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Cable structures
Cables - good resistance in tension, but no strength in compression Tent:
a cable structure consisting of a waterproofing membrane supported by ropes or cables and posts cables must be maintained in tension by prestressing in order to avoid large vibrations under wind forces and avoid collapse
Suspension bridges
Suspension bridges: the earliest method of crossing large gaps Early bridges realised from a walkway suspended from hanging ropes of vines To walk a lighter bridge of this type at a reasonable pace requires a particular gliding step, as the more normal walking step will induce travelling waves that can cause the traveller to pitch (uncomfortably) up and down or side-to-side.
Suspension bridges
Suspension bridge realised following the simple design of early bridges:
cables (catenaries) light deck hangers suspending the deck on catenaries
Lack of stability in high winds Very flexible under concentrated loads, as the form of the cable will adapt to loading form
Suspension bridges
Capilano Suspension Bridge, Canada
Suspension bridges
Improved behaviour under traffic and wind loads: stiffening trusses at the level of the deck, that distributes concentrated loads over greater lengths
Alternatively: restrain vertical movement of the catenaries by inclined cables attached to the top of the towers or inclined struts below the deck
Suspension bridges
The Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan: 1991 m span
Suspension bridges
Golden Gate Bridge, California, USA: 1280 m span
Suspension bridges
Brooklyn Bridge, USA (the largest from 1883 until 1903): 486 m span
Cable-stayed bridges
A cable-stayed bridge consists of one or more piers, with cables supporting the bridge deck Basic idea: reduce the span of the beam (deck) several times compared to the clear span between the piers Steel cable-stayed bridges are regarded as the most economical bridge design for spans ranging between 200 and 400 m Shorter spans: truss or box girder bridges Larger spans: suspension bridges
Cable-stayed bridges
Reducing the span of a beam greatly improves the maximum stress and deflection
Multi-storey buildings
Why multi-storey buildings?
large urban population expensive land
Multi-storey buildings make more efficient use of land: higher the building (more storeys) - larger the ratio of the building floor area to the used land area Technological competition (very high buildings) Until the end of the 18th century most buildings of several storeys in the Western world were made of:
continuous walls of brick or stone masonry supporting the roof floors from timber beams
Elevator invented in USA in 1870, enabling much taller office and apartment buildings to be constructed Most multi-storey buildings in USA were still making use of masonry walls instead of columns
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Columns support gravity loads only To avoid tension on the brick walls, the resultant force must lie in the middle third of the thickness of the wall very thick walls in the lower storeys
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Floors must be stiff and strong in their plane in order to allow lateral forces acting on gravity frames to be transmitted to load-bearing walls Usually floors are realised from cast in place reinforced concrete to give a monolithic slab over full plan of the building
F F
stiff floor
flexible floor
Steel structures:
moment-resisting frames braced frames
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Braced frames resist lateral loads through direct (axial) stresses in the triangulated system
obstruction of clear spaces, but small deformations (rigid structure) smaller stresses due to more efficient structural behaviour
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Outrigger truss: outer columns are "involved" into the truss-like action (axial stresses) through the outrigger truss
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