , , a3 .... , lower D p and m ' values of a , namely a ' , a " , a "' ..., above D p , and ordered it for the deviations of these values of D p = a 0 , according to the laws of the proportional equation:

or if the lower deviations by 1 , 2 . . . the top by ' , " , ... are called: m ' , + m ' 2 + + m , 2 ' + m , 2 "+ = 0 (35) It may now W. deviations 1 , 2 ' , " by ( 1 ), ( 2 )

 ( ' ), ( ") are called. Then the W for the coincidence of all is m deviations by the product ofm W, ie by:
expressed.] [But a 0 to in the underlying hypothesis is supposed to represent the most probable value, it must according to the known principles of probability and the product of W. for the deviations of the values submitted a of a 0 be greater than for any deviations from the other, from a 0 different values. It must therefore be a maximum. Substituting now for brevity:

it is thus: (36) to place.] [This equation has the equation (35) exist simultaneously. Brings you therefore (36) in the form:

it is evident that: (37) where k is an arbitrary constant. From:

but follows

and from this by integration: . (38) At the same time we see that k must present a negative value if ( ) for = 0 is to reach its maximum.] [It is thus for the below D = a 0 located deviations that are now

indiscriminately by , should be referred to: (39) where c , a constant yet to be determined, and - h , = k m ' 2 is. For the above D = a 0 lying deviations, however, the distinction by ' may be represented, one finds: (40) where again the determination of c 'is still pending, while - h = k m , 2 is] [Finally, the constants c ' and c , determine the W. that of the m ' upper and m , lower deviations between 0 and some a lies - set equal to 1 - as a matter of course.Therefore, it must:

and:

be. This results because: , to:

. (41) Therefore, finally:

(42) with the specified values of h ' and h , the following condition: .] (42a) 136 [For this reason the two-sided GG, it can be perceived as a defect that the specified underlying hypothesis of the proportional law of the arithmetic

mean of the hypothesis in the theory of errors of simplicity and inferior evidence. Because you can only search the first experience a prop for the same as it was called for in 42 as a fundamental fact of experience that the KG determining a closest value allow that coincides sufficiently close to the values defined by the proportional law.] [It is therefore of interest that another hypothesis can be established, based on simple and obvious reflection on the mode of origin of the K.G. supported. For now, leading to a uniform distribution law, but by the latter allows the determination of a densely value, the approximate satisfies the proportional laws, there is also the two-sided GG as an approximation to that uniform law dar. One thus arrives at the conclusion that the division of the law distribution, as it is due to the use of the Basic Law, not by the nature of K.G. required, may well be motivated by the need but to make available to the following hypothesis to be drawn up from the law a comfortable, satisfying the requirements of the collectives use.] [To bring out the main points clear in the development of this hypothesis will first meet the conditions actually existing, a K.-G. provided that the copies can be distinguished and only a small number of equidistant finite increments in size. For example, like there are five grades of size, and the sizes themselves in turn the same: a, a + i a 2 + i, a + 3i, 4i + a (43) be. Then it is natural to attribute the difference in the size of the games special forces, each of which in the event of their activity to increase i created. It will therefore be four forces K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K 4 assume such a way that each act as well and can not work. Occurs none of the four forces in effectiveness, then a copy of the size of a ; affects only one of the four forces, the specimen shall be the size of a + i , but act two, three or all four forces, it is the size of a + 2 i, a + 3 i or a + 4 i created. Of the W., consisting of effect of each force, the frequency of occurrence of specimens of a certain size level will depend on the distribution law and thereby be caused. Namely, is obtained when the forces independently of each other with the W. p 1 , p 2 , p 3 , p 4 , and accordingly the work W for the lack of its action by q 1 = 1 - p 1 q 2 = 1 - p 2 , q 3 = 1 - p 3 , q 4 = 1 - p 4 are given the following representations of the size W of the different steps of: W[a]=q1q2q q4;
3

W[a+i]=p1q2q3q4+q1p2q3q4+q1q2p3q4+q1q2q3p4; W[a+2i] =p1p2q3q4+p1q2p3q4+p1q2q3p4+q1p2p3q4+q1p q3p4+q1q p3p4;

2 2

W[a+3i]=p1p2p3q4+p1p2q3p4+p1q2p3p4+q1p2p3p4; W [ a + 4 i ] = p 1 p 2 p 3 p 4 . (44) It can be seen that a symmetrical distribution of the copies of the different size stages is only possible if, for example, p 1 + p 3 = p 2 + p 4 is 1 or when the occurrence of the effect of each individual power nmliche W. as for the lack of effect of the other forces there. Then: W[a]=p1p2q1q2 W[a+i]=(p1p2+q1q2)(p1q2+p2q1) W [ a +2 i ] = ( p 1 p 2 + q 1 q 2 ) ( p 1 q 2 + p 2 q 1 ) - 2 p 1 p 2 q 1 q 2 W[a+3i]=(p1p2+q1q2)(p1q2+p2q1) W [ a +4 i ] = p 1 p 2 q 1 q 2 .

Any other provision of the W. leads to an asymmetric distribution of copies to the different size levels. Obtained for example 1 For p 1 = p 2 = p 3 = p 4 = p , 2 For p 1 = p 2 = p 3 = ,p 4 = p, where p and q = 1 - p are different from : 12 W[a] =q4 4 pq 3 q2
1 1 1

/8q W [ a + i] =

/ 8 (3 q + p ) W [ a +2 i ] = / 8 (3 q +3 p ) W [ a +3 i ] =

6p

4, p 3 q = p4

/ 8 ( q +3 p ) W [ a +4 i ] /8p

It is thus possible again to specify different ways as specializations of the asymmetric distribution of general scheme (44), while only in the above manner, a symmetrical distribution is possible. But each of them based in the same way on the hypothesis that four independent of each other forces are present, each of which has a certain W. for their effect and in the case of its work to increase size i produced.] [Now, however, there is in reality no K.-G., which can be distinguished only

five, separated by finite intervals and constant size steps. Rather, the copies distributed continuously to the extreme values limited by the size field, so that nothing wins by an increase in the size of steps where then instead of five would choose a larger number. But rather to let the size range that the copies of the K.-G. meet continuously, into intervals of constant magnitude i divide up and determine the size interval such that within each interval, the distribution of the copies of the distribution law may be assumed to be constant and uniform. This is the case when i imagine a small size, the second power may be neglected in comparison with the finite sizes. Then it is also allowed to think united to the interval specimens falling in the middle of the interval, so that is recycled in this way to the notion of size stages with constant intervals. The initial idea, however, is now modified in that the specimens belong to the individual size not more stages themselves, but the corresponding intervals, and serve only as a stage the size of the intervals of Representatives.] [With regard to this modification, the now of the copies of the K - to be replaced by an indefinitely large number of size steps fulfilled G. size range, so that the occurring variables by themselves a, a + i, a + 2 i, .... a + ni (45) can be displayed. It has therefore only necessary to place the selected limited number of examples in the above four forces an indefinitely large number n presuppose a certain W. and attach each for their effect to bestimmendeW for each size above a level of such forces. and thus to obtain a certain distribution of copies on the whole territory size. At the same time it is evident that this distribution is symmetric if and only if the n forces can be summarized in pairs and for each pair, the W. equal to p i and p k are, p i + p k = 1. Any other provision of the W. leads to an asymmetric distribution. But if the latter can be traced in their law, so should not randomly any force acting quite arbitrary W. zuerteilt be. It may therefore be attributed to the nmliche W. for their effect on the workability of the mathematical treatment of each force.] [It is thus led to the following hypothesis: 1) There is an indefinitely large number n of forces 2) K 1 , K 2 , K n provided that participate independently in the production of copies of K.-G is. 2) There is the W. p for the occurrence and W. q = 1 - p for the lack of effect of each force. 3) Any power generated in the event of their activity to increase i, where i imagine such a small size that their second power may be neglected in comparison with finite sizes.]
2)

[The term "force" is only chosen for the sake of brevity, it may include all the

specifics, whatever they may also be understood that a changing influence on the size of the copies of a K.-G. are able to exercise.] [Hereinafter, one copy, at which no generation of n forces involved, the size a , the W. W [ a ] = q n , as the magnitude of all the forces occurring in a + ni is created for which W [ a+ ni ] = p n is. Participate but at a Low x forces, the size is the same a + xi , and since

different systems, each x can be formed forces for each system but the W. p x q n-x exists, then: . (46) Now apply for large n, x and n - x the formulas:

. With respect thereto is obtained: (47) Substituting here pn and qn as integers ahead, so it is assumed that n by the common denominator of the fractions p and q is divisible, so that the generality of the following is not limited to developing, we can take x and n - x with advantage x pn + and qn - x write where now x all positive numbers from 0 to + nq and all negative numbers from 0 to - np has to go through, at the same time is a + xi by a + pni + xi or if a + pni short by a 0 is designated by a 0 + xi to replace. One finds as follows:

(48) From this you win with consideration that: ;

following representation form:

(49) The same is valid as long as x: pn and x: qn less than 1] [If this law W. for finite values of the deviations xi of a 0 represent, we must x the size of the order of 1 : i is assumed. However, it is n a size higher order when the extreme deviations pni and qni compared to the proposed values xi are very large. This is true but in fact, as the extreme deviations with the number of copies on both sides grow and thus, are growing as to take into infinity from the point of view of the theory. Would focus n the size of the order of 1 : i 2 required. Then represents the ratio x 2 : n is a finite size and the ratio ofx: s in the same manner as the quotient of x 3 : n 2 a size of the order . i It is therefore possible, if sizes of the order i and a higher order in the series representation of and are neglected, bring the probability law (49) into the following simple form:

, or: (50) if xi = and ni 2 = k is set.] [In the derivation of this law provided that the copies of the K.-G. in the middle

of a 0 + xi may be of value by the number (45) represent intervals united thought. However, in reality the copies are distributed continuously within the intervals, so that the likelihood function as a continuous function of the deviation is assumed, the integral between the limits of the intervals through the W [ a 0 + are given]. Denoting therefore the likelihood function by w [ a 0 + ] so: W [a 0 + ] = w d , or in view of the smallness of degree i : = W i. It is therefore for the first interval centers: , (51) but since w is a continuous function of , so this representation has for any to apply.] [Hereinafter is found by differentiation of the maximum value of w of the equation: ; or (in consideration that a part w does not vanish, other part size of the order here i, and hence i 2 is negligible) from: . Thus, the densest value falls D on: . If this value is chosen as the starting value for the probability law, that is a 0 = D + i ( q - p ) = - i ( q - p ) is set, then finally results when w [ D + ] with ( ) is replaced by:

(52) be derived as the final form of the law.] [It is now even more to the proof that the output value of D under the Act (52) satisfies the approximate proportional law. For this purpose shall:

is set so that: . (53) Now is when m above the D preferred number and m is the total number of differences:

. Accordingly, for the below D preferred number m , : . It also refers to the above and below D located sums of deviations by ' and , so is:

. One finds from this: , Thus: = if = = 2.356 . (55) . (54)

As a first approximation one can therefore

= 1, = 2
set, so that in fact approximate: , (55a) as the proportional law requires it.] [Applies but the proportional law, may, with the corresponding two-sided

approximation GG instead of the uniform probability law (52) occur. The same is in the form (6), which refers to the mutual deviations to assume, since the law (52) takes into account both the upper and lower deviations. It is therefore:

. (56) This is due to the numbers calculated deviation and variance totals:

. (56) However, since the approximate validity of the proportional law requires that is rounded down to the integer value 2, it is also and 4 / 3 display equivalent and (56b) also can be used with authorization of the same in the preparation of, to set h ' and h , instead of - 2 / 3 as well and 2 / 3 are set]. [The replacement of the uniform law (52) by the two-sided GG thus has the consequence that, in place of the member

the term

occurs for the positive a positive, for negative receives a negative sign.] [Both (52) and (56) is for p = q represents the simple GG, which is thus also developed as a special case with those general laws of the established hypothesis. This latter case is adapted from the outset, it is not significantly different

from the hypothesis that HAGEN 3) to derive the simple G. G. has prepared for the error theory.]
3)

[basics of probability theory, Berlin 1837. P 34 - The Hagen's hypothesis is: "The error in the results of a measurement is the algebraic sum of an infinite number of elementary mistakes that are all the same size, and each of which may be positive or negative as easily."].

[Attention it deserves, that the asymmetry here, by size of order i is represented. It is therefore infinitely small when i is infinitely small. In the above derivation but was i not be infinitely small, but as so small provided that i 2 may be neglected in comparison with finite sizes.] [Yet it should be mentioned that for the uniform probability law in place of the densest value D as well, another value can be chosen as the starting value. In the display format (51), it is, for example, the arithmetic mean, which is made the starting point of the deviation. With respect to one finds a 0 , the sum of the mutual deviations equal to each other, so that a 0 in fact, the arithmetic mean of A group.]

XX. The extreme laws.

137 Usually considered to be the elements of a K.-G. include the extreme values, which offers the same distribution panel, ie the measure of the largest and smallest copy, also it has a multiple interests to deal with it. Already out of mere curiosity can you care about this, how big the biggest giant and the smallest dwarf, which have occurred in a given country or at all, which is the largest heat or cold, increased the temperature at a given place up to and has sunk, etc. But the indication of the extreme values of the investigated object has the same also a scientific value to the knowledge, by contributing the same to the characteristic with respect to the number of copies under which these extremes are observed and may also according to the observed extremes Asked expectation between which limits a future copies will be sought, beyond which it voraussetzlich not rise, among which it will not sink, sometimes be practical. Thus, the highest expected water level of a river determine the height of the protective dam or the amount of assets on its banks, the largest expected cold set a limit for the planting of certain crops, etc. One must not forget only that the size of the extremes is dependent on the number of copies that are subject to observation, and if for example the height of a river did not exceed a certain amount within 100 years, so you can not it expect that it should not be the case once in 1000 years, since hereby greater scope for the development of extremes is offered, from which immediately evident to the interest to find a law of the dependence of the size of the extremes of the number of copies, an interest What is an academic with the practical at the same time. Immediately, every empirical determination of extremes for the number of copies of importance from which the determination is made, but can be used for the empirical documentation for the

general provision of extremes, with altered number. So far we have overlooked this point several times, as I at more than one place, the size of the absolute or relative deviation between the extremes: E '- E , or ( E 'E , ) : A, for various m different from K. -G. were obtained, used for comparisons of absolute or relative variability of the articles in question find that can carry quite erroneous conclusions. Here, the set aperfu seems to reason that if you determine only the extremes of a large number, you can count on, if not absolutely possible extremes, but those who approach them very much to receive, and in the absence of other Anhaltes could be satisfied with the found. But this assumption of approximate achievable limit of extremes with increasing m has neither empirically nor theoretically something for themselves, but to be true is only two points, that the magnitude of extremes in much smaller proportions than the size of m grows, but if m is thought rising to infinity, always in specifiable ways to continue growing. 138 [Meanwhile, precludes the establishment of a legal relationship between the size of the extremes and the number of values in which the extremes occur, for example, represented a DOVE and Encke of conception, would follow the extremes of the legality of any escape.] DOVE, having in his first, "the geographical distribution of similar weather phenomena" question paper 1) : Specified "On the non-periodic changes of the temperature distribution on the surface of the earth", the extreme deviations which of monthly and annual temperature means during a given number occurred years at different observation sites, noted explicitly that "the figures given here have some very arbitrary, since a single unusually severe winter or a very hot summer, maybe double the differences determined from a long line of previous years," a remark which also schmid in his great meteorological stations 2) followed. Similarly Encke noted in his treatise on the method of least squares 3) due to the fact that something is too big to fail in the known error Bessel series, the extreme errors of observation against the theoretical requirement: "Incidentally, this difference is easily explained from the fact that larger errors usually an unusual association of adverse effects presuppose, or even frequently isolated as a standalone event be brought about, that no theory, they will be able to submit the bill. " Memoirs of the Royal. Academy of Sciences in Berlin, from the year 2) textbook of meteorology. Leipzig, 1860. 3) Berlin 1848. astronomer. Yearbook, 1834. P.249 flgd.
1)

Accordingly, it is in fact far neither from a theoretical nor experiential investigation and determination of statutory ratios of these values been mentioned, and so is likely not only a certain gap in this regard will be filled by the following investigation, but

also the de facto elimination of suspicion, that the extreme values are absolutely no legal conditions, to take a certain interest in the claim. However it is true that sometimes extreme or extreme deviations may result from exceptional causes that come out of the series of conditions under which a K.-G. is conceived as existing and subject to the investigation, such as barrel-shaped or swollen decided microcephalic skull, where it is healthy skulls. Such extremes are unpredictable indeed. But since the laws drawn up only to K.-G. relate that meet the previously stated (Section IV) props, it can almost be considered an indication of an emergence of extremes from the legal relationships that these extremes are abnormal, the one where there are normal conditions, are excluded. 139 Empirically, one can of the change of extremes, with the size of m easily seen in the following way. Determine from the totality of an original list of a given m , in which the dimensions are listed in random order, the two extremes of E ' and E , , then parts without changing the random order of dimensions for the entirety of the same into a number of equal fractions example, if the total m = would be 1000, in 10 fractions of m = 100, and now also determine the extremes of these fractions. If not coincidentally, what but with a large total - m only the case may be an exception, the same extremes already several times in the totality, you will not find in the fractions, but they are on average only smaller E ' and larger E , to give; and is repeated at each fraction of m = 100, the process by, for example, in 10 fractions of m = 10 shares, so naturally the corresponding success will occur. Now you can see the totality of the dimensions of a given m, the first one had before him, even as a fraction of a larger totality of m consider and conclude that, if several such fractions of the same m have the right to the E ' and E , obtained from the same, also the average of E ' and E , the larger totality of all copies would be surpassed in plus and minus. It may be noted that the E , which are obtained from the same fractions equinumerous totality, have a slightly different size, and by itself as a faction among others equinumerous fractions of a larger totality of given the totality of m may be considered, one would still between the e of these larger groups find differences, so that hence can not count on one of the given m -dependent very specific E ' and E , to find, but well, you can certainly say, first, that normally contained in the above for imported sense of a given m -dependent e average so as to further increase in the + and - remove, the larger m is, secondly, can its variation for a given m as a matter of uncertainty due to unbalanced contingencies that fits a more detailed investigation, consider what return below . We illustrate the previous at the Studentenmatafel 4) with m = 2047, whose elements are given in 65, after which A 1 of the primary panel = 71.77, D p by reduction to i = 1 inch but in the middle of 4 layers = 71 , is 96. however, since the use of the whole m = 2047 would be tremendously awkward, I only use 360 values as follows.

Due to the disadvantage of the non-uniform estimates, which are subject to the recruits dimensions at all, I would rather have chosen another example, if I Urlisten of other objects with the same secure pure randomness would have been in the wake of the benchmarks to bid, but can those disadvantage of the conditions on which it depends folgends, unquestionably discriminate only slightly. From the original list, in which the dimensions are quite by accident follow, the first 18 dimensions were advertised in their random sequence, and combines the totality of 360 measurements of each of the 20 cohorts. Herein was e = 77.5, E , = 64 inches found. Here Next these 360 measurements were 180 groups with a m split = 2, in each of which, of course, the immediately a measure that e , the other as E , occurs, and by dividing the sum of the resulting E ' and E , with 180 were the average E ' = 73.16 and medium E , = 70.26 obtained; on a division of the 360 measurements was in fractions having a 120 m = 3 is required and the mid- E ' and E , which is calculated so on, the results in the following table are summarized. I. means of the upper and lower extremes of n groups, each m elements. m 2 3 4 6 9 18 36 72 n 180 120 90 60 40 20 10 5 E' 73.16 73.81 74.25 74.68 75.09 75.84 76.25 76.90 E, 70.26 69.56 69.17 68.41 67.86 66.85 66.27 65.70 E '- E , 2.90 4.25 5.08 6.27 7.23 8.99 9.98 11.20 E '+ E , 143.42 143.37 143.42 143.09 142.95 142.69 142.52 142.60 141.50

4)

360 1 77.50 64.00 13.50 This table gives rise to the following observations.

Invariably we see with increasing m the middle 'e rise, E , decrease, of which the natural consequence is that the difference between two extremes E '- E , with increasing m grows, just as you can see, nothing less than proportionally with m grows by eg m = 2 is equal to 2.9, with m = 360 is equal to 13.5. Striking it may initially seem that the sum of the two extremes with increasing m only very minor changes, and that is, apart from the small irregularities in m = 4 and 72, which must be regarded as cause unbalanced contingencies, the change in a continuous decrease of E ' + E , with increasing m. However, it is to be understood this way. Of course, if E ' with increasing m increases, E , decreases, generally speaking, is the possibility that both just compensated, then where E ' + E , with increasing m would

remain constant, a case that apart from unbalanced contingencies then expected if the stocks symmetry deviations in both directions from the mean. Now the extent of such recruits, but since they correspond to the same but not quite so also corresponds to the result for approximate E '+ E , not quite the condition of such. 140 [Although now the values of Table I above the growth of the extreme upper and lower for the removal of the growing m represent clearly in mind, it is not yet suitable for parole in the following ( 141) drawn up extreme laws. Because they are derived from the Basic Law, which focuses on the deviations from the arithmetic mean A or the densest values D applies, so that the extreme rules first the extreme deviations from the initial values and not the extreme values of E ' and E , relate directly. The caused by this difference in determining manner is evident from the observation that E ' well below baseline and another time reversed E , may lie above it, and that then the deviation of that extreme, the output values are not both the maximum value, but rather the minimum value of the occurring represents deviations. The average values of the above table can not be considered as average values of the extreme deviations, therefore, since only those maxima of the deviation values are to be taken into account. Of this provision means, however, can raise the objection that the extremes of E ' and E , as such, irrespective of the chosen as the starting value mean value, the interest arouse and require the establishment directly applicable laws, but it can only do this through teaching the for take the extreme deviations applicable laws, as the case relates to basically laying distribution law on deviation values. There are, therefore, also the first theoretical provisions for the extreme deviations to prove empirically.] [For this purpose, the dimensions of the original list must be maintaining the existing order are replaced by their deviations from the initial values. The latter is the arithmetic mean value A is reached, the deviation in the position a, and either with or without a separation of the positive from the negative differential values, depending on where the GG-only to the upper resp. lower deviations is based solely or jointly to both. When outputs of D , however, are the differences ' and , in place of a set, while to the positive ' by the negative ,but rather to, as the twosided G. G. that comes now for use, in principle calls for the separation of the upper and lower of the deviations refers to both in different way.] [In the present case one can, given the weak degree of asymmetry, which is the recruits moderation own, choose the arithmetic mean as a baseline, and that are in view of the small total available number of 360 dimensional values not separate the positive and negative deviation values to be treated. Accordingly, I will replace the 360 recruits extent of adherence to their order by their deviations from A , which for simplicity was assumed equal to 71.75 instead of 71.77 precisely the same. Then all the deviations contains an extreme deviation with the values 7.75, and each subdivision thereof has a in the same way and only an extreme deviation value which is indeed its origin either to positive or negative, but occurs as an absolute value, as deviations only their absolute values can be considered to. Now is the series of 360 deviations above all, as well as the series of 360 measurements even in n fractions,

each ofm values is decomposed and each time the generally U quoted to be designated extreme deviation, we obtain the following table, in which specified is how often a certain deviation of size among the n fractions as an extreme deviation U occurred, noting a course for m = 1, the variations themselves while taken as extreme deviations: II counts how many times the extreme deviation U in n groups, each with m elements occurred. U m=1 m=2 m=3 m = 4 m =6 m = 9 m = 18 n = 20 m = 36 m = 72 n = 5 m = 360 n = 10 n=1

n = 360 n = 180 n = 120 n = 90 n = 60 n = 40 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50 4.75 5.00 5.25 5.50 5.75 12 28 25 21 16 31 35 29 24 23 15 16 11 12 5 16 7 10 4 3 5 6 1 2 1 1 4 9 6 11 14 13 18 12 7 9 10 8 4 14 5 10 4 3 5 6 1 2 1 4 7 5 13 9 6 7 7 7 4 11 6 10 3 3 5 6 1 2 1 2 13 5 3 4 7 5 4 9 5 9 3 3 5 6 1 2 4 2 2 1 3 3 3 8 4 8 3 3 5 5 1 2 3 1 1 3 5 2 6 3 2 4 4 1 2 1 1 3 1 2 2 4 1 2

2 3 2 2 -

6.00 6.25 6.50 6.75 7.00 7.25 7.50 7.75

1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1 1

These rows, representing distribution panels for extreme deviations, can increase the already growing at the extremes by gradually advancing the smallest values of m recognize.However, a more accurate idea thereof granted following set of intermediate values of U, which as the arithmetic mean of U a , the central value of U c and the densest value of U d to serve: III. The average values of U a , U c and U d the extreme deviations from m membered fractions. m m m m=2 m=3 m=4 m = 18 m = 36 m = 72 m = 360 =1 =6 =9 Ua 2.00 2.72 Uc 1.73 2.41 Ud 1.50 2.00 3.27 3.16 2.00 3.61 4.10 4.39 3.65 4.13 4.33 2.00 4.00 4.25 5.14 5.13 5.25 5.75 5.50 5.25 6.15 6.00 5.25 7.75 7.75 7.75

It should be noted that U c by simple interpolation, U d but was determined as the value at which the greatest number of U fell, only for m = 6, the mean of the two values was taken, which together have the maximum number 8th Apart from the densest uncertain values given, these values can be a constant increase with increasing m notice. But even takes U d not decrease, but retains only twice for three consecutive m its value.] [Had the upper separated from the lower deviations, instead of both to unite in a row, so II two tables would have taken the place of a table, one for the ' , the other for the , , and the there, however, the total number deviations for each individual would be reduced by about half, as the uncertainty of the rules would have been considerably larger. You would also have D instead of A as a starting value, then the series would be a separation of deviation values in a series of ' and those of , was

to demand principle.] 141 [To make this theoretical values emprischen provisions aside the probability law is W [ U ] derived which indicates with which of W. m deviation values of the extreme value ofU can be expected. But if U represent the extreme value, one of the must m deviations have that value, while the m - 1 other arbitrary values between 0 and U can accept. The law W [U ] thus expresses the W. that of m any deviations equal to U and the other is between the limits 0 and U talk.] [It is now, when the absolute values of the deviations of which contain W. that a deviation between the infinitely near boundaries and + d trap, equal to: . (1) It is immaterial whether the arithmetic mean of the mutual deviations + the outputs and - or the outputs from the closest values of the unilateral deviations ' respectively. , under the are to be understood, provided only that in the former case h = 1: , in the latter case h = 1: e ' , respectively. = 1: e , is set where the mean value of , e ' , respectively. e , the average , respectively. , represents. Is therefore intended by the m deviation 1 , 2 .... m , for example, equal to the first U and each less than or at most equal to the following U be, is that first of the W.

and for each subsequent W.: . The words for the coincidence of m deviations, the first of which is equal U , and each of the following to any value between 0 and U has thus equals:

It is this value determined in the same way Diew However, if instead of the first deviation equal to one of the following. U is set, and each time the m - 1 remaining the value ranges between 0 and U belong. It is therefore the W. that of m any deviations, the same U is, and the other between the limits 0 and U talk or - in other words - the W. that U , the extreme value of m should be deviation by: Where t = hU , (2) shown. since

, , so you can also: , ( t = hU ) (3) . put] [For the latter form of representation can be seen that the integral of W [ U ] is to be specified directly. This integral taken between certain limits, but expresses the W. that the extreme deviation falls between those limits. It is therefore the W. that the extreme deviation is less than U 1 = t 1 : h and greater than U 2 = t 2 : h, equal to: , (4) so that in particular the W that U = t: h the upper resp. lower limit of the extremes is, by: resp. is called.] [We now Specifies a value U c = t c : h such that

or

, (5)

it is equally likely for the determination of the extreme of m deviations a larger or smaller value than U c to obtain. It is accordingly U c represent the median value or probable for many repeated determination of the extreme deviation, the function of m indicates the formula (5), and its value for a given number m by means of the T table is located. From the following summary of the associated m and t c for some values of m the growth of this central value is increasing in m can be seen.] m 1 2 3 4 6 tc 0.4769 0.7437 0.8936 0.9957 1.1330 m 9 18 36 72 360 tc 1.2628 1.4689 1.6576 1.8319 2.1933 m 500 1000 5000 tc 2.2611 2.3988 2.6946

10000 2.8134

[In addition to the central values, it is of interest to know the value which has a single value, the largest W.. It manifests itself in sufficiently often repeated determination of the extreme deviations of m as densest value and is theoretically maximum value of W [ U determined]. It is therefore sufficient for t = hU the equation: , or: , (6) and designed by U d = t d : h are called. Calculation of t d from the equation (6) to an initially introduced m , as that of t c , by means of the t -table made. One finds then the following associated values of m and t d : m 1 2 3 4 6 td 0,000 0,620 0,801 0,914 1,060 m 9 18 36 72 360 td 1,194 1,404 1,594 1,770 2,134 m 500 1000 5000 10000 td 2,203 2,342 2,641 2,761

The same show that t d < t c , including U d below U c is, but that with increasing m , these values approach each other.] [Finally, the arithmetic mean value of the extreme differences can be determined. It is called U a , we obtain from (2): (7) or - after partial integration: . (8) For m = 1 results from (7) U a = 1 : h ie the simple average of the deviations themselves for m = 2 is obtained from (8) U a = : h , with the di = 1.4142 multiplied by the average deviations itself for larger m can [ t ] represented in series form and

therefore in accordance with 118 U a to be developed into a series. For example, one arrives at in this way for m = 3 to:

or as , to: . It is thus U a , multiplied by 1.6623 equals the mean values of the deviations themselves] [Each of the three values, U c , U D and U a is the special way in dependence of the deviations from the extreme number m of the deviations from which the determination is made in mind. There is, however, it is important to compare the theoretical values with the empirical, as well the safety of the empirical determination as well as the ease of theoretical calculation and the need to consider with regard to this, which offers the greatest advantage of the three values. Now the calculation of the theoretical value of is U c more convenient than that of Ud or U a , with respect to the empirical determination but is U d behind U c and U a safety back while U c and U a generally earn the same trust . It is therefore with advantage the medianU c use for comparisons of theory with experience.] [For the recruits dimensions for which the empirically determined values of U c are listed in Table III, this comparison leads to the following results, the mean of simple variations according to 65 equal to 2.045, ie 1: h = = 3.625 set is: IV Comparison of the theoretical values of U c with the empirical, of m membered certain fractions. m 1 2 3 4 6 Uc Theoretical empir. 1.73 2.70 3.24 3.61 4.11 Chg. m 9 18 36 72 360 Uc Theoretical empir. 4.58 5.32 6.01 6.64 7.95 Chg.

