Mechanical Properties of Solids and Acoustics

1
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
SOLIDS AND ACOUSTICS

1.1 Elasticity and Plasticity
When the shape or size of a body has been altered by the application of a force or a system
of forces, there is usually some tendency for the body to recover its original shape or size on the
removal of the force. This property of the body by virtue of which it tends to regain its original
shape or size on the removal of deforming force is called elasticity.
The property of the body by virtue of which it tends to retain the altered size and shape on
removal of deforming forces is called plasticity.
1.2 Stress and Strain
Stress is a quantity that characterizes the strength of the forces causing the deformation, on
a force per unit area basis. The deforming force per unite area of the body is called stress. The
SI unit of stress is the Pascal (abbreviated Pa, and named for the 17
th
century French scientist and
philosopher Blaise Pascal). One Pascal equals one Newton per square meter.1 Pascal = 1Pa =
1N/m
2
. Strain is a quantity which describes the resulting deformation. Strain is the fractional
deformation produced in a body when it is subjected to a set of deforming forces. Strain being
ratio has no units.
There are following three types of stress and strain
(i) Tensile and compressive stress and strain
(ii) Bulk stress and strain
(iii) Shear stress and strain
1.3 Hookes Law
This law was proposed by Robert Hooke, the founder of Royal society, in 1676. Hookes
law states that within the elastic limit, the stress developed is directly proportional to the strain.
The constant of proportionality is the elastic modulus (or modulus of elasticity).
Stress
Strain
= elastic modulus (Hookes law)

Physics for Technologists 1.2

Fig. 1.1 Stress - Strain diagram
If we plot a graph between stress and strain we get a curve as shown in Fig. 1.1 and it is
called stress - strain diagram. It is clear from this graph that Hookes law holds good only for the
straight line portion of the curve.
1.4 Elastic Moduli
The coefficient of elasticity or modulus of elasticity indicates how a specimen behaves
when subjected to given stress. This has the same units as stress that is Nm
-2
or Pa. There are three
kinds of elastic moduli as given in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Three kinds of elastic moduli
Elastic Modulus Definition Nature of strain
Youngs modulus (Y)
Tensile stress
Tensile strain
Change of shape and size
Bulk modulus (B)
Bulk stress
Bulk strain
Change of size but not shape
Shear modulus or
Rigidity modulus (S)
Shear stress
Shear strain
Change of shape but not size

Worked Example 1.1: A steel rod 2.0m long has a cross sectional area of 0.30cm
2
. The rod is
now hung by one end from a support structure and a 550kg milling
machine is hung from the rods lower end. The Youngs modulus of
steel is 20 10
10
Pa. Determine the stress, the strain and the elongation
of the rod.

2
8
5 2
(550 ) (9.8 / )
1.8 10
3.0 10
F kg m s
Stress Pa
A m
= = =

8
4
10
1.8 10
9.0 10
20 10
o
Stress Pa
Strain
Y Pa

A
= = = =

Elongation = A = (strain)
o
= (9.010
-4
) (2.0)
= 0.0018m = 1.8mm.
Strain
Plastic range

0
S
t
r
e
s
s

Elastic limit
Elastic range
Permanent set
Mechanical Properties of Solids and Acoustics 1.3
Disc
Torsionally flexible elastic wire
Fixed End
1.5 Torsion Pendulum
Definition
A torsion pendulum is an oscillator for which the restoring force is torsion.
Description
The device as shown in Fig.1.2 consisting of a disc or other body of large moment of
inertia mounted on one end of a torsionally flexible elastic rod wire whose other end is held fixed;
if the disc is twisted and released, it will undergo simple harmonic motion, provided the torque in
the rod is proportional to the angle of twist.
Theory
When the disc is rotated in a horizontal plane so as to twist the wire, the various elements
of the wire undergo shearing strains. Restoring couples, which tend to restore the unstrained
conditions, are called into action. Now when the disc is released, it starts executing torsional
vibrations.
If the angle of twist at the lower end of the wire is , then the restoring couple is C ,
where C is the torsional rigidity of the wire, this couple acting on the disc produces in it an angular
acceleration given by

Fig. 1.2 Torsion Pendulum
C =
2
2
d
I
dt
u
(1)
where I is the moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of the wire. The minus sign
indicates that the couple C tends to decrease the twist. Equation (1) can be rewritten as
2
2
d C
dt I
u
= u (2)
The above relation shows that the angular acceleration is proportional to the angular
displacement and is always directed towards the mean position. Hence the motion of the disc is
simple harmonic motion and the time period of the vibration will be given by
T = 2
Displacement

Acceleration
2
C
I
u
t
u
=
| |
|
\ .

or T = 2 C / I
Uses of Torsion Pendulum
(1) For determining the moment of inertia of an irregular body
For determining the moment of inertia of an irregular body the torsion pendulum is found
to be very useful. First, the time period of pendulum is determined when it is empty and then the
time period of the pendulum is determined after placing a regular body on the disc and after this
the time period is determined by replacing the regular body by the irregular body whose moment
of inertia is to be determined. It is ensured that the body is placed on the disc such that the axes of
the wire pass through the centre of gravity of the body placed on the disc.
If I, I
1
and I
2
are the moments of inertia of the disc, regular body and irregular body and T,
T
1
and T
2
are the time periods in the three cases respectively, then
T = 2
I
C
(3)
T
1
= 2
1
I I
C
+
(4)
T
2
=

2
2 I I
C
+

(5)

From relations (3) and (4), we have
T
1
2
T
2
=
2
1
4 I
C
t
(6)
and from relations (3) and (5), we have
T
2
2
T
2
=
2
2
4 I
C
t
(7)
2 2 2
1 1 1
2 2 2
2 2 2
4 /
4 /
T T I C I
T T I C I
t
= =
t
(8)
or
2 2
2
2 1 2 2
1
T T
I I
T T
(9)
The moment of inertia of the regular body I
1
is determined with the help of the dimensions
of the body, thus the moment of inertia of the irregular body is calculated.
(2) Determination of Torsional Rigidity
For determining the modulus of rigidity N the time period of the pendulum is found (i)
when the disc is empty, and (ii) when a regular body is placed on the disc with axis of wire
passing through the centre of gravity of the body. If T is the time period of the pendulum in first
case and T
1
in the second case, then we have
T = 2
I

C
(10)
and T
1
= 2
C
I

I I +
(11)
where I is the moment of inertia of the disc and I
1
the moment of inertia of the regular body placed
on the disc. From relations (10) and (11), we have
T
1
2
T
2
=
C
I
1
2
4t
(12)
or
2
2
1
1
2
4
T T
I
C
=
t
(13)
For a wire of modulus of rigidity N, length l and radius r, we have
l
Nr
C
2
4
t
= (14)
Equating (13) and (14), we have
l
Nr
T T
I
2
4
4
2
2
1
1
2
t
t
=
(15)
or
4 2
2
1
1
) (
8
r T T
lI
N
=
t
(16)
Thus, the value of N can be determined.
Worked Example 1.2: A torsion pendulum is made using a steel wire of diameter 0.5mm and
sphere of diameter 3cm. The rigidity modulus of steel is 80 GPa and
density of the material of the sphere is 11300 kg/m
3
. I f the period of
oscillation is 2 second, find the length of the wire.
4 2
8
r T
I
N
t
=
For sphere, I = 2/5 MR
2

M = volume density
M = 4/3 (3/2 10
-2
)
3
11300 = 0.1598 kg
I = 2/5 0.1598 (3/2 10
-2
)
2
= 0.14382 10
-4
kgm
2

4
0.5
9 2 3
80 10 2 10
2 4
NT r
2
4
8 I
8 0.14382 10

= = =
t
t
| |
|
\ .
5.531m l .
1.6 Bending of Beams
A beam is a rod or bar of uniform cross-section (circular or rectangular) whose length is
very much greater than its thickness as shown in Fig. 1.3.
The beam is considered to be made up of a large number of thin plane layers called
surfaces placed one above the other. Consider a beam to be bent into an arc of a circle by the
application of an external couple as shown Fig. 1.4. Taking the longitudinal section ABCD of the
bent beam the layers in the upper half are elongated while those in the lower half are compressed.

Fig. 1.3 A beam
In the middle there is a layer (MN) which is not elongated or compressed due to bending
of the beam. This layer is called the neutral surface and the line (MN) at which the neutral layer
intersects the plane of bending is called the neutral axis.

Fig.1.4 Bending of a beam
It is obvious that the length of the filament increases or decreases in proportion to its
distance away from the neutral axis MN.
The layers below MN are compressed and those above MN are elongated and there will be
such pairs of layers one above MN and one below MN experiencing same forces of elongation and
compression due to bending and each pair forms a couple.
The resultant of the moments of all these internal couples are called the internal bending
moment and in the equilibrium condition, this is equal to the external bending moment.
1.6.1 Bending Moment of a Beam
Consider the section PBCP' (Fig. 1.5), the extended filaments lying above the neutral axis
MN are in state of tension and exert an inward pull on the filament adjacent to them towards the
fixed end of the beam. In the same way the shortened filaments lying below the neutral axis MN
are in a state of compression and exert an outward push on the filaments adjacent to them towards
the loaded end of the beam. As a result tensile and compressive stresses develop in the upper and
lower halves of the beam respectively and form a couple which opposes to bending of the beam.
The moment of this couple is called the moment of the resistance. When the beam is in
equilibrium position the bending moment and restoring moment or moment of resistance should be
equal.
To find an expression for the moment of the restoring couple consider a fiber A'B' at a
distance r from the neutral axis MN as shown in Fig.1.6. Let the radius of curvature be R of the
part PB and be the angle subtended by it at the centre of curvature. In unstrained position of the
beam, the length of the fiber A'B' = MN = R. In the strained position the length of the fibre
A'B'

= (R + r) .

