Factors of Production Land Land: Dr.

. Alfred Marshall defined land is meant no merely land in the strict sense of the word, but whole of the materials and forces which nature gives freely for mans aid in land, water, in air and light and heat. Land stands for all nature, living and lifeless. It includes all natural resources that human being get free from air, water and land. In short, the terms land refers all that nature has created on the earth, above the earth and below the earths surface. Importance of Land: Land a factor of production is of immense importance. Land is the original sources of all material wealth. The economic prosperity of a country is closely linked with the richness of her natural resources. The quality and quantity of agricultural wealth a country depends on nature of soil, climate, rainfall. The agril products are the form the basis of trade and industry. Industry also depends upon availability of coal-mines or waterfall for electricity production. Thus all aspects of economic life i.e. agriculture, trade and industry are generally influenced by natural resources which is called as Land in economics. The importance of land is therefore too much as it is influencing finally the standard of living of the people. Peculiarities of Land: Land as a factor of production is quite peculiar, it possess some importance feature, they are1. Land is free gift of nature: Land is not produced or man-made resource (agent). Therefore, that we have to accept is as it is. It is after all free gift of nature. 2. Land is limited in area: Land surface of the world is remaining unchanged. In Holland, some land has been reclaimed from the sea. But these efforts have produced a negligible result as compared with the total area already in existence. 3. Land is permanent: Land as factor of production is not easy to destroy. The other factors are destructible but land can not be completely destroyed. 4. Land lacks mobility: Land can not move bodily from one place to another. It lacks geographical mobility. 5. Land is of infinite variety: Land is not man-made. Land is of infinite variety. For example, soil may be of different types, climate elements like temperature, rains received in different part is always varying. Factors affecting productivity of land: Different pieces of land differ in quality or productivity. The productivity depends upon following factors. 1. Natural factors: The factors like soil, climate, rainfall, topography influence the productivity. The sandy soil with low rainfall always yield less but it is not so in cause of black cotton soil. It always yields more. 2. Human factor: Man is always trying his best how maximum output can be obtained from land. So many deficiencies are always tacked good yields. This human effort is very important to increase the productivity.

3. Situation factor: The location of the land many a times determines the productivity. The fertile land in remote corner of the country perhaps may not be cultivated but the land having less fertility but located nearby marked can give a good yield. Efficiency of Labour Efficiency refers to production capacity. It is classified into four heads and they are: a. Personal Qualities
o

Racial Qualities - Every person accede to definite qualities from the race to which he belongs. Hereditary Qualities - A child accede to the skill of the parent by birth. Naturally he will be more efficient if he gets into the right trade.

Individual Qualities - If a labour possess good physique, is mentally fit, who is intellectual, sober, honest and resourceful and is responsive will be naturally efficient than others.

Education and Training - An educated and trained worker is much more efficient than an unskilled and uneducated worker. Standard of Living - A labourer having high standard of living is unquestionably more efficient than the lower ones. Good food stuffs, good airy location and healthy surrounding form the factor of this idea.

b. Working Conditions
o

Factory environment - If the factory environment is healthy and sound and there is sufficient space for movement of machines the efficiency will be higher.

Working Hours - Effective working hours with pantry breaks and recreations always improves efficiency of labour.

Wages - A labourer who is compensated huge will have good efficiency than that of those who receives fewer wage.

Promotional Factor - In the event that a worker knows that he will be rewarded and promoted to higher grade will work smartly and effectively.

c. Social, Political and Economic Conditions

o

Weather Conditions - The climatic or weather conditions will have much effect on the efficiency of the labourer. If the climate is too humid then he will get tired soon and his work efficiency will get disturbed.

Social Conditions - Based on the social condition the co-operation amidst the workers are regarded.

Social Security - In the event of injury, sickness or death of any worker must convince the worker that his family would be taken care of to cross the condition. This factor improves efficiency.

Political Stability - If the state can maintain peace at home then this factor also helps one to work effectively.

d. Employer-Employee Relationship Penson defines as "Efficiency of labour depends partly on the employer and partly on the employee, partly on the organisation and partly on individual efforts, partly on the tools and machinery etc. with which the worker is supplied and partly on his skill and industry in making use of them." Thus if the relationship between the two is pleasant and cordial, efficiency of labour will be high. Advantages of Efficient Labour The term efficiency has a very valid meaning in the factor production. Efficient labourers bring in goodness to themselves, to the industry and to the fiscal condition of the nation.