1.73 0 2.41 - 0.29 3.16 - 0.08 3.65 +0.04 4.13 +0.03

4.33 - 0.25 5.13 - 0.19 5.50 - 0.51 6.00 - 0.64 7.75 - 0.20

It will, in particular in view of the small number of 360 values that are subject to empirical determination, find the match of the theoretical and empirical values undoubtedly satisfying, so that thereafter the established law of probability is confirmed by the experience.] 142 [The main conclusions from the above developments are these: l) If a K.-G. with significant asymmetry - as presupposing the rule - submitted, and has the two-sided GG for the same application, there is, if t ' = U ' : e ' is set to W. (9) ensure that the extreme value of m ' above D located deviations equal to U ' and hence the extreme upper right itself: (9a) was. Similarly, consisting W. (10) for the fact that U , = t , s , the value of other xtreme m , below D located deviations or even the lower extreme right (10a) was. Is it possible to repeat again and again continued m ' above and m , below D preferred copies of this K.-G. select at random, the central value of the resulting this way the upper and lower extremes is: , Where , Where the densest value by: , Where , Where the arithmetic mean of: , Where (12) (11)

, Where can be prepared.]

(13)

[2) As with increasing m ' and m , them belonging to the formulas above values of t ' and t , grow, so initially have the difference values of t '- t , and m ' - m ' have the same sign, as also by the proportional laws also e '- e , the same sign as m '- m , has, so the same is true of the differences E't 'e , t , and m - m , . The asymmetry of the extreme deviations rel. D thus has the nmliche direction as the asymmetry of the difference bez numbers. D. Tackling this law inscribed on the deviations. the arithmetic mean A transfer, we arrive at the specified in 33 below 7) second reversal laws based on the following consideration. Since the extreme deviations are large and are subject to relatively large fluctuations, the assumption is allowed that the difference of the deviations do not change their signs when going from D to the relatively close values of A passes. The difference in the numbers deviation rel. A but has the opposite sign to the difference of deviation figures rel. D. It has therefore, if that assumption is correct, the difference between the extreme deviations rel. Ahas the opposite sign as the difference between the deviation numbers rel. A. Indeed, this law is reversed, for example, in Tables III and IV of the XXV. Chapter for the members of the stalks of rye (with only one exception among 15 different cases) his probation. However, the same can be considered merely as an empirical law that applies in the event of significant asymmetry in the rule. With minor asymmetry, however, it should no longer claim its validity (see 181)] [3) of the asymmetry disappears K.-G., so basically the same values to demand, as their output value now that even with the extreme deviations D coincides A simple, using the services of the GG instead of having to apply two-sided. In this case, the formulas given below 1) remain, if only m ' and m , by m and e ' and e , by valid for both sides in the same way is replaced. However, since the distribution law for essential symmetry in the total Underlying Put m on both sides of A relates together, it is true, the positive and negative deviations together to submit to extreme determination, which leads to following statements. Substituting t = U: , the W. of: (14) ensure that the extreme values of the deviations c .. A equal to U was. However, it remains unclear whether U is attached to the output values in a positive or in a negative sense. It can therefore only say that then either or (14a) is, at the same time and in the former case E , above A - U, in the latter case E ' below A + U remains. Corresponding comments are relative to the addition of of the

formulas (5), (6) and (8) to be determined average extreme deviation values U c , U D and U a to become the initial values. Because we obtain this does not mean the Extreme itself, but only an upper resp. lower limit to the upper resp. lower mean extreme.]

XXI. The logarithmic treatment of collective objects .

143 [The previously only considered the arithmetic treatment K.-G. has the requirement that the dimensions have a low relative variation between the main values. But there are also K.-G., as the dimensions of the painting gallery and the daily rainfall heights, following an observation of the IV Chapter one of the main values provide a very strong relative mean deviation, thereby avoiding the application of the arithmetic method of treatment, however, the logarithmic treatment show accessible and allow a resounding probation of the logarithmic distribution law.] [This gives rise to the task of entering into supplement those already in the fifth chapter ( 35 and 36) is said ever closer to the logarithmic treatment. There, the general aspects of the distribution law K.-G. were developed, let it appear necessary, principle to refer rather to ratio differences than on arithmetic deviations, resulting directly the conclusion it was found that the GG instead of the arithmetic = a - H , the logarithms of the ratio deviations = a: H , namely log = log a - log H to basically had to lay. There, too, the use of the logarithmic treatment of the main thing was informed by already and set the notation. Accordingly, in general:

= log a ;
log a - log H ; log a , (1) ;

; = log =

, = log , = log H -

to set and especially the densest value of A by D , their arithmetic mean of G and their median through C to indicate, while the upper and lower deviation numbers and average deviations rel. D in the same way as mar. D by m ' , m , and e ', e , to be specified, so that: , , where = a - D , , = D - a ., (2)

Will you also go from the logarithmic values of the numerical values that belong to them by the logarithm, as is

D = log T , C = log C , G = log G (3) presuppose. It then referred t the densest ratio value of a , the values of the arithmetic densely D is different; C coincides with the central arithmetic values match, and G represents the geometric mean of a dar. With reference to these determinations and developments of the specified chapter, but combines the commitment that was put there only to view, perform here. There have, therefore, a part the empirical evidence provided, that in fact the advantage of the logarithmic treatment for K.-G. decided with strong proportionate variation emerges.Other part of it is that for the logarithmic deviations of a and its principal values D , C , G , due to the two-column G. G . directly applicable rules on the ratio deviations of a and its main values T , C , G to transfer and derivation of the theoretical valid relationship between T and D establish a connection between the logarithmic and arithmetic treatment.] [This is the logarithmic distribution law itself as a strong fluctuation in experience itself bewhrendes law sufficiently serious that transitions with weak fluctuation in the ordinary arithmetical law. Therefore requires that any more than this from the empirical point of view of further justification. But after additions in the XIX. A hypothesis as to the section of the-G-K, were prepared formation manner of the twosided G. G, approximate arithmetic discrepancies arose, it appears necessary to modify this hypothesis so that even for logarithmic deviations from it follows the distribution law in a similar manner. This should be done in addition to this chapter.] 144 [To set the preference which has the logarithmic treatment compared with the arithmetic in strong variation in mind, I take each of the above K.-G., the dimensions of the painting gallery and the daily rainfall heights, an example and share the results for both treatment regimens with.] [From the catalogs of older Pinakothek in Munich and Darmstadt collection of paintings to the extent of 253 genre scenes whose height dimensions were placed in a primary distribution panel revealed. As the unit of measurement centimeter was chosen. The smallest amount was found equal to 13, the largest equal to 265, the arithmetic mean A 1 equal to 54.4 and the median C 1 equal to 44.2 cm. Hence a reduced plaque was obtained, in which the measurements were summarized for each 10 cm. The same treatment resulted in arithmetic after zweiseitigenG. G. the following results:

I. height dimension of genre pictures in arithmetical treatment. m = 253, i = 10, A 1 = 54.4, e = 1 cm . z a empir. Theoretical

15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95

13 41 54 43 22 20.5 15 10 8.5

1 15 38 39 1) 36 31 26 21 16 11 8 5 3 2 1 A 2 = 55.3 C 2 = 44.3 D i = 35.4 D p = 24.9 m '= 220 m , = 33 s '= 35.8 s,= 5.4

105 5 115 3 125 6 135 3 145 5 155 0 165 1 195 1 235 1 265 1

1)

[Here the maximum theoretical values does not fall on the interval 20 - 30, which is the densest value of D p . includes However, this is only at intervals by the above summary of z conditions. In fact, one finds in other summary example:
Intervals 20 - 24 24 - 28 28 - 32 z 14.0 15.9 15.8

so that a slight excess of the interval 24 - 28 plays with the largest values 24.9].

But substituting in the primary panel, the a -values of the logarithmic values = log A , which is now between the limits = 1, 11 and = 2.42 vary and choose a size of the reduced interval of 0.08 , is obtained when the table whole is treated the same as the previous table A , the following results: II height dimension of genre pictures in logarithmic treatment. i = 0.08, m = 253rd Z a 1.04 1.12 4 1.20 5 1.28 5 1.36 19 1.44 22 1.52 38 1.60 32 1.68 31 1.76 26 empir Theoretical 0.5 1.5 4 10 18 27 32 32 30 26

1.84 18 1.92 19 2.00 13 2.08 9 2.16 8 2.24 1 2.32 1 2.40 2 2.48 G = 1.669 C = 1.644 D i = 1.538 D p = 1.549 T i = 34.5 T p = 35.4 m '= 165 m , = 88

22 17 12 8.5 5.5 3 2 1 1

G = 46.7 C = 44.1

s' = 0.256 s , = 0.136

Comparing both tables, the advantage of the logarithmic treatment is deeply committed to days. Because the panel is the arithmetic sum of the absolute differences between the theoretical and empirical values equal to 74, in contrast, only the logarithmic table of 37, which is exactly half as large. It will also give way to the empirical and the theoretical value densest, D i and D p to 10.5 units from each other, while those comparable with the values T i and T p differ by only 0.9. It should also be noted that certain of the arithmetic ratio

the value 0.64, the logarithmic certain quotient

the value is 0.792, so that all those outside the theoretical limits of p , ie, 0.785 and 0.845, falls during this by the -laws required values = 0.785 is very close

within those limits.All this shows that in fact failed the arithmetic treatment here, however, the logarithmic proven itself. It should be noted that despite the low m the empirical panel highlighted the relationship of the dimensions of genre pictures are to be regarded as typical.] [As an example of the daily rainfall heights are in Geneva during the years 1845 are killed in 1892 in the month of January rainfall (melted snow or rain), in the meteorological tables of the Bibliothque Universelle de Genve (Archives des Sciences Phys et Nat..) under the heading "tombe Eau dans les 24 heures" are listed. The total number of rainy days during the specified period of 48 years is 477, for each of them, the rain heights are expressed to tenths of millimeters. 16 rainy days are recorded with 0.0 mm, the largest rainfall amount is equal to 40.0, the arithmetic mean A 1 equal to 4.45, the median C 1 equal to 2.24 mm. From the primary distribution panel board with the reduced interval was i made = 1 mm, which gave the following values during arithmetic processing: III. The rain heights for the month of January in Geneva arithmetic treatment. m = 477, i = 1, A 1 = 4.45, e = 1mm. z a emp. 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 133 88 43.5 28 27 28 27.5 14.5 16 11.5 12 10 6.5 5.5 3 3 Theoretical 67 63 61 56 49 42 35 28 22 16 12 8 6 4 2 2

16.5 17.5 18.5 19.5 20.5 21.5 22.5 23.5 28.5 30.5 32.5 40.0

2 5 1 3 0 3 0 2 1 1 1 1

1 1 A 2 = 4.49 C 2 = 2.40 D i = 0.75 Dp=0 e' =A 2 e, =0 m'=m m,=0

As you can see, are the daily rainfall heights a K.-G. with infinitely large asymmetry represent by D p = 0, and thus all values above D p lie. But agree the theoretical values of zcorrespond to the empirical so little that the arithmetic treatment proves to be inapplicable. But one wants to go to the logarithmic treatment, it must first be taken on the view of the 16 rain days that are listed at 0.0 mm, the agreements because it was in those days the rain height is not completely equal to 0, but only as small that they did not reach a tenth of a millimeter. I will therefore at 0.05 mm instead of 0.0 mm, so that the logarithm of a border between the - and + 1,60 1,30 vary. Is reduced to this, basically arbitrary fixing the primary table to an interval of size 0.2, and is chosen as the lower limit of the first interval - 1.50, we obtain the following results: IV The rain heights for the month of January in Geneva logarithmic treatment. m = 477, i = 0,2.

a - 1.4 - 1.2 - 1.0 - 0.8 - 0.6 - 0.4 - 0.2 0.0

Z empir. 8 8 9 9 28 14 34 45 Theoretical 5 4 6 9 14 19 26 34 42 50 56 60 63 52 27 8 2

G = 0.313 G = 2.06 C = 0.374 C = 2.37 D i = 0.800 T i = 6.31 D p = 0.843 T p = 6.97 e ' = 0.219 s , = 0.749 m ' = 108 m , = 369

+ 0.2 66 + 0.4 47 + 0.6 53 + 0.8 67 + 1.0 53 + 1.2 27 + 1.4 7 + 1.6 2 quite satisfactory.]

While it show here that lie beneath the densest value z at - 0.4 and 0.2 + strong irregularities that do not disappear when changing the position reduction, but through the course of z in the primary table and justified their consolidation into logarithmic intervals are, but nevertheless the agreement between theory and experience is so good that the differences between the theoretical and the empirical values as an adjustment of the contingencies that attach latter represent themselves. It thus proved the logarithmic distribution law and the rain heights

145 [On the basis of carried out in the foregoing comparison between theory and experience, the logarithmic distribution law for proving K.-G.with strong proportionate variation as applicable. since now the same - after the discussions of Chapter V - complies with weak proportionate variation of individual values around the main values of the arithmetic generalization of GG significantly, so it is - already highlighted as at the end of the specified section was - at all strictly valid as the law of distribution of K.-G. to avail. Thus, the probability determined W or W , that a logarithmic deviation from the closest values D between the limits of infinitely near 'and '+ d or , and , + d , falling for every K-G . by: ; , (4) and there is the number of differences between the stated limits equal to: z = W ' m ', z , = W , m , ,

(5) where h 'm' = h , m ,, h '= 1: e ' , h , = 1: e , e , , m ' , m , on D can be obtained at baseline]. and e ,

[For the main values of G , C and D of the logarithmic deviations therefore apply the same laws that in the XIX. The main arithmetic section for values A , C and D were derived.But replacing G , C and D in turn by log G , log C and log T , we obtain directly the values for the main G , C and T the ratio deviations valid laws.] [Result we have the following provisions: 1.the central value of C is always between the geometric mean G and the closest ratios T , since the same laws according to the location of C , G and D apply. 2.Defined as the geometric mean of the above, respectively. below T lying a values by G ' , respectively. G , , such that:

e ' = log G '- log T , e , = log T - log G , , it is due to proportional law: e '- e , = log G - log T , (6) G ' G , = G T . 3.Is determined the same way as in 131 with respect to D , here in relation to D the value t ' of:

where m the larger and m ' , the smaller of the two differential numbers m ' and m , presents, then: log C - log T = t 'e' , (7) the difference of the logarithms of the absolute values only comes after invoiced. weak asymmetry When it follows:

, or with respect to (6): log C - log T = (log G - log T ), (8)

an equation which the -law to the containing ratio deviation.] [The relationship between the main arithmetic values and those of the ratio deviations eventually produce the following sentences.] For logarithmic averages G = log a: m taken as the logarithm is connected to G to be designated, so-called geometric mean or ratio value which is always to a given distribution law recklessly slightly smaller than the arithmetic mean value A = a: m , and (for a evidence of SCHEIBNER 2) ) the following approximate relationship to A is that the more accurately the case, with the smaller the q rel to be designated so-called root mean square error. A , ie, q = . (9) After this you can G approximate from A derived. [W . SCHEIBNER, About averages. Excerpt from a letter addressed to Professor Fechner. Reports of the Royal. Saxon. Gesellsch. d Scientific. Math-Phys. Class. In 1873. S. 562 flgd.] Between the logarithmic values densest D and the logarithm of the arithmetic densely value D following relationship exists: . (10) This means e , the lower mean logarithmic deviation = , : m , , mod the modulus of our usual logarithmic system = 0.43429, 3.14159, as always. This relationship is subject to the validity of the logarithmic generalization of the Basic Law and therefore can be used for the empirical confirmations of this generalization. [ proof . Logarithmic value of the densest D denotes the one logarithmic interval of all intervals of the same size, most z into its possession. It is therefore by the maximum of the likelihood function (4) at constant d and d , , ie, by the initial value of the deviations 'and , determined. The arithmetic densest value D is in contrast to that of arithmetic interval among all intervals of the same size, the maximum - z has. Therefore, one finds this value to the validity of the logarithmic
2)

is:

law of distribution as the maximum of the related constant arithmetic intervals likelihood function (4). Denote accordingly, the arithmetic deviations of a from the densest ratios T by '= a '- T and , = t - a , so that d '= da'and d , = - there , and sit on ground definitions of ' = log a '- D = log a '- log T , , = D - log a , = log T - log a , the functions (4):

. (11) Then we obtain for constant d ' and d , for determining the maximum of: ; the equations: ; . Now, however, the and , by its nature positive. It therefore provides only the second of the two equations for a maximum: (12) dar. Substituting here the to , corresponding a value of D to denote:

, = D - log D ; further ,
is obtained in fact, the relationship represented by (10). ] 146 [ additive . Is in accordance with the remarks in 35 of the principle established that the magnitude of changes in the K.-G. copies of a are largely dependent on the size of the specimens, which suffer the changes, the result is directly the modification of the additive in the XIX. Chapter ( 136) hypothesis is developed to install, to make them subservient to the logarithmic distribution law.] [Namely for the derivation of the logarithmic law as well as to derive the arithmetic special factors or circumstances shortly forces are assumed to be causes of the size changes. Their number is uncertain size, equal to n and assume all in the same way that W p for their intervention, the W. q = 1 - p attributable to the absence of its effect. The success of their occurrence but is now no more than an additive-added Trespassing growth, but regarded as a multiplication, so that instead of a + i and a +

xi rather ai and ai x occurs. Thus obtained on the basis of this modification for a copy of the size ai x the nmliche W., who previously developed the hypothesis, a specimen of the size of a + xi approached, so that now: . (13) But using = log a and i = log i , then + x i = log (ai x ) , and we obtain an expression for W that the logarithm of the size of a copy equal + x i is: . (14) After that, the previous developments are in the same manner and to the same extent for the logarithmic distribution law if only everywhere a by = log a and i by i = log i is replaced.]

XXII. Collective treatment of relationships between dimensions. Mean ratios.

147 After this I want to say something of a task, which plays a considerable role in the collectives, and the meeting may conveniently find a job here, as well as the need for a logarithmic treatment they will immediately close down. Bemerktermaen not just simple dimensions of an object, but also conditions thereof may be treated collectively, and already above (Section I and III) I mentioned in this respect, the relationship between the skull dimensions of a given race and the stem sections, called members or internodes of graminee what can find plenty of other examples. Let us keep to the ratio between the vertical dimension a and the associated horizontal b of the skull of a given breed, what is to be determined for comparisons with other races, and rely usually a in the counter, b in the denominator, although the ratio can be taken as good vice versa. The ratio a : b is now somewhat different between the copies of the same race, but for comparative characteristics toward other races are held the varied individual determinations consistent results from it. One can therefore only an average ratio between b and a demand, which in general with M [ a : b is called]. According to whether one has the arithmetic or geometric mean in the eye, step A or G in the place of M. , the corresponding task can be regarding to other related dimensions of the same part or the same dimensions on different parts not only of man but any object placed . So one can ask how behaves on average, the length of a finger to that of the other, the length of a limb to the length of the second link of a spike, the length to the width of a business card, the mean temperature of the month to that of another, etc in short, the same task provides infinitely often presents 148 An average ratio can be obtained in various ways, but now, in particular to the following, wherein each corresponding to values of a and b will be referred to with the same index. The direction of a : b prepared examples can of course for the direction b : a are implemented.

1) The arithmetic mean ratios of A [ a : b ] is obtained by reacting all of the individual values of a : b and adds the divided number thereof, so: . (1) 2) As a summary means I refer to that which is obtained when the sum of all a with the sum of b or, what amounts to the same, the arithmetic mean of all a with the arithmetic mean of all b divided, according to the formula: . (2) You could make against the use of this agent submits that it is rather a relation between agents as a means of ratios, but by being the one, it is also the other in the other terms of the means that we use here at all, unless according to a certain principle, between the individual values of a : b and that, apart from very exceptional cases falls within the vicinity of the other agent. 3) percen table means. To obtain the values of this composition is formed a : ( a + b ) and b : ( a + b ), and divides the sum of the other one by the following formula:

. (3) 4) The geometric mean is represented by the formula: , (4) is the geometric mean of the product of individual ratios a : b or, equally valid order, the geometric mean of the products of a divided by the b and is used in a practical way than looking in the logarithmic number value ( log a - log b ) : m receive. You will ask for a choice between these different means compliant, the simple dimensions is first and foremost in general as well as with respect vorzubemerken that, insofar as it is only a characteristic of the conditions of a K.-G. should act in which a comparison of the same with other items allowed each of the listed resources contributes only from another point of view to such characteristics, and that where the ratio a : b at all, only relatively little fluctuates, leading all four modes of determination almost the same value . Thus, for example, gave 10 cards, extracted randomly from a package when the short side with a, with the long b is referred to as means: arithmetically 0.5654 summarily 0.5634 percentage table 0.5650

geometrically 0.5649. The extreme values of a : b were 0.5333 and 0.6053. Meanwhile, where the variations between the a : b are significant, and the various means rules can give a significantly different result, and in general it is necessary to specify the factors that may determine the choice of one over the other way to decide. In this regard, one can generally say that the arithmetic mean and percentage tables in every respect inferior to the other two mean values, and generally speaking, the geometric mean is likely to earn the privilege, but also the summary may find a useful application in circumstances. In fact, initially suffers the arithmetic mean of ratios on the following disadvantages. a) To the individual breaks a : b to add, one must first reduce each to a decimal fraction of what many values a : b is very tedious. b) In itself, it is immaterial whether the direct values are a : b or the reciprocal of b : A wants to use the funds draw to the average ratio of a and b to be determined, and of course you should gain both ways a matching result but this is not granted, this method, as it turns out, if one reverses the means obtained from the reciprocal values, obtaining the so-called harmonic mean of the values obtained from the direct and both do not match, short A [ a : b ] is not equal to the harmonic mean 1 : A [ b : a ] . , for example, to take Be a very simple example of only two conditions: ; then: , , , , , ;

10 / 16 but is = 0.625, 6 / 10 = 0.600. Assuming further fractures differ from each other

as in our example, as well as the difference between the direct and harmonic mean is greater. In such K.-G., where most of the values a : b is not very far away from a mean value, it is indeed very small, but not negligible in general everywhere, and the procedure because of the ambiguity of its Results in any case be rejected in principle. c) Does it mean the relationships between three values a , b , c to be determined, as are three ratios a : b , b : c , a : c possible with their reciprocals, and you could want, from two of these conditions (whether it directly to the third derive direct or reciprocal). This, however, makes this method not by, for example, A [ a : c ] can not be obtained by reacting A [ a : b ] to A [ b : c multiplied]. The percentage shares this diagram means all disadvantages of arithmetic. But sometimes you'll find both the one and the other needed. The summary and geometric means, however, are free from all these disadvantages. But they wanted to but the direct arithmetic and harmonic principle

equal, but different means of direct pay particular confidence, one would be able to just stick to the arithmetic or geometric mean of the direct and harmonic mean. But since there is also free of objects, instead of a: b , of b : a likely as a direct proportion, not only would thus remain an ambiguity, but also in choosing the arithmetic mean again arise the question of whether you prefer the direct or harmonic should, so the ambiguity not be lifted from this side. After a proof but I Prof. SCHEIBNER 1) owe, the geometric mean ratios fall due in the K.-G. at usually held the case that the direct arithmetic and harmonic means differ little, just noticeably with the arithmetic mean of the two together, and you can find it easily confirmed on homemade examples. [cf. W. SCHEIBNER: "About Average", reports the Royal. Saxon Society of Sciences. In 1873. P 564 - Following the rules given there, the geometric mean is approximately equal to: the harmonic mean equal to: , ,
1)

if A , the arithmetic mean and q is the mean square error, from which movement is followed by the above].

149 Finally, so it is likely to act only on the question of how far preferable to the summary or geometric mean. Now the summary means is recommended mainly by the ease of its destination because it is this only the summation of all a and all b and the Division requires a sum by the other, however, it is important to obtain the geometric mean, just all a and b translate into logarithms. Both, however, have the following fundamental difference in meaning. Is a summary means:

given, is clear that if such a copy to both its depth in the ratio of components a ' and b 'is very large compared to the other would be the means ratio appreciably merely another of the ratio a ' : b ' would depend, then adding a "+ a "'+ against a ' and b '+ b "'+ to b disappear, and that in general the larger specimens according to their size also gain more influence on the agent. Now this is quite in order when larger specimens more weight attaches to the middle-determination as smaller, which may very well be the case under certain circumstances, and in any case, nothing prevents in the summary means that this circumstance carries as much a characteristic ratio the given K.-G. see, as a medium in any other ratio which is not entrains it by

only the object just described in a different sense. However, it can of course also be in contention to make large and small specimens contribute with equal importance to the determination means, for example, no more importance to the relationship between horizontal and vertical dimension with larger heads than in smaller, more frequent, and this surely occurring intention corresponds to the geometric mean. The the arithmetic and percentage matic means outgoing advantage that when three conditions a: b , b: c , a: c is determined two in the center, the means of the third direct it follows splits the summary means to the geometrical by after two has: . (5) However, has preceded the summary means the following advantage over the geometric. Set, one has in a multi-member objects, such as cereal straws given type, in particular, the average ratio of its length to the total length of the blade determined for each link in summary, it is only necessary for some who add these conditions two members to allow the to have average ratio of the compound of these two links for total length, which is not the case with the geometrical method, as can be proved easily, which can be expressed briefly as follows: the ratio means provisions for the parts and the whole hanging rational after summary trials together as to the geometric and even each other. In addition, the following case is considered. We put in a K.-G. occur among other items, for which one or the other of two values a or b is zero, as for example, in determining the average ratio between the weights of the hard and soft parts of different animals may leave some parts quite solid. In this case, the geometric mean is unusable because, depending on the zero value in the numerator or denominator occurs, the means is zero or infinity. Then you can just keep it on the summary mean, if you do not want to establish the principle that such cases not at all with those where a and b are to retain finite values everywhere unite under the same means. 150 As in any case of this subject by the summary and geometric ratio of the components a and b, is determined in various ways which enter into its determination, it is, generally speaking, belong to the completeness of its determination that both agents are determined, which does not prevent, but rather according to the circumstances of the making of a different use 2) . However, the determination of two non-contribution to the general characteristics of a given K. - G. whose components a and b are still the advantage that the ratios of both agents together are not unimportant characteristic special provisions, namely the following: 1) When the ratio of a to b , regardless of the absolute magnitude of a and b is the same for all the specimens, so for large specimens as large as for small-marische the sum is equal to the geometric mean. 2) If a with b always increases or decreases at the same time, but not generally in the same circumstances, it may be that the ratio a : b with increasing size

of a and b increases, or that it decreases, the former is the case if the geometric mean of a : b is smaller than the summary, the latter, if it is larger. 3) If the relative fluctuation of the values a to their arithmetic mean A is equal to the relative variation of the values b to their arithmetic mean B is, the geometric mean is equal to the summary. ., As a measure of the relative variation bez applies here A simple or quadratic mean deviation of A divided by A , namely : A or q : A , we say briefly P ; corresponding : B or q : B , short Q , with respect to B. 4) Depending on the relative variation of the values seen in the previous meaning, to more A or B is the geometric mean is less than or greater than the summary. 5) For the combination of 1) and 2) 3) and 4) is followed by still further that, depending on the relative variation between A is equal to B , is greater or smaller, the value of a : b , regardless of the absolute values of a and b is constant or increasing size of a and b increases or decreases [provided that at all, the value a : b shows a regular behavior and merely between Constance, constant gain and constant decrease a decision permitting]. How well you two or more K.-G. in the proportion of their funds A and G can be compared, they can of course also to the conditions of their C and D , compare, and give it to these smt-tion results generally not proportional, but I'm going to general discussions here about not elaborate. - For example, when 237 German male skulls was the mean ratio (Hor: Vertik.) The vertical extent of the cranium to the horizontal extent summarily 1.2830, 1.2827 geometrically; centrally 1.2837. Thereafter, so you can from the ratios of the geometric to the summary means, without further statement to make, immediately draw conclusions whether with increasing size of an object and hereby its components a and b , the ratio a : b everywhere (or at least mainly) increases or decreases and whether one or the other component a , b varies in greater proportions to their arithmetic mean. Following the proof for the above rates. The first anlangend so are the summary and geometric mean: and facing each other. Now Cauchy proves in his cours d'analyze p. 15 and 447, that
2)

generally from a ' : b ' , a ' : b " , ... falls. Are now a ' : b ' , a ' : b ' , ... all equal to a: b , then the intermediate traps to par with a : b , while no less the geometric mean for the case of equality between a ' : b , a ' : b ' , ... in a : b reduced. But according as the equality between the values a : b stops, listens well, generally speaking, the

equality between two means on, and it may be now that a : b with a change in the absolute magnitude of a and b in part increases, sometimes decreases, for which case nothing can fix General. But suppose a and btake everywhere with each other at the same time or from without but it happens everywhere in the same conditions, so there is for the set 2) a general proof that I owe Prof. SCHEIBNER, however, cumbersome and not is elementary, so here I prefer to refer to the empirical validity of the rule by any home-made examples. And of course, the rule will also apply to the case, even if only a and b in the majority of cases with each other increase or decrease at the same time. The third and fourth set anlangend, so they are a consequence of the SCHEIBNER 3) given ratio between arithmetic and geometric means of simple values. Thereafter there is, setting of P and Q as q : A and q : B : ; , (6) from which the sentences 3) and 4) follow. Now the formulas in question are already only approximate, yet the direction of the results is not affected by the omitted small terms. The set 5) follows from the antecedent.
3)

["About average" lc]

151 In the above ( 148) the manner specified destination G [ a : b ] the application of logarithms is used only to facilitate the calculation, but the needs of their application goes deeper. It arises namely the question whether, as the individual dimensions a and b , and their ratios a : b is our distribution laws paste, a study in which then, however, the decline in the individual a : b can not be spared from the outset but evident to comply with the comments made so far, that the same can not expect anything from an arithmetic treatment, whereas view was that, after exploring the densest value of log ( a : b ) the deviations of the individual log ( a : b ) of the same to our distribution laws might add, culminating in the most appropriate to study K.-G. has found confirmed. [To illustrate this by an example, I choose the ratio of the horizontal to the vertical extent circumference (more apical curve) of 500 European men skulls that are made available to me by Prof. WELCKER. As the horizontal scale is consistently greater than the vertical - the smallest horizontal circumference (for a Little Russians) is 465 mm, with the largest peak arc (for a skull from the vicinity of hall) is 448 mm - so the ratios are all improper fractions and their logarithms positive. The minimum values of the ratio is equal to 1.211, the maximum equal to 1.403. Thus, the logarithmic values vary between the limits 0.083 and 0.147, and they have the average G 1 = 0.1073, so that the geometric mean of G 1 is equal to 1.280 of the ratios. If we choose a logarithmic interval i = 0.003 and the lower limit of the first interval, the value of

0.0825, we obtain the following comparison table between the empirical and the information required by the logarithmic distribution law theoretical values:

Ratio of the horizontal scope of a to the vertical extent (peak arc) b for 500 European men skull.