Fig. 1.5 Calculation of bending moment of a beam

Fig.1.6 Strained position
Strain in the fiber A
1
B
1
, =
length Original
length the in Change

M
N

C
B
P'
D
A
P
Load
r
N
A' B'
R
M

or
R
r
R
R r R
Strain =
+
=
|
| | ) (
(1)
i.e., strain is proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
Let the area of the fiber be a and its neutral axis be at a distance r from neutral axis of the
beam and the strain produced be r/R. We have
Stress = Y Strain = Y r / R (2)
where Y is the Youngs modulus of the material
Hence, force on the area a
F = Y(r/R) a (3)
Therefore the moment of this force about MN
= Y(r/R) a r = Y a r
2
/ R (4)
As the moment of the forces acting on both the upper and lower halves of the section are
in the same direction, the total moment of the forces acting on the filaments due to straining
g
I
R
Y
ar
R
Y
R
r a
Y = E = E =
2
2
(5)
where I
g
is the geometrical moment of inertia and is equal to AK
2
, A being the total area of the
section and K being the radius of gyration of the beam
:. moment of the forces
g
I
R
Y
= (6)
In equilibrium bending moment of the beam is equal and opposite to the moment of
bending couple due to the load on one end.
:. Bending moment of the beam =
g
I
R
Y
(7)
The quantity YI
g
(=Y A K
2
) is called the flexural rigidity of the beam. Flexural rigidity is
defined as the bending moment required to produce a unit radius of curvature.
1.6.2 Uniform Bending
The beam is loaded uniformly on its both ends, the bent beam forms an arc of a circle.
The elevation in the beam is produced. This bending is called uniform bending.
Consider a beam (or bar) AB arranged horizontally on two knife edges C and D
symmetrically so that AC = BD = a as shown in Fig. 1.7

Fig. 1.7 Uniform Bending
The beam is loaded with equal weights W and W at the ends A and B.
D
F
C
o
E
y
R
l/2
F
The reactions on the knife edges at C and D are equal to W and W acting vertical upwards.
The external bending moment on the part AF of the beam is
= W AF W CF = W (AF CF)
= W AC = W a (1)
Internal bending moment =
R
YI
g
(2)
where
Y - Youngs modulus of the material of the bar
I
g
- Geometrical moment of inertia of the cross-section of beam
R - Radius of curvature of the bar at F
In the equilibrium position,
external bending moment = internal bending moment
R
YI
Wa
g
= (3)
Since for a given value of W, the values of a, Y and I
g
are constants, R is constant so that
the beam is bent uniformly into an arc of a circle of radius R.
CD = l and y is the elevation of the midpoint E of the beam so that y = EF
Then from the property of the circle as shown in Fig. 1.8

Fig. 1.8 Circle Property
EF (2R EF) = (CE)
2
(4)

y (2R y) =
2
2
| |
|
\ .
l
(5)

y 2R =
2
4
l
(since y
2
is negligible) (6)
y =
2
8R
l
(7)
or
2
8
R
1
l
y
=
(8)
From (3) and (8), Wa =
8
YI
g
2
y
l

or
y I
a l W
Y
g
8
2
=
(9)
If the beam is of rectangular cross-section,
12
3
bd
I
g
=
, where b is the breath and d is the
thickness of beam.
If M is the mass, the corresponding weight W = Mg
Hence
y bd
a Mgl
Y
3
2
2
3
=
(10)
from which Y the Youngs modulus of the material of the bar is determined.

Worked Example 1.3: Uniform rectangular bar 1 m long 2 cm broad and 0.5 cm thick is
supported on its flat face symmetrically on two knife edges 70 cm apart.
I f loads of 200 g are hung from the two ends, find the elevation at the
center of the bar. Youngs modulus of the material of the bar is 18
10
10
Pa.
The distance between the nearer knife edge and the point of suspension
a=1510
-2
m
Elevation at the centre,

3
2
2
3
d Yb
l a g M
y =

3 2 2 10
2 2 3
) 10 5 . 0 ( 10 2 10 18 2
7 . 0 10 15 8 . 9 10 200 3

=
= 4.802 10
-4
m
1.6.3 Non-Uniform Bending
If the beam is loaded at its mid-point, the depression i produced will not form an arc of a
circle. This type of bending is called non-uniform bending.
Consider a uniform beam (or rod or bar) AB of length l arranged horizontally on two knife
edges K
1
and K
2
near the ends A and B as shown in Fig. 1.9.


Fig. 1.9 Non-uniform bending
A weight W is applied at the midpoint E of the beam. The reaction at each knife edge is
equal to W/2 in the upward direction and y is the depression at the midpoint E.
The bent beam is considered to be equivalent to two single inverted cantilevers, fixed at E
each of length
|
.
|
\
|
2
l
and each loaded at K
1
and K
2
with a weight
2
W

In the case of a cantilever of length l and load W,
the depression =
Y I
l W
g
3
3

Hence, for cantilever of length
2
| |
|
\ .
l
and load
|
.
|
\
|
2
W
, the depression is
y =
Y I
l W
g
3
2 2
3
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
(1)

or
Y I
l W
y
g
48
3
=
(2)
If M is the mass, the corresponding weight W is
W = Mg (3)
If the beam is a rectangular, I
g
=
12
3
bd
, where b is the breadth and d is the thickness of the
beam.
Hence
3
3
48
12
Mg l
y
bd
Y
=
(4)

Y bd
gl M
y
3
3
48
12
=
(5)
or
y bd
gl M
Y
3
3
4
=
Nm
-2
(6)
The value of youngs modulus, Y can be determined by the above equation.
E
K2 K1
B A
W/2 W/2
W
1.7 Stress-Strain Relation for Different Engineering Materials
The stress and strain relation can be studied by drawing a graph or curve by taking strain
along the x axis and the corresponding stress along the y axis. This curve is called stress- strain
curve. The stress-strain relations for different engineering materials are discussed below.
For ferrous metal
Fig.1.10 shows the stress-strain diagram for different types of steel and wrought iron. The
strength of the ferrous metals depends up on carbon content, but at the cost of its ductility, as it is
clearly understood from the figure. The proportion of carbon does not have an appreciable effect
on youngs modulus of elasticity during any hardening process.

Fig. 1.10. Stress- Strain curve for ferrous metals

For non-ferrous metal
For hard steels and non-ferrous metals stress is specified corresponding to a definite
amount of permanent elongation. This stress is known as proof stress. For aircraft materials the
stress corresponding to 0.1% of strain is the proof stress. The proof stress is applied for 15 seconds
and when removed, the specimen should not lengthen permanently beyond 0.1%.

Fig.1.11. Stress Strain curve for non - ferrous metals
Alloy steel or tool steel
Mild steel (Ductile)
High carbon steel
Medium carbon steel
Wrought iron (Most ductile)
Cast iron (Brittle iron)
Strain
S
t
r
e
s
s

Aluminium bronze

Magnesium
oxide
Brass 70:30
Annealed copper
Strain
S
t
r
e
s
s

Fig.1.11 shows stress-strain curves for non-ferrous materials. The elastic properties of
non-ferrous metals vary to a considerable extent, depending upon the method of working and their
compositions in the case of alloys. From the figure it is clear that the early portion of the stress-
strain diagram for most of the metals is never quite straight line, but the yield point is well define.
Brittle materials show little or no permanent deformation prior to fracture. Brittle behavior
is exhibited by some metals and ceramics like magnesium oxide .The small elongation prior to
fracture means that the materials gives no indication of impending fracture and brittle fracture
usually occurs rapidly. It is often accompanied by loud noise.
Saline Features of stress-strain relation
- The properties of ductile metals can be explained with the help of stress-strain curves.
- Higher yield point will represents greater hardness of the metals.
- A higher value of maximum stress point will represent a stronger metal.
- The distance from the ordinates of the load point (or) breaking stress will indicate the
toughness and brittleness of the metal. The shorter the distance then the metal is more
brittle.
1.8 Ductile and Brittle Materials
1.8.1 Ductile materials
A body is said to have yielded or to have undergone plastic deformation if it does not
regains its original shape when a load is removed. The resulting deformation is called permanent
set. If permanent set is obtainable, the material is said to exhibit ductility. Ductility measures the
degree of plastic deformation sustained it fracture. One way of specify a material is by the
percentage of elongation (%EL).
Percentage of elongation = 100
L
L - L
o
o f

Where L
f
is the length of the specimen at fracture
L
o
is the length of the specimen without load.
A ductile material is one with a large Percentage of elongation before failure. The original
length of the specimen L
o
is an important value because a significant portion of the plastic
deformation at fracture is confined to the neck region. Thus, the magnitude of percentage of
elongation will depend on the specimen length.
Table 1.2 Percentage of elongation for ductile materials
Material Percentage of Elongation
Low-Carbon 37%
Medium-Carbon 30%
High-Carbon 25%

The percentage of elongation of different ductile materials is tabulated above. For ductile
material, the ultimate tensile and compressive strength have approximately the same absolute
value. The steel is ductile material because it far exceeds the 5% elongation. High strength alloys,
such as spring steel, can have 2% of elongation but even this is enough to ensure that the material
yields before it fractures. Hence it is behaved like a ductile material. Gold is relatively ductile at
room temperature. Most of the material becomes ductile by increasing the temperature.

Properties of ductile materials:
- Easily drawn into wire or hammered thin.
- Easily molded or shaped.
- Capable of being readily persuaded or influenced tractable.
- Easily stretched without breaking in material strength.
Stress strain behavior of ductile materials
In the case of ductile materials at the beginning of the tensile test, the material extends
elastically. The strain at first increase proportionally to the stress and the specimen returns to its
original length on removal of the stress. The limit of proportionality is the stage up to which the
material obeys Hookes law perfectly.
Beyond the elastic limit the applied stress produces plastic deformation so that a
permanent extension remains even after the removal of the applied load. In this stage the resultant
strain begins to increase more quickly than the corresponding stress and continues to increase till
the yield point is reached. At the yield point the material suddenly stretches.
The rate of applied load to original cross-sectional area is termed the nominal stress. This
continues to increase with elongation, due to strain hardening or work hardening, until the tensile
stress is maximum. This is the value of stress at maximum load and can be calculated by dividing
the maximum load by the original cross-sectional area. This stress is called ultimate tensile stress.

Fig 1.12 Stress- strain curve for a ductile material.

Fig.1.12 is a stress-strain diagram for ductile material (mild steel) showing the limit of
proportionality, elastic limit, yield point, ultimate tensile stress and fracture.
Upper yield point
Strain
Ultimate stress
Lower yield point
Limit of proportionality
Elastic limit
Fracture
S
t
r
e
s
s

From Fig.1.12 it is clearly show that at a certain value of load the strain continues at slow
rate without any further stress. This phenomenon of slow extension increasing with time, at
constant stress is termed creep. At this point a neck begins to develop along the length of the
specimen and further plastic deformation is localized within the neck. After necking the nominal
stress decreases until the material fractures at the point of minimum cross-sectional area.
1.8.2 Brittle Materials
Brittle material is one which is having very low percentage of elongation. Brittle materials
break suddenly under stress at a point just beyond its elastic limit. A Brittle material exhibits little
or no yielding before failure. Brittle material will have a much lower elongation and area reduction
than ductile ones. The tensile strength of Brittle material is usually much less than the compressive
strength. The brittle material can be deformed in a ductile only under the conditions of high
pressure.
Ceramic glass and cast iron are having very good brittle nature. Grey cast iron is a best
example for brittle material whose percentage of elongation is so small. Brittle materials are used
in design of hard ceramic armor, exclusive excavation of rocks, space craft windows, impact of
condensed particle on turbine blades etc.
Determination of Brittle materials
- If the percentage of elongation is at or below 5%, assume brittle behavior.
- If the ultimate compressive strength is greater than the ultimate tensile strength
assume brittle behavior
- If no yield strength is occurred suspect brittle behavior
Stress strain behavior of brittle materials

Fig. 1.13 Stress strain curve for a brittle material

Figure 1.13 shows a poorly defined yield point in brittle materials. For the determination
of yield strength in such materials, one has to draw a straight line parallel to the elastic portion of
the stress strain curve at a predetermined strain ordinate value (say 0.1%). The point at which this
line intersects the stress-strain curve is called the yield strength.
Strain
Yield point at off-set
S
t
r
e
s
s