1. To Themselves - When a working force is said to be efficient, its productivity unquestionably is high. As workers manufacture more, they are paid more. An efficient worker is capable to acquire a good compensating job.

2. To the Industry - An efficient worker is regarded as the best asset to an industry in which they are employed. They require no supervision at all since they are well established of their role. Their aim will be to work hard and be honest and responsible. They also take care in proper and efficient utilisation of resources and avoid wastages. They are efficient such that they can produce quality and larger quantity goods with less cost. They are moreover innovative of their orientation. Thus they bring about profit and harmony to the industry.

3. To the Nation - An efficient labour is regarded as the national property. It is likely to enhance production of superior products at lower costs. This not only enlarges trade and industry within the country but also overseas. This escorts to enhancement in output, employment opportunities and earnings and brings fiscal development. Online Live Tutor Characteristics of Land and Labour - PART - II Homework Help: We have the best tutors in Economics in the industry. Our tutors can break down a complex Characteristics of Land and Labour - PART - II Homework Help problem into its sub parts and explain to you in detail how each step is performed. This approach of breaking down a problem has been appreciated by majority of our students for learning Characteristics of Land and Labour - PART - II Homework Help concepts. You will get one-to-one personalized attention through our online tutoring which will make learning fun and easy. Our tutors are highly qualified and hold advanced degrees. Please do send us a request for Characteristics of Land and Labour PART - II Homework Help tutoring and experience the quality yourself. Online Efficiency of Labour, Advantages of Efficient Labour Help: If you are stuck with an Efficiency of Labour, Advantages of Efficient Labour Homework problem and need help, we have excellent tutors who can provide you with Homework Help. Our tutors who provide Efficiency of Labour, Advantages of Efficient Labour help are highly qualified. Our tutors have many years of industry experience and have had years of experience providing Efficiency of Labour, Advantages of Efficient Labour Homework Help. Please do send us the Efficiency of Labour, Advantages of Efficient Labour problems on which you need help and we will forward then to our tutors for review.

Consequences of Localisation Localisation has both merits and limits. They are enumerated below. Advantages

1. Reputation The place where an industry is localised gains reputation and so do the products produced there. As a consequent, articles bearing the name of that location find wide markets such as Sheffield cutlery, Swiss watches Ludhiana Hosiery etc. 2. Skilled Labour Localisation escorts to specialisation in particular trades. As a consequence, labourers skilled in those trades are fascinated to that place. The localised industry is continuously fed by a regular supply of skilled labour that also attracts new firms into the industry. Further, there is local supply of skilled labour that children of the labourers accede from them. The enhancements of the watch industry in Switzerland, of the shawl industry in Kashmir etc are primarily due to this factor. 3. Growth of Facilities Focus of an industry in specified region leads to the development of specific facilities there. To cater to the needs of the industry, banks and financial institutions, open their branches whereby the firms are able to get timely credit facilities. Railways and transport concerns allow exceptional transport facilities which the firms make use of bringing materials and transporting goods. Likewise, insurance companies give insurance facilities and thus indemnify risk of fire, accidents, thefts etc. 4. Subsidiary industries Where industries are localised, subsidiary industries grow up to supply machines, tools, implements and other materials and to utilise their by-products. For instance, where the sugar industry is localised, plants to produce sugar machinery tools from molasses and for rearing poultry which utilise molasses in nosh. 5. Employment Opportunities As an effect from the above, with the localisation of an industry in a particular locality and the establishment of subsidiary industries, employment opportunities considerably increase in that region. 6. Common Problems All concerns form an association to solve their common difficulties. This connection secures various types of facilities from the government and the other agencies for expanding business establish research labs, publishes technical and trade journals and opens training centres for technical personnel. As a consequence all firms benefits. 7. Economy Gains Localisation leads to the lowering of production costs and improvement in the quality of the products when the firms benefits from the availability of skilled labour, timely credit, quality materials, research facilities, market and transport facilities etc. Also the trade gains through the standing of the place, the people gain through larger employment opportunities, the government gains through larger tax revenue and thus the economy gains on the whole. Disadvantages Also localisation is not an unmixed go-ahead. It has its limitations. 1. Dependence When an industry is localised in a particular locality, it makes the economy dependant for its requirements of the products manufactured there. Such