= log a - log b , i = 0.003, m = 500, G 1 = 0.1073, G 1 = 1.280.

empir. 0,084 0,087 0,090 0,093 0,096 0,099 0,102 0,105 0,108 0,111 0,114 0,117 0,120 0,123 0,126 0,129 0,132 0,135 0,138 0,141 0,144 0,147 Sum l 4 12 17 29 47 64 64 67 61 45 36 28 11 7 3 2 1 0 0 0 1 500 z Theoretical 1 2 5 10 19 32 46 58.5 65 64 58 47 36 24.5 15 9 4.5 3 0.5 500

G 2 = 0.1073 G 2 = 1.280 C = 0.1070 C = 1.279 D i = 0.1068 T i = 1.279 D p = 0.1060 T p = 1.276 e '= 0.0079 e , = 0.0066 m '= 272.5 m , = 227.5 h '= 7142 h , = 85.48. It should be noted that D i is not to be derived from the above table directly, empirically densely value represents (which is rather equal to 0.1075), but the average of the three calculated from the three layers of possible reduction values: 0.1075, 0, 1085; 0.1043. This provision has been chosen because here the reduction position of great influence on the random location of D i , while G 2 and C almost completely coincide with the values resulting from the primary table. The asymmetry is weak, as we also

close to = 0.785 agrees. Agreement between the empirical and theoretical z values is satisfactory but without a doubt.]

XXIII. Dependency ratios

152 One may ask whether the mean temperatures of the successive years vary according to laws of pure chance or show a certain dependence in their succession of one another, a question that can be applied to many analogous cases. Now the different dependency relationships, and the tests may be different accordingly to lead it. One of the easiest questions and study paths without attaching itself to the following remark. I take a list drawn lottery numbers. Such example, starts with: 26 826 _ 21 460 +

31 094 _ 22 120 _ 16 226 (+) I refer to as standing by, any decrease from one to the next number with -, each increase by + and get so without resorting to the first number following series: - + and of these without resorting to the first sign of two sign changes and a sequence of identical characters, or when I access both with numbers than sign: - + - + and four herein exchange and an outcome; generally, if I have the number of numbers m and the number of changes and consequences z call, first, if z = m - 2 , last if z = m. former hot method a, the latter method b. I now like the method a or b apply, I find at large m , the number of sign changes as approximatively equal to twice the number of strings that I am the one to the W. W. as the other two : one can assume 1) . This is the law of pure chance.
1)

[Theoretically, this ratio leads from the remark that three values a, b , c, which are free of Successionsabhngigkeit, with the same probability in each of the six successions: a , b, c , c , b, a , b , a, c, c, a, b, a, c, b,

b, c, a can occur, so that, for example, if a < b < c , the first two successions each a string that ever give a last four characters change, and consequently the W. a string equal to 1 / 3 of the W. characters chenwechsels equal to 2 / 3is to be set.]

But should be a function of the consecutive numbers of the species held that they got into continuo by a certain interval and would drop again, so the number of strings would increase over the previous relationship also. Yes, if the function always went away in the same direction, we would according to method a louder strings on the method bm - get 2 episodes, 2 exchange. Let's stick to method a stand and call the number of exchange w , the consequences of f , then the full independence by f = 1 / 3 z , the full dependence of f = z and the partial dependence of values of f characterizes between these , and it is a measure of the partial dependence for a given f and z can be found in the conditions in which the excess of f is above the level of full independence to the total surplus of the full dependence on full independence, that is, if we this degree of dependence describe.: Dep = . (1)

Meanwhile, f due to the finite m uncertain and this uncertainty is involved with Abh. The determination of this uncertainty is included in the value of dep as a likely error. [It makes this determination by calculating the probable limits, resulting from the reversal of the so-called Bernoulli-tion theorem for W. a string, based on observed values of f and zarise. If we set the unknown W. for the occurrence of a string equal to x , the sign of a change of W. equal to 1 - x , so there is the probability of the given proposition 2) According to the W. (2) ensure that the value of x between the boundaries: and (2a)

lie. Since for W = the value of c 94 = 0.476, the boundaries are likely x equal to: . (3) The probable limits of the Abh are correspondingly equal to: . (4) It is thus 1 to 1 bet that the degree of dependence as defined above is not less than the lower, and not higher than the upper of the two specified limits.]
2)

[cf. Meyer's lectures on probability theory Kap.VII.]

[The same can also assume negative values and thus show a dependence, which is characterized by predominantly - are known to change the characters - by standing in the extreme case. This requires that the number f of the strings below the value 1 / 3 z will fall and in the limiting case equal to 0.] 153 [The application of the dependent measure (4) to examine the dependence of meteorological succession monthly and daily data leads to the following results.] [DOVE is in one of his treatises 3) for a number of places which "variances for each month of the much-term average values of the same" together. For Berlin, this compilation covers the period from 1719 to 1849 with the failures of only 3 to 7 years for each month. Arise from this method to put together for all months a 1421 successions of characters, namely 913 and 508 characters change strings. W. x a string thus has the probable limits:

or 0.3575 0.0086; from which one Dep = 0.036 0.013 receives.]

3)

[Report on the 1848 and 1849 employed over the years at the stations of the meteorological institute observations. Berlin 1851. P flgd XX.]

[In Dutch Meteorological Year Book 4) one finds tables of daily thermometer and barometer deviations from the normal daily found capable of many years of observation for each month of the year. The observation sites are the various meteorological stations in the country, and the observation times are certain hours of the day on which both the normal state and the deviation values are. In this way, the legitimate rise or fall of the thermometer and barometer is carried within a month bill, so that the succession function is not influenced by it. I chose the values specified for Utrecht in January during the 10-year period from 1884 to 1893, noon 2 clock. The same method yielded by a 298 successions of characters. Among them were 129 strings and 169 characters exchange for the barometer deviations 153 strings and 145 characters exchange for the thermometer deviations. THEREFORE we find for the probable limits of the former W. a string equal to: 0.433 0.019 and: Dep = 0.149 0.029; for while the latter as the probable limits of W. a string: 0.513 0.020 and: Dep = 0.270 0.029. Accordingly own daily thermometer and barometer deviations a definite succession dependence, while the same for the monthly variations in temperature - as was noted in 20 -. Emerges with little decisiveness]
4)

[Meteorological yearbook, uitgegeven door het Kon. Nederlandsch Meteorological Institute. "Thermoen barometer afwijkingen".]

[The daily rainfall heights, however, are - according to a remark in 21 - free of

major successional dependence. In fact result in the XXI. Chapter selected as an example of the logarithmic treatment rain heights of January for Geneva from 18451892 under 475 characters successions of 165 sequences of identical characters. Here, all 477 values are combined according to their temporal succession in a row, and the successions of identical values alternately increases and decreases were calculated beige. Thus found: Dep = 0.022 0.022. From this value does not differ significantly the degree of dependence on the original list of recruits dimensions whose succession dependence is regarded from the outset as insignificant because it is not clear as the recruits measurements of Aushebungsgeschftes an essential function in the order of the dimensions should be able to emerge. For the series of 360 students recruits dimensions, in Chapter XX served on probation, the extreme laws, namely resulting 125 strings and 233 characters exchange what Dep = 0.023 0.025 will. In both cases the values of the dependent measure include the value 0 of the ideal case full independence.] 154 [Another way to study the dependence of succession was described in 20 along with the previously discussed. It is based on the observation that, in full independence and without interference by unbalanced randomness the number of sequences of two above and two below the value of middle C lying dimensional values equal is the number of changes between two above and below C lying values. Namely, the values of above C by +, the values below C indicated by -, the W. a positive value is as large as the W. a negative, so it is also in full independence, each of the four possible successions: + +; -, + -, - + equally likely. But the first two give each a string, the last two characters change each one, so that there is both a string and a character change the W. . If one finds for a treated in this way set of values f strings and w sign changes at a sufficiently large number of z = f + w successions of characters so as to above the probable limits for the unknown W. x a string from the inversion of Bernoulli's theorem equal to:

found. Here the value is f : z at taking place partial succession dependence that reveals itself as a cluster of sequences in comparison to the changes, between the values of , which applies to full independence, and the values 1, which for f = z full dependence indicates hold. One can therefore turn in the proportion of the surplus of the partial dependence on full independence, ie the calculated x win over of the total surpluses of full dependence on full independence, ie from about 1 , a measure of dependence and Dep = , (5)

or, if for x , the probable limits are taken, Dep = (6)

place. Even this degree of dependence retains its significance for negative values, then by indicating the predominance of a character W. W. Exchange of a string.] [As an example of this dependency determination serves a part the number of monthly deviations for Berlin, other part the number of recruits dimensions whose succession dependencies have been calculated according to formula (4), so that the same time, a comparison between the two modes of determination is possible.] [With regard to the first of the month deviations middle value for each month C to determine. The same falls below for a few months, for the majority of months above the respective means of many years. It can, however - what the application of this method much easier - well, the mean itself be accepted as a value center so that the positive and negative deviation values than + values and at the same time - may apply values in terms of our method. For the 12 months results taken together to determine the central values of 768 strings and 665 characters exchange, in direct reference to the mean values, however, there are 769 strings and 664 characters switching and thus no significant difference for the Abhngigkeitsma with it. Provisions resulting from the former as the likely limits to the W. of the string values: 0.536 0.009; from the latter values: 0.537 0.009; and in the former case is: Dep = 0.072 0.018 in the latter case: Dep = 0.073 0.018. Thus, here the Abhngigkeitsma (6) leads to larger values as the Abhngigkeitsma (4).] [The central value C of the 360 recruits will be the same dimensions 71,75. Thereafter indulge in successions of 359 characters 165 characters 194 characters consequences and changes. The probable limits for the W. an order are therefore: 0.460 0.018 and: Dep = - 0.081 0.035. Accordingly, in this case one obtains a relatively smaller value than the formula (4), but differs from the same to a greater extent from the ideal values 0].

 155 [The Abhngigkeitsma (6) can also determine the alternate function of two dimensions of a multidimensional K.-G. or of different dimensions, but in time of related K.-G. be made serviceable. For this purpose we denote the growth of each of the two dimensions compared with +, the removal by - so that a set of m pairs of related values of m - 1 pairs of characters +, -, + -, - + is characterized. Among the latter, as many strings are a sign change at complete independence of the two dimensions of each other and without addition Join unbalanced contingencies, since the W is assumed the same for each of the four types of character pairs. It is, therefore, if at z observations f consequences and w changes occur to calculate W. a string of formula (3) and to determine the Abhngigkeitsma by formula (6).] Thus, for example, between the size of the horizontal and vertical perimeter vertex bend of the 500 European men skull that served the treatment of relationships between dimensions as an example in the previous chapter, a dependency that can be determined by the method specified as follows. The 500 head mass in the original list into 34 groups 6-30 Skull summarized (the first two contain 20 Breisgauer and 15 Swabia, and the two last six Serbs and 22 Great Russians) in each group, but the extent of increasing horizontal scale are ordered. I counted now for each group the number of strings and character changes from that obtained for the transition of the two values being compared with the cases in which came to a standstill in the change of the two sizes, half the episodes and half the Change counts were buried. Hereafter, 273 strings and 193 characters changes found among 466 pairs of characters, so that: Abh revealed.] [A second example I take the Professor WELCKER in Paper 5) : "the capacity and the three major diameter of the cranium" communicated dimensions of the interior of I and of length L, width W and height H of 101 skulls of different nations, in particular the dependence of the WELCKER-between "Schdelmodulus" L + W + H and the product L W H to calculate the associated inner space. If the individual, parent of increasing internal space skull groups, whose number is 13, addressed, as was the groups with respect to the horizontal or vertical dimensions was specified, resulting for both L + W + H and I, as well as for L. B. H and I, 59.5 vs. 26.5 strings character change among 86 pairs of characters. It is therefore both the function of the sum as the product of the three major diameter from the inner space: Dep = 0.067 to set. It can be as well as Prof. WELCKER shows in the aforementioned essay, both the values of L + B + H than those of L W H an average interior values tabulated allow it, due to the measured value of the sum or the product of the three principal diameters to determine approximated the associated interior of the skull.] 1.3490 = 0.384

5)

[Archive of Anthropology, Volume XVI, Issue 1 and 2 P. 72 flgd.]

[A worsening of the dependency determination is achieved when the amount of growth or decline for the compared dimensions is considered. This can be done by determining the weight of the observed strings and character changes in the following way. They impart a character pairs the weight 1 if any dimension increases or decreases to the unit, and set THEREFORE the weight of each pair of characters equal to the product of the two variables to each of the two dimensions which increases or decreases. In this way, instead of the last specified dependency determination between the sum and the product of the three major diameter and the inner space of the skull for L + B + H and I : Dep = 0.8436 0.0012 for L W H and I : Dep = 0.8387 0.0008 by the first case for f and w values 45641 and 3871, the second if the values 99886 and 8763 occur. As expected, the degree of dependency has become considerably larger, without a significant difference between the relationships of dependence of L + B + H and I, and that of L B H and I is noticeable. If so - how WELCKER'schen versions show - the product of the three diameters, a sensitive measure of the interior provides as their sum, it must be noted that our method, at least at the relatively low number of 101 skulls, no such distinction permitted. Furthermore, since these Ahhngigkeitsbestimmung is not influenced by the absolute size of the compared dimensions but relies only on the increase and decrease, it may also be no numerical evidence that - as is also the WELCKER'sche treatise teaches - the tabular mapping of interior values is much more accurate to the sum of the three principal diameters, when the so-called width of the skull index, di is the ratio between its width and its length into account and, accordingly, the skull of dolichocephaler, mesocephaler and brachycephaler form will be treated separately. For this purpose, the relations between the sum of the three diameters of the one part and the internal space must be subjected to other, less the width of the index of a collective treatment.] XXIV over the spatial and temporal

relationship of the size variations of the recruits.

156 The crops bring it depending on the nature of the years not only to a different Endure, but also grow in different years zoom up to a different height, depending mainly on temperature and humidity conditions of the various vintages. As such, these ratios larger tracts of land come together, also their influence on the growth of crops in connection to all parts of such routes contends, but varies from track to track, as these conditions change it. The question is whether the size of the cohorts born in the same place people can

find something equivalent, even if it changes the nature of the vintages in a certain connexion for contiguous tracts of land, perhaps with the changes of the plants even in context. Now can certainly assume as the plant hardly a corresponding direct influence of temperature and humidity conditions on the growth of the people; also people do not grow as the crops in each year from the seed of zoom new, nor are they close their existence in the same years from so that you would like to pay attention only to the circumstances of a year, but it would be conceivable that the fertility of the year by the diet of your parents at the time of the creation of the child or during pregnancy or the child himself during the growing season, especially the first, influenced, also expressed an indirect influence on the growth of the child, and thus really growth of plants and people were changing in context. But it depend the diet relationships of people in a country not just by the fertility of the years from; also war and state of peace, the state of the industry and trade have on influence, not just nutrition conditions may be considered, nor anything physical, the and mental health and strength of the parents affects the time of the creation of the child and the pregnancy about a certain country in connection, perhaps even epidemic and even cosmic influences. In short, it is not at a loss to find possible causes that the average size of people born in the same year over greater distances in space as well as the connexion of the plants, whether related or unrelated to this, changes. The only question is mainly whether the fact of such a connection over larger or smaller tracts of land can be demonstrated, and the following investigation will prove that is the case. Apart from this, the following analysis will deal with the question whether the influences acting on the change in size, and a temporal relationship of the species revealed that, instead of irregular, in the sense of unbalanced contingencies, alternating rise and fall of size measurements in the course of the years always several vintages are inclined to each other, to rise, and again several to fall. For twenty vintages Saxon student recruits, nothing is possible to detect the type, on the other hand results in a more decisive result for all the vintages Belgian recruits. In addition to the two previous questions, I also have examined the question of whether could discover a relationship between the principal crop prices, which have taken place around the Gehurtszeit of recruits, and the average size of the products resulting from this time recruits, and I have this investigation in RECLAM hygienistischer's magazine "Health" (1876) reported 1) , since it has led to a significantly negative results, so I'm not sure folgends back. [study of the spatial and temporal context in the diversity of human size; Section IV: About the question of how the size of the movement recruits associated with the movement of fruit prices around the time of birth."Health", I.Jahrgang, S, 54 flgd.] To study the issues to be addressed here but anyway unite recruits several measures the most favorable conditions, one might say, as they are made to do so; also the only material which is up to now such an investigation to bidding. Once the recruits measurements are taken each year group of people who back in the same year, 20, 19
1)

or 18 years, depending on the diversity of countries, are born. Second, the recruits measurements extend over all cultivated countries with longer periods are specified by all countries, parts of the country, districts, cities, so given the opportunity to examine the impact of broader and more specific effects on a larger scale comparatively. Third, the number of individual measurements, even for a moderate district, more so arises the compensation of a drawback for a whole province or a whole country in each year underway already very large, which bemerktermaen who else certainly would have extremely serious that they are very inaccurate in detail viz. My hand the whole investigation has been to previous questions only due to the very limited material, which I present in the Saxon and Belgian measures, conducted in relationship, what part it was a reason that I do not vorfand other useful material, partly that this investigation ever been done merely as a by-examination. Because of Saxony I could have probably still give Urlisten for other parts of the country and later vintages later, but already working through the material previously used was time-and gedulderschpfend. A general study of the issues discussed here can ever be just a matter of statistical institutions to which adequate mechanical computing power can command with an extensive materials, which are taken in fact by such studies greatly to complete. In all likely the following investigation, so far it has to be done to keep the double interest, once they called and discussed, where such an investigation to lead at all, secondly, in the still remarkable results, which thus limited space paths and epochs were obtained which contains an invitation for others to enter the study further consequence. Among these benefits, which could offer the recruits dimensions as a basis for investigations of this kind anywhere, is only to be regretted, as already touched before, that they in the statistical works where you have to search for the data above, suitable in any to the general form are presented. Annual mean values A partly not find, partially not taken into sufficient extent or consequence, specialization, focus, and data charts, as far as I know those never placed so that those could be drawn with accuracy thereof, their drawdown from Urlisten but requires a laborious task, and the procurement of Urlisten itself is not anywhere to bidding. 157 After this general description of the method of investigation. We call on all the change in a variable from one year going to the other movement of the size and speak of a parallelism of the movement of two variables, such as the annual mean of the recruits measurements in two adjacent parts of the country, when the mutual movements have the same direction to decrease or increase, without asking about how it would be required in mathematical meaning of the word parallelism that the change of both variables being compared is also the same size or go proportional to each other; enough if it corresponds only in their direction. A case of parallelism will be using |, Antiparallelismus, a case of Nichtparallelismus or, as we shall say that | referred to: the number | | of a given number z motion of compared cases with p that the with q . If there is no dependence of both quantities held by each other or from a common cause, would in pursuit of a greater number of years and therefore the motion cases | | with the indifferent to change, and the

number of both near each other, ie, up to unbalanced contingencies must be equal. Should all cases turn out in parallel, so you would have to conclude that a cause or a composition of several causes which act on the motion of the two sizes, all acting in the opposite sense prevails steadily. If only a significant preponderance of | | the take place, we would according to the greater excess weight can also find it more likely that a common influence of respective terms indeed takes place, the but sometimes a predominance of opposite influences is room. If finally the occur exclusively or very predominantly, this would not prove the independence of both variables of each other, but that the same effect, which acts to increase the size of a, acts to reduce the other. In addition to the parallelism and Antiparallelismus in the sense indicated, the size of the movements is ignored, but you can now also pull this size in consideration by the W. a dependency or a common influence significantly enhanced if it preferably the strong movements are, in which the parallelism or exclusively or overwhelmingly shows (in effect opposites) Antiparallelismus, however, one with weaker movements must take into account the influence of unbalanced contingencies, and it is therefore in cases where a larger number of cohorts present (as in Table III, see 160) useful after you have listed only the movements of the sequence of vintages to see whether not the ratio of | | and striking changes over time, they also once again for order of momentum, who perform one or other size, where it is the appropriate for the condition of common influence cases preferably on the side of the larger, the irrelevant and indifferent changing must be brought together on the side of the smaller movements should be acceptable such an influence. Here wonders if the weight of what you a case of | | or shall attach to the sum or the product of the incoming momenta into it is to take proportionally. Indisputably the products because if one of the two movements that go into a case is zero, the weight of the case, a tie between | | and must be zero, and since the parallelism between positive movements is equal to negative movements between what can only be obtained by the product of the two movements. That said, it is an even safer judgment as to the sheer number of | and | gain by considering the following weights. Take the movement of products of the associated variables for both the | | as particularly call the sum of the first P , the second- Q , and judge now, instead of the ratios or relative differences from p to q , after from P to Q . seeking a common influence is to be acceptable, it must not only ever a significant proportionate excess weight of one of two values P , Q take place over the other, but also the relative difference from pto q is exceeded, short ( P Q ) : ( P + Q ) to the absolute values of greater than ( p - q ) : ( p + q be), since in the latter situation the greater weight of the strong cases is not in favor of the influence into consideration. So it is in any case useful to both p and q as P and Q to determine to if that is reinforced from the behavior of the first to be drawn conclusion not by the behavior of th two to keep the combined influence of doubtful . Increasing the safety of the circuit in general on the one hand with the number of

cases of movement z , on the other hand, the magnitude of the relative differences . For far too small z or even low relative surpluses can ever pull no remarkable result: the more increase both, and in ever greater proportions increases the second over the first, the closer the W. an influence of certainty and it would undoubtedly hinder nothing to make accurate probability provisions in this regard, which I will not go into here, but 2) . [cf. this 155 It is only necessary to indicate the parallelism as a string, the characters change as Antiparallelismus to win a direct connection to the local regulations.] 158 The movement of the size expected for each of the main values of A, C, D can be tracked, the easiest determination indicate the practical scale, however, and in this regard, Cto be the more an advantage, as it is still obtainable from Rekrutenmatafeln in which after the error, so common to Vorzahl and Nachzahl not the Vorsumme and Nachsumme stated.But you want to avoid the formation of a distribution panel completely, the following procedure is recommended. You count the number of dimensions from which smaller, and those that are larger than a certain amount, once for all, or small Maintervall, call the number of the first k, the other g and judge now after the parallelism or Antiparallelismus the relationshipg : k or g : m . The Belgian way, I have accepted the interval from 1618 to 1643 mm for this, then where g is the number of dimensions, which is greater than the upper, and k is the number of those which are smaller than the lower limit of this interval, and the following investigation will teach that the judgment hereafter with the judgments of C probably true, as I at the Belgian dimensions g k and g : m comparatively partly with C 've applied. since me but at the Saxon dimensions complete primary panels were to bids, from which exact arithmetic mean A 1 could be drawn, so I have kept me here to this. Since the values of A 1 , A 2 , C , g : k , g : m do not change exactly proportional, so however would at small m and weak motion to one or the other of these values occur differences depending on the comparative pursuance of the changes; but for larger m and stronger movement, which can only ever be a resounding result, the parallelism, where such is essential, can not be bothered. This could be for A 1 (primary), A 2 (reduced) and C (reduced) by a comparison in this respect to the twenty cohorts of students find recruits panel. About the spatial context of the size variations of the recruits. 159 To now nothing remarkable is that the average recruit sizes vary in the same place, for he who, in the set of random circumstances of which depends on the size and growth of the individual, be expected that the differences in it to quite the same
2)

by means contraction values, a year as the other balance. However, it can seem striking that the variation of the mean size of recruits between different years are large enough to measure the undertaking entrusted with the recruits to be felt even without the means contraction. So they told me at the Leipzig district office, of which I caught up lists for the Leipzig recruits that we speak of good and bad vintages in this regard, and a higher Austrian officer, who for many years projected the recruits measurements, stated as one to him of my, observations made in this regard said, Hereby even can not be doubted that the recruits to change size by year. I myself was in fact noticed when I behufs my general investigation arithmetic mean of the 17 vintages of the Leipzig city extent moved that the last born in 1862, the maximum, the penultimate in 1861 gave the minimum of all 17 vintages, and the difference is 1.17 inches seemed by its size so strange that I was looking for him to come closer to the bottom. Of these, the whole investigation has taken the following output. First, namely the suspicion that the big difference is based on a constant measurement error of opposite direction in both years was born. Then did not expect that he made and measured with recruits elsewhere than in Leipzig again find it. So I procured the Urlisten the dimensions for the last three years of the whole Amtshauptmannschaft Borna, they brought in distribution boards and pulled the middle A not only for the different vintages, but also various departments of Amtshauptmannschaft Borna, and there was the surprising result, invariably means that the dimensions of the 1860 and 1861 near alike in all, the mediocre from 1862 but was substantially greater, so that took place throughout the Amtshauptmannschaft a parallel change in the mean size of recruits during those years. This is evidenced by the following table, noticing that are understood by the expression court office for the general village communities and small stains. Of the characters | | and which are intended to compare two Ortlichkeiten, here is not exercised, because it applies more to compare at once. I. Mean values A for 20-year-Saxon recruits in different parts of the Amtshauptmannschaft Borna in the years 1860, 1861, 1862. (Whole meters = 4736; E = schs 1 inch = 23.6 mm.) A 1860 1861 1862 1860 m 1861 1862

1) City of Leipzig ......

69.17

69.06 68.74 69.34

70.23 69.85 70.01

616 363 161

560 326, 169

603 418 185

2) The legal authority Leipzig I 68.85 and II ...... 3) City and Court District Borna ...... 69.39

4) Court District Roetha ..... 5) City and Court Office and Pegau Zwenkau ......... 6) City and Court District Diving and Markranstadt ..... 7) Student ........