Parallel
Proof stress
1.9 Some Fundamental Mechanical Properties
The following are the some of the fundamental mechanical properties of metals:
(i) Tensile strength (ii) Hardness (iii) Impact strength (iv) fatigue and (v) Creep
1.9.1 Tensile Strength
This is the maximum conventional stress that can be sustained by the material. It is the
ultimate strength in tension and corresponds to the maximum load in a tension test. It is measured
by the highest point on the conventional stress-strain curve. In engineering tension tests this
strength provides the basic design information on the materials.
The tensile strength of a material is the maximum amount of tensile stress that it can be
subjected to before failure. There are three typical definitions of tensile strength.
Yield strength
The stress at which material strain changes from elastic deformation to plastic
deformation, causing it to deform permanently is known as yield strength.
Ultimate strength
The maximum stress a material can withstand is known as ultimate strength.
Breaking strength
The strength co-ordinate on the stress-strain curve at the point of rupture is known as
breaking strength.
In ductile materials the load drops after the ultimate load because of necking. This
indicates the beginning of plastic instability. In brittle materials, the ultimate tensile strength is a
logical basis for working stresses. Like yield strength, it is used with a factor of safety.
Table 1.3 Typical tensile strengths of engineering materials
Material Tensile Strength kg/mm
2
Alloy steel 60 -70
Mild Steel 42
Grey CI 19
White CI 47
Aluminum alloy 47

1.9.2 Hardness
Hardness is the resistance of material to permanent deformation of the surface. However,
the term may also refer to stiffness, temper resistance to scratching and cutting. It is the property of
a metal, which gives it the ability to resist being permanently deformed (bent, broken or shape
change), when a load is applied.
The hardness of a surface of the material is, of course, a direct result of inter atomic
forces acting on the surface of the material. We must note that hardness is not a fundamental
property of a material, but a combined effect of compressive, elastic and plastic properties relative
to the mode of penetration, shape of penetration etc. The main usefulness of hardness is, it has a
constant relationship to the tensile strength of a given material and so can be used as a practical
non-destructive test for an approximate idea of the value of that property and the state of the metal
near the surface.
Hardness Measurement
Hardness measurement can be in Macro, Micro & nano scale according to the forces
applied and displacements obtained.
Measurement of the Macro-hardness of materials is a quick and simple method of
obtaining mechanical property data for the bulk materials from a small sample. It is also widely
used for the quality control of a surface treatments process. The Macro-hardness measurement will
be highly variable and will not identify individual surface features. It is here that micro-hardness
measurements are appropriate.
Micro hardness is the hardness of a material as determined by forcing an indenter into the
surface of the material under load, usually the indentations are so small that they must be measured
with a microscope. Micro hardness measurements are capable of determines the hardness of
different micro constituent with in a structure.
Nano hardness tests measure hardness by using indenter, on the order of nano scale. These
tests are based one new technology that allows precise measurement and control of the indenting
forces and precise measurement of the indentation depth.
Hardness Measurement Methods
There are several methods of hardness testing, depending either on the direct thrust of
some form of penetrator into the metal surface, or on the ploughing of the surface as a styles is
drawn across it under a controlled load, or on the measurement of elastic rebound of an impacting
hammer which possessing known energy. Measurements of hardness are the easiest to make and
are widely used for industrial design and in research. As compared to other mechanical tests,
where the bulk of the material is involved in testing, all hardness tests are made on the surface or
close to it.
The following are the most common hardness test methods used in todays technology.
1. Rockwell hardness test
2. Brinell hardness
3. Vickers
4. Knoop hardness
5. Shore

Brinell, Rockwell and Vickers hardness tests are used to determine hardness of metallic
materials to check quality level of products, for uniformity of sample of metals, for uniformity of
results of heat treatment. The relative micro hardness of a material is determined by the knoop
indentation test. The shore scleroscope measures hardness in terms of the elasticity of the material.
Brinell hardness number is the hardness index calculated by pressing a hardened steel ball
(indenter) into test specimen under standard load. The rock well hardness is another index which
widely used by engineers. This index number is measured by the depth of penetration by a small
indenter. By selecting different loads and shapes of indenter, different Rockwell scales have been
developed. The value of Brinell hardness number is related to tensile strength, which is as shown
in Fig.1.14.

Fig.1.14 Tensile strength verses Brinell hardness curves

The mechanism of indentation in all indentation tests is that when the indenter is pressed
into the surface under a static load, a large amount of plastic deformation takes place. The
materials thus deformed flows out in all directions. As a result of plastic flow, sometimes the
material in contact with the indenter produces a ridge around the impression. Large amount of
plastic deformation are accompanied by large amount of transient creep which vary with the
material and time of testing. Transient creep takes place rapidly at first and more slowly as it
approaches its maximum. For harder materials, the time required for reaching maximum
deformation is short (few seconds) and for soft materials the time required to produce the derived
indentation is unreasonably long up to a few minutes.
Hardness of materials is of importance for dies and punches, limit gauges, cutting tools
bearing surfaces etc. Softness of a material is opposite extreme of hardness. On heating all
materials become soft.
1.9.3 Impact Strength
Impact strength is the resistance of a material to fracture under dynamic load. Thus, it is a
complex characteristic which takes into account both the toughness and strength of a material. In
S.I. units the impact strength is expressed in Mega Newton per m
2
(MN/m
2
). It is defined as the
specific work required to fracture a test specimen with a stress concentrator in the mid when
broken by a single blow of striker in pendulum type impact testing machine.
Impact strength is the ability of the material to absorb energy during plastic deformation.
Obviously brittleness of a material is an inverse function of its impact strength. Course grain
structures and precipitation of brittle layers at the grain boundaries do not appreciably change the
mechanical properties in static tension, but substantially reduce the impact strength.
Impact strength is affected by the rate of loading, temperature and presence of stress
raisers in the materials. It is also affected by variation in heat treatment, alloy content, sulphur and
phosphorus content of the material.
Impact strength is determined by using the notch-bar impact tests on a pendulum type
impact testing machine. This further helps to study the effect of stress concentration and high
velocity load application.
Factors affecting Impact strength
- If the dimensions of the specimen are increased, the impact strength also increases.
- When the sharpness of the notch increase, the impact strength required causing failure
decreases.
- The temperature of the specimen under test gives an indication about the type of
fractures like ductile, brittle or ductile to brittle transition.
- The angle of the notch also improves impact-strength after certain values.
- The velocity of impact also affects impact strength to some extent.
1.9.4 Fatigue
Fatigue is caused by repeated application of stress to the metal. It is the failure of a
material by fracture when subjected to a cyclic stress. Fatigue is distinguished by three main
features.
i) Loss of strength
ii) Loss of ductility
iii) Increased uncertainty in strength and service life
Fatigue is an important form of behaviour in all materials including metals, plastics,
rubber and concrete. All rotating machine parts are subjected to alternating stresses; aircraft wings
are subjected to repeated loads, oil and gas pipes are often subjected to static loads but the dynamic
effect of temperature variation will cause fatigue. There are many other situations where fatigue
failure will be very harmful. Because of the difficulty of recognizing fatigue conditions, fatigue
failure comprises a large percentage of the failures occurring in engineering. To avoid stress
concentrations, rough surfaces and tensile residual stresses, fatigue specimens must be carefully
prepared.
The S-N Curve
A very useful way to visual the failure for a specific material is with the S-N curve. The
S-N means stress verse cycles to failure, which when plotted using the stress amplitude on the
vertical axis and the number of cycle to failure on the horizontal axis. An important characteristic
to this plot as seen in Fig.1.15 is the fatigue limit.

10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
8
10
9

Cycles
Fig.1.15 S-N curve for a metal

The point at which the curve flatters out is termed as fatigue limit and is well below the
normal yield stress. The significance of the fatigue limit is that if the material is loaded below this
stress, then it will not fail, regardless of the number of times it is loaded. Materials such as
aluminium, copper and magnesium do not show a fatigue limit; therefore they will fail at any
stress and number of cycles. Other important terms are fatigue strength and fatigue life. The
fatigue strength can be defined as the stress that produces failure in a given number of cycles
usually 10
7
. The fatigue life can be defined as the number of cycles required for a material to fail
at a certain stress.
1.9.5 Creep
The creep is defined as the property of a material by virtue of which it deforms
continuously under a steady load. Creep is the slow plastic deformation of materials under the
application of a constant load even for stressed below the yield strength of the material. Usually
creep occurs at high temperatures. Creep is an important property for designing I.C. engines, jet
engines, boilers and turbines. Iron, nickel, copper and their alloys exhibited this property at
elevated temperature. But zin, tin, lead and their alloys shows creep at room temperature. In
metals creep is a plastic deformation caused by slip occurring along crystallographic directions in
the individual crystals together with some deformation of the grain boundary materials.

Fig.1.16 Creep curve at constant temperature and stress

6
10
14
16
22
18
26
30
34
38
Fatigue strength
S
t
r
e
s
s

Fig.1.16 shows a typical creep curve. The creep curve usually consists of three points
corresponding to particular stages of creep.
(i) Primary Stage: In this stage the creep rate decreases with time, the effect of work
hardening is more than that of recovery processes. The primary stage is of great
interest to the designer since it forms an early part of the total extension reached in a
given time and may affect clearness provided between components of a machine.
(ii) Secondary Stage: In this stage, the creep rate is a minimum and is constant with
time. The work hardening and recovery processes are exactly balanced. It is the
important property of the curve which is used to estimate the service life of the
alloy.
(iii) Tertiary Stage: In this stage, the creep rate increases with time until fracture
occurs. Tertiary creep can occur due to necking of the specimen and other processes
that ultimately result in failure.
The temperature and time dependence of creep deformation indicates that it is a thermally
activated process. Several atomic processes are known to be responsible for creep in crystalline
materials.
The yield strength which is determined in short term tests cannot be the criterion of high
temperature strength. Hence it does not consider the behaviour of a material in long-term loading.
The actual criteria of high temperature strength are the creep limit and long term strength. The
Creep Limit is the stress at which a material can be formed by a definite magnitude during a
given time at a given temperature. The calculation of creep limit includes the temperature, the
deformation and the time in which this deformation appears.
Types of Creep
The creep are classified into three different categories based on the temperature
(i) Logarithmic Creep
(ii) Recovery Creep
(iii) Diffusion Creep
At low temperature the creep rate decreases with time and the logarithmic creep curve is
obtained. At high temperature, the influence of work hardening is weakened and there is a
possibility of mechanical recovery. As a result, the creep rate does not decrease and the recovery
creep curve is obtained. At very high temperature, the creep is primarily influenced by diffusion
and load applied has little effect. This creep is termed as diffusion creep or plastic creep.
1.10 Fracture
Fracture is the separation of a specimen into two or more parts by an applied stress.
Fracture is caused by physical and chemical forces and takes place in two stages: (i) initial
formation of crack and (ii) spreading of crack. Depend upon the type of materials, the applied load,
state of stress and temperature metals have different types of fracture.
There are four Main types of fracture
i) Brittle Fracture
ii) Ductile Fracture
iii) Fatigue Fracture
iv) Creep Fracture
Fracture is usually undesirable in engineering applications. We may note that flaws such
as surface cracks lower the stress for brittle fracture where as line defects are responsible for
initiating ductile fractures. Different types of fracture are shown in Fig.1.17.