dependence is dangerous in the event of war, a misery, or a natural disaster since the supplies of the articles will be disturbed and the whole financial system will endure. 2. Social Problems Localisation of industries in a particular locality creates many social problems such as congestion, emergence of slums, accidents, strikes etc. These adversely affect the efficiency of labour and the productive ability of the industry. 3. Limited Employment Where an industry is localised, employment opportunities are limited to a particular type of labour. In the event of a slump in that industry, specialised labour fails to get surrogate employment in some other place. Once again, if such specialised labour organises itself into a powerful trade union, it can force the employers to pay higher wages which may raise the outlay of manufacture and unfavourably influence the industry. 4. Diseconomies With the way of time, the focus of industries in a meticulous place, economies of scale may give path to diseconomies. Transport restricted access emerge. There are recurrent power break downs. Financial organizations are powerless to meet the credit needs of the entire industry due to fiscal severity. As noted prior, labour asks for higher wages and better and better living conditions. All these are inclined to raise costs of production and reduce production. 5. Regional Imbalance Focus of industries in one region or locality leads to the top-sided development of the fiscal. When one industry is localised in a region it attracts more business men who establish other industries there since the accessibility of infrastructure facilities like power, transport, finance, labour etc. Thus such regions improve more whilst the other areas linger backward. Employment opportunities, the level of earnings and the standard of living amplifies at a much greater velocity in these areas relatively with other areas of the nation. The people of the backward areas feel resentful and invidious of the people of the urbanized areas and the statute has to begin its own industries or promote private enterprise to start industries by giving a number of dispensations. Decentralisation of Industries

To overcome the disadvantages of localisation of industries, decentralisation is suggested. Decentralisation denotes the policy of dispersal of industries whereby an industry us speckled in diverse areas of the nation. Further removing the defects of centralisation of industries, the policy of decentralisation is indispensable from the tactical and defence points view. The policy of decentralisation of industries necessitates the enlargement of sources of power and means of transport in all areas of the nation.

To persuade private enterprise to set up industries in backward regions, the state must supply land, power and other infrastructure facilities at dispensation rates. The Central government must give tax allowances and a variety of financial organisations must provide cheap credit facilities. It is in this way that the disadvantages of localisation can be isolated and the diverse areas growth in an impartial way.

Conclusion Thus localisation has many more advantages and also limits but considering the meritorious part, it is recommended as it enhances the fiscal condition of the nation. Also by removing the defects of centralisation, it can pave way for a nations development. Online Live Tutor Consequences of Localisation: We have the best tutors in Economics in the industry. Our tutors can break down a complex Consequences of Localisation problem into its sub parts and explain to you in detail how each step is performed. This approach of breaking down a problem has been appreciated by majority of our students for learning Consequences of Localisation concepts. You will get oneto-one personalized attention through our online tutoring which will make learning fun and easy. Our tutors are highly qualified and hold advanced degrees. Please do send us a request for Consequences of Localisation tutoring and experience the quality yourself. Online Decentralisation of Industries Help: If you are stuck with an Decentralisation of Industries Homework problem and need help, we have excellent tutors who can provide you with Homework Help. Our tutors who provide Decentralisation of Industries help are highly qualified. Our tutors have many years of industry experience and have had years of experience providing Decentralisation of Industries Homework Help. Please do send us the Decentralisation of Industries problems on which you need help and we will forward then to our tutors for review. Characteristics of Land and Labour - PART I Meaning of Land The term land not only means surface of soil but in economics it is often used in a wider sense but it also includes all those natural resources which are the no cost complements of nature. The natures complements comprise of the entire irrigation source, woods, peaks, oceans, natural heat and light of sun, climate, weather, downpour etc and these are above the surface of the land. Gold, oils, iron, coal and all the metallic elements etc are from underneath the surface of the land. Characteristics of Land Land possesses the following characterises:

1. No-Cost Complement from nature - Man has to make hard work in order to get other factors of production. But to obtain land no human efforts are essential. Land is not the product of human toil. Rather it existed even long before the evolution of man.

2. Fixed Quantity - The total quantity of land does not undergo any variation. It is restricted and cannot be amplified or shrinked with human labour. No amendments can be made in the surface area of land.

3. Land is permanent - All that man makes are non durable and may even go without existence. But land is everlasting. Thus it cannot go out of existence and are not destructible.