69.20 69.45

69.12 69.10

70.11 69.79

79 157

48 199

61 186

68.74

68.93

69.94

109

90

91

71.47

71.05

71.89

96

111

108

Total Amtshauptmannschaft 69.26 69.17 70.15 1581 1503 1652 The below A total of Amtshauptmannschaft are not the means of A of the individual districts, but from the whole m all determined in connection, not singular, but rather summarily (see 79). One can see from this table that even the movement in the so little differentiated between 1860 and 1861 in all parts of the territory of the Amtshauptmannschaft Borna, except No. 6, goes in parallel by the A 's from 1861 everywhere else less than that of 1860; those exceptional but can in the small m not surprise of No. 6. Rather, I confess, everywhere, not me at the large m and small to find differences in the two years through the present in all other parts of the territory parallelism surprised because it is under such conditions the unbalanced. Can not expect coincidences over everywhere, yet finds. The Leipzig under which bemerktermaen the students are not counted, and the students earn in the table above constitute a special attention than the former, the latter, of course, derive substantial parts from different parts of Saxony. Thus, if the observed large difference between 1862 and the previous two years could not be sought in a measurement error, he had ever be a more general phenomenon. To direct an inquiry about this on a part of Saxony, who was as different as possible from the previously investigated, I obtained the same Rekrutenmalisten three years which were studied earlier by the Amtshauptmannschaft Annaberg. In fact, the ratios of Anna Berger Amtshauptmannschaft of which Borna are very different. This is on the northern, those at the southern end of Saxony, this includes level land with a large city and relatively good food sources, those mountainous terrain with only small towns and village communities and a relatively poor. The results are shown in the following table. II mean values A of dimensions in the Amtshauptmannschaft Annaberg in the years 1860, 1861, 1862. (Whole meters = 3067; E = 1 inch.)

A 1860 1861 1862

m 1860 1861 1862

Towns ........... Dorfschaften ........

68.85 69.04 69.25 369 68.99 68.87 69.04 638

359 565

454 682

Total Amtshauptmannschaft. . 68.94 68.94 69.12 1007 924 1136 Comparing first and foremost the size of motion for the entire A.-H. Annaberg with the total for the A.-H. Borna after the final results of Tables I and II, one finds 1) that in 1860 and 1861 to an insignificant negative fraction, here around 1861 to 1862, much significant, ie to Annaberg not or only with regard to the third decimal 0.18 to differ, 2) that these movements with those of Borna A.-H. really go in parallel, that is, in both respects, a common influence is revealed. Only the influence of the A.H. Annaberg much more or less offset by opposite effects as a way for the A.H. Borna, where the corresponding movements - 0.09 and 0.98 + were. However + 0.18 is still more than twice as great as the predictable from the data likely difference 0.09 3) . Also between cities and village communities of A.-H. Annaberg is the parallelism in 1861 and again in 1862, and only in the years 1860 and 1861, not to be expected with the security, it is missing here. The same was found by both in 1861 as in 1862 for the probable error in the determination of A calculated from the sum of their squares would be the square root. In that regard, now leaves from the previous, very limited data at all draw a conclusion, it would be of that in the years in question does have extended the same direction on the size of movement across the whole of Saxony a very general influence, but because of local counter-effects in the A.-H. Annaberg only in strongly reduced levels has to come into play. And that even in the A.-H. Annaberg other terms of the size of development to take place than in the A.-H. Borna, follows directly from the fact that the funds absolutely dimensions are small at that, as they have found themselves in this. 160 After the question of parallelism was followed only by sequences of three years in the former, it was indisputably an interest to pursue them through a long series of years, but the claim had to prove that the parallelism preferably in the larger movements Search. In this respect I have for comparison only measure of Saxon city of Leipzig extent with the non incoming students in sizes from 1846 - 1862 stood at his command, and I will give in the following table the result of the comparison. After the full value of it for the first year of A 1 is specified, only the movements of each year folgends are specified by preceding each. Here we keep in
3)

mind that the movement beistehende year always is the second of the two, between what the movement takes place. So, for example, the number 1849 - stand by 0.12, so this means that A 1 of 1849 was smaller by 0.12 inches, than that of the previous year 1848.

III. Size movements of A 1 and extent of the Leipzig city of degree students from 1846 to 1862 including Year 1846 Leipzig 69.19 Students 72.07 - 0.37 + 0.40 - 0.79 + 0.70 + 0.55 - 1.02 0.24 0.27 0.05 - 0.06 - 0.41 0.24 - 0.96 + 0.56 - 0.42 + 0.84 , || || || || || || || || || || || .

1847 0.10 1848 0.28 1849 - 0.12 1850 + 0.37 1851 - 0.18 1852 - 0.11 1853 + 0.52 1854 - 0.04 1855 - 0.28 1856 + 0.15 1857 - 0.28 1858 + 0.44 1859 - 0.89 1860 0.04 1861 - 0.11 1862 + 1.17

It now looks first and foremost, in general, that the parallel cases outweigh the antiparallel cases by far, and to set the table for the variable sequence of measurements to so go in order after the Leipzig dimensions, the first six movements without exception, according to the student's first ten with the exception of 1851, parallel to each other only because of change | | and fairly indifferent, demonstrating the high ratio of P to Q follows. And yet it is striking that the strongest movement among the students of 1851-52 equal to - 1.02 only a very insignificant, though of the same

direction is - equivalent to 0.11 at the Leipzig group. Through careful revision I have convinced myself that this does not depend on a computer mistake on my part, by the way is not to ignore that the relatively small m each year group weakens the security of the determination by the students. Rather than pursue as in previous table the motion of one year to the next depending, they can also keep track of each of a first to a later and very easy to derive the results for it from a table like the previous one, by the movements of the years in question algebraically, ie added with regard to the sign, we obtain the movements: Year 1846-48 1848-50 Leipzig + 0.38 + 0.25 Students 0.03 - 0.09 etc with six p, two q. Yet we remain at the first, so to speak, are elementary panel. This table is still an opportunity to examine whether and in what conditions the mobility is even greater on the side of Leipzig or students what it is only necessary to take the sum of the movements of each hand, regardless of the sign, which for the Leipzig 5 , 08, for the students is 7.88, so a significant excess on the part of students, which undoubtedly depends on that the whole of a population from all classes much more varied, some are destructive influences subject as the affluent classes. Adding other hand, the movements in the + and - for each side particularly, one learns how much the variation in the size and + on each side throughout - amounted to what extent the Leipzig city + 3.07 and - 2 , 01 there, so a considerable growth as a whole, whereas the students +3.85 and - give 4.03, nearly balance between gain and loss. Common ground to expect that in years that a larger average measure A , also riesigere results as upper extremes give E ' happen at all A and E ' go predominantly parallel. Also, this has at summoning up of three upper extremes for each vintage (the better to compensate for contingencies) for as Leipzig students confirmed in particular, where at 16 movements of between 17 vintages p = 10.5 4) , q = 5.5, P = 18.03, Q = 1.23; here at 19 movements between 20 vintages p = 11, q = 8, P = 21.33, Q = 6.84. Now you should continue to expect that in years with larger A and the lower extreme E , would grow, ie grow with increasing average degree, the smallest recruits, and this has, by taking together of three minimum sizes in each year, with students found as: p = 14; q = 5, P = 19.73, Q = 10.99. Very strange but provided the Leipzig just the opposite result: p = 4.5, q = 11.5, P = 3.23, Q = 22.62, so that the smallest recruits in the entire enlarged rather than diminished with increasing mean degree . This bulging with so much determination result seems strange to me, and I know at first to be no explanation for it.
4)

The 0.5 comes from the fact that a movement of zero size occurred between two

vintages, then 0.5 where both p as to q is to beat. One can also, as above, the mobility of the A and students for Leipzig compared irrespective of the sign of the movement, to make this comparison, with respect to the extreme. The comparability with the Leipzig group's sake, I suppose with the students as above only on the same 17 years corridors 1846-1862 consideration, which apply to Leipzig, and pull for better balancing of contingencies not only the motion of the outermost extremes, but the mean of three extreme values into consideration. This gives the following compilation: Movement IV sum by 17 years courses . For d middle of For d For d d totality average of 3 average of 3 Minim. Maxim. Leipzig 5.08 27.17 14.67 Students 7.88 15.17 16.00 So all the arithmetic means are A totality less mobile than those derived merely as a means of three extreme values extremes, which can not be surprised, and would only have been considered the outermost extremes, so the mobility would have greater exposed for . In addition, but you can again notice the big difference between Leipzig and students in the minima, while at the Maximis almost match takes place between the two. When the student is the mobility of the minima of roughly equal to the maxima in the Leipzig group almost twice as large. But all that well agrees with the earlier 5) together established assumption that the smallest values at the Leipzig group, are abnormal.
5)

[cf. 15 and 128]

161 Can be watched closer the predominant parallelism, which has proved at previous between residents of Leipzig and students, not both such evidence for different parts of the country as a very mixed and a sense favorite part of the Saxon population, as bemerktermaen Leipziger to a large part, the students at all originate from all parts of the country. The Belgian extent to which now provide a desired indication darboten, the matching through a long period, and now provided the previously obtained result for different districts of Saxony refers only to a very limited space and very limited time, had an extensive confirmation by both respects be desirable way, not only for the country but also for the individual provinces (regions) in the "Documents Statistiques" of Belgium and a former Expose 6) are listed in a table. But since vintages with weak movement of the A or C can be for a whole country ever expect no safe predominance of parallelism for the individual parts of the country, so I have a comparison for stronger movements where can find those for Belgium, employed and to the movements between subsequent years and epochs selected:

1) 1852 and 1858; 2) the two five-year periods 1851-55, 1856-60; 3) two sub-periods of the first of these five-year periods, ie 1851-53 and 1854-55. What Division 1) is concerned, as are 1852 and 1858 while apart, but it prevents bemerktermaen nothing to consider the size of movement and between two distant from each other vintages, but those years are chosen because the first maximum, the last the minimum of the C and g : k contains a long string of vintages, and therefore the size of the parallelism of movement between different parts of the country, if such ever existed, the least was in danger of being outweighed by unbalanced and hidden contingencies. - The Abtl. 2) anlangend, then these epochs are distinguished afterward that the C , and g : k differ quite the same. - The Abtl. 3) is a specialization of the first Abtl. 2).
6)

[Expos de la situation du Royaume. Bruxelles, 1852.]

To 1) are merely the g : K to 2) the C and g : k to 3) the C and g : m determined. The determination of these values is (done in 2) and 3) summary for the incoming in each epoch years after the summary of the same Maintervallen associated metrics, not singular as a means to the provisions of the individual years), as does that of the circuit- C each epoch what in the following tables (VI and VII) in the lowest transverse column (Royaume) is, with respect to the individual provinces rather than years. The absolute value of C and g : k is only given for the first of the years or periods being compared, in the second movement to the back, so that, for example, in the first of the following tables 1.776 | - 0.182 represents: 1,776 | 1,594. Parallelism or Antiparallelismus between the different provinces now takes place, depending on the sign of the movements in the same vertical column match or not, which one can see that among the 27 movements that are listed in the following three tables for the nine provinces of Belgium, a single (lying in the Table 3) to the extracts parallelism, (though I could not find a mistake as to this exception for the revision of the bill) after which a joint influence on the movement throughout Belgium is unquestionable. The size of the parallel movements in the various provinces, however, is very different and here and there so small and can easily see that if you had the movement between years or periods want to keep track of where it is low for the whole of Belgium, enough antiparallel cases would have occurred for the provinces, of course, so even if they are. due to all the individual years in a row, as it is done with respect to the Leipzig and students would want to follow, just would always be a preponderance of parallel cases be expected to Anyway, it would not be without interest, really make this comparison in such a way for the provinces of Belgium, where perhaps you could give some characteristic differences for the same, and the Documents Statistiques offer to the sufficient material, however, I can even on this, basically very easy to execute, but not enter the

extension width leading the investigation. One can moreover convinced from the following tables that the assessment of the movements of the g : k or g : m leads to the same results as for the C , so can be at any making the above investigation the somewhat cumbersome determination of C by means of replacement spare previous values. V. Size movement in the provinces of Belgium from 1852 to in 1858. G:k 1852 1858 1852 m 1858

Anvers ..... Brabant ..... Flandr. or. ... Hainaut ..... Lige ..... Limbourg .... Namur .....

1,776 - 0,182 3249 1,832 - 0,558 5490 1,083 - 0,074 6525 1,471 - 0,330 6133 1,600 - 0,437 3634 2,119 - 0,513 1608 2,915 - 0,832 2257

3796 6208 5782 7307 7377 4566 1803 1782 2666

Flandr. occ. . .. 1,209 - 0,179 5144

Luxembourg. .. 2,293 - 0,819 1544

Royaume .... 1,539 - 0,310 35584 41287 VI. Size movement in the provinces of Belgium in the following two periods: 1 Period is five years, 1851-1833, 2nd Period is five years, from 1856 to 1860. C g:k m

1.Epoc 2 Era he Mm Anvers .... Brabant .... Flandr. occ. . . 1645.8 - 3.6 1650.4 - 9.4 1634.7 - 0.2

1 Era

2 Era

1.Epoc 2 Era he 17368 18382 29301 30444 28169 28471

1,584 1,767 1,124

- 0,097 - 0,389 - 0,005

Flandr. or. . . . Hainaut .... Lige ..... Limbourg. . . Luxembourg. . Namur ..... Royaume ....

1633.2 - 1.1 1638.1 - 1.8 1647.6 - 6.9 1656.7 - 6.3 1658.6 - 9.4 1662.3 - 5.3 1643.1 - 3.7

1,075 1,289 1,602 2,021 2,167 2,344 1,443

- 0,027 - 0,081 - 0,259 - 0,378 - 0,460 - 0,264 - 0,140

34648 35483 33063 36204 19842 22206 8696 8279 8837 8823

12102 12921 191468 201771

VII size motion in the various provinces of Belgium in the following two periods: 1 Era: three years 1851 - 1853; 2 Era: two years, 1854 - 1855. C g: m m

1851-53 1854-55 1851-53 1854-55 1851-53 185455 mm Anvers .... Brabant .... Flandr. occ. . . . Flandr. or. . . . Hainaut .... Lige. . . . . Limbourg. . . Luxembourg. . Namur ..... 1650.6 - 10.8 1651.3 - 2.1 1635.8 - 2.9 1634.9 - 4.0 1639.4 - 3.1 1646.0 + 3.6 1658.3 - 3.8 1658.9 - 0.7 1664.2 - 4.5 0,538 0,540 0,454 0,450 0,472 0,513 0,586 0,582 0,608 - 0.062 - 0,013 - 0,013 - 0,022 - 0,020 0,021 + - 0,021 - 0,006 - 0,012 9992 17268 16511 20419 19088 11277 5062 4880 7117 7376 12033 11658 14229 13975 8565 3634 3399 4988

Royaume .... 1644.4 - 3.0 0,505 - 0,017 111611 79857 It would be probably desirable, the comparison also to enable them to expand beyond about Belgium, about France, but what me sufficient documentation fehlen.Die "Comptes rendus sur le recrutement de l'arme" enter France but for annual mean values for a larger number of years, in a font of Bischoff 7) are reproduced, however, subject to the following evils that make them completely

useless for our purposes: In the largest part of the series of vintages, the means are slightly spicy determined that multiple two to four vintages behind not differ each other, and between individual jump from the series out with such values that are only likely to account by mistake. [On the usefulness of the results published in various European countries, the recruitment business for the evaluation of the development and health of its population Munich 1867 (Publishing House of the Academy).]
7)

On the question of temporal variations of the connexion of the recruits size. 162 How to understand this question, 156 is specified. We examine it first in terms of the Saxon extent that this at our disposal, ie, the Leipzig and students. The general summaryA of the first is 69.61, so the singular match. We now describe in now to study the successive vintages of 1846 to 17 years + or - depending on their A is above or below this means, we find the following series of signs: ---- + + - + + + + - + --- +. When the student is the summary A of the twenty vintages 71.76; thus the singular also agrees. And the sequence of characters hereafter: + - + + - + - + + - + + + + - + --- +. Now bare Zufalles so many sign changes would by probability theory just to be expected as consequences, as you can convince yourself, if you can start a original list of recruits dimensions, in which the measurements are followed by chance, and the individual dimensions as to the number of + or - designates, according as they more or less than the A 1 are the list 8) . At the Leipzig dimensions but is the number of strings 9, the exchange of 7, with the students of the strings 7, the exchange of 13 So this it is not a temporal relationship to reason, because if there is such, the strings would have decided predominate. [Strictly speaking, should the central value C are subject to the above provision. It soft here but A and C do not significantly from each other.] Against this results from the Belgian dimensions (see Table VIII below) a very striking connection. The singular middle C all courses 33 years from 1843 to 1875 inclusive is 1645.8 mm. Against this, the entire first 22 vintages minus in the last 11 plus, and secretes it, the 33 cohorts in two departments, including 16 from 1843 to 1858 with aver. C = 1641.3 and 17 from 1859 to 1875 with aver. C = 1650.0, one obtains relating to respektiv following series of characters: + + + + ---- + + + - + ---; --------- + + + + + + + +.
8)

Even more, it shows up in the Belgian measures not merely a tendency, over several years in a row and then again to remain under the general agents, but also the tendency to rise steadily through a number of years and then fall again. Indeed, we find that movements in this regard from 1843 to 1875 is following with the following sign: + + + + + --- + - + --- + - + + + + + - + + - + + - + + +. The strings (sequences of identical characters) are 17 here, the sign changes only 14 After naked coincidences but here twice as much character change would have been expected as consequences. (It is in fact, as I have convinced myself, if one determines the sign in an appropriate manner in the movements of random consecutive recruits dimensions of Urlisten, or in lists of drawn lottery numbers, wherein the numbers followed by coincidence, such a provision makes to the movements of the following numbers to each other.) In Saxony, the movements of the recruits measurements indicate transitions through 20 years, either at A 1 , A 2 or C persecuted, 5 to 13 episodes change, so more changes than necessary merely to apply to random. Since present in Saxony at the much smaller Maabteilungen than for the whole of Belgium, no equivalent has been shown by a temporal connexion of variation, as might prove this, that that connection at all based on very general causes, by means of local influences that about themselves compensate for greater country routes can be hidden easily, and it is not only an interesting task ahead, continue to pursue this in other countries, but also to examine how frequently influences related periodicity in human growth. 163 I now give the central values of C for the 33 vintages from 1843 to 1875, which are derived by me from the original tables, and the corresponding values of g : k , and g the number of dimensions, which from 1618 to 1643 exceed the interval size, k is the number of those who do not achieve it means. With these provisions, the total was m 33 years all courses (excluding waist inconnue) 1304764, and the median m ie 39538, the minimum of 35584 in 1852, the maximum of 41851 in 1860. Eighth Central values of C and values of g : k for 19 year old recruits in Belgium 1843-1875 9) .

Year 1843 1844 1845 1846

C mm 1642.1 1642.3 1644.6 1642.3

g: k 1,412 1,414 1,515 1,428

Year 1860 1861 1862 1863

C mm 1639.5 1642.0 1642.6 1643.1

g: k 1,316 1,432 1,474 1,495

1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859

1640.8 1635.1 1639.6 1641.0 1644.1 1644.7 1644.3 1641.2 1641.5 1640.3 1640.2 1637.4 1639.8

1,357 1,159 1,308 1,340 1,468 1,539 1,504 1,361 1,370 1,321 1,336 1,229 1,320

1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875

1645.1 1647.6 1646.2 1648.7 1653.8 1651.27 1651.33 1656.6 1654.2 1659.2 1664.4 1664.5

1,577 1,694 1,583 1,692 2,022 1,892 1,876 1,930 1,923 2,233 2,549 2,570

This table differs in the provisions for the first six vintages, which are caused by reduction 18 year-old recruits to 19 year old, some of the from which I have given in RECLAM's magazine, because the reduction of C in the above table as well as the g : k is done by means of singular contraction, however, they happen in the journal for the former after summary, only for the latter by means of singular contraction, which does some of comparability entry. In principle, if our former agents must draw up are preferred.

9)

One can see that apart from the vintages 1857 and 1870, the decline of values g : k with the values of C is everywhere parallel to the direction of decrease and increase. It should be noted that only the values of the volumes are determined from 1849 to direct measurements of 19-year recruits, the values of the first six, separated by a slash and, vintages but standing by reduction from measurements of 18, one year each before unexcavated recruits; so that, for example, the C = 1642.1, which is indicated in the table as valid for 19 year old recruits of 1843, out of a C = 1632.5 is derived, which is obtained directly from measurements of 18-year recruits in 1842 was 10) . For this the following explanation. The right for dag C values obtained for the 18 year old recruits are the series: 1632.5, 1632.7, 1635.0, 1632.6, 1631.2, 1625.5.
10)

The recruits were included until 1847 bemerktermaen measured with full 18 years, and then of course were smaller than if they had been measured a year later at age 19. In order to reduce this, I have the singular means of the six C and g : k 18 year old recruits born between 1842 to 1847 and included the former determines 1631.6, the latter found 1,033, on the other hand, the corresponding provisions for the 13 vintages 19 year-old recruits from 1849 to 1861 and sought respektiv 1641.2 and 1.373 found what the C 's 18-year recruits 1641.2: 1631.6 = 1.0059, the g : k , have been multiplied by 1.033 = 1.329: 1.373 with them due to the fact that they were measured one year later. I only 13 years courses for comparisons with the six cohorts 18 years of recruits taken 19 years recruits makeshift determination of the reduction factor, while 27 are at his command, initially had the reason that I at the time of making this reduction were not born to bid, I but I am still standing by, because it would not in itself be useful to use remote volumes for reduction. If the reduction in the proportion of the top six C happen to the entire remaining 27, the time for Mitzuziehung the very distant from large values would C undisputedly large reduction factor 1646.8: 1631.6 = 1.0093 to be, and the general mean of all 33 singular values of C are 1645.8 1646.8 instead.

XXV. Structure and asymmetry of the rye

(Secale cereale). 164 Concerning the terms I notice first of all that I have the Fruchthre, di'll understand the uppermost part of the straw containing the grains of panicle, under first, second, third, & c, the element or elements called internodes, in order from the top down under the whole blade length: sum of the panicle and the links to the root without it. It was in 1863 at the 24th July plucked from a field planted with rye on Leutzscher care of Leipzig, briefly denoted by L, a sheaf at harvest mature stems with the root. The majority of these, 217 in number, have 6 members 138 merely 5 members and 6 members 10, however, seven of fairly rudimentary look only 4 members. On the 217 six-membered and five-membered 138 straws of care, preferably the former, the following main study concerns as to the asymmetry ratios and asymmetric distribution. However, it seemed of interest to determine how ears of other locations (near Leipzig) in terms of the ratios of structure similar to the behavior of the Leutzscher care, including less number of blades had to serve as the investigation would not otherwise have been feasible from me. There were thus at the same time smaller bundles of stalks from the following locations around Leipzig taken with the following content stalks. In Stnz (pcs) 16 July: 22 pieces, 20 six-membered, two five-membered, on Tubchenwege (Tbch.) 20 July 24 pieces, 4 six-membered, fivemembered 20, at Schnefeld (Sch.) 15 July: 22 pieces, 18 six-membered, fivemembered 4. The stalks touched by an already harvested field for half ago. Of all stalks the panicle and the individual members were particularly measured to

the node center (ie, with inclusion of the panicle, but without the root) of the total length of the blade just by adding the individually measured lengths, since it is difficult in practice, all the to measure stalk in connection, not the same just because of the often great length, but also because often put links in obtuse angles to each other. What are the determination of the straw is relatively less accurate than those of its departments, because the errors of the individual measurements although partially compensate for the addition, but also add some. Even the lowest limb is not to precisely measure mostly, and the provisions relating thereto are of much lower values than for the other members, because it is usually crippled so that only superficially it could be executed compete with the tapes, and I would even the provisions above all left at hand, if not one hand a perceptible gap would thus arose in connexion total of the provisions, and not superficially had gained regulations quite well classified the total connexion in general. Sometimes you can be in doubt whether you do not have much more to expect the lowest element to the root than at straws by sometimes been lowered from its upper node rootlets show up, but if from that node down here is a simple, albeit stunted internodes extends to the branched root, is the same always counted as lowest member of the straw. Even the mature panicle may be because of the lowest failure grains slightly too short, and next to him the first member can be measured according to the length, but could be the length of the panicle even after a little better with the finger tangible, recognizable as the eye projections, which separates them from the first term, determined. The awns of the panicle are not measured. Was used to measure a centimeter divided into 1) the two measures, as uniformly tensioned tape measure. Millimeters, and sometimes even still half Mulimeter estimated it. Would millimeters even specify the Mabande, except that the so often repeated sharp Watching would be very attacked the eyes, have brought no significant advantage because you still able to estimate accurately enough tenths of an inch, except that one in front of the non-uniform estimate has to guard what extent the recruits and skull measurements (see Chapter VII) have provided examples. All departments of the stalks but were after the whole bunch was by measure groups, measured again, not so much to still gain a small advantage of accuracy in the mean of the two measurements, as to coarser mistake in the conception and recording through mutual check of two of each other to identify independent records and improve; mistake that so many tedious measurements and records is very difficult to avoid than you might think. Of the two measures of the same length would then be taking the remedy, but I have it preferred for simplicity, let the sum of the two dimensions undividiert by 2, and all of the following information relating to this facility, which simply point out is that folgends as a unit Measurements of the half instead of the whole centimeter occurs.
1)

The commercially available tapes are often divided inaccurate.

165 [In this way the primary plates were obtained for the panicle and the

individual members of the straw from which Table IV in Section VII (for the topmost element of the 217 six-membered straws) are an example. For the same, the following tables were then derived first.] Since the unit of E cm for rye anywhere, so I'll let folgends a special citation of the same.

I. Value of A 1 for panicle and limbs set depending on the number of different elements and different location, the total length of the blade being 100. 7 gliedr. L. (10) Panicle ..... 1 Link .... 2 Link .... 3 Link .... 4 Link .... 5 Link .... 6 Link .... 7 Link .... Absolute values of A 1 for the entire Halm ..... 5.8 27.5 23.6 15.6 12.3 9.3 5.2 0.7 318.9 6 gliedr. L. (217) St. (20) 5.9 31.4 26.1 16.3 11.8 6.7 1.8 275.2 7.1 31.6 25.3 15.7 12.0 6.8 1.5 344.7 5 gliedr. Sch. (18) L. (138) 5.7 33.7 28.7 15.6 10.0 5.1 1.2 286.9 6.5 35.4 28.5 16.0 10.2 3.4 261.1 TBCH. (20) 5.0 34.6 28.8 16.9 10.5 4.2 222.1

II values of : A 1 . 7 gliedr. L. (10) Panicle ..... 1 Link .... 2 Link .... 0,285 0,119 0,106 6 gliedr. L. (217) St. (20) 0,212 0,115 0,117 0,234 0,116 0,114 5 gliedr. Sch. (18) L. (138) 0,183 0,105 0,106 0,217 0,108 0,126 TBCH. (20) 0,184 0,101 0,101

3 Link .... 4 Link .... 5 Link .... 6 Link .... 7 Link .... Whole stalk. .

0,111 0,128 0,157 0,164 0,241 0,083

0,119 0,141 0,253 0,487 0,099

0,168 2) 0.094 0,179 0,542 0,076

0,099 0,135 0,312 0,576 0,093

0,128 0,201 0,407 0,104

0,144 0,177 0,490 0,089

0,168, although proven to be correct is calculated by audit, but must be regarded as abnormal, because everywhere else the : A third member which is smaller than the fourth.