Fig. 1.17 Different types of fractures

1.10.1 Brittle Fracture
Brittle fracture is the failure of a material with minimum of plastic deformation. If the
broken pieces of a brittle fracture are fitted together, the original shape & dimensions of the
specimen are restored.
Brittle fracture is defined as fracture which occurs at or below the elastic limit of a
material. The brittle fracture increases with
(i) Increasing strain rate
(ii) Decreasing temperature
(iii) Stress concentration conditions produced by a notch.
Salient Features of Brittle Fracture
(1) Brittle fracture occurs when a small crackle in materials grows. Growth continues
until fracture occurs.
(2) The atoms at the surfaces do not have as many neighbors as those in the interior of a
solid and therefore they form fever bonds. That implies, surface atoms are at a
higher energy than a plane of interior atom. As a result of Brittle fracture destroying
the inter atomic bonds by normal stresses.
(3) In metals brittle fracture is characterized by rate of crack propagation with minimum
energy of absorption.
(4) In brittle fracture, adjacent parts of the metal are separated by stresses normal to the
fracture surface.
(5) Brittle fracture occurs along characteristics crystallographic planes called as
cleavage planes. The fracture is termed as cleavage fracture.
(6) Brittle fracture does not produce plastic deformation, so that it requires less energy
than a ductile failure.
Mechanism of Brittle Fracture
The mechanism of Brittle fracture is explained by Griffith theory. Griffith postulated that
in a brittle material there are always presence of micro cracks which act to concentrated the stress
at their tips. The crack could come from a number of source, e.g. as a collection of dislocations, as
flow occurred during solidification or a surface scratch.
In order to explain the mechanism of ideal brittle fracture, let us consider the stress
distribution in a specimen under constant velocity in the vicinity of crack. When a longitudinal
tensile stress is applied, the crack tends to increase its length causes an increase in surface area of a
crack. As a result, the surface energy of the specimen is also increased. Moreover, there is also
compensation release of energy. This means, an increase in crack length causes the release of
elastic energy Griffith state that when the elastic energy released by extending a crack equal to
the surface energy required for crack extension then the crack will grow.
o =
e
E 2
t
(1)
where, e is half of the crack length, is the true surface energy and E is the Young's modulus.
Equation (1) gives the stress necessary to cause the brittle fracture and the stress is
inversely proportional to the square root of the crack length. Hence the tensile strength of a
completely brittle material is determined by the length of the largest crack existing before loading.
The relation (1) is known as the Griffiths equation.
For ductile materials there is always some plastic deformation before fracture. This
involves an additional energy term
p
. Therefore the fracture strength is given by
o =
1
2
p
2E
e
(
(
t
(

(2)
Generally
p
>> for metals.
From the above formula, one can get the size of largest flaw or crack.

1.10.2 Ductile Fracture
Ductile fracture is defined as the fracture which takes place by a slow propagation of crack
with considerable amount of plastic deformation.
There are three successive events involved in a ductile fracture.
- The specimen begins necking and minute cavities form in the necked region. This is
the region in which the plastic deformation is concentrated. It indicates that the
formation of cavities is closely linked to plastic deformation.
- It has been observed that during the formation of neck small micro cracks are
formed at the centre of the specimen due to the combination of dislocations.
- Finally these cracks grow out ward to the surface of the specimen in a direction 45
to the tensile axis resulting in a cup-end-cone-type fracture.
-

Fig.1.18 Various stages in ductile fracture
Fig.1.18 shows the various stages in ductile fracture. Ductile fracture has been studied
much less extensively than brittle fracture, as it is considered to be a much less serious problem.
An important characteristic of ductile fracture is that it occurs through a slow tearing of the metal
with the expenditure of considerable energy.
The fracture of ductile materials can also explained in terms of work-hardening coupled
with crack-nucleation and growth. The initial cavities are often observed to form at foreign
inclusions where gliding dislocations can pile up and produce sufficient stress to form a void or
micro-crack. Consider a specimen subjected to slow increasing tensile load. When the elastic limit
is exceeded, the material beings to work harden. Increasing the load, increasing the permanent
elongation and simultaneously decrease the cross sectional area. The decrease in area leads to the
formation of a neck in the specimen, as illustrated earlier. The neck region has a high dislocation
density and the material is subjected to a complex stress. The dislocations are separated from each
other because of the repulsive inter atomic forces. As the resolved shear stress on the slip plane
increase, the dislocation comes closed together. The crack forms due to high shear stress and the
presence of low angle grain boundaries. Once a crack is formed, it can grow or elongated by
means of dislocations which slip. Crack propagation is along the slip plane for this mechanism.
Once crack grows at the expense of others and finally cracks growth results in failure.

Table 1.4 Comparison between Brittle and Ductile fracture
Ductile fracture Brittle fracture
- Material fractures after plastic
deformation and slow propagation
of crack
- Material fractures with very little or no
plastic deformation.
- Surface obtained at the fracture is
dull or fibrous in appearance
- Surface obtained at the fracture is
shining and crystalling appearance
- It occurs when the material is in
plastic condition.
- It occurs when the material is in elastic
condition.
- It is characterized by the formation
of cup and cone
- It is characterized by separation of
normal to tensile stress.
- The tendency of ductile fracture is
increased by dislocations and other
defects in metals.
- The tendency brittle fracture is
increased by decreasing temperature,
and increasing strain rate.
- There is reduction in cross
sectional area of the specimen
- There is no change in the cross
sectional area.

1.10.3 Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue fracture is defined as the fracture which takes place under repeatedly applied
stresses. It will occur at stresses well before the tensile strength of the materials. The tendency of
fatigue fracture increases with the increase in temperature and higher rate of straining.
The fatigue fracture takes place due to the micro cracks at the surface of the materials. It
results in, to and fro motion of dislocations near the surface. The micro cracks act as the points of
stress concentration. For every cycle of stress application the excessive stress helps to propagate
the crack. In ductile materials, the crack grows slowly and the fracture takes place rapidly. But in
brittle materials, the crack grows to a critical size and propagates rapidly through the material.
1.10.4 Creep Fracture
Creep fracture is defined as the fracture which takes place due to creeping of materials
under steady loading. It occurs in metals like iron, copper & nickel at high temperatures. The
tendency of creep fracture increases with the increase in temperature and higher rate of straining.
The creep fracture takes place due to shearing of grain boundary at moderate stresses and
temperatures and movement of dislocation from one slip to another at higher stresses and
temperatures. The movement of whole grains relation of each other causes cracks along the grain
boundaries, which act as point of high stress concentration. When one crack becomes larger it
spreads slowly across the member until fracture takes place. This type of fracture usually occurs
when small stresses are applied for a longer period. The creep fracture is affected by grain size,
strain hardening, heat treatment and alloying.


Worked Example 1.4: A Youngs modulus of a certain material is 180 10
3
mega Newton/ m
2

and its true surface energy is 1.8 J/m
2
. The crack length is 5 m.
Calculate the fracture strength.
The fracture strength is
o =
e
E 2
t

o =
9
6
2 1 8 180 10
3 14 5 2 10
.
. /

o = 278 10
6
Newton /m
2

1.11 Acoustics of Buildings
Introduction
Acoustics is the science of sound. Building acoustics or architectural acoustics deals with
sound in the built environment. From the theaters of ancient Greece to those of the twenty first
century, architectural acoustics has been a key consideration in building design.
1.11.1 Intensity
Intensity I of sound wave at a point is defined as the amount of sound energy Q flowing
per unit area in unit time when the surface is held normal to the direction of the propagation of
sound wave.
i.e.,
Q
I
At
=
If A = 1m
2
and t = 1 sec, then I = Q, where Q is sound energy.
The intensity is a physical quantity which depend upon the factors like amplitude a,
frequency f and velocity v of sound together with the density of the medium .
The intensity I in a medium is given by
I = 2tf
2
a
2
v
The unit of intensity is Wm
-2
.
The minimum sound intensity which a human ear can sense is called the threshold
intensity. Its value is 10
12
watt/m
2
. If the intensity is less than this value then our ear cannot hear
the sound.
This minimum intensity is also known as zero or standard intensity. The intensity of a
sound is measured with reference to the standard intensity.
1.11.2 Intensity level (relative intensity) I
L

The intensity level or relative intensity of a sound is defined as the logarithmic ratio of
intensity of I of a sound to the standard intensity I
o
.
i.e.,
10
log
L
o
I
I K
I
| |
=
|
\ .

Let I and I
0
represent intensities of two sounds of a particular frequency, and L
t
and L
o
be
their corresponding measures of loudness. Then, according to Weber-Fechner law,
L
1
= K log
10
I

(1)
L
0
= K log
10
I
0
(2)
Therefore, the intensity level or relative intensity is
I
L
= L
1
L
0

= K log
10
I K log
10
I
0

= K (log
10
I log
10
I
0
)

10
log
L
o
I
I K
I
| |
=
|
\ .
(1)
If K = 1, then I
L
is expressed in a unit called bel.
From the relation (1), it is seen that, 10 ties increase in intensity i.e., I = 10I
0
corresponds
to 1 bel. Therefore, bel is the intensity level of a sound whose intensity is 10 times the standard
intensity.
Similarly, 100 times increase in intensity, i.e., I = 100I
0
corresponds to 2 bel and 1000
times increase in intensity, i.e. I = 1000 I
0
corresponds to 3 bel and so on.
In practice, bel is a large unit. Hence, another unit known as decibel dB is more often
used.

1
1
10
dB bel =
i.e. one decibel is
1
10
th of a bel.
Thus,
10
0
log
L
I
I K dB
I
| |
=
|
\ .

The threshold of audibility is 0 dB and the maximum intensity level is 120 dB. The sound of
intensity level 120 dB produces a feeling of pain in the ear and is therefore called as the threshold
of feeling.
1.11.3 Loudness
Loudness is characteristic which is common to all sounds whether classified as musical
sound or noise.
Loudness is a degree of sensation produced on ear. Thus, loudness varies from one
listener to another. The loudness depend upon intensity and also upon the sensitiveness of the ear.
Loudness and intensity are related to each other by the relation
I L
10
log
or
10
log L K I = where K is a constant.
From this relation it is seen that, loudness is directly proportional to the logarithm of
intensity, and is known as Weber-Fechner law.
From the above equation,

dL
dI I
K
=

where,
dL
dI
is called as sensitiveness of ear. Therefore, sensitiveness decrease with increase of
intensity. Loudness is a physiological quantity.

Worked Example 1.5: If the intensity of a source of sound is increased 20 times its value, by how
many decibel does the intensity level increase.

10
10 log
L
o
I
I
I
| |
=
|
\ .

= 10 log
10

10
20
10 log 20 10 1.3012
o
o
I
I
| |
= =
|
\ .

I
L
= 13.01 dB.
Thus, the sound intensity level is increased by 13 dB when the intensity is
doubled.

Worked Example 1.6: The amplitude of a sound wave is doubled; by how many dB will the
intensity level increase?
We know I a
2
, therefore when amplitude is doubled, intensity increases
four times.
I = 4I
0

Hence,
10
4
10 log
o
L
o
I
I
I
| |
=
|
\ .

I
L
= 10 log
10
4 = 10 0.6020
I
L
= 6.020 dB.
Thus, the intensity level increase by 6 dB.

Worked Example 1.7: What is the resultant sound level when a 70 dB sound is added to a 80 dB
sound?

1
10
10 log
L
o
I
L
I
| |
=
|
\ .

70 =
1
10
log
o
I
I
| |
|
\ .

7 =
1
10
log
o
I
I
| |
|
\ .

7 1
10
o
I
I
=

or I
1
= 10
7
I
o

Similarly, 80 = 10 log
10
2
o
I
I
| |
|
\ .