4. Land is a Primary Factor of Production - In any type of the process of production, we have to begin with the land. For instance, factories help to provide raw materials and in agriculture crops are produced on land.

5. Land is a passive factor of production - This is for the reason that it cannot produce anything for itself. For instance rice cannot grow on a piece of land by itself. To grow it, man has to cultivate land. Labour is active aspect whereas land is a passive factor of production.

6. Land is Immovable - Land is immovable in the sense that it cannot be transported from one place to another. For instance, no portion of Indias surface can be transported to some other nation.

7. Land has same Original Indestructible Powers - Land possess by nature; indestructible powers which a human being cannot tend to destroy it. The fertility may undoubtedly vary but cannot be abolished as a whole.

8. Land differs in Fertility - Fertility of land differs on different pieces of land. One piece of land may produce more and other less.

9. Supply of land is inelastic - The demand with respect to article may raise or subside with the supply of the article whereas the supply of land does not raise or subside with the demand.

10. Land has many uses - The utilisation and usage of land is very vast such as agriculture, factories and industries can be set up, can build houses, can construct roads and rails etc. Factors Affecting Productivity of Land The following factors affect the productivity of land in a nation. 1. Qualities of land - If the land is flat and levelled, it will be more productive. Likewise, land in hilly area is more productive than a land in the desert. Its productivity is also based on the earth and weather conditions. Hence the quality of land helps in productivity.

2. Means of Irrigation - This factor is of more importance than merely depending on the rainfall. The means of irrigation consist of wells, canals, tanks, bore wells etc.

3. Situation of Land - It is always good to have a productive land near the market than to have it in some remote area. The reason is the cost of transportation amidst market and the area of production gets reduced. Hence correct place of location is a factor of productivity land.

4. Proper use of land - Moreover, even though the land may be located near the market, it is the proper utilisation which determines the productivity. For instance, correct cultivation has to be made with the type of soil fertility such as cotton can be cultivated in the black soil. Whereas if black soil is used for cultivation of wheat then its productivity falls.

5. Improvements on land - The productivity has to be enhanced at any cause and improvements made on land such as hedging, consolidation of land holdings, irrigation channels etc, helps in productivity enhancement.

6. Improved methods of cultivation - Improved methods of cultivation include, fertilisers, quality seeds, mechanised ploughs etc are used.

7. Trained Labour - If the labour is efficient in sowing seeds, watering plants, spraying insecticides, cutting crops etc then the productivity of land increases.

8. Ownership of land - If the land is owned, the cultivator takes personal interest in all the activities relating to production. On contrary to this, if the labourers are hired and not having personal interest, then the productivity would be low.

9. Government Policy - The agricultural policy of Law would also affect productivity of land. By giving certain concessions to cultivators, the degree of productivity increases and facilitates the farmers.

Online Live Tutor Characteristics of Land and Labour - PART I: We have the best tutors in Economics in the industry. Our tutors can break down a complex Characteristics of Land and Labour - PART I problem into its sub parts and explain to you in detail how each step is performed. This approach of breaking down a problem has been appreciated by majority of our students for learning Characteristics of Land and Labour - PART I concepts. You will get one-to-one personalized attention through our online tutoring which will make learning fun and easy. Our tutors are highly qualified and hold advanced degrees. Please do send us a request for Characteristics of Land and Labour - PART I tutoring and experience the quality yourself. Online Characteristics of Land, Factors Affecting Productivity of Land Help: If you are stuck with an Characteristics of Land, Factors Affecting Productivity of Land Homework problem and need help, we have excellent tutors who can provide you with Homework Help. Our tutors who provide Characteristics of Land, Factors Affecting Productivity of Land help are highly qualified. Our tutors have many years of industry experience and have had years of experience providing Characteristics of Land, Factors Affecting Productivity of Land Homework Help. Please do send us the Characteristics of Land, Factors Affecting Productivity of Land problems on which you need help and we will forward then to our tutors for review.