2)

III. Elements of the 217 six-membered straws Leutzscher care after primary panel. Panicle 1 Gl. A1 G1 E, E' U 16.2 15.8 7.5 27.9 -5 86.5 85.5 42.9 + 25 2 Gl. 71.8 71.0 38.9 + 10 3 Gl. 44.9 44.2 19.1 61.9 +10 - 8.8 4 Gl. 32.5 31.9 15.0 48.0 -3 - 2.0 5 Gl. 18.4 17.4 6.0 34.0 - 15 + 3.2 6 Gl. 4.9 4.0 0.6 19.0 - 33 Halm 275.2 272.8 147.9 352.6 + 13

112.2 99.8 - 17.9 - 4.9

U '- U , + 3.0

+ 9.8 - 49.9

IV elements of the 138 five-membered straws Leutzscher care after primary panel. Panicle 1 Gl. A1 G1 E, E' u 16.9 16.3 7.0 33.4 -2 92.4 91.5 53.5 + 14 2 Gl. 74.4 73.4 34.1 +8 3 G1. 41.8 41.2 19.5 62.4 +8 4 Gl. 26.7 25.8 6.3 41.8 +4 5.Gl. 8.9 7.6 1.6 22.0 - 14 Halm 261.1 258.8 158.7 330.9 + 10

119.4 96.4

U '- U , + 6.6

- 11.9 - 18.3 - 1.7

- 5.3

+ 5.8 - 32.6

166 The results of most general interest, which can be drawn from the above tables, I seem to be following two. 1) That there are certain statutory classification ratios in rye such a way that they can apply to rye as characteristic and can be indisputably occasion to examine not only the various types of cereals and even grasses after the interests of their comparative characteristics, but also the influence of the to study external circumstances, such as the soil and annual weather it. 2) The fact that this results in decisive evidence of the existence of a substantial asymmetry and a base for examination of their laws. First we will go to the former interest of the investigation. You can find it questionable whether the variations which show the individual stalks of rye in respect to their length and structure relationships, rather of an accidental variety of the seeds or the nature of the soil, of which each is individual migrates, depend, probably from two causes, without that so far it can be decided empirically. Anyway, the following general conditions are held. 1) However, in that the average length A 1 of all blades varies depending on the locations from 344.7 to 222.1, via which the look up information in Table I, but the proportions of elements (according to their arithmetic mean) for the total length independently them and view only with the number of members to be variable, they can be regarded as constant short and therefore characteristic of rye with a given number of links. Table I gives to the evidence provided in all limbs, and the ratio of panicle to straw (equal to 100) are reduced. Since except of Leipzig, with = m 217 and 138 the other sites only a m = 10, have 18 and 20, I would not have believed that in the through this small m conditional uncertainty compliance of the relative link lengths for a given number of links would have so far to go than is the case. Only at Schnefeld (with m = 18) to show some major differences from the other sites for the six-membered straws, but on the other hand we compare the sechsgliedr. Stalks the surprising coincidence of the relationships between members of L. (217) and St (20) with the very different total lengths of 275.2 and 344.7, as well as the no less remarkable for the fnfgliedr. Straws between L. (138) and TBCH. (20) for the different total length 261.1 and 222.1. Even Sch. fnfgliedr. with m = 4 is true that strange together, and only TBCH. sechsgliedr. with m = 4 and L. viergliedr. with m = 6 show significant variances, but comparisons with so small m can not be authoritative and are therefore ignored in previous table. Incidentally, it might have been even more appropriate to consider the individual members in proportion to the sum of the terms for di straws without panicle panicle than with how it is done here considered. 2) Comparing the columns for the seven-, six-and fnfgliedr. Stalks of Table I, we find in general that with descent in this number of links increase the first three terms

of proportionate length, but the last decrease. Or in short: if the number of links decreases, then extend the upper limbs and shorter lower in proportion to the total length. For panicle no particular rule in this regard is visible. 3) Taking about the question of whether the requirement imposed by ZEISING and repeatedly accepted assertion confirms the division ratios of rye is that in nature the irrational ratio of the golden section, ie noticeably exactly 100 : 162, played a distinguished role as we can not affirm this is shown in Table I, since the ratio of successive terms to each other is ever quite variable. As little seems to exist a tendency to simple rational ratios. 4) The simple average error or the simple average fluctuation = : m rel. A takes the absolute values from the top to the bottom limb, for which I have not enclosed table. But since the value A decreases in this direction, so wondered how it is with the relative values of : A = : m A , or the relative variation in this respect behave, what to judge according to Table II. Here reveals the remarkable, that the : A the two to three upper limbs neither by the atomic number of these elements (whether first, second element, etc.), nor by the type of blades (whether seven-, six-or five-membered) nor, finally, after the sites in considerable degree varies, except that in the seven-and six-membered stalks the remarkable consistency to the three 3) , extends to the five-membered only the top two elements. Pursuant but when it descends to lower limbs, growing not only : A general with the depth of equality in terms of the location and the number of links, but also changes in the atomic number equal to these two moments. The : A panicle is everywhere much larger, averaging about twice as large as that of the first term, however, the : O the whole culm less than that of any one department, which is easy to understand. The value 0.168 is the third limb Stnz without relying on accounting errors identified abnormally because it is the smaller value of 0.094 followed by the fourth generation. Since the values of : A of the Table II is uncorrected so by attaching the correction would be (see 44), the values specified for the following values actually still mthe following conditions v be increasing: m v 10, 20, 138, 217 1.054, 1.026, 1.004, 1.002.
3)

But it is easily seen that this would change nothing in the conclusions drawn. 167 After this I come to the part of the study, which has reference to the asymmetry ratios, for which only the data obtained from the locations of Leipzig, with 217 sechsgliedr. and 138 fnfgliedr. Stalks a sufficient m grant. Also, even a m = 217 is certainly not big enough for influence. unbalanced contingencies to a desired degree depress 4) , but will show that when the required reduction and sharp handling, the statement results with the sets of collective asymmetry found in very good

agreement, without any reduction but give already the values of u = '- , and U - U , (which U = E '- A , U , = A - E , ) in Table III and IV evidence that significant asymmetry is present here.
4)

[In fact, the probable value V of the difference u = '- , mar. A 1 symmetry in is 10]

essential prerequisite to 98 on the basis of the formula V = 0.6745

. Should namely essential symmetry of the deviations bez A place, the difference would u difference between the two numbers ', , and the difference U '- U , not between the two extreme deviations, albeit in Table III and IV specified, but as U ' = E - A and U , E - = A , depend on it are easy to find, only unbalanced contingencies and to switch between the members of the straws on the size and sign random. But we pursue the difference u down through the series of elements, we see the positive in the first term value of the same continuous decrease in size, and of a certain limb on (for sechsgliedr stems from fourth to -.. for fnfgliedr only when fifth limb itself) turn negative. Just as we do with the differences U '- U , , we find the Corresponding with the opposite sign, except that here also in the sechsgliedr. Stalks of the envelope only begins at the fifth limb. At the same time, these tables give an opportunity to the general sentence ( 33, 142) to prove that U - U , the opposite sign of '- , has what only a very small u and U '- U , an apparent exception may suffer by unbalanced contingencies, which is also the example in the fourth term of the sechsgliedr. Straws place. For the panicle as in the sixfnfgliedr. Stalks u negative, U - U , , positive, positive for the whole stalk the former value, the latter negatively. It would now be very interesting to investigate whether the so distinctly expressed legal course of u and U '- U , which here only for a single location (Leutzsch) and the weather in a given year (1863) for sufficiently large m is has been proven is also found in other locations and other annual weather conditions, as it is very possible to that other locations and weather conditions carry other conditions in this regard during the growth of the stalks. Now I lie even the data for other sites (St, TBCH, Sch..) Before, but only with a m 18-20, which is much too little to expect reliable results: but I have to at least to raise a presumption, and St. TBCH., both with m = 20, in terms of their transition u studied and thereby obtain the results listed in the following table.

V. A 1 and u for the locations TBCH. and St., both with m = 20 A1 TBCH. 5 gl Gl St. 6 TBCH. u St.

Panicle. . . 1 Gl. . . 2 Gl. . . 3 Gl. . . 4 Gl. . . 5 Gl .. . . 6 Gl. . . Halm. . .

11.2 76.8 63.9 37.6 23.3 9.3 222.1

24.5 108.9 87.2 54.1 41.4 23.4 5.2 344.7

-6 -2 0 -2 -6 -2 -6

-2 0 +2 -2 +2 0 -4 +2

Thereafter, however, but one must assume with reasonable certainty that the location of significant influence on the course of the u and hereby is the asymmetry ratios of rye, as for TBCH. all of u are negative or zero, change indeterminate size and sign for St. 5) .
5)

[It should be noted, however, that here the probable value of u in essential prerequisite symmetry rel. A 1 from the formula V = 0.67 (see 98) is equal to 3 stems, after which only three of the thirteen values above the probable value V exceed. It is therefore to assume an overgrowth purely random asymmetry in the fact that by no means precludes for TBCH. and St with larger m , similar regularities occur as observed for L..] 168 For all the results so far only the primary tables were below, but which no zulngliche determine the closest value, calculating the distribution dependent and in general to study the D permit related conditions. So we are now reduced to about panels, which from then on only the Leutzscher material and that the six-membered with m will limit = 217th Should be taken into account only the five upper limbs [But of this material. Because they comply with probation, asymmetric distribution laws and allow a sufficient corrective control of the prominent response of the asymmetry in Table III. It is also displayed, just refrain from the vine and the lowest limb, as indicated from the above ( 164) reasons, the results would have only a dubious value. I spend accordingly folgends the z -values of the first five members for a reduced i = 4 E in any way, elected position reduction and add to the observed values, the calculated values, as they will bear the two-sided GG, directly at. In direct connection to it, there are the items that were laid the basis for calculation, reported:

VI. Reduced panel of 217 six-membered straws (L.). i = 4 e , m = 217th 1 Member 2 Member 3 Member 4 Element 5 Section z a 44 1 48 1 52 1 56 2 60 4 64 6 68 8 72 9 76 21.5 80 15.5 84 24 88 33.5 92 27.5 96 23.5 100 18.5 104 13.5 108 4 112 3.5 1 1 1 2 3 6 9 13 17 22 25 28 28 24 18 11 6 3 VII elements of the 217 six-membered straws (L. to reduced panel. 1Section 2Section 3Section 4Section 5Section A2 C2 Dp Di u 86.52 87.85 90.58 88.45 - 45 71.69 72.52 76.73 76.75 - 65 44.83 45.30 46.23 45.74 - 27 32.39 32.60 33.46 33.29 - 24 18.38 18.26 17.96 18.51 +10 z 38 1 42 1 46 1.5 50 6.5 54 6.5 58 15.5 62 17.5 66 25.5 70 29.5 74 30.5 78 32 82 25.5 86 16 90 6.5 94 0.5 98 1.5 1 1 3 5 13 24 29 32 32 25 15 7 2 1 z 18 1 22 1 26 2.5 30 4.5 38 20.5 46 58.5 50 39 54 19 58 7 62 4 0 2 6 15 29 49 41 22 8 2 z observed. calc a 15 3 23 12.5 27 38 31 55.5 35 57.5 43 11 47 3 z observed. calc a 6 17 36 54 34 12 3 observed. about 2 10 28 50 56 41 21 7 2 1.5 3 0 7 11.5 11 29 15 48 23 38 27 15.5 31 8 35 3.5

observed. calc a observed. calc a

0.5 19 5

8.5 34 16.5 18.5 42 43.5

53.5 19 63.5

42.5 39 31.5

e, e'

11.82 7.76

10.98 6.28 5.94 4.88

5.33 4.26

4.60 5.02

p 0.67 0.84 0.66 0.80 0.71 The comparison between theory and experience is sufficient agreement that can satisfy the more so as the provisions of the underlying m = 217 is relatively small. In particular, one can notice that the second term corresponds to the requirements of good theory, which of course is not a distinctive feature, is compared with the other members but only to seek a randomness associated with the reduction level and reducing the currently selected location. It therefore proved the two-sided GG to the rye stem.] [This is also the presence made significant asymmetry beyond question. But to the conclusions regarding the decrease and reversal of asymmetry for descending limbs, by the regular course of the u - to control are suggested in Tables III and IV values, it is displayed on the A 1 relating to u the table III, the corresponding mar. D p force u to compare the table above.This comparison shows that this has the second member in place of the first maximum value, and stands out the reverse of the asymmetry until the fifth limb instead of the fourth and that any variations between the successive members differently distributed and stronger than there. If you ask now, what values are to be regarded as authoritative, so you will need to consider that while always a u -values rel. A a, with the ratios ( D - C ) : ( C - A ) growing, relatively large u- value dist. D of opposite sign corresponding to that, but the choice of the reduction step and reducing position, the position of the values of D , C and A , namely that of D to a greater extent than that of C and A affects how to from the comparison table of the elements different levels of reduction and reduction principles can be seen in Chapter VIII. Result, the sharper fluctuations explain the u in comparison to the quieter way of u.Nevertheless, a final judgment on the asymmetry ratios is rather on the u as the u to start. Because the latter give only an indication, to determine whether and far into how the bez in substantial symmetry. A expected u -values are exceeded by the observed, whereas in condition essential asymmetry D p to be considered as the most probable value, and there are Accordingly, the probabilities p and q = 1 - p for an upper and lower deviation in the ratio of the observed mean deviations e 'and e , presupposing as an appropriate assumption for the deviations rel. A is not permitted. THEREFORE, it is in harmony with the details of the Supplement to Chapter XIV ( 101) the probable limits of u equal to: to set and based on the proportion p : q = e ' : e , to calculate, according to which in the present case for each of the five members of the rounded value 10 as probable upper and lower limit of the specified in the table most likely u - calculated values obtained. However, this follows not only that each member, considered essential asymmetry in general, but also that the variations between consecutive terms except

those to be recognized between the third and fourth generation as essential. However, since here in the smallness of m -founded and in the choice of reducing location uncertainty in the determination of D p is not taken into account, it will be advised to the absolute values of the observed u to place undue weight and just in general the tendency to to emphasize the reduction of the asymmetry in the descending series of elements and the reversed asymmetry in the lower limbs.] 169 [Finally, still raises the question of whether the conditions of the terms of a collective treatment rye blend. This interest are the following two tables, for which the ratios of the first and second member and the second and the third limb reduction tables for comparisons between observation and calculation, and each standing next to the values of the elements inter alia with the distribution of the logarithmic law bring. The three smallest and largest successive values of the ratios of the first and second member are 0.64, 0.98 and 1.00 on the one hand, 1.50, 1.97 and 2.11 on the other. The corresponding values for the ratios of the second and third link are 1.12, 1.15 and 1.16 on the one hand, 2.22, 2.42 and 2.63 on the other. With a logarithms it can thus be designated in the former case the boundaries between - 0.19 and + 0.32 in the latter case between the limits 0.05 and 0.42. This results in a reduced i = 0.02 to the following values:

VIII ratios of the three top members of the 217 six-membered straws (L.) and its elements. i = 0.02, m = 217th 1 Member : 2 Section Z a observed. calc - 0.19 - 0.03 - 0.01 +0.01 +0.03 +0.05 +0.07 +0.09 +0.11 +0.13 1 0 1.5 11.5 15 35 47 47 30 16 0 1 3 9 21 34 43 41 31 19 G = 0.080 C = 0.079 D p = 0.076 D i = 0.080 u = + 13 e , = 0.030 e '= 0.034

+0.15 +0.17 +0.19 +0.29 +0.33

7 4 0 1 1

10 4 1 0 0

p = 0.75 G = 1.202 C = 1.199 T p = 1.191 T i = 1.202

2 Member : 3 Section a z

observed. calc 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.19 0.21 0.23 0.25 0.27 0.29 0.31 0.33 0.35 1 5 3 8 14 17.5 23.5 26 37 26 17 14 9 9 2 3 1 2 5 8 13 19 24 28 29 36 22 16 11 7 3 2 G = 0.206 C = 0.206 D p = 0.206 D i = 0.210 u=0 e , = 0.048 e '= 0.048 p = 0: 0 G = 1.607 C = 1.607 T p = 1.607

0.37 0.39 0.41

0 1 1

1 0 0

T i = 1.622

Noteworthy is the low degree of asymmetry that even completely missing for the ratio of the second and third member, and only in the progression to the fourth decimal Hauptwer-te G, C and D p would occur calculation. The consideration of the fourth decimal place, however, would at the theoretical distribution of z on each interval change anything because it only to the fraction of z would have influence. The values G are according to the destination from the primary tables of the ratio of the first and second members equal to 0.081 and the ratio of the second and third element is equal 0.205. The extreme A for the first and second term arise due to the distribution account as decided abnormally dar.]

XXVI. The dimensions of the gallery paintings.

170 [In the XXI. Chapter has already K.-G. taken from the dimensions of the gallery paintings and presented as an example for the sake of comparison between the arithmetic and logarithmic mode of treatment. The extent of Urlisten served as hergaben those listed catalogs, as a direct support for the reduced installation distribution panels, and indeed as well as for the logarithmic arithmetic for the reduction. - Here are the results of the detailed investigation, which differs in the dimensions of the various gallery paintings in the Appendix sections of "preaesthetic" from the standpoint of collective asymmetry of; has been performed, communicated and the arithmetically reduced distribution boards listed there even partially a logarithmic treatment basically be defined. The latter can then also serve as evidence that the arithmetically reduced tables can also provide a sufficient base for the logarithmic treatment even without reduction to Urlisten or primary distribution panels, when - as in this case - the final section of the larger dimensions of a boundary from is summarized as radical and its extent can be determined only from the specified extreme values.] [I now gather from the designated source 1) first, the information about the situation of the investigation ( 171) and continue ( 172 and 173), the distribution tables and the tables of the elements, together with the thereto to Socialize ends discussions to

then ( 174) the to show the logarithmic treatment success at four examples. Finally, I share ( 175), in turn from the preschool aesthetic information about the ratio of height and width and the surface area of the gallery with paintings]
1)

[pre-school of aesthetics in 1876. Second part, p 275 flgd.]

171 Classes as images religious, mythological, genre, landscape and still-life images can be distinguished: a) Religious Pictures, Images ds with Old Testament and Christian religious content. This does not only compositions were calculated with several figures, but even individual heads and figures as Christ heads, images of saints, depictions of martyr stories, even landscapes with holy Masked so that this class is actually an illdefined hodgepodge, so even a very unregelmigeVerteilung by measure and number took place in it. b) Mythological, ds pictures with content from the Greek and Roman gods and heroes world, far taken accordingly, hence poorly distributed. c) genre pictures, in the usual sense, without war and hunting scenes. d) landscapes, with the inclusion of navies, but without a harbor and city views. e) Still Life, ds pictures with inanimate objects (apart from this excluded Architecture), as such compilations of eatables, utensils, also flower and fruit pieces, with the exception of those which include human figures, with inclusion but those in which animals occur secondary. Are not drawn to study secular historical pictures, architecture, portraits, even the not comprehended in previous classes images. Everywhere are excluded frescoes and wallpaper images, diptychs and triptychs, and those panels were included in which different representations in demarcated from each other departments. Of course several times could doubt arise as to whether an image as a genre picture should be left in c) with added or secular historical picture aside, if an image as a landscape under d) should be included or left as mere cattle piece aside etc, and even well- others have the doubtful cases can categorize something different. However, this service does not come to much, because the uncertainty only affects relatively few pictures, so that the conditions thus can not be significantly involved. A very sharp separation principle can not install this at all, I went to the catalogs after aperfu the predominant impression of the images designation. Multiple cases occur that two or even a number are listed according to their content-related images of the same formats in a row in the catalogs. Thus, in the third game of the Louvre catalog: Ecole francaise p. 342 ff of No. 525-547 under the general title: "Les principaux traits de la vie de St. Bruno," 22 Pictures of LE SUEUR before that, with the exception of no.533, all the same dimensions h = 193, b = 130 cm have. The question arose whether, in such cases, all copies as a single only once or as

often as they occurred, should be recorded and accounted for in the distribution panel. Would it be it, but what is likely to have little interest to determine the actual average values of the images contained in the given Galleries of a given type and the actual distribution ratios, so of course could only the latter method, are complied with, but since you would not have to count on them that the same dimensions recurred on average in the same conditions in other galleries, they would receive a disproportionate contribution to the overall means determining in this way and thus are significantly altered the general distribution ratios. Thus, the following num-bers of religious images found in the following size intervals of height:

Intervals cm cm 179.5 to 189.5 189.5 to 199.5 199.5 to 209.5

z 91 89 93

which numbers close match, as expected with adjacent intervals. But here are all 22 SUEUR'sche images of 193 cm height are calculated twice, one would expect they want 22 times, we would have taken the consecutive numbers 91, 93 received, 89: 91, 109, 93, what the distribution is very would have made irregular. Accordingly, in other cases. However, since a plurality of related images of the same dimensions at least implies a certain strong preference of these dimensions and therefore takes an increased weight to complete, so I have decided to short and round all cases where two or more related images of the same dimensions were present two times, but not more than two times to number in the distribution table. Therefore, if folgends the total number of commissioned study images is specified to 10558, this number is so far not severe, are all just taken as on the previous observation of a larger number of related images of the same dimensions, only two in the bill, but on the other hand landscapes in which religious and my-pathological Masked occurs both in landscape images as religious or mythological images, and are therefore recorded twice. However, since the influence of the two factors do not significantly and also of the opposite direction, the above number N is close enough. There are only gallery images, namely twenty-two public galleries 2) measured or rather indicated in the gallery catalogs measurements, all been reduced to metric measure walking on the images size in the lights of the frame, and used for the sake of comparability.
2)

Used catalogs.

Amsterdam. Beschriving the Rijks Museum Schilderijen ops te Amsterdam in 1858. Antwerp. Catalogue du Muse d'Anvers, without year. Berlin. a) List of paintings of the Royal Collection. Museum of Berlin in 1834. b) records of painting collection of Consul Wagener, 1861. Brunswick . PAPE, dir d Gemldesamml. d heart. Museum of Braunschweig, 1849. Brussels. FETIS, Catalogue descript. et histor. du Mus. roy. de Belgique in 1804. Darmstadt . MLLER, Description d Gemldesamml. in d big heart. Mus. to Darmstadt. Dijon. Notice of objets d'art exposs au Mus. de Dijon in 1860. Dresden. HUEBNER, the Royal Dir. Picture Gallery in Dresden in 1856. Florence. CHIAVACCHI, Guida della R. Gall. del Palazzo Pitti in 1864. Frankfurt. PASSAVANT, dir d public. Ausgest. Works of art. d Stdel Art Institute in 1844. Leipzig , a) Delay d art d stdt Mus. Leipzig 1862. b) Delay d Lhr'schen painting collection to Leipzig in 1859. London. The National Gallery, pictures, etc. Without its year. Madrid. PEDRO DA MADRAZO, Catalogo de los del real quadros Mus. de Pintura y Escultura in 1843. Milan. Pinacotheca Guida per la regia di Brera. Munich. a) Delay d in d Royal Gem. Pinakothek at Munich in 1860. b) Delay d d new Royal Gem. Pinakothek in Munich in 1861. Paris . VILLOT, Notice of tabl. exp. dans les gal du Mus. imp. du Louvre in 1859. Petersburg . SCALES, the painting. in the Imperial. Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg in 1864. Venice. Catalogo degli oggetti d'arte Esposti al Publico nella L. Roy. Accad. di belli arti in v. 1864. Vienna. v. MECHEL, dir d According to the KK picture collection, 1781.

As the unit of measurements is therefore the exception folgends centimeters. 172 To the classes listed above, the investigation has extended, but have only been to a few provisions drawn from the reasons given by religious and mythological. In each class, but two sections are distinguished, namely images, where the height h is greater than the width b , and those of whom the reverse is true, the former with h > b latter with b > h to call.Between the two departments has been very infrequent square images are alternately, as they presented themselves, evenly

distributed 3) . But there are also drawn from the aggregation provisions of both departments, which for h and b are the same together. This is certainly correct, as they both the one and the other department entirely attributable, as the pictures shown as a square but now one and now another dimension to something greater will be than the other, only that the measurement of very small differences are not taken into account. After this now means, for example, h , h > b height dimensions of images whose height is greater than the width, also b , h> b width dimensions of images whose height is greater than the width so on, finally h ; comb. or b ; comb. Measurements height or width dimensions of an image of the united departments h > b and b > h. The primary distribution panels of the commissioned studies classes and departments with i = 1 cm naturally possess a large extent and are associated with strong irregularities. The following sample must suffice to give an idea of the appearance of the same: I sample from the primary distribution panels. (Genre: h , h> b). a z a Z
3)

29 13 41 17 30 15 42 14 31 13 43 14 32 20 44 12 33 21 45 15 34 9 46 10 35 17 47 17 36 13 48 10 37 22 49 12 38 26 50 4 39 8 40 9 51 12 etc

In order to limit both the extent and the irregularities, it is necessary to proceed to the same and a reduced panels i = 10 cm to create a basis. Here are the so-reduced boards for both divisions of genre and landscape and for h > b of still life. The total number m of copies of each class and division is given below. Many figures in the table you can see attached to one decimal 0.5. This stems

from the fact that numbers that fell on the threshold of an interval even after the split method z , half the one who thus divorced intervals have been attributed to the other half, what with odd numbers carries half a unit. If you want the Mazah-tion of the h or b for the combined h > b and b> hhave, so you need to add only the metrics for both departments.

II Arithmetic reduced distribution panel for genre, landscape and still life. i = 10; e = 1 cm. A h> b h 5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 30.5 133 161 75.5 70 47 39.5 20.5 5 88 b 23 h 6 Genre b> h b 2 h 8.5 Landscape h> b B h 6.5 66 b> h b 1.5 18 h 4 Still life h> b b

190.5 90.5 38.5 17.5 23 167.5 109 62.5 58.5 31.5 18 21 8 10 2.5 1.5 5 2.5 2.5

200.5 90 257.5 189 219 165 79 93 69 45 36.5 28.5 19.5 29 168 202

10.5 16.5 24.5 44 50.5 45 27 51 32 22 31.5 45

78.5 26.5 53.5 278.5 166 33

127.5 100.5 114.5 80.5 32.5 40 79.5 75.5 22 65.5 86 28 33 17 24 11 15 6 20 40.5 34.5 25 63.5 8.5 41.5 21 20

13.5 139

135.5 29 139.5 38 78 63 58.5 71.5 39 33.5

36.5 20.5 14 26.5 13.5 8.5 10 6.5 7.5 7.5 5 9 5 2 10 9.5 24 12 19 9.5

125.5 23.5 17.5 17.5 12 14.5 2.5 16 5.5 2 1 6.5 3 1 3 3

105 12.5 115 11.5 125 12.5 135 12.5 145 7.5 155 11 Rest 3

25.5 29

82.5 36

11.5 62.5

215.5 17

m = 775 775 702 702 282 282 1794 1794 308 308 It is seen that the distribution throughout much followed the same path. Everywhere there is a major unit in which the measure is a maximum, where the numerical values rapidly decrease to both sides, and that is the main interval the upper end of the table, which starts with the smallest dimensions, much closer than

the bottom, which the largest values completing what would be even more striking even if not the numbers to all dimensions over 160 cm in the lump would be summarized (as a group). This provides a particularly interesting example of a panel K.-G. of highly asymmetric distributed: It is seen that the values of the transition from the main regular intervals on both sides has a very approximated.Here and there, however, as especially in genre b , b> h landscape h , h> b and b , b> h also strong irregularities are taking place and the lack of nowhere with the small numbers in the lower part of the table, but it can require that they would disappear completely or reduce it very much if a much larger number of specimens would have been at his command, as they also balance out the more so in ever larger intervals to summarize the dimensions. A very similar path as the genre, landscape and still-life images show the religious and mythological, except that, undoubtedly some very large irregularities remain in these classes due to unfavorable summary including projected images, in progress, which hardly be enlarged m expected to offset, so these classes are not suitable for testing the distribution laws and are not so far been worked through by me than the others. For still life b> h irregularities have remained relatively stronger than that a full working through would have been worth. 173 A closer look at the proportions and asymmetry of the gallery paintings are obtained, however, only the following information about their elements to their calculation, the original distribution panels were assumed. III. Elements of genre, landscape, still life, Religious and Mythological after primary panel. e = 1 cm. m h> b b>h Genre comb. h>b b>h Landscape comb. h b h b h b h b h b h b 775 775 702 702 1477 1477 282 282 1794 1794 2076 2076 A1 54.4 43.6 63.8 86.8 58.9 64.0 88.1 69.1 64.7 90.3 67.9 87.4 G1 46.7 37.4 53.8 72.0 50.0 51.0 73.3 58.7 54.5 75.2 56.7 72.8 C1

: A1
0.45 0.45 0.47 0.49 0.47 0.54 0.50 0.37 0.47 0.48 0.40 0.40

u - 197 - 191 - 182 - 196 - 379 - 437 - 60 - 75 - 426 - 436 - 520 - 522

44.6 24.4 35.8 19.6 51.4 30.3 67.8 42.7 47.8 27.4 49.4 34.7 70.1 44.1 54.6 25.3 53.3 30.3 74.4 43.6 55.7 27.4 71.2 34.7

h>b Still life b> h comb. h>b Religious b> h h>b Mythological b> h

h b h b h b h b h b h b h b

308 308 204, 204, 512 512

80.6 62.2 71.0 95.2 76.8 76.4

72.6 57.7 60.1 83.5 67.3 66.8 -

73.0 29.0 58.9 21.9 55.7 76.6 67.3 65.0 -

0.36 0.35 0.56 0.51 0.52 0.47 0.54 0.51 0.47

- 42 - 34 - 54 - 60 - 804 - 316 - 388 - 30 - 42 - 89 - 57

3730 135.4 3730 107.0 1804 350 350 609 609 111.6 141.7 103.8 116.9 158.0 1804 156.1

109.5 75.5 76.0 44.5 96.1 56.6 131.5 80.6 133.3 66.1 95.0 55.8 104.9 60.0 146.1 74.2

0.42 -1274

First place, can be derived from the values of m in the previous table rules on the relative frequency of occurrence of images given class and Abteilungin derived galleries, although of course to remember that the ratios of these frequencies differ by individual galleries very much, would the special statistics in this regard just cost too much space in proportion to their interest. Let us keep to the overall outcome of the twenty-two galleries, then follow (without distinction of departments h> b and b> h ) by the combined values of the five studied classes in respect to the frequency of the images as: Religious, landscapes, genre, Mythological, still life. The ratio of the particular landscapes to genre (2076 : 1477) slightly exceeds the ratio 4 : 3rd Of genre pictures are those whose height is greater than the width ( h > b ) somewhat more numerous than those whose width is greater than the height ( b> h ), whereas in landscapes b> h more than six times as many than the h> b. stuff interest can it have that with religious images that h > b is about twice are as numerous as the b> h , undoubtedly because the sky is often contracted at high altitude for display, while the mythological images, conversely, the width preferred is, by the b > h nearly twice as much (609 to 350) than theh > b. The average size of the values A 1 or G 1 , the average variation of the rel. A 1 applicable seen. Comparison of and A 1 in particular shows that the average size of the average fluctuation grows, so although that the relative fluctuation : A 1 does not have very strong differences of class and department. To consider not only the average fluctuation and the extreme variation, I still give

in the following table the extremes E ' and E , and the difference U '- U , = (E ' - A 1 ) - (A 1 , -e , ) . the values also indicated E " and E " represent the two extremes E ' and E , before immediately preceding and following values of the distribution panel.