8 2
10
o
I
I
=
1.12 Sound Absorption
When sound is incident on the surface of any medium, it splits into three parts. One part is
reflected from the surface; another part gets absorbed in the medium, while the remaining part is
transmitted through the medium and emerges on the other side. The property of a surface by which
sound energy is converted into other form of energy is known as absorption. In the process of
absorption sound energy is converted into heat due to frictional resistance inside the pores of the
material. The fibrous and porous materials absorb sound energy more, than other solid materials.
1.12.1 Sound Absorption Coefficient
Different surfaces absorb sound to different extents. The effectiveness of a surface in
absorbing sound energy is expressed with the help of absorption coefficient. The coefficient of
absorption ò of a materials is defined as the ratio of sound energy absorbed by its surface to that
of the total sound energy incident on the surface. Thus,
o =
surface the on incident energy sound Total
surface the by absorbed energy Sound

In order to compare the relative efficiency of different absorbing surfaces, it is essential to
select a standard in terms of which all surfaces can be described. A unit area of open window is
selected as the standard. All the sound incident on an open window is fully transmitted and none is
reflected. Therefore, it is considered as an ideal absorber of sound. Thus the unit of absorption is
the open window unit (O.W.U.), which is named a sabin after the scientist who established the
unit. A 1m
2
sabin is the amount of sound absorbed by one square metre area of fully open window.
Table 1.5 lists the absorption coefficients of various materials.
Table 1.5 Absorption coefficients of some materials
Material Absorption coefficient per m
2
at 500 Hz
Open window
Ventilators
Stage curtain
Curtains with heavy folds
Carpet
Audience (One adult in upholstered seat)
Fibrous plaster, Straw board
Perforated compressed fibre board
Concrete
Marble
1.00
0.10 to 0.50
0.20
0.40 to 0.75
0.40
0.46
0.30
0.55
0.17
0.01

The value of ò depends on the nature of the material as well as the frequency of sound.
The greater the frequency the larger is the value of ò for the same material. Therefore, the values
of ò for a material are determined for a wide range of frequencies. It is a common practice to use
the value of ò at 500 Hz in acoustic designs.
If a material has the value of o as 0.5, it means that 50% of the incident sound energy
will be absorbed per unit area. If the material has a surface area of S sq.m., then the absorption
provided by that material is
a = o. S
If there are different materials in a hall, then the total sound absorption by the different
materials is given by
A = a
1
+ a
2
+ a
3
+
A = o
1
S
1
+ o
2
S
2
+ o
3
S
3
+
or A =
n
n n
S
1
o
where o
1
, o
2
, o
3
. are absorption coefficients of materials with areas S
1
, S
2
, S
3
, .
1.12.2 Reverberation
Sound produced in an enclosure does not die out immediately after the source has ceased
to produce it. A sound produced in a hall undergoes multiple reflections from the walls, floor and
ceiling before it becomes inaudible. A person in the hall continues to receive successive reflections
of progressively diminishing intensity. This prolongation of sound before it decays to a negligible
intensity is called reverberation.
Some reverberation is often desirable, especially in a hall used for musical performance. A
small amount of reverberation improves the original sound. However, too much reverberation
causes boom sound quality in a musical performance, Speeches given in such a hall would be
unintelligible. Reverberation is a familiar phenomenon experienced in halls without furniture.
Note that the reverberation of sound pertains to enclosed spaces only. In open air the
sound spreads out in all directions without repeated reflections.
1.12.3 Reverberation Time
The time taken by the sound in a room to fall from its average intensity to inaudibility
level is called the reverberation time of the room. Reverberation time is defined as the time during
which the sound energy density falls from its steady state value to its one-millionth (10
-6
) value
after the source is shut off. We can also express reverberation time in terms of sound energy level
in dB as follows. If initial sound level is L
i
and the final level is L
f
and reference intensity value is
I ,then we can write
L
i
= 10 log
I
I
i
and L
f
= 10 log
I
I
f

L
i
L
f
= 10 log
f
i
I
I

As
i
f
I
I
= 10
-6
. L
i
L
f
= 10 log 10
6
= 60 dB
Thus, the reverberation time is the period of time in seconds, which is required for
sound energy to diminish by 60 dB after the sound source is stopped.

1.12.4 Sabines Formula for Reverberation Time
Prof.Wallace C.Sabine (1868-1919) determined the reverberation times of empty halls and
furnished halls of different sizes and arrived at the following conclusions.
i) The reverberation time depends on the reflecting properties of the walls, floor and ceiling
of the hall. If they are good reflectors of sound, then sound would take longer time to die
away and the reverberation time of the hall would be long.
ii) The reverberation time depends directly upon the physical volume V of the hall.
iii) The reverberation time depends on the absorption coefficient of various surfaces such as
carpets, cushions, curtains etc present in the hall.
iv) The reverberation time depends on the frequency of the sound wave because absorption
coefficient of most of the materials increases with frequency. Hence high frequency would
have shorter reverberation time.
Prof. Sabine summarized his results in the form of the following equation.
Reverberation Time, T
Volumeof the Hall V
Absorption A

or T =
A
V
K
(1)
where K is a proportionality constant. It is found to have a value of 0.161 when the dimensions are
measured in metric units. Thus,
T =
A
V 161 . 0
(2)
Equation (2) is known as Sabines formula for reverberation time. It may be rewritten as
T =
N
n n
S
V
1
161 . 0
o
(3)
or T =
n n
S S S S
V
o o o o + + + + .......
161 . 0
3 3 2 2 1 1
(4)
1.12.5 Optimum Reverberation Time
Sabine determined the time of reverberation for halls of various sizes and is given in Table
1.6. In these measurements, he used an organ pipe as the source, which was blown at a definite
frequency and under a constant pressure. The instant of cutting off of the sound and the instant at
which the observer ceased to hear the sound were recorded. And from the results, he deduced the
reverberation time that is likely to be most satisfactory for the purpose for which a hall is built.
Such satisfactory value is known as the optimum reverberation time.
Table 1.6 Optimum Reverberation Time for Halls
Activity in Hall Optimum Reverberation Time (s)
Conference halls
Cinema theatre
Assembly halls
Public lecture halls
Music concert halls
Churches
Large halls
1 to 1.5
1.3
1 to 1.5
1.5 to 2
1.5 to 2
1.8 to 3
2 to 3

1.13 Factors Affecting Acoustics of Buildings
There are several factors that affect the acoustical quality of a hall. We discuss here seven
common acoustical defects and their remedies.
(1) Reverberation Time
If a hall is to be acoustically satisfactory, it is essential that it should have the right
reverberation time. The reverberation time should be neither too long nor too short. A very short
reverberation time makes a room `dead. On the other hand, a long reverberation time renders
speech unintelligible. The optimum value for reverberation time depends on the purpose for which
a hall is designed. A reverberation time of 0.6 s is acceptable for speeches and lectures, while a
reverberation time of 1 to 2 s is satisfactory for concerts. In case of theatres the optimum value
varies with the volume. For small theatres 1.1 to 1.5 s is suitable whereas for large theatres, may
go up to 2.3 s.
Remedies
The reverberation time can be controlled by the suitable choice of building materials and
furnishing materials. If the reverberation time of a hall is too long, it can be cut down by increasing
the absorption or reducing volume and if it is too short, it can be increased by changing high
absorption materials to materials of low absorption or increasing volume.
Since open windows allow the sound energy to flow out of the hall, there should be a
limited number of windows. They may be opened or closed to obtain optimum reverberation time.
Carboard sheets, perforated sheets, felt, heavy curtains, thick carpets etc are used to
increase wall and floor surface absorption. Therefore, the walls are to be provided with absorptive
materials to the required extent and at suitable places. Heavy fold curtains may be used to increase
the absorption. Covering the floor with carpet also increase the absorption.
Audience also contribute to absorption of sound. The absorption coefficient of an
individual is about 0.45 sabins. In order to compensate for an increase in the reverberation time
due to an unexpected decrease in audience strength, upholstered seats are to be provided in the
hall. Absorption due to an upholstered chair is equivalent to that of an individual. In the absence of
audience the upholstered chair absorbs the sound energy and it does not contribute to absorption
when it is occupied.
(2) Loudness
Sufficient loudness at every point in the hall is an important factor for satisfactory hearing.
Excessive absorption in the hall or lack of reflecting surfaces near the sound source may lead to
decrease in the loudness of the sound.
Remedies
A hard reflecting surface positioned near the sound source improve the loudness. Polished
wooden reflecting boards kept behind the speaker and sometimes above the speaker will be
helpful.
Low ceilings are also of help in reflecting the sound energy towards the audience.
Adjusting the absorptive material in the hall will improve the situation.
When the hall is large and audience more, loud speakers are to be installed to obtain the
desired level of loudness.
(3) Focussing
Reflection concave surfaces cause concentration of reflected sound, creating a sound of
larger intensity at the focal point. These spots are known as sound foci. Such concentrations of
sound intensity at some points lead to deficiency of reflected sound at other points. The spots of
sound deficiency are known as dead spots. The sound intensity will be low at dead spots and
inadequate hearing. Further, if there highly reflecting parallel surfaces in the hall, the reflected and
direct sound waves may form standing waves which leads to uneven distribution of sound in the
hall.
Remedies
The sound foci and dead spots may be eliminated if curvilinear interiors are avoided. If
such surfaces are present, they should be covered highly absorptive materials.
Suitable sound diffusers are to be installed in the hall to cause even distribution of sound
in the hall. A paraboloidal reflecting surface arranged with the speaker at its focus is helpful in
directing a uniform reflected beam of sound in the hall.
(4) Echoes
When the walls of the hall are parallel, hard and separated by about 34m distance, echoes
are formed. Curved smooth surfaces of walls also produce echoes.
Remedies
This defect is avoided by selecting proper shape for the auditorium. Use of splayed side
walls instead of parallel walls greatly reduces the problem and enhance the acoustical quality of
the hall.
Echoes may be avoided by covering the opposite walls and high ceiling with absorptive
material.
(5) Echelon effect
If a hall has a flight of steps, with equal width, the sound waves reflected from them will
consist of echoes with regular phase difference. These echoes combine to produce a musical note
which will be heard along with the direct sound. This is called echelon effect. It makes the original
sound unintelligible or confusing.
Remedies
It may be remedied by having steps of unequal width.
The steps may be covered with proper sound absorbing materials, for example with a
carpet.
(6) Resonance
Sound waves are capable of setting physical vibration in surrounding objects, such as
window panes, walls, enclosed air etc. The vibrating objects in turn produce sound waves. The
frequency of the forced vibration may match some frequency of the sound produced and hence
result in resonance phenomenon. Due to the resonance, certain tones of the original music may
get reinforced any may result in distortion of the original sound.
In a hall the whole air mass vibrates if sound is continuously produced from a source. The
vibration of air in turn adds to the resonant frequencies of the hall depending on its dimensions. If
lower modes of resonant frequencies are excited by the source, the sound distribution in the hall
will be erratic.
Remedies
The vibrating bodies may be suitably damped to eliminate resonance due to them.
In larger halls, the resonant frequencies are quite low. Hence by selecting larger halls
resonance defect can be eliminated.
(7) Noise
Noise is unwanted sound which masks the satisfactory hearing of speech and music. There
are mainly three types of noises that are to be minimized. They are (i) air-borne noise, (ii)
structure-borne noise and (iii) internal noise.
(i) The noise that comes into building through air from distant sources is called air-borne
noise. A part of it directly enters the hall through the open windows, doors or other
openings while another part enters by transmission through walls and floors.
Remedies
The building may be located on quite sites away from heavy traffic, market places, railway
stations, airports etc. They may be shaded from noise by interposing a buffer zone of trees, gardens
etc.
(ii) The noise which comes from impact sources on the structural extents of the building is
known- as the structure-borne noise. It is directly transmitted to the building by vibrations
in the structure. The common sources of this type of noise are foot-steps, moving of
furniture, operating machinery etc.
Remedies
The problem due to machinery and domestic appliances can be overcome by placing
vibration isolators between machines and their supports.
Cavity walls, compound walls may be used to increase the noise transmission loss and
keep the noise in the building at desired level.
(iii) I nternal noise is the noise produced in the hall or office etc. They are produced by air
conditioners, movement of people etc.
Remedies
The walls, floors and ceilings may be provided with enough sound absorbing materials.
The gadgets or machinery should be placed on sound absorbent material.
Split-type air conditioners etc are to be used.