Factors of Production Capital Capital: Capital has been as that part of persons wealth, other than land, which yields an income or which aids in the production of further wealth. 1) Capital and Wealth: The capital is required in production. In modern economy the production depends not only on land and labour but capital is also equally important. It is also important to note that if wealth is not used in production process it is not said to be a capital. For example, basically tractor is capital asset as it can be used in cultivation (production) of farm, but due to some reason the same is kept unused (idle) for one or two year it can not termed as capital for that particular year. It is only wealth. Thus, the unused wealth can not be considered as capital. Hence all capital is wealth but all wealth is not capital. 2) Money and capital: In the ordinary language, capital is used in the sense of money. No doubt money is wealth and part of wealth used in production is called capital. But here in production process money is not used as such and hence it can not be termed as capital. Only by using money we are purchasing capital assets and hence money itself is not capital. 3) Capital is produced means of production: It is man made instrument of production. Just like land and labour, capital as factor of production is not original. Since it is man-made it is not freely available. Characteristics of capital: 1) Capital is man made factor of production. 2) It involves time element. 3) Capital may be fixed: i.e. it is durable use pre use producer goods e.g. machinery, well in agriculture. It may be working: i.e. it is single use producers goods e.g. seed, fertilizer in agriculture. Function of capital: 1) Supply of raw material: The working capital required in production process represents raw material. 2) Supply of appliances and equipment: The fixed capital goods. 3) Provision of subsistence: If capital is available to the poor person, he can utilize it and run his family very well. Supposes only 5 to 6 goats maintain by a poor person it will give him sizeable income to survive his family. 4) It also employment means of transport: 5) Supply of employment: If ample supply of capital is made, it will enhance production which will in turn give employment.

Importance of capital: 1. In modern economy capital is very important factor of production which is essential to undertake production. 2. Without capital other factors of production (like land, labour) will become handicap. 3. On the contrary, if apple supply-capital is made the production and productivity can be increased substantially. 4. The economic development of any country does not solely depend upon the available land and labour but how much capital is made available is also equally important. 5. The under-developed countries remained, under-developed due to lack of capital. 6. The ample supply of capital gives boost to production. 7. When more production is there, more economic activities can he initiated and as a result, more employment opportunities can be created. 8. More employment further helpful for minimizing the poverty or improving standard of living of the people.

9. 10. Haider Imtiaz answered 11. (1). Land as a factor of production: according to Marshall, "the land means the material and the forces which nature gives freely to man's aid in land and water, in air and light and heat." Land is used to describe all national resources which are used in the production of goods and services. These are agricultural land, mineral deposits forest, rivers, Lakes, oil deposits, mountains, etc, which are free gift of natures the above discussed resources are found under and above the surface of earth. Characteristics of land: these are the main characteristics of land as a factor of production (1). Fixed supply: the supply of land as a whole of an economy is fixed. It is perfectly in elastic. But from the point of view of an individual or a firm. It is relatively elastic. E.g. the supply of land by growing wheat can be increased and some less is used by growing other crop. (2). Mobility: it cannot be shifted from place where it is situated to another region. Its geographical mobility is nil but its ownership or value can be transferred. (3). Gift of nature: land is free gift of nature and cannot be produced or destroyed. But ownership of a piece of land can be sold from an owner to another one. (4). Fertility: all pieces of land are different in respect of their fertility. More fertile piece of land yields more production of a crop as compared to the production of less fertile piece. (5). Powers of the land: there are original and indestructible powers of the soil.

CAPITAL Capital is that which has been produced but not yet used up. Capital is formed by human thrift, forebearance, investment and production.

A-i. Land is not produced nor reproduceable

Land is not produced, it was created. It is the world, the planet from which man evolved, with the sun that energizes it and the orbit that tempers it.

Land is a free gift, variously expressed in different philosophies as Spaceship Earth, the Big Blue Marble, God's Gift, Creation, Gaia, The
Promised Land, or Nature. Mankind did not create The Earth with its space and resources, nor can we add to them. We can only acquire them, often by fighting, or rent-seeking, or in other counterproductive ways. Man at best improves and develops capacities inherent in the free gift.

"Land" in economics means all natural resources and agents, with their

sites (locations and extensions in space). Land is not just the matter
occupying space: it is space. It includes many things not colloquially called land, such as water and the beds under it, the radio spectrum, docks, rights of way, take-off/landing time slots for aircraft, aquifers, ambient air (the right to breathe it and the license to pollute), "air rights" to strata in the third dimension of cities, falling water, wild fish, game, and vegetation, natural scenery, weather, the environment, the ecology, the natural gene pool, etc.