IV The extreme values and the extreme fluctuation of genre, landscape, still life, religious and mythological. E = 1 cm. E' h>b Genre .... b>h h>b b>h h>b b>h h>b b>h h> b b>h h b h b h b Landscape. . h b h b Still life. . h b h b Religious. . h b h b Mythological. h b 223 212 273 401 300 244 340 464 241 228 221 343 1000 769 666 1277 411 325 290 510 E" 215 162 240 351 269 240 340 464 238 190 204, 317 610 568 595 1000 411 324 222 485 E" 13 10 12 16 16 16 7 10 22 16 17 20 13 8 11 17 21 16 14 20 E, 12 9 11 16 14 11 7 10 22 16 16 19 10 7 11 17 21 14 14 17 U-U, + 126 + 134 + 156 + 243 + 138 + 117 + 218 + 293 + 102 + 120 + 95 + 172 + 739 + 562 + 454 + 982 + 149 + 131 + 70 + 211

So, for example, was the greatest height h , which in a genre picture h > b has occurred, 223 cm, 215 cm, the next largest, the smallest 12cm, the next smallest 13

cm; & c The absolute maximum height and width is at religious imagery occurred. The comparison of the values of E ' and E " on the one hand, e , and e " on the other hand shows that in general the final with the largest values parts of the primary distribution panels major irregularities show than those with the smallest values beginning, only the landscapes and mythological seem this can not be confirmed, but would leave the specified difference between the upper and the lower end of the panel even in the two prominent classes adding further adjacent values. To assess the asymmetry are the most convenient u -values of Table III. According to them, the asymmetry mar.'s A everywhere negative and strongly protruding. Also, one can notice on the basis of those values in that h associated with the b coincide in the asymmetry by the small differences, showing the table in between, may be considered random. Only in the case of religious difference in this respect is somewhat larger, but the large irregularities in this class do not allow to obtain reliable legal provisions thereof. The values of U '- U , Table IV confirm the presence of significant asymmetry and prove also the reversal of the asymmetry of law u = - , and U - U , , value of both series have consistently opposite sign by here. Incidentally, even the wide splaying allows the values A and C in Table III, as well as the location of C below A detect the presence of a strong asymmetry in the negative direction.The comparison of G with C also shows that the asymmetry mar. G far less and still life h > b even from the opposite direction as rel. A 's. This has to do with the fact that Gnecessarily smaller than A , and, since C is less than A is above or below C , but in any case the latter value is closer than A. 174 [To have to prove now the logarithmic distribution law to the dimensions of the gallery paintings that arithmetically reduced intervals of Table II must be implemented in logarithmic reduced. For this purpose is by means of the information contained in Table IV on the extreme values of the total area within which the observed measurements move, and in particular the area of the interval, the metrics referred to as "residual" spread on which to delineate and then the distribution to calculate the numerical values arithmetically reduced to the logarithmic intervals interpolationsmig.] [As examples I choose: Genre h , h> b and h ; comb, also landscape. h , b > h and still life b , h > b and thus get the following comparison table between theory and experience, in which the logarithmic interval 0, 08 with the lowest limit of 0.76 log = 5.8 was assumed. In direct CONNECTION to find the elements of the four sample tables listed.]

V. Logarithmic reduced distribution panel for genre, landscape and still life. i = 0.08.

a h,h>b 0.80 0.88 0.96 1.04 1.12 1.20 1.28 1.36 1.44 1.52 1.68 1.76 1.84 1.92 2.00 2.08 2.16 2.24 2.32 2.40 2.48 2.56 2.64 m = 775 775 6 8 9 20 56 68 98 99 79 76 61 30 26 27 3 2 1 2 6 14 28 49 73 94 99 88 72 55 38 24 14 8 4 2 1

Genre h ; comb. 3 11 14 16 34 94 114 123 164 190 191 159 170 145 110 75 78 56 11 9 6 1477 145.5 115.5 85 58 37 22 12 6 3 2 1477 161 183 184 2 4 10.5 24 47.5 82 4

Landscape h,b>h 0.5 1 3 6 14 27 49 81 119 159 192.5 210 210 192.5 163 128 93 62 38.5 22 12 6 3 2 1794 308 1 1 1 3 7 9 27 33 41 52 50 37 27 10 6 2 1

Still life b , h> b

emp. Theoretical emp. Theoretical emp. Theoretical Emp. Theoretical

13 17 19 35 84 104 170 198 217 216 196 147 148 89 68 18 14 13 11 10 1794

0.5 1 3 7 14 23 34 43 49 48 39 25 13 6 2 0.5

1.60 107 103

308

VI. Elements of genre, landscape and still life reduced to logarithmic table. Genre h,b>h h ; comb. Landscape h,b>h Still life b,h>b

G C Dp Di G C Tp Ti u e, e'

1,067 1,653 1,605 1,602 46.5 cm 45.0 cm 40.3 cm 40.0 cm + 125 0,160 0,222

1,697 1,083 1,634 1,642 49.8 cm 48.2 cm 43.1 cm 43.9 cm + 231 0,170 0,233

1,738 1,731 1,712 1,716 54.7 cm 53.8 cm 51.5 cm 52.0 cm + 112 0,201 0,227

1,758 1,768 1,796 1,788 57.3 cm 58.6 cm 62.5 cm 61.4 cm - 36 0,176 0,138

p 0,774 0,778 0,731 0,737 [The comparison between the observed and calculated values shows that the four K.-G. in proportion to the number m in the underlying copies fairly uniformly prove the logarithmic distribution law. Insonderheit may notice that the combined measurements of the height of genre blend as well as the other departments of the demands of the theory one: as it is in the sample table of chapter XXI measurements for h> b and b> h were not divorced. One considers, moreover, that there with the small number m = 253 a sufficient probation theory was achieved, it seems correct to be cautious in the formation of classes and departments of painting, as of a very large number of specimens of a removal of the illegalities, which are caused by lack of sharpness of the classification to expect. - With regard to the elements should be emphasized that the empirically and theoretically determined values densest D i , and D p differ little, however, that the ratios p consistently below the theoretical limit lie. The asymmetry is still life mar. D negative, thus dist. G - or, as noted above, mar. G - positive]. 175 Lastly, there is the following information on Mabestimmungen for the ratio of height and width and the surface area of gallery images of interest. In Chapter XXII was stated that in the determination of average conditions substantially only the summary or geometric mean can be considered. We hold now on the from Table III divisorisch unwinnable geometric mean of the h : b or b : h , by the avoidance of real fractional numbers h : b for h> b and b : h for b> h prefer, we find the following table:

VII Geometric means

and

the ratios of height and width.

h:b h>b Genre .... Still life. . 1.25 1.26

b:h b>h 1.34 1.38 1.39

b:h comb. 1.02 1.28 0.99

Landscape. 1.25

These provisions include that, it seems to me very interesting result that the ratio of the larger to the smaller dimension in the different images classes the same (very different from the golden ratio) has value - because the differences in the table can be considered as random - a different but depending on h > b or b > . h for h > b behaves exactly the height and width appreciably as 5 : 4, b > h the width to height is about as 4 : 3rd Furthermore, one can observe that, while in the two divisions h > b and b > h for the height of the width differs in such considerable proportions, however, the ratio of the two in the combined departments of genre and still life almost to equality (the values 1) accommodated. However, one might think, since h from b to a lesser conditions at h> b than b> h deviates, the latter would give the combination to swing to his side, but the offset is about the fact that both genre as a still life, the h > b enter in greater numbers in the combination as the b> h.landscape case, however, where b > h outweigh tremendously in number, finds such compensation does not occur. For genre I have the geometric mean of h : b for h > b and b h: for b > h being persecuted at special directions. The constancy of these ratios appear more remarkable when one particularly examined for images of various galleries, by this way approximately the same values again found that the deviation can be considered as random, but only if each gallery or summary of galleries presenting a sufficient number of such images to let the uncertainty of the determination not too much room. This is proven by the following table in which the specimens are taken from such galleries, which presented only a small number of genre paintings, to draw resources together.

VIII Geometric mean of h : b and b : h in genre paintings of different galleries. h>b m m b>h

Dresden ......... Munich a) and b); Frankfurt ............ Petersburg ........ Berlin a) and b) ...... Paris .......... Braunschweig and Darmstadt ......... Amsterdam and Antwerp ............. Vienna, Madrid, London. . . . Leipzig a) and b) ...... Brussels, Dijon, Venice, Milan, Florence .........

151 126 122 74 62 57 48 48 48 39 775

1.28 1.25 1.24 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.24 1.30 1.29 1.23

119 103 87 60 82 58 24 97 34 38 702

1.33 1.33 1.34 1.36 1.36 1.32 1.33 1.37 1.32 1.35

Even with the absolute values of the width b seems to be the study of genre pictures the relationship between h and b not significantly change. I think that is the following geometric mean of the following numbers m of copies of the following size limits: IX. Geometric mean of h : b and b : h with various sizes of b (for genre). Intervals b m 0 to 29.5 29.5 to 49.5 49.5 to 69.5 69.5 to 89.5 89.5 to 109.5 Rest ..... 274 271 123 54 28 25 1.27 1.23 1.23 1.23 1.28 1.23 h>b m 42 158 164 98 63 177 1.32 1.29 1.32 1.36 1.37 1.39 b> h

For the geometric mean of the surface areas hb following values are obtained in sq. cm. X. Geometric mean of hb.

E = 1 sq. cm. h>b Genre. . . Landscape.. Still life. . . 1747 4303 4189 b> h 3874 4098 5018 comb. 2550 4128 4496

The arithmetic mean of the hb I have just for genre because of its great hardship determination h > b determined and found 3289 sq cm, which, as you can see, very different from the geometric mean. Among the total 10558 images, which are discussed in Table II, the three largest in area space three images of PAUL Veronese, all feasts are representing, in which Christ was present, namely: Banquet at Levi (Luke V) 547) Wedding at Cana Banquet at the Pharisees 513). The three smallest images are three landscapes on copper, two equal allegedly by PAUL BRILL: h = 7.4 cm, b = 9.1 cm (old Pinakothek in Munich, Dept. 244 2 a and c) and one of January BREUGHEL: h = 7.4 cm, b = 9.9 cm (Milan # 443), after which the surface area varies from 67.34 to 759,815 sq cm or the largest file 11283 times can take the smallest image. Square images came under the 10558 had moved to study images from only 84 di 1 to 126. h = 666 cm h = 515 cm b = 990 cm (Paris, - 103) b = 1000 cm (Venice, h = 595 cm b = 1277 cm (Venice, #

XXVII. Collective objects from the fields of meteorology.

176 [The daily rainfall heights of Geneva. - An investigation of the Geneva rainy conditions has already PLANT AMOUR in his "Nouvelles Etudes sur le climat de Genve" in the "de la pluie" given 1) . He draws on fifty years of observations of rain heights and rainy days during the 1826-1875.Da but he his calculations shall only monthly values for the frequency and amount of rain is based, and its goal the lawful distribution of rain during the year, and the character of the individual months of the year is in terms of their dryness or humidity, the following analysis can not be performed based on the one PLANT AMOUR's. Because there is evidence of asymmetry and probation to the logarithmic distribution law for the rain heights for

which the 50-year monthly values suffice for the very large fluctuations between the individual values in any way. Rather, it must be returned to the daily rainfall heights.]
1)

[Published in: Mmoires de la socit de physique et d'histoire naturelle de Genve. Tome XXIV, section II. Genve 1875-76. Pp. 397-658.] [The study material can be found in the Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles the Bibliothque universelle de Geneve every month under the given meteorological tables.There is for every rainy day, the rain height in millimeters, up to tenths of a millimeter, under the heading: "tombe eau dans les 24 heures", recorded. In the form of precipitation, whether rain or snow is not taken into view 2) . However, I chose not to AMOUR treated of PLANT-th period, but the number of 48 years from 1845 to 1892. For the year 1846 from a new apparatus was used, and it came at the same time a careful determination of the rain height, immediately after cessation of rain fall, instead of the hitherto only times of the day, occasionally the last observation in the evening, in practice. 3) ] [PLANT AMOUR says aa 0 (P. 627): Les chutes de neige en gnral sont trs peu abondantes Genve et la neige ne recouvre ordinairement pendant que le sol un petit nombre de jours, rarement plus de quinze jours]. [In this regard, makes plans amour aa 0 (P. 627) the following statement: A partir de l'anne 1846 on s'est servi d'un nouvel appareil, dont l'un diamtre entonnoir avait beaucoup plus considrable, 37 centimtres, le vase de jauge est une prouvette gradue de la capacit d'un liter, 100 portant divisions, ce qui ^ P une chute d'eau de millimtres 10, chaque division correspondant un dixime ainsi de millimtre, de plus, on avait le soin de recueillir et de l'eau mesurer immdiatement aprs que la pluie avait CESSE.]
3) 2)

[The appearance of the primary distribution panels is shown in the following sample, indicating for the month of January to beginning, a middle part and the end of the observed values:

I sample from the primary distribution panel for the rain heights of January . m = 477, i = 0.1 mm. a mm 0.0 0.1 16 9 z a mm 5.0 5.1 3 2 z a mm 6.1 6.2 z a mm 6 19.6 1 2 19.7 1 z

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

18 19 9 10 11 18 8 10

5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9

2 5 1 2 4 5 1 4

6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 7.0

5 19.8 1 5 21.4 1 1 21.6 1 1 21.8 1 2 23.6 2 1 28.4 1 1 30.4 1 2 32.7 1

1.0 10 6.0 1 7.1 4 40.0 1 In fact show all months in the interval 0-1 mm, the strongest accumulation, but already of 2 mm from one finds a rapid decrease in the values which are very irregular with scattered Endabteilungen after prolonged indecisive wavering a form. However, the extent of the latter varies for each month largely by hand closes for February with 31.3 mm for October with only 97.6 mm, while for those beginning their month to about 12 mm, for this should be placed on 18 mm. For the month of January are the limits of this final section of 12 mm and 40 mm.] (This general information can already detect the presence of a very strong asymmetry for all months of the year The same occurs simultaneously with the progress of the main values in the course of the year in the following table of the elements with full distinctness.: II Elements of rain heights for each month of the year after primary distribution panels. E = 1 mm Jan. M C1 477 2.5 3.82 A1 4.45 Feb. March April May June 437 4.17 2.1 3.79 532 4.60 2.6 4.03 0.88 51.0 621 4.94 3.0 4.14 0.84 38.3 637 6.12 3.6 5.24 0.86 80.7 596 6.58 3.3 5.93 0.90 82.5 July Aug. Sept. October nov. December 521 6.95 3.8 6.11 0.88 60.6 531 7.93 4.1 7.10 0.90 61.1 497 8.46 4.6 7.57 0.89 82.6 617 8.49 4.9 7.49 0.88 97.6 572 6.09 3.3 5.23 0.86 56.7 505 4.97 3.0 4.11 0.83 40.0 +30.1

: 0.86 0.91 A1
E ' 40.0 31.3

U +31.1 +23.0 +41.8 +28.4 +68.5 +69.3 +46.7 +45.2 +65.7 +80.6 +44.5 'U , u u: -131 -167 0.27 0.38 -164 0.31 -197 -195 -196 -177 -189 -177 0.32 0.31 0.33 0.34 0.36 0.36 -209 0.34 -168 0.29

-141 0.28

The extreme values of the lower E , have not been included here, since they are all equal to 0.0 mm. They come everywhere, as the above sample shows, in several edition.] [The splaying of the values of A and C of 2 to 4 mm on the one hand, the differences U '- U , = ( E '- A ) - ( A - E , ) on the other and in particular the difference u = '- ,demonstrate consistently the presence of significant asymmetry rel. A 1 for all months of the year. The same is the sign of u according negatively anywhere and shows also in size without significant fluctuations, because the relative values of u rel. meters , ie u : m , are almost constant, and their few differences reveal no lawful path so that they must be regarded as accidental.] [Further deserves the course of m , A , and to be observed in the table above. From the m -values it follows that the frequency of rain has two periods during the year, the minima form the months of February and July, and the maxima of the months of May and October, while in between there will be a continuous rise or fall. Only by breaking the regularity of September, but this disorder is to be regarded as random as they made for the PLANT AMOUR's table 4) to be taken m the years 1826 to 1875 missing values, then the month of January for what occurs annoying. This is from the following comparative compilation of the m -values can be seen for the periods 1826-1875 and 1845-1892, the sequence of values from left to right order of the corresponding months from January to December: 18361875 505 413 496 525 589 532 471 503 521 576 539 454

1845- 477 437 532 621 637 596 521 531 497 617 572 505 1892 In contrast to the meters show the A , only one period, which runs without interference and has its minimum in February, its maximum in October. Go thus parallel the values of , ie, the average deviations rel. A whose minimum also falls on February, while a month earlier, in September, reaching its maximum. The large values of that the A self-consistently come very close, let the strength of the fluctuations, which took place between the rain heights, see. The relative mean variation is how the values of : A specify approximately constant, equal to 0.9].
4)

A. a OS 628

[Hereafter grows the average level of rain during the year from February to October, to fall from then on again until February. A true picture of the distribution of

the rain on the individual months but you will not get in this way. Because this is also the frequency of rainfall into account. Is distributed accordingly the total amount of rain that occurs in a month during the 48-year period, not to the individual, really had taken place rainy days, but on all days at all, we get for the amount of rain, as well as the frequency of rain during the year, a two-fold periodicity, as it has proven PLANT AMOUR. One finds for each month of the year following rainfall average for each day of the month, again with the applicable values for the period 1845-1892 found values of PLANT AMOUR for 1826-1875 are compared to the comparisons, and the series of values of left to the right of the row corresponding to the months of January through December: 1826- 1.57 1.29 1.52 1.89 2.55 2.53 2.29 2.59 3.14 3.26 2.47 1.65 1875 1845- 1.42 1.34 1.64 2.13 2.62 2.72 2.43 2.83 2.92 3.52 2.42 1.68 1892 In fact, this fall, the two minima coincident to the months of February and July, the first maximum varies between May and June while the second maximum if the two belonged October 5) ].
5)

[With respect to this two-fold periodicity says PLANT AMOUR cited (P. 640): "Cette division de l'anne en deux et humid seasons sches the seasons, l'une de celles-ci tombant sur l't trs cute accuse ment l'influence du climat mditerranen, en effet, le caractere du climat est la mditerranen scheresse de l't, mutandis que dans les autres rgions de l'Europe continentale, l't n'est pas une saison sche. "] [Now, to prove the logarithmic distribution law to the rain heights, I choose the four months of January, April, July and October, which allow a complete insight into the occurring conditions. The logarithmic distribution panel are reduced as well as the arithmetic reduced the primary panels placed directly as a basis. But the values are 0.0 mm, where the logarithmic value in the transition to the logarithmic intervals - would correspond not disappear from the map, so must be a setting on the view of the recorded values with these rainy days are taken. Since this measure of the rain height seems to indicate a really taken place, but negligible precipitation of less than 0.1 mm in height, it seems legitimate to put 0.0 instead of 0.05 mm instead. To mitigate this randomness is also log = 0.05 - 1.3 is selected as the boundary of the first and second logarithmic interval, so that throughout the one-half those values occurring in the first interval, and the other half in the next successive coat. The size of the logarithmic intervals also was set equal to 0.2. Thus vary a value between the limits of 0 and 100 mm, the logarithmic a contrast values between the limits +2.1 and -1.5, as can be seen from the following distribution panels. In the logarithmic table are the theoretical values at the same time as they will bear the law specified. In the immediate CONNECTIONS items are listed:

III. Arithmetically reduced panel of rain heights for Geneva during the months of January, April, July, October, 1845-1892. Intervals mm 0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9 - 10 10 - 11 11 - 12 12 - 13 13 - 14 14 - 15 15 - 16 16 - 17 17 - 18 18 - 19 19 - 20 20 - 25 25 - 30 30 - 40 40 - 50 50 - 70 70-100 m= 133 88 43.5 28 27 28 27.5 14.5 16 11.5 12 10 6.5 5.5 3 3 2 5 1 3 5 1 2.5 0.5 477 164.5 81 65 49.5 51 20.5 37.5 25 22 15.5 16 15 9 8.5 3.5 5.5 3.5 3.5 4 3 6 8 4 621 112.5 78.5 31 48 28 28.5 23 23.5 15.5 11.5 13 14 10 8 9 5 3.5 5.5 3 7 17 12 9 3 2 521 125 72.5 60 31 24.5 39 26 19.5 26.5 14 21 12.5 14.5 10.5 11.5 13 8.5 9 4.5 6.5 22 17.5 17 2 6 3 617 January April July October

Logarithmic Table IV reduced the rain heights for Geneva during the months of January, April, July, October, 1845-1892. i = 0,2

a -1.4 - 1.2 - 1.0 - 0.8 - 0.6 - 0.4 - 0.2 0 8 8 9 9 28 14 34 45

January 5 4 6 9 14 19 26 34 42 50 56 60 63 52 27 8 2 -

April 2 2 5 8 13 21 31 42.5 55.5 68 78 85 85 67 38 15 4 1 621 7 4 12 9 20 11.5 28.5 50 52 38 72 68 64 45 31 10 2 521

July 1 2 4 7 11 16 23 31 39 49 57 63 66 64 6) 47 26 11 3 1 521 1 1

October 3 3 5

emp. Theoretical emp. Theor. emp. Theoretical Emp. Theoretical 10 10 17 10.5 30.5 18.5 33.5 62 53.5 72.5 95 80 74 36 14 4 477 477 621

17 7 10.5 11 23.5 17 22.5 24 22.5 32 47 42 52.5 51 65.5 61 52 80 82 72 42 17 6 3 617 69 74 77 69 44 20 6.5 1.5 617

+ 0.2 66 + 0.4 47 + 0.6 53 + 0.8 67 + 1.0 53 + 1.2 27 + 1.4 + 1.6 + 1.8 + 2.0 m= 7 2

6)

[Here, if the theoretically densest interval 0.9-1.1, the value of the densest D p , includes values fall less than the previous one, so this is not due to an oversight, but on the summary of the theoretical values in the predetermined intervals. If both intervals into four equal subintervals separately on the size of 0.05, we obtain in place of 66 and 64 rather:

| 16.2, 16.3, 16.6, 16.6 | and | 16.7, 16.4, 15.6, 14.9 |, so that now the maximum of 16.7, in fact, with the D p falls prone subinterval 0,90,95.]

V. Elements of rain heights reduced to logarithmic table.

January G C Dp Di G C Tp Ti u e, e' 0,313 0,374 0,843 0,800 2.06 mm 2.37mm 6.97 mm 6.31 mm - 261 0,749 0,219

April 0,387 0,479 0,762 0,620 2.44mm 3.02mm 5.78 mm 4.17mm - 255 0,645 0,270

July 0,484 0,588 0,901 0,679 3.05 mm 3.87 mm 7.97 mm 4.77mm - 218 0,707 0,290

October 0,563 0,675 1,046 0,933 3.66 mm 4.73 mm 11.1 mm 8.58 mm - 293 0,750 0,267

p 0,885 0,755 0,751 0,772 According to the strong irregularity of the empirical values are also evident between the empirical and theoretical values sometimes significant differences, however, mitigate on combining business adjacent intervals. The same must therefore be regarded as insignificant interference so that the theoretical values represent a balancing of contingencies clinging to the empirical values. It is noteworthy with respect to the elements that G below C , and thus, with respect to Table II, C between G and A is. This also makes it demonstrates the very large variation in rainfall levels. So also with the fact that the u -values rel. D p as well as the u -values rel. A 1 are negative. The relative value of the asymmetry mar. D p , ie u : m , is again fairly constant and averages equal to 0.46]. 177 [The barometer deviations from normal professional Utrecht. - The asymmetry of the barometer deviation is known. Quetelet says in this regard 7) : "On a reconnu, depuis longtemps que l'you abaissement mercure au-dessous de la moyenne est en gnral plus grand que son lvation au-dessus de ce terme" It is

hereafter positive asymmetry mar.. Aconsistently or at least to be expected in the majority of cases. To test this and also to prove the two-sided GG to the barometer deviations, I understand the Dutch Year Book of Meteorology 8) in the department "Thermo-en-barometer arwijkingen" modification indicated values of monthly normal able for the observation "Utrecht" and watching "2 time clock afternoon," during the ten-year period from 1884 to 1893. I however, these values do not give for all months, but only for January, April, July and August. I share Furthermore, only the reduced distribution panels, as well as the calculated out of them Elements It is sufficient to place the arithmetic method of treatment is based with,. because the range of variation of the deviation values is not so large that the effort of the logarithmic treatment would be worth were therefore also. the empirical values beige discontinued theoretical comparison values from the arithmetic two-sided distribution laws derived. Choosing the reduced i = 3 mm instead of the primary i = 0.1 mm was caused by the extreme fluctuation of January., the due unitary representability of this interval was also retained the other three months. Yet it should be noted that in the book of the year Loss January 31 (as well as of March 1) is added to the counts in February, resulting in the total figure for the January explained by observed values of 300 instead of 310.]

7)

[Lettres sur la thorie of probabilits, p 168 - For this purpose, it is of interest to compare the of Quetelet presented in the attached notes epistolary manifestations of Bravais through various forms of possible probability laws because they show that even Bravais as Quetelet even the possibility of an asymmetric distribution law einsah though, but it the mean values irrtmli-cherweise zuerteilte the role of the densest value and therefore the view of the asymmetric law principle failed. The relevant point of the letter is BRAVAIS'schen (op. cit 413): "On sait que les plus grands carts you BAROMETRE vers le haut de la colonne, gre ne sont que la ou les Moiti 2/3 of carts you BAROMETRE verse] e bas, en que l'on varietal aura une courbe de possibilit de la forme ... dont les deux Moities ne pas seront symmtriques,. seulement l'ordonne moyenne doit toujours le partager segment totally en deux aires gales "].
8)

[Meteorological yearbook uitgegeven door het Kon. Nederlandsch Meteorological Institute.]

[The results obtained in the two following tables:

VI. Reduced board barometer of deviations from the normal state of Utrecht, noon, 2 clock, during the months of January, April, July and October 1884 - in 1893.

E = 1 mm, i = 3rd

a - 33 - 30 - 27 - 24 - 21 - 18 - 15 -12 -9 -6 -3 0 +3 +6 +9 + 12 + 15 + 18 + 21 + 23 l l 1 2 4 6 9

January 0.5 0.5 1 2 4 6 9 13.5 19 24 30 34.5 38 39 34 24 13 5.5 2 0.5 1 1 6 16.5 22 42 59 50 48.5 26 19 7 1 1

April

July

October

emp. Theoretical emp. Theoretical emp. Theoretical emp. Theoretical

2 0.5 2 5.5 14 28 43.5 54 53 43 29 16 7.3 3 1 2 12.5 20.5 32 63.5 70 57 44.5 7 1 1 3 9 21 39 58.5 69 60.5 34 12 3 2 8 11 23 22 42 42.5 34.5 32 30 26 27 5 3 300 300 310 310 310 VII elements of the barometer deviations. E = 1 mm. January April 759.64 July 760.62 1 3

0.5

6 12 20.5 30 38 41 40 35 29 21 14 9 5 3 2 310

16 11.5 25.5 31 31 39.5 44.5 31 22 17 7

m = 300 300

October 759.01

Normal level

760.16

A2 C2 Dp Di

+ 1.01 + 2.34 + 6.06 + 5.31 7.72 9.86 4.81 + 32 - 103

- 1.22 - 1.35 - 1.82 - 2.54 5.15 4.86 5.47 -5 + 18

- 0.76 - 0.45 + 0.71 - 0.45 4.05 4.93 3.46 +15 - 54

- 0.93 - 1.28 - 2.60 - 4.32 7.15 6.31 7.98 -7 + 36

9)
e, E' u u

p 0,737 0,783 0,789 0,790 Here shows the presence of substantial asymmetry along with the validity of the twosided GG one hand to the consistency of the empirical and theoretical values and the other at the location of the main values of A , C , D p , D i to the ratio of values p , and the values of u and u . At the same time it is evident that the succession function whose existence in XXIII.Chapter in particular for the deviations from the January barometer has been demonstrated numerically, not impossible that the probation distribution laws anyway. However, teach the values of u and u unanimously that the asymmetry in the course of the year is by no means constant. Rather, reveals a lawful transition in the course of the year, according to the strong asymmetry of winter and the less powerful of the summer is interrupted by a vanishing or the opposite-moving in the spring and autumn. It should be noted, however, that the four months can not be enough to gain a complete picture of the year for sure. After all, the conclusion will be allowed, that the asymmetry during the winter months is the strongest and in the course of the year shows at least the tendency to the specified changes. - The mean values of can recognize a legal course, that the deviations from the normal registry - as indeed is already the appearance of the distribution boards - in winter, in summer are on average the most vulnerable. The course of normal object itself, which was obtained as the average of many years of observations shows the following composition: Month Normal level Month January February 760.16 July 760.62 March 760.61 April 759.64 May 760.09 June 760.78

August September October November December

Normal 760.62 760.42 760.71 759.01 759.30 760.34 level Thus comes in January as the normal annual averages 760.19 very close, in April and

October it is smaller, in July, however larger than the annual mean value].
9)

[The values of were, without regard to the O 2 and the resulting apparent slight deviation of the ten-year average of the normal prior, calculated as the average of the deviations from the normal registry.]