Worked Example 1.8: A classroom has dimensions 20 15 5 m
3
. The reverberation time is
3.5 sec. Calculate the total absorption of its surfaces and the average
absorption coefficient.

=
S
V
T
o
161 . 0

69
5 . 3
) 5 15 20 ( 161 . 0
3
=

=
s
m
S o

average
69 69
2(20 15 15 5 20 5) 950
o = = =
+ +
0.07

Worked Example 1.9: For an empty assembly hall of size 20 15 10 m
3
the reverberation
time is 3.5 s. Calculate the average absorption coefficient of the hall.
What area of the wall should be covered by the curtain so as to reduce
the reverberation time to 2.5 s. Given the absorption coefficient of
curtain cloth is 0.5.
Total absorption of the empty hall
A =
138
5 . 3
10 15 20 ( 161 . 0
=

owu
Average absorption coefficient
o
av
=
106 . 0
) 10 20 10 15 15 20 ( 2
138
=
+ +

When the walls are covered with curtain cloth
2.5 =
S 5 . 0 138
) 10 15 20 ( 161 . 0
+

The area of the wall to be covered with curtain
S =
483 2.5 138
2.5 0.5

=
2
110.4m

1.14 Sources of Noise
The word noise is derived from the Latin term nausea. Noise is defined as unwanted
sound. Sound, which pleases the listeners, is music and that which causes pain and annoyance is
noise. At times, what is music for some can be noise for others.
Most leading noise sources will fall into the following categories: roads traffic, aircraft,
railroads, construction, industry, noise in building, and consumer products.
(1) Road Traffic Noise
In the city, the main sources of traffic noise are the motors and exhaust system of autos,
smaller trucks, buses, and motorcycles. This type of noise can be augmented by narrow streets and
tall buildings, which produce a canyon in which traffic noise reverberates.
(2) Air Craft Noise
Now-a-days, the problem of low flying military aircraft has added a new dimension to
community annoyance, as the nation seeks to improve its nap-of-the earth aircraft operations over
national parks, wilderness areas, and other areas previously unaffected by aircraft noise has
claimed national attention over recent years.
(3) Noise from railroads
The noise from locomotive engines, horns and whistles, and switching and shunting
operation in rail yards can impact neighboring communities and railroad workers
(4) Construction Noise
The noise from the construction of highways, city streets, and building is a major
contributor to the urban scene. Construction noise sources include pneumatic hammers, air
compressors, bulldozers, loaders, and pavement breakers.
(5) Industrial Noise
Although industrial noise in one of the less prevalent community noise problems,
neighbors of noisy manufacturing plants can be disturbed by sources such as fans, motors, and
compressors mounted on the outside of buildings. Interior noise can also be transmitted to the
community through open windows and doors, and even through building walls. These interior
noise sources have significant impacts on industrial workers, among whom noise induced
hearing loss is unfortunately common.
(6) Noise in building
Apartment dwellers are often annoyed by noise in their homes, especially when the
building is not well designed and constructed. In this case, internal building noise from plumbing,
boilers, generators, air conditioners, and fans, can be audible and annoying. Improperly insulated
walls and ceilings can reveal the sound of-amplified music, voices, footfalls and noisy activities
from neighboring units. External noise from emergency vehicles, traffic, refuse collection, and
other city noise can be a problem for urban residents, especially when windows are open or
insufficiently glazed.
(7) Noise from Consumer products
Certain household equipment, such as vacuum cleaners and some kitchen appliances have
been and continue to be noisemakers, although their contribution to the daily noise dose is usually
not very large.
1.15 Impacts of Noise
Noise has always been with the human civilization but it was never so obvious, so intense,
so varied & so pervasive as it is seen in the last of this century. Noise pollution makes men more
irritable. The effect of noise pollution is multifaceted & inter related. The impacts of noise on
human being, animal and property are as follows.
(1) It decreases the efficiency of a man
Regarding the impact of noise on human efficiency, there are number of experiments
which point out the fact that human efficiency increases with noise reduction. Thus human
efficiency is related with noise.
(2) Lack of Concentration
For better quality of work there should be concentration. Noise causes lack of
concentration. In big cities, mostly all the offices are on main road, the noise of traffic or the loud
speakers of different types of horns divert the attention of the people working in offices.
(3) Fatigue
Because of noise pollution, people cannot concentrate on their work. Thus they have to
give their more time for completing the work and they feel tiring
(4) Abortion is caused
There should be cool and calm atmosphere during the pregnancy. Unpleasant sounds
make a lady of irritative nature. Sudden noise causes abortion in females.
(5) It causes Blood Pressure
Noise pollution causes certain diseases in human. It attacks on the persons peace of mind.
The noises are recognized as major contributing factors in accelerating the already existing
tensions of modern living. The tensions result in certain disease like blood pressure or mental
illness etc.
(6) Temporary or Permanent Deafness
The effect of noise on audition is well recognized, in Mechanics, locomotive drivers,
telephone operators etc. All have their hearing. impairment as a result of noise at the place of
work. Physicist, physicians & psychologists are of the view that continued exposure to noise level
above 80 to 100 dB is unsafe. Loud noise causes temporary or permanent deafness.
(7) Effect on Vegetation
It is well known to all that plants are similar to human being. They are also as sensitive as
man. There should be cool & peaceful environment for their better growth. Noise pollution
causes poor quality of crops.
(8) Effect on Animals
Noise pollution damage the nervous system of animals. Animal looses the control of its
mind. They become dangerous.
(9) Effect on Property
Loud noise is very dangerous to building, bridges and monuments. It creates waves which
struck the walls and put the building in danger condition. It weakens the edifice of buildings.
1.16 Sound Level Meter
Definition
The instrumentation to determine sound level or noise level is referred as a sound level
meter.
Principle
The pressure of the sound waves under study actuates the microphone thus converting the
acoustical energy into electrical current which in turn serve to operate the display device.
Design
The various elements in a sound level meter are
i) the transducer; that is, the microphone
ii) the electronic amplifier and calibrated attenuator for gain control
iii) the frequency weighting or analyzing possibilities
iv) the data storage facilities
v) the display
A block diagram of a simple sound level meter is shown in Fig.1.19.The most important
element of sound level meter is the microphone.

Fig.1.19 Block diagram of a sound level meter
Microphones
The microphone is the interface between the acoustic field and the measuring system. It
responds to sound pressure and transforms it into an electric signal which can be interpreted by the
measuring instrument.
Microphone
Pre
Amplifier
Weighting
network or
filters

Amplifier

Rectifier

Averaging
System

Display
AC
Output
The microphone can be of the following types : piezoelectric, condenser, electret or
dynamic. In a piezoelectric microphone, the membrane is attached to a piezoelectric crystal which
generates an electric current when submitted to mechanical tension. The vibrations in the air,
resulting from the sound waves, are picked up by the microphone membrane and the resulting
pressure on the piezoelectric crystal transforms the vibration into an electric signal. These
microphones are stable, mechanically robust and not appreciably influenced by ambient climatic
conditions. They are often used in sound survey meters.
In a condenser microphone, the microphone membrane is built parallel to a fixed plate and
forms with it a condenser. A potential differential is applied between the two plates using a d.c.
voltage supply (the polarization voltage). The movements, which the sound waves provoke in the
membrane, given origin to variations in the electrical capacitance and therefore in a small electric
current. These microphones are more accurate than the other types and are mostly used in
precision sound level meters. However, they are more prone to begin affected by dirt and
moisture.
A variation on the condenser microphone which is currently very popular is the electret.
In this case the potential difference is provided by a permanent electrostatic charge on the
condenser plates and no external polarizing voltage. This type of microphone is less sensitive to
dirt and moisture than the condenser microphone.
In dynamic microphone, where the membrane, is connected to a coil, centred in a magnetic
field, and whose movements, triggered by the mechanical fluctuations of the membrane, give
origin to a potential differential in the poles of the coil. The dynamic microphone is more
mechanically resistant but its poor frequency response severely limits its use in the field of
acoustics
Working
The electrical signal from the transducer is fed to the pre-amplifier of the sound level
mater and a weighted filter over a specified range of frequencies. Further amplification prepares
the signal either for output to other instruments such as a tape recorder or for rectification and
direct reading on the meter. The scale on the indicating device is such that the linear signal may be
read in dB. The two main characteristic are:
(1) The frequency response
That is, the deviation between the measured value and true value as a function of the
frequency. As the ear is capable of hearing sounds between 20Hz and 20KHz, the frequency
response of the sound level meter should be good, with variations smaller than 1dB, over that
range.
(2) The dynamic range
That is, the range in dB over which the measured value is proportional to the true value, at
a given frequency (usually 1000Hz). This range is limited at low levels by the electrical
background noise of the instrument and at high levels by the signal distortion caused by
overloading the microphone or amplifiers.
1.17 Control of Noise Pollution
The techniques employed for noise control can be broadly classified as (1) control at
source (2) control in the transmission path and (3) using protective equipment.
1. Noise Control at Source
The noise pollution can be controlled at the source of generation itself by employing
following techniques.
(i) Reducing the noise levels from domestic sectors
The domestic noise coming from radio, tape recorders, television sets, mixers,
washing machines, cooking operations can be minimized by their selective and
judicious operation. By usage of carpets or any absorbing material, the noise generated
from felling of items in house can be minimized.
(ii) Maintenance of automobiles
Regular servicing and tuning of vehicles will reduce the noise levels. Fixing of
silencers to automobiles, tow wheelers etc., will reduce the noise levels.
(iii) Control over vibrations
The vibrations of materials may be controlled using proper foundations, rubber
padding etc., to reduce the noise levels caused by vibrations.
(iv) Low voice speaking
Speaking at low voices enough for communication reduces the excess noise levels.
(v) Prohibition on usage of loud speakers
By not permitting the usage of loudspeakers in the habitant zones except for important
meetings / functions. Now-a-days, the urban administration of the metro cities in
India, is becoming stringent on usage of loudspeakers.
(vi) Selection of machinery
Optimum selection of machinery tools or equipment reduces excess noise levels. For
example selection of chairs, or selection of certain machinery / equipment which
generate less noise (sound) due to its superior technology etc. is also an important
factor in noise minimization strategy.
(vii) Maintenance of machines
Proper lubrication and maintenance of machines, vehicles etc., will reduce noise
levels. For example, it is a common experience that, many parts of a vehicle will
become loose while on a rugged path of journey. If these loose parts are not properly
fitted, they will generate noise and cause annoyance to the driver/passenger. Similarly
is the case of machines. Proper handling and regular maintenance is essential not only
for noise control but also to improve the life of machine.
2. Control in the transmission path
The change in the transmission path will increase the length of travel for the wave and get
absorbed/refracted/radiated in the surrounding environment. The available techniques are briefly
discussed below.
(i) Installation of barriers
Installation of barriers between noise source and receiver can attenuate the noise
levels. For a barrier to be effective, its lateral width should extend beyond the line-of-
sight at least as much as the height (See Fig.1.20 The barrier may be either close to the
source or receiver, subjected to the condition that, R<< D or in other words, to
increase the transverse length for the sound wave.
(ii) Installation of panels or enclosures
A sound source may be enclosed with a paneled structure such as room as a means of
reducing the noise levels at the receiver. The actual difference between the sound
pressure levels inside and outside an enclosure depends not only on the transmission
loss of the enclosure panels but also on the acoustic absorption within the enclosure
and the details of the panel penetrations which may include windows or doors. The
product of frequency of interest and surface weight of the absorbing material is the key
parameter in noise reduction through transmission loss.
(iii) Green belt development
Green belt development can attenuate the sound levels. The degree of attenuation
varies with species of greenbelt. The statutory regulations direct the industries to
develop greenbelt four times the built-up area for attenuation of various atmospheric
pollutants, including noise.

Fig.1.20 Attenuation of noise levels using barriers
3. Using protection equipment
Protective equipment usage is the ultimate step in noise control technology, i.e. after noise
reduction at source and/or after the diversion or engineered control of transmission path of noise.
The usage of protective equipment and the workers exposure to the high noise levels can be
minimized by following.
to receiver
D
Barrier
Receiver
Barrier close
Source
R
R
D
D
Barrier close
Source
to source
Receiver
Barrier
(i) Job rotation
By rotating the job between the workers working at a particular noise source or
isolation a person, the adverse impacts can be reduced.
(ii) Exposure reduction
The schedule of the workers should be planned in such a way that, they should not be
over exposed to the high noise levels.
(iii) Hearing protection
Equipment like earmuffs, ear plugs etc. are the commonly used devices for hearing
protection. Attenuation provided by ear-muffs vary widely in respect to their size,
shape, seal material etc.
1.18 Ultrasonics
1.18.1 Introduction
The word ultrasonic combines the Latin roots ultra, meaning beyond and sonic, or
sound. The sound waves having frequencies above the audible range i.e. above 20000Hz are
called ultrasonic waves. Generally these waves are called as high frequency waves. The
wavelengths of ultrasonics are very small as compared to audible sound. The field of ultrasonics
have applications for imaging, detection and navigation. The broad sectors of society that
regularly apply ultrasonic technology are the medical community, industry, the military and
private citizens.
1.18.2 Properties of ultrasonic waves
(1) They have a high energy content.
(2) Just like ordinary sound waves, ultrasonic waves get reflected, refracted and absorbed.
(3) They can be transmitted over large distances with no appreciable loss of energy.
(4) If an arrangement is made to form stationary waves of ultrasonics in a liquid, it serves as a
diffraction grating. It is called an acoustic grating.
(5) They produce intense heating effect when passed through a substance.
1.19 Ultrasonics Production
Ultrasonic waves are produced by the following methods.
(1) Magneto-striction generator or oscillator
(2) Piezo-electric generator or oscillator
1.19.1 Magnetoagnetostriction Generator (or) Oscillator
Principle: Magnetostriction effect
When a ferromagnetic rod like iron or nickel is placed in a magnetic field parallel to its
length, the rod experiences a small change in its length. This is called magnetostriction effect.
(Fig.1.21).

Fig.1.21 Magnetostriction effect
The change in length (increase or decrease) produced in the rod depends upon the strength
of the magnetic field, the nature of the materials and is independent of the direction of the
magnetic field applied.
Construction
The experimental arrangement is shown in Fig.1.22.

Fig.1.22 Magnetostriction oscillator
XY is a rod of ferromagnetic materials like iron or nickel. The rod is clamped in the
middle.
The alternating magnetic field is generated by electronic oscillator. The coil L
1
wound on
the right hand portion of the rod along with a variable capacitor C. This forms the resonant circuit
of the collector tuned oscillator. The frequency of oscillator is controlled by the variable capacitor.
The coil L
2
wound on the left hand portion of the rod is connected to the base circuit. The
coil L
2
acts as feed back loop.
Working
When High Tension (H.T) battery is switched on, the collector circuit oscillates with a
frequency, f =
1
1
2 L C t

This alternating current flowing through the coil L
1
produces an alternating magnetic field
along the length of the rod. The result is that the rod starts vibrating due to magnetostrictive
effect.
The frequency of vibration of the rod is given by
n =
Y
l 2
1

where l = length of the rod
Y = Youngs modulus of the rod material and
= density of rod material
The capacitor C is adjusted so that the frequency of the oscillatory circuit is equal to
natural frequency of the rod and thus resonance takes plate.
Now the rod vibrates longitudinally with maximum amplitude and generates ultrasonic
waves of high frequency from its ends.
Advantages
1. The design of this oscillator is very simple and its production cost is low.
2. At low ultrasonic frequencies, the large power output can be produced without the risk of
damage of the oscillatory circuit.
Disadvantages
1. It has low upper frequency limit and cannot generate ultrasonic frequency above
3000 kHz (ie. 3MHz).
2. The frequency of oscillations depends on temperature.
3. There will be losses of energy due to hysteresis and eddy current.
4. We cannot get a constant single frequency from these magnetostrictive oscillators.
1.19.2 Piezo Electric Generator or Oscillator
Principle : Inverse piezo electric effect
If mechanical pressure is applied to one pair of opposite faces of certain crystals like
quartz, equal and opposite electrical charges appear across its other faces. This is called as piezo-
electric effect.
The converse of piezo electric effect is also true.
If an electric field is applied to one pair of faces, the corresponding changes in the
dimensions of the other pair of faces of the crystal are produced. This is known as inverse piezo
electric effect or electrostriction.
Explanation
A rectangular slab is cut from a crystal such as quartz such that two opposite faces ABCD,
EFGH (Fig. 1.23) are perpendicular to one optic axis.
If pressure is applied on these faces, electric charges are produced on the other faces. This
is called piezo-electric effect.

Fig.1.23 Piezo electric effect Fig.1.24 Inverse piezo electric effect
Conversely, if an electric field is applied across the opposite faces which are parallel to the
optic axis AEDH, and BFGC (Fig.1.24) then the thickness of the crystal along the optic axis
changes. The materials having this peculiar property are termed as piezo electric materials. The
best examples are: Quartz, Rochelle salt, Tourmaline, Zinc blende
Construction
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 1.25.

Fig.1.25 Piezo electric oscillator
The quartz crystal is placed between two metal plates A and B. The plates are connected
to the primary (L
3
) of a transformer which is inductively coupled to the electronics oscillator.
The electronic oscillator circuit is a base tuned oscillator circuit. The coils L
1
and L
2
of
oscillator circuit are taken from the secondary of a transformer T. The collector coil L
2
is
inductively coupled to base coil L
1
.
The coil L
1
and variable capacitor C
1
form the tank circuit of the oscillator.
Working
When H.T. battery is switched on, the oscillator produces high frequency alternating
voltages with a frequency.

1 1
2
1
C L
f
t
=

Due to the transformer action, an oscillatory e.m.f. is induced in the coil L
3
. This high
frequency alternating voltages are fed on the plates A and B.
Inverse piezo-electric effect takes place and the crystal contracts and expands
alternatively. The crystal is set into mechanical vibrations.
The frequency of the vibration is given by
n =
Y
l
P
2

where P = 1,2,3,4 etc. for fundamental, first over tone, second over tone respectively.
Y = Youngs modulus of the crystal and = density of the crystal.
The variable condenser C
1
is adjusted such that the frequency of the applied AC voltage is
equal to the natural frequency of the quartz crystal, and thus resonance takes place.
The vibrating crystal produces longitudinal ultrasonic waves of large amplitude.
Advantages
1. Ultrasonic frequencies as high as 5 10
8
Hz or 500 MHz can be obtained with this
arrangement.
2. The output of this oscillator is very high.
3. It is not affected by temperature and humidity.
Disadvantages
1. The cost of piezo electric quartz is very high.
2. The cutting and shaping of quartz crystal are very complex.
Worked Example 1.9: A quartz crystal of thickness 1 mm is vibrating at resonance.
Calculate the fundamental frequency. Given Y for quartz =7.9 10
10

Nm
-2
and for quartz = 2650 kg m
-3
.
The frequency of the vibration
f =
Y
t
P
2

Here P = 1
f =
2650
10 9 . 7
001 . 0 2
1
10

= 2.72998 10
6
Hz
The fundamental frequency of the quartz crystal
= 2.730 10
6
Hz = 2.73 MHz
1.20 Applications of Ultrasonic Waves in Engineering
The ultrasonic waves find wide applications in engineering
1.20.1 Detection of flaws in metals (Non Destructive Testing NDT)
Principle
Ultrasonic waves are used to detect the presence of flaws or defects in the form of cracks,
blowholes , porosity etc., in the internal structure of a material
By sending out ultrasonic beam and by measuring the time interval of the reflected beam,
flaws in the metal block can be determined.
Experimental setup
The experimental setup is shown in Fig.1.26. It consists of an ultrasonic frequency
generator and a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO), transmitting transducer, receiving transducer and
an amplifier.

Fig.1.26 Ultrasonic NDT setup
Working
In flaws, there is a change of medium and this produces reflection of ultrasonic at the
cavities or cracks. The reflected beam (echoes) is recorded by using cathode ray oscilloscope.
The time interval between initial and flaw echoes depends on the range of flaw.
By examining echoes on CRO, flaws can be detected and their sizes can be estimated.
Features
- This method is used to detect flaws in all common structural metals and other
materials like rubber tyres etc.
- The method is very cheap and of high speed of operation.
- It is more accurate than radiography.
Reflected Pulse
from flaw
Initial flow
Reflected pulse
from bottom
High
frequency
generator
Amplifier
Specimen
Flaw
1.20.2 Ultrasonic Drilling
Ultrasonics are used for making holes in very hard materials like glass, diamond etc.
For this purpose, a suitable drilling tool bit is fixed at the end of a powerful ultrasonic
generator.
Some slurry (a thin paste of carborundum powder and water) is made to flow between the
bit and the plate in which the hole is to be made (Fig.1.27).

Fig. 1.27 Ultrasonic Drilling
Ultrasonic generator causes the tool bit to move up and down very quickly and the slurry
particles below the bit just remove some material from the plate. This process continues and a hole
is drilled in the plate.
1.20.3 Ultrasonic welding
The properties of some metals change on heating and therefore, such metals cannot be
welded by electric or gas welding.
In such cases, the metallic sheets are welded together at room temperature by using
ultrasonic waves.
For this purpose, a hammer H is attached to a powerful ultrasonic generator as shown in
Fig.1.28.