178 [The thermometer deviations from normal professional Utrecht. - In a similar way as was done for the barometric variations, is now investigated the asymmetry of the thermometer for the deviations from the normal registry and the validity of the two-sided GG detected during arithmetic processing. This, in turn, the Loss Year Book of Meteorology are taken for the observed Utrecht during the years 1884-1893, 2 clock afternoon, in the months of January, April, July and October deviation values of the much-term average. The values are given in degrees and that of the 100-point scale, down to tenths of a degree. However, they relate to the course of a month do not like the barometer deviations to the mean for the whole month, but in order to take account of the lively swing of the center temperature to the normal values of the first, second and third decade of the month. The rise and fall of the latter during the year shows the following composition: Month Normal level 1 Decade 2 3 Month Normal level 1 Decade 2 3 January February March April + 2 , 78 3 , 97 + 2 , 73 4 , 95 + 3 , 30 5 , 94 July May June 18 , 97 19 , 86 20 , 37

6 , 56 9 , 88 15 , 15 7 , 43 12 , 46 8 , 45 14 , 26 16 , 15 17 , 25

August Septbr. Oktbr. Novbr. Decbr.

+ 2o , 21 , 28 19 , 05 15 , 52 8 , 65 4 , 71 86 + 21 , 20 , 94 18 , 07 13 , 22 6 , 82 3 , 82 30 + 21 , 20 , 32 17 , 13 10 , 94 5 , 72 3 , 23 50

Thereafter, the mean normal level for January, April, July and October, in order: 2 , 94, 12 , 20, 21 , 22 and 13, 23]. [You are now determined the size of the reduced interval is 1 , we obtain the following results:

Reduced VIII table of deviations from normal thermometer capable of Utrecht, in the afternoon 2 clock, during the months of January, April, July, October, 1884-1893. e = 1 C, i = first a - 12 - 11 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 January 4.5 3.5 10 18 26 1 1.5 2.5 4 6 8 15 22.5 2 2 11.5 21.5 25 15.5 37.5 28 32 18 17.5 22 19.5 16.5 11 9 6 5 3 2 2 1 1 0.5 12 16.5 14 10 12.5 5.5 6.5 4.5 2 3 2 1 2.5 5 9.5 15 22 26 28 28 26 24.5 1 1 1 7.5 6 21 31.5 38 48 38 25 14.5 27 10.5 11.5 7 8.5 4 5 1.5 2 0.5 1 3 7 13 21 29 34 36 34 31 27 22 17 12.5 8.5 6 4 2 1 1 2 1 2 12.5 20 26.5 45.5 41.5 33 42 27 24.5 9.5 5 10 3.5 1.5 3 4 11 21 32 40 41 38 34 27 21 15 10 6 4 2 1 1 0.5 1.5 April July October emp. Theor. emp. Theoretical Emp. Theoretical emp. Theoretical

- 10 2.5

13.5 11 20.5 19 22.5 26 23.5 28 0 31 30

+ 1 25.5 30 + 2 32.5 + 4 15 + 5 14 + 6 8.5 +7 +9 + 10 + 11 + 12 + 13 + 14 4 1 + 8 1.5 + 3 22.5 23 17.5 12 7.5 4.5 2 1 0.5

27.5 15

m=

300

300

300

300

310

310

310

310

IX. Elements of the thermometer deviations. E = 1 Celsius.

January aver. Normal level A2 C2 Dp Di + 2.94 - 0.58 - 0.32 + 0.61 0.08 3.17 3.76 2.57 + 19 - 57 0,782

April 13.20 + - 0.50 - 1.28 - 3.11 - 2.80 3.71 2.09 4.70 - 50 + 115 0,701

July +21.22 - 0.89 - 1.50 - 2.37 - 2.00 3.08 2.01 3.49 - 46 + 84 0,588

October +13.23 - 1.11 - 1.38 - 2.49 - 2.67 2.59 1.68 3.06 - 18 + 91 0,804

10)
e, e' u u p

Again, the agreement between theory and experience is satisfactory, though, the relatively smaller reduction step accordingly, apparently not as good as the barometer for deviations. The asymmetry is positive only for January rel. A , negative for the other three months, however. Those exception could now be regarded as accidental, since the observed U- Value This is small. However, since also for December, which I in this regard to the comparisons approaching, thus the nmliche direction of asymmetry, again with a similarly low values, as for January found, one may assume that the asymmetry during the greater part of the year negatively rel. A is during the winter, however the values approaches zero with the propensity to beat positive. Finally, it deserves mention that the average fluctuation for the investigated months (and probably for the whole year) is fairly constant.]
10)

[The here refer, as in the barometer deviations to the normal state.]

179 [The daily variations of temperature for Utrecht. - While the thermometer deviations (2 clock afternoon) refer to a specific hour of the day, give the daily

variations of the differences between the maximum and minimum daily temperatures. Their collective treatment of arithmetic principle is based on the remarks in 21 a double interest. Because they can be considered free of succession dependency and thus allow an unimpeded distribution of the probation laws. They were also used by Quetelet as a base for discussion of the asymmetry, and therefore allows the comparison between the treatment of these K.-G. GG after two-sided and the explanations in the Quetelet's "Lettres sur la thorie of probabilits" a direct insight into how far the Quetelet's theory is incomplete or incorrect,] [First, I share in the following two tables with the results obtained. The test material was taken as the barometer and thermometer deviations the Dutch Beech year for the period 1884-1893 and the observation Utrecht under restriction to the months of January, April, July and October. It is found there in the department "driemaaldaagsche Waarnemingen" under the heading "Temperatuur". As a reduced interval (as in the corresponding, given Quetelet of Brussels for distribution boards) 1 C was chosen:

X. Reduced panel of the daily variations of temperature in Utrecht during the months of January, April, July, October, 1884-1893. e = 1 C; i = first

a 0.5 1.5

January 3.5 22.5 1 5 22 48 59 53 43 31 19 11 5 2 1 4 5.5 18.5 33.5 29.5 38 38.5 37 31 17 24.5 11

April

July

October

emp. Theoretical emp. Theoretical emp. Theor. emp. Theoretical 2 4 8 16 25 34 40 40 36 30 23 17 11 1 0 2.5 8 18.5 47.5 55 56.5 43 29 21.5 15 4.5 0.5 2 8.5 24 43 54 52 44 33 22.5 13.5 7 6 21 32.5 41 65.5 58 54 57 48 48 37.5 35 25.5 23 8.5 13 7 4.5 6 3 1.5 1 5 18.5

2.5 49 3.5 62 4.5 51 5.5 48 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5 12.5 29.5 16.5 7.5 4.5 4 0 0

13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5

10 1 0 1

7 4 2 1 300

5 2 1 310

3.5 1.5 1 310 310 310

m = 300

300

300

XI. Elements the daily variations in temperature. E = 1 Celsius. January A2 C2 Dp Di e, e' u u p 4.53 4.26 3.24 3.54 0.97 2.26 - 28 + 120 0,791 April 7.69 7.55 6.87 7.25 1.95 2.77 - 11 + 52 0,829 July 7.64 7.40 6.59 7.10 1.28 2.33 - 27 + 90 0,771 October 5.75 5.56 4.73 4.74 1.15 2.17 - 21 + 95 0,814

Based on these results, the validity of the two-sided GG can not be doubted. The differences between the empirical and theoretical values are here in the averages lower than in the corresponding comparative tables of the barometer and thermometer deviations. Similarly, the principal values and the values of the ratio satisfy p the theoretical claims, while at the same time a part of the asymmetry of the stability of its direction, partly by others, especially in their u -values documented prominent as essential to the strength January. By then the daily variations in the whole supply favorable results than the barometer and thermometer deviations, which are both affected by succession dependency, lack of succession dependency seems in fact to promote the development of the laws of pure chance.] [To further this discussion, the Quetelet's asymmetry about 11) to compare the following is to inform about the method of his investigation. Quetelet assumes that when the essential symmetry of W. positive and negative deviations from the mean are the same size, and ties them to the conclusion that the asymmetry in the inequality of W. for the mutual deviations from the mean has its reason. He illustrated

accordingly, the likelihood ratios occurring here through the urn containing determined in different, but in any case to be chosen conditions an infinite number of black and white balls. In particular, he gives a tabular summary of the W . 55;, 60, which consist in pulling 16 balls for the occurrence of one kind of balls, if 50 ....90, 95 balls of one type occur in 100 balls. These tables are the theoretical W. he compares the tables of the empirical W. that result from the reduced distribution panels for the daily variation of the temperature (Brussels) by the z each interval by the corresponding m is divided. He finds for the month of January, which he puts his remarks to reason that the passage of the empirical W. considerably the progress of those W. theoretical approaches, for which the numbers of white and black balls have the ratio 80 to 20, and Note that the analogy would be even greater if the ratio 80 : 20 by 81 : would be replaced 19th From this he concludes with regard to the information previously provided by him mean the following l2) : "1) il existe une variation diurne de temprature de quatre cinq degrs, ou plus exactement de 4 , 7; elle est donne par la moyenne de toutes les observations, 2) subit l'influence de cette variation causes inegales; 3) les causes qui tendent faire tomber la variation diurne person minimum, ont plus de chances de leur faveur que celles qui tendent l'lever son maximum, et Les chances sont dans le rapport de 81 19 ou plus simplement de 4 1, 4) les distances de la moyenne aux deux valeurs limites rgles par ce sont mme rapport de 1 4 "]. [Lettres sur la thorie the prob; Lettre XXV: Of causes accidentelles quand les chances sont inegales; Lettre XXVI: Loi de sortie de deux vnements dont sont les chances ingales. For this purpose the tables (see Chapter XXV.)].
12) 11)

A. a OS 181

[It will be seen that the theory Quetelet's principle is inadmissible in so far as the arithmetic mean is also considered at prevailing asymmetry as the most likely value. But if nevertheless this erroneous assumption seems to get through the experience of a stay so remains to note that the comparison between theory and experience only on the appearance of the panels, ie the location of the extreme values for the mean and the course of the past between values based. As a result of it has the whole investigation, only shallow and has the character of incompleteness. On the other hand, it is emphasized that the view Quetelet's way leads to the two-sided GG once the densest value, as it defines the proportional law, takes the place of the arithmetic mean. The addition to the XIX. Chapter ( 136) shows this relationship in mind.] XXVIII. The asymmetry of the error rows.

180 [There is no doubt that the error rows K.-G. represent what the nmliche treatment as the KG allow the foregoing chapter. It is questionable, however, whether it is offered in principle on the one hand, on the other hand, in the experience, show advantageous for this purpose to bring the methods of collective asymmetry in

application, whether or not the essential requirement of symmetry is rather to lay theoretical and empirical basis. Once this question has been left open in 8, they will find their answer here. The separation of the empirical from the theoretical standpoint is not idle. Because in principle, although the validity of the asymmetry laws and empirical application of the same advantages is always carry with you, if only the treatment is sufficiently sharp to bring out the existing between the arithmetic mean and the closest values difference. However, it is conceivable that the two-sided GG, even if it is not required by the theory, but in the experience stands the test itself, insofar as it - see 95 - the empirically different m ' and m , . bez D into account, whereas after simple GG instead of also empirically different 'and , rel. A mutually m must be added.] [For execution of mainly theoretical interest of the question posed, the asymmetry of error rows is to investigate why a similar system, the same conditions of underlying series of observed values is best suited. Any merely empirical prominent advantages also be seen when both the bipartite and the simple GG to the distribution panels of error rows is comparatively tested, this one ranks is with great m preferable because it is expected that such a typical form of error tables in can come to develop the greatest possible purity.] [To the one as the other purposes meet examined in this chapter series of astronomical observation errors of the Observer of the observatory at Strasbourg, Mr me Dr. PUCK, at the same time with the following details on the origin of these were indicated.] Lie [to reason REPSOLD'schen meridian circle observations at the observatory, which were made in the years 1884-1886 from one and the same observer. Such an observation is a partly determine the time at which the observed star through the meridian goes, others partly determine the zenith distance, which takes place in the passage. THEREFORE, it is composed of two different files. The first act is because transit time is registered electronically, in a push of a button in the moments-those in which the star passes through a vertical thread of the instrument. It can, such as twenty-three vertical yarns are present, are repeated as often, thereby each of the associated time is fixed. The second act is the exact setting of the instrument, once the star of the middle of the 23 threads approaches. With respect to its execution is as follows. notice. The establishment of the instrument was one of the ordinary deviating by the fine adjustment in zenith distance is not (as usual) by means of a key run, but was mediated by a chain drive, which ran a located on the clamping arms of the instrument knob and because the clamp arm in solid communication with the instruments, was always found in close proximity to the eyepiece. Both acts can therefore be carried out without any mutual interference when the instrument is the one position in which the clamp is on the east side. Then that is held in the right hand with the left button and get the fine tuning of the observer. However, the instrument has the opposite situation, a conflict between two acts occurs insofar as the setting compels in zenith distance for placing the probe, the same can be resumed only after execution, to register the passage of time for the middle thread. This enters a different

strength for different observers delay, so that the observation for the middle thread through the fine adjustment in zenith distance is disturbed. The two layers of the instrument can be distinguished by the terms "Terminal East" and "West Terminal". Yet it should be noted that this conflict would not occur if an observer should be able to register with the one as with the other equally safe, and also that the conditions referred to would just be reversed when the observer is left with the would be used to register held with the right hand. [From these observations on the determination of the transit time relating it was used to calculate the distances of the said vertical yarns, ie the time which needs a star in the equator to traverse the interval between two threads. The filaments were labeled sequentially by numbers 1 through 23. Were determined by the distances between the means 12 and the filament yarns 2, 5, 6, 10, 14, 18, 19, 22, they are distances as thread 2 - 12, - 12, etc. denotes fifth The observational material also was divided into four groups, on the one hand - according to the above remarks - the instrument position terminal block east of the position of Terminal West with regard to the same scrutiny determine the zenith distance is different, and on the other hand, apart from the present in the majority of night observations were present also Tagbeobachtungen, in which different lighting conditions prevail. However, it was by avoiding the middle thread 12, which comes only with the interference by the fine adjustment in zenith distance into account, the difference between the two layers clamp east and clamp west are essentially eliminated, and in fact gave the same series of observations, the distances to the thread 2 is consistent in both positions. It seemed, however, just of interest to maintain those differences, in order to observe a possible effect thereof on the results of the following investigation can. To assess the relatively large observational errors, it must further that the observations because they should serve for determining the thread distances are selected from the material extending over several years so that the various conditions come into play as possible. Would you want to determine the mean observation error, would have been close in time to vote at each location observations.] 181 [The material provided THEREFORE consists of four groups, which are referred to as follows :

) Terminal East; night observations

) Terminal East; Tagbeobachtungen

) Terminal West; night observations ) Terminal West; Tagbeobachtungen.

Contains each group, corresponding to the eight string distances, as many rows of observed values, the form of the following, the group is seen) of removed sample. The unit of measurement is used here and below consistently the second time =1s

I sample from the series of observations ) Terminal East; night observations. E=1s Time of Star observation 1884 June 24 July 1 1885 January 14 2-12 5-12 6-12 10 12 14 12 18 - 12 19-12 22 12

Ophiuchi 37.28 31.10 22.28 13.87 14.60 22.80 31.70 37.96 Librae Orionis
37.34 31.14 22.39 14.07 14.61 22.87 31.70 37.92 37.65 31.31 22.51 14.11 14.48 22.65 31.60 37.98 37.55 31.17 22.35 14.03 14.68 22.77 31.80 38.02

1886 March Bootis 35

From these series of observations, the following elements for the eight thread distances can win: II Elements of the thread distances . E=1s.

) Terminal East; night observations.

Distance thread m A 2-12 115 0,099 38.09 31.14 -3 5-12 115 0.094 31.48 30.91 +2 6-12 114 0,084 22.66 22.07 -2 0.06 10 - 12 14 - 12 18 - 12 19-12 114 0,099 14.38 13.78 - 13 0.09 115 0,098 14.96 14.30 -4 0.08 114 0,099 23.19 22.64 -5 0.04 115 0.094 32.00 31.42 -6 0.00 22 - 12 112 0,082 38.28 37.73 +5 0.03

37.428 31.190 22,333 14,036 14,591 22,894 31.711 37.989

E' E, u U '- U ,

+ 0.37 0.01

) Terminal East; Tagbeobachtungen.

Distance

2-12

5-12

6-12

10 - 12 14 - 12 18 - 12 19-12 22 - 12

thread M A 41 0,062 37.57 37.16 -4 -0.08 41 0,077 31.38 30.96 -3 +0.05 40 0,084 22.54 22.03 +5 - 0.06 40 0,074 14.17 13.78 +1 40 0,080 14.81 14.41 +2 40 0,074 23.21 22.73 +2 41 0,072 31.93 31.56 0 40 0,069 38.22 37.78 +2 37.405 31.146 22,314 13,994 14,633 22,938 31.759 38.028

E' E, u U '- U ,

- 0.04 +0.05 +0.06 - 0.03 - 0.06

) Terminal West; night observations.

Distance thread m A

2-12 124 0,090 37.92 37.13 -8 0.14

5-12 124 0,089 31.53 30.92 +8 - 0.01

6-12 124 0,085 22.61 22.10 +2 - 0.04

10 - 12 14 - 12 18 - 12 19-12 124 0,089 14.33 13.75 -2 - 0.02 124 0,089 14.91 14.30 +2 0.02 123 0,083 23.16 22.62 -4 0.05 123 0,105 31.99 31.41 0 - 0.03

22 - 12 123 0.094 38.28 37.67 +6 0.00

37.453 31.229 22,374 14,050 14,593 22.864 31.713 37.976

E' E, U U '- U ,

) Terminal West; Tagbeobachtungen.

Distance thread m A

2-12 50 0,087 37.76 37.25 -5

5-12 50 0,092 31.45 31.04 -1

6-12 49 0,084 22.62 22.19 +2

10 - 12 14 - 12 18 - 12 19-12 22 - 12 50 0,092 14.30 13.75 +10 50 0,091 14.82 14.30 +2 49 0.079 23.06 22.63 +2 50 0,104 32.13 31.42 +1 49 0,098 38.28 37.70 -1

37.463 31,234 22.406 14,061 14,528 22,836 31,717 37.944

E' E, U

U '- U ,

0.08

0.02

0.00

- 0.07 0.06

0.02

0.12

0.09

Here, the A represents the searched string distances by acting as the arithmetic mean of the m observed values also indicate the probable value, if the GG is simple to be regarded as true.These values differ for different groups from each other, which at first because of the finiteness of m, is to be expected, the subject of the determination, but also by the difference existing between the layers clamp East and West is due. Because the groups and the first four distances are consistently larger, the last four in the majority of cases, smaller than the corresponding distances of the groups and , as in the delayed fixation of the passage through the middle wire capable terminal West presupposing is. The Corresponding shows the comparison of the above values with the Dr. PUCK 1) from observations with greater reliability otherwise obtained values are shown in the following compilation: Distance 2-12 thread A 5-12 6-12 10 - 12 14 - 12 18 - 12 19-12 22 - 12

37 s , 443 31 s , 195 22 s , 355 14 s , 030 14 s , 591 22 s , 893 31 s , 735 38 s , 006 The passed as the mean values of the differences between the observed values and the A to the simple average error. The same show within each group, only slight variations, after which the eight rows of each error group constitute a similar system, as had been assumed on the basis of their formation. The variation width of the error from the difference between the upper and lower extremes E 'and E , can be seen, it is only for the thread spacer 2-12 group 0 s , 95, the size of this value is considerably by the amount of the upper extreme deviation U '= 0 s , 66 conditional, which significantly exceeds the average expected costs and have to be regarded as abnormal.] [cf. Annals of Imperial. University Observatory in Strasbourg, Vol I., 1896. S. XXII: The thread distance and the angle values of the screw]. [But above all interested in the values of u and, in connection therewith those of U '- U , since they allow an answer to the question whether the asymmetry of the error rows have to be considered as major or minor. Now, are u -values were all very small and have a result soon in an unregulated positive, negative sign soon. The same is the differences of U '- U , to say that only in the group no exchange between the sign and to have only one value 0 here s the, 37 rise to a significant amount, according to the above remarks concerning the associated upper extreme deviation can not be considered. It follows resolutely the conclusion that no significant asymmetry is present. , Confirmation thereof is also the fact find that only 18 of 32 cases, the signs
1)

of U and U '- U , are opposed to each other, and thus the inverse law of asymmetry between the difference of deviation figures and those of the extreme deviations rel. A is not proven, while at the same predominating according to experience significant asymmetry has validity.] 182 [It's THUS no reason to bring the error rows, the principles of collective asymmetry in application. To show, however, that the agreement between theory and experience of using the two-sided GG no advantages over the simple laws are regarding linked, I give the following comparative tables in such a form that the empirical values both after single GG rel.A and the two-sided inscribed by the Basic Law. D calculated theoretical values for the side stand. The empirical values have been obtained from the four groups of eight series of observations in such a way that first the values observed in each observation series by their differences with the corresponding A di by the observation error is replaced, and then merged the eight error rows in each group to a single row were. The four groups , , , error so formed corresponding to four rows as the rows , p, , will be referred to. The folding of the original series was subject to any concerns as they due to the agreement between the corresponding average errors as had proved to be similar.] [For a reduction to i = 0 s , 05 one obtains the following results:

III. Reduced distribution panels, the error rows , , , . e = 1 s , i = 0.05.

Row

Series

Theoretical emp. Misc A rel. D p

Theoretical emp. rel. A rel. D p

- 0.35 - 0.30 - 0.25 - 0.20 - 0.15 - 0.10 - 0.05 0.00 0.05

6 21 38 59 108 154 151 152

2.5 6.5 17 37 69 107 139 152 140

2 5.5 16 37 71 111 143 151.5 136

- 0.30 - 0.25 - 0.20 - 0.15 - 0.10 - 0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10

1 2 9 21 29 70 67 59 39

0.5 2 8 20.5 40 60 67.5 58 38

0.5 2 8 20.5 40.5 60 67.5 57.5 38

0.10

100

108 70 38.5 17.5 7 2 1 914

104 68 38.5 18.5 8 3 1 914

+ 0.15 17 + 0.20 6 + 0.25 3 + 0.30 m= 323

19 7 2 0.5 323

19 7 2 0.5 323

+ 0.15 55 + 0.20 36 + 0.25 18 + 0.30 12 + 0.35 3 + 0.40 + 0.65 1 m= 914

Series

Series

Theoretical emp. Misc A rel. D p

Theoretical emp. rel. A Misc Dp

- 0.40 - 0.35 - 0.30 10 - 0.25 19 - 0.20 42 - 0.15 69 - 0.10 101 - 0.05 159 0.00 0.05 0.10 174 163 120

0.5 2 6 17 39 74 117 154.5 169 154.5 117 74 39 17 6 3 0.5 -

0.5 2 7 18 39 72.5 114 151 169 158 121 75.5 38.5 16 5 1.5 0.5 -

- 0.35 - 0.30 - 0.25 - 0.20 - 0.15 - 0.10 - 0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10

3 5 15 29 55 61 64 71 44

1 3 7.5 16 30 47 61 66 61 47 30 16 7.5 3 1 397

1 3 7 16 31 47.5 61.5 66.5 60 46 30 16 7.5 3 1 397

+ 0.15 22 + 0.20 17 + 0.25 4 + 0.30 5 + 0.35 1 + 0.40 1 m= 397

+ 0.15 73 + 0.20 37 + 0.25 14 + 0.30 7 + 0.35 0 + 0.40 0 + 0.45 1

m=

989

989

989

IV elements of the error rows , , , for reduced plates. E=1s.

m A C 914

323 989

397

+ 0.0009 - 0.0025 0.0000

- 0.0004

- 0.0015 - 0.0030 + 0.0022 - 0.0012

D p - 0.0111 - 0.0050 + 0.0094 - 0.0048 D i - 0.0281 - 0.0284 + 0.0038 + 0.0353

0.0949

0.0753 0.0741 0.0766 -8 +5 0.80

0.0923 0.0969 0.0875 +15 - 50 0.77

0,0946 0.0924 0.0968 -3 +9 0.82

e , 0.0888 e ' 0.1008 u u p -9 + 58 0.80

In the same everywhere shows such a far-reaching agreement between the theoretical values of the symmetric and asymmetric distribution law, that it seems irrelevant which of the two you want to create a basis.] [But then the advantage of simplicity, will be in favor of the symmetrical law of the rash, and yet it is significant that you do not need to calculate the elements back to reduced panels, but the primarily determined average error , or (square) means error q in the can use the income approach. In the present case, one obtains from the primary distribution panels for of series , , , respektiv 0 s , 0937, 0 s , 0738; 0 s , 0906, 0 s , 0911, resulting in the following comparison table between theory and experience leads: V. Comparison between theory and experience for the simple GG

emp. Theoretical emp. Theoretical emp. Theoretical emp. Theoretical 0.00 151 154 0.05 306, 282 0.10 208 216 0.15 114 138 0.20 74 0.25 39 0.30 18 0.35 3 0.40 0.45 0.65 1 74 33 12 4 1 67 68 38 15 5 1 69 78 38 14 4 1 174 169 322 309 221 234 142 148 79 33 17 0 0 1 78 34 12 4 1 64 132 99 51 32 9 8 1 1 69 125 94.5 59 30.5 13 5 1 129 119

m = 914 914 323 323 989 989 397 397 Here the designated interval by 0.00 would have to be doubled with the limits 0.025 in order to be directly comparable with the other intervals, so of course the theoretical maximum value always falls on the zero value] [By now the theory and experience of the two-sided G. G. Although shown to be applicable, but offers no advantage over ordinary GG, you will be allowed to consider it as a characteristic of the error rows that their asymmetry is merely a minor, founded in the unbalanced contingencies. You might hereafter, if you would lay a criterion for the assessment of error rows, almost use the asymmetry as such and establish the principle that error rows are to discard the features essential asymmetry.]

Appendix. The t -table.