Fig.1.28 Ultrasonic Welding
Hard Material
Bit
Slurry
The metallic sheets to be welded are put together under the tip of hammer H. The hammer
is made to vibrate ultrasonically. As a result, it presses the two metal sheets very rapidly and the
molecules of one metal diffuse into the molecules of the other. Thus, the two sheets get welded
without heating. This process is known as cold welding.
1.20.4 Ultrasonic soldering
Metals like aluminium cannot be directly soldered. However, it is possible to solder such
metals by ultrasonic waves. An ultrasonic soldering iron consists of an ultrasonic generator having
a tip fixed at its end which can be heated by an electrical heating element. The tip of the soldering
iron melts solder on the aluminium and the ultrasonic vibrator removes the aluminium oxide layer.
The solder thus gets fastened to clear metal without any difficulty.
1.20.5 Ultrasonic cutting and machining
Ultrasonic waves are used for cutting and machining.
1.20.6 Ultrasonic Cleaning
It is the most cheap technique employed for cleaning various parts of the machine,
electronic assembles, armatures, watches etc., which cannot be easily cleaned by other methods.
1.20.7 SONAR
SONAR is a technique which stands for Sound Navigation and Ranging. It uses
ultrasonics for the detection and identification of under water objects.
The method consists of sending a powerful beam of ultrasonics in the suspected direction
in water. By noting the time interval between the emission and receipt of beam after reflection, the
distance of the object can be easily calculated.
The change in frequency of the echo signal due to the Dopper effect helps to determine the
velocity of the body and its direction.
Measuring the time interval (t) between the transmitted pulses and the received pulse, the
distance
2
t v
d = between the transmitter and the remote object is determined using the
formula., where v is the velocity of sound in sea water.
The same principle is used to find the depth of the sea.
Applications of Sonar
1. Sonar is used in the location of shipwrecks and submarines on the bottom of the sea.
2. It is used for fish-finding application.
3. It is used for seismic survey.
Worked Example 1.10: Given that the velocity of ultrasonic waves in sea water is equal to 1440
m/s. Find the depth of a submerged submarine if an ultrasonic pulses
reflected from the submarine is received 0.33 sec after sending out the
ultrasonic waves.
Total distance traveled by ultrasonics
= v t
= 1440 0.33
= 480 m
The total distance traveled by ultrasonic waves in going from source to
the submarine and back after reflection is equal to twice the depth of
submarine.
Depth of submerged submarine
480
2
= =240m
1.21 Applications of Ultrasonics in Medicine
1.21.1 Diagnostic sonography
Medical sonography (ultrasonography) is an ultrasound-based diagnostic medical imaging
technique used to visualize muscles, tendons, and many internal organs, their size, structure and
any pathological lesions. They are also used to visualize the foetus during routine and emergency
prenatal care. Ultrasound scans are performed by medical health care professionals called
sonographers. Obstetric sonography is commonly used during pregnancy.
Obstetric ultrasound is primarily used to:
- Date the pregnancy
- Check the location of the placenta
- Check for the number of fetuses
- Check for physical abnormities
- Check the sex of the baby
- Check for fetal movement, breathing, and heartbeat.
1.21.2 Ultrasound therapeutic applications
Ultrasound also has therapeutic applications, which can be highly beneficial when used
with dosage precautions.
- Treating beginning and malignant tumors and other disorders, via a process known as
Focused Ultrasound Surgery (FUS) or HIFU, High Intensity Focused Ultrasound. These
procedures generally use lower frequencies than medical diagnostic ultrasound (from 250
kHz to 2000 kHz), but significantly higher time-averaged intensities.
- More power ultrasound sources may be used to clean teeth in dental hygiene or generate
local heating in biological tissue, e.g. in occupational therapy, physical therapy and cancer
treatment.
- Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy uses a powerful focused ultrasound source to break
up kidney stones.
- Focused ultrasound sources may be used for cataract treatment by phacoemulsification.
- Doppler ultrasound is being tested for use in aiding tissue plasminogen activator treatment
in stroke sufferers. This procedure is called Ultrasound-Enhanced Systemic
Thrombolysis.
- Ultrasound has been shown to act synergistically with antibiotics in bacterial cell killing.
1.21.2 Ultrasonic blood Flow meter
Ultrasonic waves are used for studying the blood flow by measuring the change in their
frequency produced due to Dopplers effect.
Note : Physiological effects of ultrasound energy
Ultrasound energy has two physiological effects :
1. Enhance inflammatory response.
2. Heats soft tissue.
Ultrasound energy produces a mechanical pressure wave through soft tissue. This pressure
wave causes microscopic bubbles in living tissues, and distortion of the cell membrane,
influencing ion fluxes and intracellular activity. When ultrasound enters the body, it causes
molecular friction and heats the tissues slightly. In some cases, it can also cause small pockets of
gas in body fluids or tissues to expand and contract / collapse (cavitations). The long-term effects
of tissue heating and cavitations are not known.
1.22 Some Other Applications of Ultrasonics
1.22.1 Ultrasonic guidance for the blind
Ultrasonic waves are used for guiding the blind who carries a walking stick containing an
ultrasonic transmitter and receiver. Ultrasonic signals reflected from any obstacles are fed to the
head phones through a suitable electronic circuit which enables the blind person to detect and
estimate the distance of the obstacle.
1.22.2 Ultrasound in research
Scientists often use in research, for instant to break up high molecular weight polymers,
thus creating new plastic materials. Indeed, ultrasound also makes it possible to determine the
molecular weight of liquid polymers, and to conduct other forms of investigation on the physical
properties of materials. Ultrasonic can also speed up certain chemical reactions. Hence it has
gained application in agriculture, that seeds subjected to ultrasound may germinate more rapidly
and produce higher yields.
Problem Sheet

1. What force is received to stretch a steel wire to double its length when its area of cross
section is 1 sq.cm and Youngs modulus 2 10
11
N/m
2
. [Hint: |
.
|
\
|
=
l L
A F
Y
/
/
].
2. A steel wire 2 mm in diameter is just stretched between two fixed points at a temperature
of 20
o
C. Determine its tension when temperature falls to 10
o
C. Coefficient of linear
expansion of steel = 11 10
-6
/
o
C and Y for steel is 2 10
11
N/m
2
. [Hint: Change in length
= L
2
L
1
= L
1
t]
3. A wire of radius r stretched without tension, along a straight line is lightly fixed at A and
B as shown in the figure. What is the tension in the wire when it is pulled into the shape
ACB? Assume Youngs modulus of the material of wire to be Y.

4. A wire of length 2 m is fixed at one end and force of 10N is applied at the other end. The
area of cross section of the wire is 2 10
-6
m
2
and Youngs modulus of the elasticity of its
material is 1.8 10
11
N/m
2
. Calculate the stress and strain, assuming the truth of Hookes
law. [Hint: Y = Stress / Strain]
5. The volume of a room is 1200m
3
. The wall area of the room is 200 m
3
, the floor area is
120 m
2
and t he ceiling area is 120m
2
. The average sound absorption coefficient (i) for
walls is 0.03, (ii) for the ceiling is 0.80 and (iii) for the floor is 0.06. Calculate the average
sound absorption coefficient and the reverberation time. [Hint:
0.16V
T
aS
| |
=
|
E
\ .
].
6. A window whose area is 1.4 m
2
opens on a street where the street noise results m an
intensity level at the window of 60 decibels. How much acoustic power enters the window
via the sound waves? Standard intensity level = 10
-16
watt/cm
2
.

[Hint:

Intensity level = 10
log
10
o
I
I
| |
|
\ .
decibels].
7. An ultrasound interferometer is used to measure the velocity in sea water. If the distance
between two constructive antinodes is 0.55 mm. Compute the velocity of the waves in the
sea water. The frequency of the crystal is 1.5 MHz. [Hint: v = v].
8. Find the depth of a submerged submarine if an ultrasonic wave is received after 0.33 s
from the time of transmission. Given: The velocity of ultrasonic waves in sea water = 1440
m/s. [Hint: Distance = v t].
9. Calculate the frequency to which a piezo electric oscillator circuit should be tuned so that a
piezo electric crystal of thickness 0.1 cm vibrates in its fundamental mode to generate
ultrasonic waves. (Youngs modulus and density of material of crystal are 80 Gpa and
2654 kgm
-3
[Hint: = /
2
Y
l
p
f ] .
10. Calculate the fundamental frequency of a quartz crystal of thickness 1.5 mm which is
vibrating at resonance. Given Youngs modulus for quartz = 7.9 10
10
Nm
-2
and density
of quartz = 2650 kgm
-2
[Hint: = /
2
Y
l
p
f ].
11. A cast iron bed plate for a pump has the Youngs Modulus 210 GN/m
2
& the fracture
strength required is 1.6 10
8
N/m
2
. The specific surface energy is 10 J/m
2
, calculate the
crack length of cast iron. [Hint: o =
e
E 2
t
].

Review Questions
1. Define:Elasticity
2. Define: Plasticity
3. State: Hookes Law
4. Define:Youngs Modulus
5. Define:Bulk Modulus
6. Define:Shear or rigidity Modulus
7. Define: Compressibility
8. Define: Poissons ratio
9. Define the torsional rigidity
10. What is a shaft?
11. Define:Neutral axis
12. What do you mean by flexural rigidity?
13. What do you mean by buckling of the beam?
14. What is sonic boom?
15. Define:Mach number
16. Define:Critical Mach number
17. Define:Mach tuck
18. What are ultrasonic waves?
19. Write any four important properties of ultrasonics?
20. What is magnetostriction effect?
21. What is inverse piezo electric effect?
22. What are the merits and demerits of magnetostriction oscillator method?
23. What are the merits and demerits of piezo electric oscillator method?
24. What are the physiological effects of ultrasound energy?
25. Define :Flutter echo
26. Define: Reverberation time
27. What is meant by sound absorption ?
28. Write the Sabines formula for reverberation time.
29. What are acoustical dead spots?
30. What is echelon effect?
31. What is a noise?
32. Derive an expression for twisting couple on a cylinder.
33. What are the requirements for a good shaft? Show that hollow shaft is better than solid
shaft.
34. Describe a tensional pendulum with necessary theory and explain its uses.
35. Derive an expression for bending moment of beam.
36. Explain uniform bending with necessary theory and describe an experiment to determine
Youngs modulus of the material.
37. Explain non-uniform bending with necessary theory and describe an experiment to
determine Youngs modulus of the material
38. With neat diagram, explain the magnetostriction method for production of ultrasonics.
39. With neat diagram, explain the piezo electric method for production of ultrasonics.
40. Explain the various industrial and medical applications of ultrasonics.
41. Explain various factors affecting architectural acoustics and their remedies.
42. Discuss the factors reverberation resonance, echelon effect, focusing and reflection that
affect the acoustics in hall and the remedies for them.
43. Explain how the reverberation time of a hall is affected by (a) its size (b) nature of its wall
surfaces and (c) audience.
44. Define the term coefficient of absorption and write a short notes on it.
45. Write down the Sabines formula. Explain the terms involved in it and describe the units
of each of them.
46. State the acoustic requirements of a good auditorium. Explain how these requirements
47. can be achieved.
48. Explain the different sources and impacts of noise
49. Explain a sound level meter.
50. Explain the different techniques employed for noise control.

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