183 [The t - table gives the values of G. G, ie, the integral

in their dependence on the arguments t = : . since four-digit integral values in general satisfy the needs of the collectives, as the first four-digit panel, the FIGHTS in Wundt's Philosophical studies in IX. Volume, pp. 147-150, has published a t- table I brought here for prints. However, in order to still have some special cases other place available, even the five-digit panel is a t- communicated Table II in an appropriate expansion.] [Both tables is the same way the seven digit panel, which is found in S. 545-549 Meyer's lectures on probability theory to reason. But there, as usual, the argument values t only up to the second decimal place are listed, the second differences for the interpolation should be consulted in the rule. To avoid this, was in the four-digit panel

in the interval t = 0 to t = 1.51, in the five-digit panel in intervals t = 0 to t = 2.01, the argument continued to the third decimal place, so that everywhere sufficient by simple interpolation. For this purpose was the call-th intervals by means of the formula:

due to the seven-figure table values, using their second differences interpolates. The third differences could be ignored.] [The creation of tables of logarithms that is modeled. In particular, have the star, who find in each horizontal row of Table II to the importance that the line of preprinted first decimal place shall be increased by 1.] The t- table I. t 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0.00 0.0000 0011 0023 0034 0045 0056 0068 0079 0090 0102 01 0.0113 0124 0135 0147 0158 0169 0181 0192 0203 0214 02 0.0226 0237 0248 0259 0271 0282 0293 0305 0316 0327 03 0.0338 0350 0361 0372 0384 0395 0406 0417 0429 0440 04 0.0451 0462 0474 0485 0496 0507 0519 0530 0541 0552 05 0.0564 0575 0386 0597 0609 0620 0631 0642 0654 0665 06 0.0676 0687 0699 0710 0721 0732 0744 0755 0766 0777 07 0.0789 0800 0811 0822 0833 0845 0856 0867 0878 0890 08 0.0901 0912 0923 0934 0946 0957 0968 0979 0990 1002 09 0.1013 1024 1035 1046 1058 1069 1080 1091 1102 1113 0.10 0.1125 1136 1147 1158 1169 1180 1192 1203 1214 1225 11 0.1236 1247 1259 1270 1281 1292 1303 1314 1325 1336 12 0.1348 1359 1370 1381 1392 1403 1414 1425 1436 1448 13 0.1459. 1470 1481 1492 1503 1514 1525 1536 1547 1558 14 0.1569 1581 1592 1603 1614 1625 1636 1647 1658 1669 15 0.1680 1691 1702 1713 1724 1735 1746 1757 1768 1779 16 0.1790 1801 1812 1823 1834 1845 1856 1867 1878 1889 17 0.1900 1911 1922 1933 1944 1955 1966 1977 1988 1998 18 0.2009 2020 2031 2042 2053 2064 2075 2086 2097 2108 19 0.2118 2129 2140 2151 2162 2173 2184 2194 2205 2216 0.20 0.2227 2238 2249 2260 2270 2281 2292 2303 2314 2324

21 0.2335 2346 2357 2368 2378 2389 2400 2411 2421 2432 22 0.2443 2454 2464 2475 2486 2497 2507 2518 2529 2540 23 0.2550 2561 2572 2582 2593 2604 2614 2625 2636 2646 24 0.2657 2668 2678 2689 2700 2710 2721 2731 2742 2753 25 0.2763 2774 2784 2795 2806 2816 2827 2837 2848 2858 26 0.2869 2880 2890 2901 2911 2922 2932 2943 2953 2964 27 0.2974 2985 2995 3006 3016 3027 3037 3047 3058 3068 28 0.3079 3089 3100 3110 3120 3131 3141 3152 3162 3172 29 0.3183 3193 3204 3214 3224 3235 3245 3255 3266 3276 0.30 0.3286 3297 3307 3317 3327 3338 3348 3358 3369 3379 31 0.3389 3399 3410 3420 3430 3440 3450 3461 3471 3481 32 0.3491 3501 3512 3522 3532 3542 3552 3562 3573 3583 33 0.3593 3603 3613 3623 3633 3643 3653 3663 3674 3684 34 0.3694 3704 3714 3724 3734 3744 3754 3764 3774 3784 35 0.3794 3804 3814 3824 3834 3844 3854 3864 3873 3883 36 0.3893 3903 3913 3923 3933 3943 3953 3963 3972 3982 37 0.3992 4002 4012 4022 4031 4041 4051 4061 4071 4080 38 0.4090 4100 4110 4119 4129 4139 4149 4158 4168 4178 39 0.4187 4197 4207 4216 4226 4236 4245 4255 4265 4274 0.40 0.4284 4294 4303 4313 4322 4332 4341 4351 4361 4370 41 0.4380 4389 4399 4408 4418 4427 4437 4446 4456 4465 42 0.4475 4484 4494 4503 4512 4522 4531 4541 4550 4559 43 0.4569 4578 4588 4597 4606 4616 4625 4634 4644 4653 44 0.4662 4672 4681 4690 4699 4709 4718 4727 4736 4746 45 0.4755 4764 4773 4782 4792 4801 4810 4819 4828 4837 46 0.4847 4856 4865 4874 4883 4892 4901 4910 4919 4928 47 0.4937 4946 4956 4965 4974 4983 4992 5001 5010 5019 48 0.5027 5036 5045 5054 5063 5072 5081 5090 5099 5108 49 0.5117 5126 5134 5143 5152 5161 5170 5179 5187 5196 0.50 0.5205 5214 5223 5231 5240 5249 5258 5266 5275 5284 t 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 The t table I. 9

0.50 0.5205 5214 5223 5231 5240 5249 5258 5266 5275 5284 51 0.5292 5301 5310 5318 5327 5336 5344 5353 5362 5370 52 0.5379 5388 5396 5405 5413 5422 5430 5439 5448 5456 53 0.5465 5473 5482 5490 5499 5507 5516 5524 5533 5541 54 0,5549 5558 5566 5575 5583 5591 5600 5608 5617 5625 55 0.5633 5642 5650 5658 5667 5675 5683 5691 5700 5708 56 0.5716 5724 5733 5741 5749 5757 5765 5774 5782 5790 57 0.5798 5806 5814 5823 5831 5839 5847 5855 5863 5871 58 0.5879 5887 5895 5903 5911 5919 5927 5935 5943 5951 59 0.5959 5967 5975 5983 5991 5999 6007 6015 6023 6031 0.60 0.6039 6046 6054 6062 6070 6078 6086 6093 6101 6109 61 0.6117 6125 6132 6140 6148 6156 6163 6171 6179 6186 62 0.6194 6202 6209 6217 6225 6232 6240 6248 6255 6263 63 0.6270 6278 6286 6293 6301 6308 6316 6323 6331 6338 64 0.6346 6353 6361 6368 6376 6383 6391 6398 6405 6413 65 0.6420 6428 6435 6442 6450 6457 6464 6472 6479 6486 66 0.6494 6501 6508 6516 6523 6530 6537 6545 6552 6559 67 0.6566 6573 6581 6588 6595 6602 6609 6616 6624 6631 68 0.6638 6645 6652 6659 6666 6673 6680 6687 6694 6701 69 0.6708 6715 6722 6729 6736 6743 6750 6757 6764 6771 0.70 0.6778 6785 6792 6799 6806 6812 6819 6826 6833 6840 71 0.6847 6853 6860 6867 6874 6881 6887 6894 6901 6908 72 0.6914 6921 6928 6934 6941 6948 6954 6961 6968 6974 73 0.6981 6988 6994 7001 7007 7014 7021 7027 7034 7040 74 0.7047 7053 7060 7066 7073 7079 7086 7092 7099 7105 75 0,7112 7118 7124 7131 7137 7144 7150 7156 7163 7169 76 0,7175 7182 7188 7194 7201 7207 7213 7219 7226 7232 77 0.7238 7244 7251 7257 7263 7269 7275 7282 7288 7294 78 0.7300 7306 7512 7318 7325 7331 7337 7343 7349 7355 79 0.7361 7367 7373 7379 7385 7391 7397 7403 7409 7415 0.80 0.7421 7427 7433 7439 7445 7451 7457 7462 7468 7474

81 0.7480 7486 7492 7498 7503 7509 7515 7521 7527 7532 82 0.7538 7544 7550 7555 7561 7567 7572 7578 7584 7590 83 0.7595 7601 7607 7612 7618 7623 7629 7635 7640 7646 84 0.7651 7657 7663 7668 7674 7679 7685 7690 7696 7701 85 0.7707 7712 7718 7723 7729 7734 7739 7745 7750 7756 86 0.7761 7766 7772 7777 7782 7788 7793 7798 7804 7809 87 0.7814 7820 7825 7830 7835 7841 7846 7851 7856 7862 88 0.7867 7872 7877 7882 7888 7893 7898 7903 7908 7913 89 0.7918 7924 7929 7934 7939 7944 7949 7954 7959 7964 0.90 0.7969 7974 7979 7984 7989 7994 7999 8004 8009 8014 91 0.8019 8024 8029 8034 8038 8043 8048 8053 8058 8063 92 0.8068 8073 8077 8082 8087 8092 8097 8101 8106 8111 93 0.8116 8120 8125 8130 8135 8139 8144 8149 8153 8158 94 0.8163 8167 8172 8177 8181 8186 8191 8195 8200 8204 95 0.8209 8213 8218 8223 8227 8232 8236 8241 8245 8250 96 0.8254 8259 8263 8268 8272 8277 8281 8285 8290 8294 97 0.8299 8303 8307 8312 8316 8321 8325 8329 8334 8338 98 0.8342 8347 8351 8355 8360 8364 8368 8372 8377 8381 99 0.8385 8389 8394 8398 8402 8406 8410 8415 8419 8423 1.00 0.8427 8431 8435 8439 8444 8448 8452 8456 8460 8464 t 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

The t table I. t 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1.00 0.8427 8431 8435 8439 8444 8448 8452 8456 8460 8464 01 0.8468 8472 8476 8480 8484 8488 8492 8496 8500 8504 02 0.8508 8512 8516 8520 8524 8528 8532 8536 8540 8544 03 0.8548 8552 8556 8560 8563 8567 8571 8575 8579 8583 04 0.8586 8590 8594 8598 8602 8606 8609 8613 8617 8621 05 0.8624 8628 8632 8636 8639 8643 8647 8650 8654 8658 06 0.8661 8665 8669 8672 .8676 8680 8683 8687 8691 8694

07 0.8698 8701 8705 8708 8712 8716 8719 8723 8726 8730 08 0.8733 8737 8740 8744 8747 8751 8754 8758 8761 8765 09 0.8768 8771 8775 8778 8782 8785 8789 8792 8795 8799 1.10 0.8802 8805 8809 8812 8815 8819 8822 8825 8829 8832 11 0.8835 8839 8842 8845 8848 8852 8855 8858 8861 8865 12 0.8868 8871 8874 8878 8881 8884 8887 8890 8893 8897 13 0.8900 8903 8906 8909 8912 8915 8918 8922 8925 8928 14 0.8931 8934 8937 8940 8943 8946 8949 8952 8955 8958 15 0.8961 8964 8967 8970 8973 8976 8979 8982 8985 8988 16 0.8991 8994 8997 9000 9003 9006 9008 9011 9014 9017 17 0.9020 9023 9026 9029 9031 9034 9037 9040 9043 9046 18 0.9048 9051 9054 9057 9060 9062 9065 9068 9071 9073 19 0.9076 9079 9082 9084 9087 9090 9092 9095 9098 9100 1.20 0.9103 9106 9108 9111 9114 9116 9119 9122 9124 9127 21 0.9130 9132 9135 9137 9140 9143 9145 9148 9150 9153 22 0.9155 9158 9160 9163 9165 9168 9171 9173 9176 9178 23 0.9181 9183 9185 9188 9190 9193 9195 9198 9200 9203 24 0.9205 9207 9210 9212 9215 9217 9219 9222 9224 9227 25 0.9229 9231 9234 9236 9238 9241 9243 9245 9248 9250 26 0.9252 9255 9257 9259 9262 9264 9266 9268 9271 9273 27 0.9275 9277 9280 9282 9284 9286 9289 9291 9293 9295 28 0.9297 9300 9302 9304 9306 9308 9310 9313 9315 9317 29 0.9319 9321 9323 9325 9327 9330 9332 9334 9336 9338 1.30 0.9340 9342 9344 9346 9348 9350 9352 9355 9357 9359 31 0.9361 9363 9365 9367 9369 9371 9373 9375 9377 9379 32 0.9381 9383 9385 9387 9389 9390 9392 9394 9396 9398 33 0.9400 9402 9404 9406 9408 9410 9412 9413 9415 9417 34 0.9419 9421 9423 9425 9427 9428 9430 9432 9434 9436 35 0.9438 9439 9441 9443 9445 9447 9448 9450 9452 9454 36 0.9456 9457 9459 9461 9463 9464 9466 9468 9470 9471 37 0.9473 9475 9477 9478 9480 9482 9483 9485 9487 9488 38 0.9490 9492 9494 9495 9497 9499 9500 9502 9503 9505 39 0.9507 9508 9510 9512 9513 9515 9516 9518 9520 9521

1.40 0.9523 9524 9526 9528 9529 9531 9532 9534 9535 9537 41 0.9539 9540 9542 9543 9545 9546 9548 9549 9551 9552 42 0.9554 9555 9557 9558 9560 9561 9563 9564 9566 9567 43 0.9569 9570 9571 9573 9574 9576 9577 9579 9580 9582 44 0.9583 9584 9586 9587 9589 9590 9591 9593 9594 9596 45 0.9597 9598 9600 9601 9602 9604 9605 9607 9608 9609 46 0.9611 9612 9613 9615 9616 9617 9618 9620 9621 9622 47 0.9624 9625 9626 9628 9629 9630 9631 9633 9634 9635 48 0.9637 9638 9639 9640 9642 9643 9644 9645 9647 9648 49 0.9649 9650 9651 9653 9654 9655 9656 9657 9659 9660 1.50 0.9661 9662 9663 9665 9666 9667 9668 9669 9670 9672 t 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 The t table I. t 0 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 9

1.5 0.9661 9673 9684 9695 9706 9716 9726 9736 9745 9755 1.6 0.9763 9772 9780 9788 9796 9804 9811 9818 9825 9832 1.7 0.9838 9844 9850 9856 9861 9867 9872 9877 9882 9886 1.8 0.9891 9895 9899 9903 9907 9911 9915 9918 9922 9925 1.9 0.9928 9931 9934 9937 9939 9942 9944 9947 9949 9951 2.0 0.9953 9955 9957 9959 9961 9963 9964 9966 9967 9969 2.1 0.9970 9972 9973 9974 9975 9976 9977 9979 9980 9980 2.2 0.9981 9982 9983 9984 9985 9985 9986 9987 9987 9988 2.3 0.9989 9989 9990 9990 9991 9991 9992 9992 9992 9993 2.4 0.9993 9993 9994 9994 9994 9995 9995 9995 9995 9996 2.5 0.9996 9996 9996 9997 9997 9997 9997 9997 9997 9998 2.6 0.9998 9998 9998 9998 9998 9998 9998 9998 9998 9999 2.7 0.9999 9999 9999 9999 9999 9999 999? 9999 9999 9999 2.8 0.9999 9999 9999 9999 9999 9999 9999 0000 0000 0000

The t table II

t 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 0.10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 0.20 21 22 23 24 25

2 0226 1354 2482 3610 4736 5862 6987 8110 9232 0352 1470 2585 3698 4809 5916 7020 8121 9218 0312 1402 2487 3568 4645 5716 6783 7845

3 0339 1467 2595 3722 4849 5975 7099 8223 9344 0464 1581 2697 3809 4919 6027 7130 8231 9328 0421 1510 2595 3676 4752 5823 6889 7950

4 0451 1580 2708 3835 4962 6087 7212 8335 9456 0576 1693 2808 3921 5030 6137 7241 8341 9437 0530 1619 2704 3784 4859 5930 6996 8056

5 0564 1692 2820 3948 5074 6200 7324 8447 9568 0687 1805 2919 4032 5141 6248 7351 8451 9547 0639 1728 2812 3891 4967 6037 7102 8162

6 0677 1805 2933 4060 5187 6312 7436 8559 9680 0799 1916 3031 4143 5252 6358 7461 8560 9656 0748 1836 2920 3999 5074 6144 7208 8268

7 0790 1918 3046 4173 5299 6425 7549 8671 9792 0911 2028 3142 4254 5363 6468 7571 8670 9766 0857 1945 3028 4107 5181 6250 7314 8373

8 0903 2031 3159 4286 5412 6537 7661 8784

9 1016 2144 3271 4398 5525 6650 7773 8896

0.00 0.00000 0113 1128 1241 2256 2369 3384 3497 4511 4624 0.0 5750 5637 6762 6875 7886 7998 0.0 9120 9008 0.1 0240 0128 0.1 1358 1246 2362 2474 3476 3587 4587 4698 5695 5805 0.1 6910 6800 7901 8011 0.1 9109 8999 0.2 0203 0094 1184 1293 0.2 2379 2270 3352 3460 4430 4537 5502 5609 6570 6676 0.2 7739

9904 * 0016 1023 2139 3253 4365 5473 6579 7681 8780 9875 0966 2053 3136 4214 5288 6357 7421 8479 1135 2251 3365 4476 5584 6689 7791 8890 9984 1075 2162 3244 4322 5395 6463 7527 8584

7633 26 27 28 29 0.30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 0.40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 0.50 8690 8795 0.2 9847 9742 0.3 0892 0788 1828 1932 0.3 2966 2863 3891 3993 4913 5014 5928 6029 6936 7037 0.3 8038 7938 8933 9032 8901 9006 9111 9217 9322 9427 9532 9637 9952 * 0056 * 0161 * 0266 * 0370 * 0475 * 0579 * 0684 0997 2036 3069 4096 5116 6130 7137 8138 9131 1101 2139 3172 4198 5218 6231 7238 8237 9230 1205 2243 3275 4300 5319 6332 7338 8337 9329 1309 2346 3378 4403 5421 6433 7438 8436 9428 1413 2450 3480 4505 5523 6534 7538 8536 9526 1517 2553 3583 4607 5624 6635 7638 8635 9625 1621 2656 3686 4709 5725 6735 7738 8735 9724 1725 2760 3788 4811 5827 6836 7838 8834 9822

0.3 * 0019 * 0117 * 0215 * 0314 * 0412 * 0510 * 0608 * 0705 * 0803 9921 0.4 0999 0901 1874 1971 0.4 2935 2839 3797 3892 4747 4841 5689 5782 6623 6715 0.4 7640 7548 8466 8557 0.4 9465 9375 0.5 0365 0275 1167 1256 0.5 2138 1096 2068 3031 3988 4936 5876 6808 7732 8648 9555 0454 1344 2226 1194 2164 3127 4083 5030 5970 6901 7824 8739 9646 0543 1433 2313 1291 2261 3223 4178 5124 6063 6994 7916 8830 9736 0633 1521 2401 1388 2357 3319 4273 5219 6157 7086 8008 8921 9826 0722 1610 2488 1486 2454 3415 4368 5313 6250 7179 8100 9012 1583 2550 3510 4463 5407 6343 7271 8191 9103 1680 2647 3606 4557 5501 6436 7364 8283 9193 1777 2743 3701 4652 5595 6529 7456 8374 9284

9916 * 0006 * 0096 * 0185 0811 1698 2576 0900 1786 2663 0989 1874 2750 1078 1962 2837

2050 t 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

The t table II t 0.50 0 1 2 3 4 2401 3272 4134 4987 5830 6665 7491 8307 9114 9912 0700 1478 2248 3007 3757 4498 5229 5950 6662 7364 8056 5 2488 3358 4219 5071 5914 6748 7573 8388 9194 6 2576 3445 4305 5156 5998 6831 7655 8469 9274 7 2663 3531 4390 5241 6082 6914 7737 8550 9354 8 2750 3617 4476 5325 .6165 6996 7818 8631 9434 9 2837 3704 4561 5410 6249 7079 7900 8712 9514

0.5 2138 2226 2313 2050

51 2924 3011 3098 3185 52 3790 3876 3962 4048 53 4646 4732 4817 4902 54 5494 5578 5662 5746 55 0.5 6416 6499 6582 6332

56 7162 7244 7326 7409 57 7982 8063 8144 8226 58 8792 8873 8953 9034 59 0.60 0.5 9673 9753 9832 9594 0.6 0464 0543 0621 0386

9991 * 0070 * 0149 * 0228 * 0307 0778 1556 2324 3083 3832 4571 5301 6022 6732 7433 8125 0856 1633 2400 3158 3906 4645 5374 6093 6803 7503 8193 0934 1710 2477 3233 3981 4718 5446 6165 6873 7572 8262 1012 1787 2553 3309 4055 4791 5519 6236 6944 7642 8330 1090 1864 2629 3384 4129 4865 5591 6307 7014 7711 8398

61 1168 1246 1323 1401 62 1941 2018 2095 2171 63 2705 2780 2856 2932 64 3459 3533 3608 3683 65 0.6 4277 4351 4424 4203

66 4938 5011 5083 5156 67 5663 5735 5807 5878 68 6378 6449 6520 6591 69 7084 7154 7224 7294 0.70 0.6 7849 7918 7987 7780

71 8467 8535 8603 8671 72 9143 9210 9277 9344 73 74 75

8738 9411

8806 9478

8874 9545

8941 9611

9009 9678

9076 9744

0.6 9877 9943 * 0009 * 0075 * 0140 * 0206 * 0272 * 0337 * 0402 9810 0.7 0533 0598 0663 0468 0.7 1180 1244 1308 1116 0728 1372 2006 2631 3246 3851 4447 5034 5611 6178 6736 7285 7825 8355 8876 9388 9891 0385 0870 1346 1813 2271 2721 3162 0793 1436 2069 2693 3307 3911 4506 5092 5668 6234 6792 7340 7878 8408 8928 9439 9941 0434 0918 1393 1859 2317 2766 3206 0858 1500 2132 2755 3368 3971 4565 5150 5725 6291 6847 7394 7932 8460 8979 9489 0922 1563 2195 2816 3429 4031 4624 5208 5782 6347 6902 7448 7985 8512 9031 9540 0987 1627 2257 2878 3489 4091 4683 5266 5839 6403 6957 7502 8038 8565 9082 9590 1051 1690 2320 2940 3550 4151 4742 5323 5896 6459 7012 7556 8091 8617 9133 9641

76 1754 1817 1880 1943 77 2382 2444 2507 2569 78 3001 3062 3124 3185 79 3610 3671 3731 3791 0.80 0.7 4270 4329 4388 4210

81 4800 4859 4917 4976 82 5381 5439 5496 5553 83 5952 6009 6066 6122 84 6514 6570 6626 6681 85 0.7 7122 7176 7231 7067

86 7610 7664 7718 7771 87 8144 8197 8250 8302 88 8669 8721 8773 8824 89 9184 9235 9286 9337 0.90 91 0.7 9741 9791 9841 9691 0.8 0238 0287 0336 0188

9990 * 0040 * 0090 * 0139 0482 0966 1440 1905 2362 28 10 3250 0531 1013 1487 1951 2407 2855 3293 0580 1061 1534 1997 2452 2899 3337 0628 1109 1580 2043 2497 2943 3380

92 0677 0725 0773 0822 93 1156 1204 1251 1298 94 1627 1674 1720 1767 93 0.8 2135 2180 2226 2089

96 2542 2587 2632 2677 97 2987 3031 3075 3119

98 3423 3466 3509 3552 99 3851 3893 3935 3977 1.00 t 0.8 4312 4353 4394 4270 0 1 2 3

3595 4020 4435

3638 4061 4477

3681 4103 4518 6

3723 4145 4559 7

3766 4187 4600 8

3808 4229 4640 9

4 5 The t table II 4 4435 4843 5243 5634 6017 6393 6760 7120 7473 7817 8155 8484 8807 9122 9431 9732 5 4477 4883 5282 5673 6055 6430 6797 7156 7507 7851 8188 8517 8839 9154 9461 9762

6 4518 4924 5322 5711 6093 6467 6833 7191 7542 7885 8221 8549 8871 9185 9492 9792

7 4559 4964 5361 5750 6131 6504 6869 7227 7577 7919 8254 8582 8902 9216 9522 9821

8 4600 5004 5400 5788 6169 6541 6905 7262 7611 7953 8287 8614 8934 9247 9552 9851

9 4640 5044 5439 5827 6206 6578 6941 7297 7646 7987 8320 8647 8966 9277 9582 9880

1.00 0.8 4312 4353 4394 4270 01 4681 4722 4762 4803 02 5084 5124 5163 5203 03 5478 5517 5556 5595 04 5865 5903 5941 5979 05 0.8 6281 6318 6356 6244

06 6614 6651 6688 6724 07 6977 7013 7049 7085 08 7333 7368 7403 7438 09 7680 7715 7749 7783 1.10 0.8 8054 8088 8121 8021

11 8353 8386 8419 8452 12 8679 8711 8743 8775 13 8997 9029 9060 9091 14 9308 9339 9370 9400 15 16 17 0.8 9642 9672 9702 9612

0.8 9939 9968 9997 * 0027 * 0056 * 0085 * 0114 * 0142 * 0171 9910 0.9 0229 0257 0286 0200 0314 0595 0870 1138 0343 0623 0897 1164 0371 0651 0924 1191 0399 0678 0951 1217 0428 0706 0978 1243 0456 0733 1005 1269

18 0484 0512 0540 0568 19 0761 0788 0815 0843 1.20 0.9 1058 1085 1111

1031 21 1296 1322 1348 1374 22 1553 1579 1604 1630 23 1805 1830 1855 1879 24 2051 2075 2099 2123 25 0.9 2314 2337 2361 2290 1399 1655 1904 2147 2384 2615 2841 3061 3275 3484 3687 3885 4078 4266 4449 4627 4800 4968 5132 5292 5447 5597 5744 5886 6024 6159 6289 1425 1680 1929 2171 2408 2638 2863 3082 3296 3504 3707 3905 4097 4284 4467 4644 4817 4985 5148 5307 5462 5612 5758 5900 6038 6172 6302 1451 1705 1953 2195 2431 2661 2885 3104 3317 3525 3727 3924 4116 4303 4485 4662 4834 5002 5165 5323 5477 5627 5773 5914 6051 6185 6315 1477 1730 1978 2219 2454 2684 2907 3126 3338 3545 3747 3944 4135 4321 4503 4679 4851 5018 5181 5339 5492 5642 5787 5928 6065 6198 6327 1502 1755 2002 2243 2477 2706 2929 3147 3359 3566 3767 3963 4154 4340 4521 4697 4868 5035 5197 5354 5507 5656 5801 5942 6078 6211 6340 1528 1780 2026 2266 2500 2729 2951 3168 3380 3586 3787 3982 4173 4358 4538 4714 4885 5051 5213 5370 5323 5671 5815 5956 6092 6224 6353

26 2524 2547 2570 2593 27 2751 2774 2796 2819 38 2973 2995 3017 3039 29 3190 3211 3232 3254 1.30 0.9 3422 3442 3463 3401

31 3606 3627 3647 3667 32 3807 3826 3846 3866 33 4002 . 4040 4059 4021

34 4191 4210 4229 4247 35 0.9 4394 4413 4431 4376

36 4556 4574 4592 4609 37 4731 4748 4766 4783 38 4902 4918 4935 4952 39 5067 5084 5100 5116 1.40 0.9 5244 5260 5276 5229

41 5385 5401 5416 5431 42 5538 5553 5568 5582 43 5686 5700 5715 5729 44 5830 5844 5858 5872 45 0.9 5983 5997 6011 5970

46 6105 6119 6132 6145 47 6237 6250 6263 6276

48 6365 6378 6391 6403 49 6490 6502 6514 6526 1.50 t 0.9 6622 6634 6646 6611 0 1 2 3

6416 6539 6658

6428 6551 6670

6440 6563 6681 6

6453 6575 6693 7

6465 6587 6705 8

6478 6599 6716 9

4 5 The t table II 3 4 5

t 1.50 51 52 53 54 56 57 58 59 61 62 63 64 66 67 68 69 71 73 73

0.9 6622 6634 6646 6658 6670 6681 6693 6705 6716 6611 6728 6739 6751 6762 6774 6785 6796 6808 6819 6830 6841 6853 6864 6875 6886 6897 6908 6919 6930 6941 6952 6962 6973 6984 6995 7006 7016 7027 7037 7048 7059 7069 7080 7090 7100 7111 7121 7131 7142 7152 7263 7273 7283 7292 7302 7312 7322 7331 7341 7351 7360 7370 7379 7389 7398 7408 7417 7427 7436 7445 7455 7464 7473 7482 7492 7501 7510 7519 7528 7537 7546 7555 7564 7573 7582 7591 7600 7609 7617 7626 7721 7729 7738 7746 7754 7763 7771 7779 7787 7796 7804 7812 7820 7828 7836 7844 7852 7860 7868 7876 7884 7892 7900 7908 7916 7924 7931 7939 7947 7955 7962 7970 7977 7985 7993 8000 8008 8015 8023 8030 8110 8118 8125 8132 8139 8146 8153 8160 8167 8174 8181 8188 8195 8202 8209 8215 8222 8229 8236 8243 8249 8256 8263 8269 8276 8283 8289 8296 8302 8309 8315 8322 8328 8335 8341 8347 8354 8360 8366 8373 8441 8447 8453 8459 8465 8471 8477 8483 8489 8494 8500 8506 8512 8518 8524 8529 8535 8541 8546 8552 8558 8563 8569 8575 8580 8586 8591 8597 8602 8608

55 0.97162 7172 7183 7193 7203 7213 7223 7233 7243 7253

1.60 0.9 7635 7644 7652 7661 7670 7678 7687 7695 7704 7712

65 0.9 8038 8045 8052 8060 8067 8074 8082 8089 8096 8103

1.70 0.9 8379 8385 8392 8398 8404 8410 8416 8422 8429 8435

74 76 77 78 79 81 82 83 84 86 87 88 89 91 92 93 94 96 97 98 99 t

8613 8619 8624 8630 8635 8641 8646 8651 8657 8662 8719 8724 8729 8734 8739 8744 8749 8754 8759 8764 8769 8774 8779 8784 8789 8793 8798 8803 8808 8813 8817 8822 8827 8832 8836 8841 8846 8850 8855 8859 8864 8869 8873 8878 8882 8887 8891 8896 8900 8905 8952 8957 8961 8965 8969 8974 8978 8982 8986 8990 8994 8998 9002 9007 9011 9015 9019 9023 9027 9031 9035 9039 9043 9046 9050 9054 9058 9062 9066 9070 9074 9077 9081 9085 9089 9093 9096 9100 9104 9107 9147 9151 9154 9158 9161 9165 9168 9172 9175 9179 9183 9185 9189 9192 9196 9199 9202 9206 9209 9212 9216 9219 9222 9225 9229 9232 9235 9238 9242 9245 9248 9251 9254 9257 9261 9264 9267 9270 9273 9276 9309 9312 9315 9318 9321 9324 9326 9329 9332 9335 9338 9341 9343 9346 9349 9352 9355 9357 9360 9363 9366 9368 9371 9374 9376 9379 9382 9384 9387 9390 9392 9395 9397 9400 9403 9405 9408 9410 9413 9415 9443 9445 9447 9450 9452 9455 9457 9459 9462 9464 9466 9469 9471 9473 9476 9478 9480 9482 9485 9487 9489 9491 9494 9496 9498 9500 9502 9505 9507 9509 9511 9513 9515 9518 9520 9522 9524 9526 9528 9530 0 1 2 3 4 5 The t table II 4 9609 9753 5 9626 9764 6 7 8 9

75 0.9 8667 8672 8678 8683 8688 8693 8699 8704 8709 8714

1.80 0.9 8909 8913 8918 8922 8927 8931 8935 8940 8944 8948

85 0.99111 9115 9118 9122 9126 9129 9133 9137 9140 9144

1.90 0.9 9279 9282 9285 9288 9291 9294 9297 9300 9303 9306

95 0.9 9418 9420 9423 9425 9428 9430 9433 9435 9438 9440

2.00 0.99532 9534 9536 9538 9540 9542 9544 9546 9548 9550

t 2.1

3 9591 9741

6 9642 9775

7 9658 9785

8 9673 9795

9 9688 9805

2.0 0.99532 9552 9572 9702 9715 9728

2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2

9814 9822 9831 9886 9891 9897 9931 9935 9938 0.9 9961 9963 9959 9976 9978 9979 9987 9987 9988 9992 9993 9993 9996 9996 9996 0.9 9998 9998 9998 9999 9999 9999

9839 9902 9941 9965 9980 9989 9994 9997 9998 9999

9846 9906 9944 9967 9981 9989 9994 9997 9998 9999

9854 9911 9947 9969 9982 9990 9994 9997 9998 9999

9861 9915 9950 9971 9983 9991 9995 9997 9998 9999

9867 9920 9952 9972 9984 9991 9995 9997 9999 9999

9874 9924 9955 9974 9985 9992 9995 9997 9999 9999

9880 9928 9957 9975 9986 9992 9996 9998 9999 9999

0.9 9999 9999 * 0000 * 0000 * 0000 * 0000 * 0000 * 0000 * 0000 9999