Efficiency of Labor is the ability of Labor to increase output without increasing the quantity of Labor. Increase in efficiency is usually expressed in terms of increase in output of Labor within a shorter period of time without any fall in the quality of goods and services produced. If labor is efficient, the quality of goods and services produced will be high. There are lots of recommendations to consider when trying to improve efficiency of Labor. Such ways are as follows: Education and training: The level of education and training received by a worker will go a long way towards increasing the efficiency of labor. A well educated or well trained worker is in position to increase efficiency in his work. Level of technology: High technology will increase the efficiency of labour. Efficient management: High technology will increase the efficiency of labor.

Personal skill of the worker: If a worker possesses a natural skill of doing a particular job, his work becomes efficient. Attractive wages: When the salary or wage of a worker is attractive, it will boost or promote the efficiency of the worker. Weather condition: The physical or weather conditions in a work place can affect the efficiency of labor. Hot weather lowers efficiency of labor, cool weather or environment increases efficiency of labor. State of health of worker: A healthy worker is more likely to be more efficient than a worker who is sicker. Efficiency of other factors of production: The efficiency of other factors of production like land, capital and entrepreneur when combined with efficient labor will increase productivity. Intelligence of the workers: Some workers are highly intelligent, while others are not. Highly intelligent workers rarely make mistakes. Conditions of service: An improved condition of service like the availability of transport allowance, bonuses, overtime, etc. will help boost efficiency of labor. Application of division of Labor: The application of division of labor and specialization in any organization can result in the efficiency of labor. Level of commitment and attitude: The level of commitment and attitude of a worker can affect the efficiency of labor, when a worker can affect the efficiency of labour. When a worker is highly committed to his job, this will result in efficiency of labor. Security of job: Efficiency of labor can be increased if a worker is sure that his job is secured. Promotion: frequent promotions of workers in any organization can lead to increase in efficiency of labor. Mobility of Labor This is the ease with which labor can move from one geographical area to another; or from one occupation to another. Labor is said to be mobile when workers will find it easy to move from one geographical area to another or to change jobs. There are two main types of mobility of labor. Geographical mobility of labor Geographical mobility of labor is the ease with which workers or labor can move from one geographical location to another in pursuing the same occupation or changing occupations. When a worker moves from one town to another, eg, from London to Sheffield, without changing the job he is doing, we say that he has moved geographically. An accountant in London may move to Sheffield to continue to work as an accountant. Take note that it is the movement

of labor or worker from one area to another area, this is called geographical mobility of labor. Factors affecting geographical mobility of labor are: 1. Cost of transportation: A worker may be able to move from one location to another if the cost of transportation is low. But when it is high, movement becomes difficult. 2. Accommodation problems: Workers may not be able to move to new location where there's accommodation problems. 3. Climatic conditions: Members may move from where there are favorable, climactic conditions. 4. Family and cultural ties: Members of a family or culture may find it difficult to move from one location to another of strong family or cultural ties. 5. Government Policies: Certain government policies which can help to deliberately move labor to different states other than their states of origin. 6. Social and economic infrastructures: The availability of social and economic infrastructures eg, electricity, pipe borne water, telecommunication etc, do encourage labor to move to places where these infrastructures are available. 7. Discrimination: Labor may not be able to move if there is the possibility of discrimination against them in their destination. 8. Language barrier: When Labor finds it difficult to speak the language of a particular area, it becomes very difficult for them to move to such area. Occupational mobility of Labor This is the ease with which a worker or labor moves from one occupation or job to another. When a musician becomes a footballer, he has changed his occupation. Factors affecting mobility of labor are as follows: 1. Cost and length of training: Some professions are expensive to train in terms of time and money, e.g, the medical profession. 2. Ability or aptitude: Some jobs require natural ability or talents and those that are not gifted can not fit into such jobs e.g a musician. 3. Employment prospect/age: After a certain age (eg, 45 years) employers will not engage such people. They have poor prospects for an employer as they only have short working Life. 4. Trade union/professional association restrictions: Some professional bodies (e.g accounting, law) require certain qualifications before admission.

5. Personal reasons: Personal preference for a particular job and dislike for available alternatives may discourage movements. 6. Families and friendly ties: Friendly ties at times make it difficult for some people to change jobs. Also, some families are known to be associated with certain profession, and it will become difficult for a family member to pull out of that profession. 7. Political instability/religion: When there is political instability or religious crises, it will be very difficult for labor to move. 8. Wage rate: Labor will move if there is a wide margin in salaries but if it is low, labor may not move. 9. Condition of service: Apart from salary, the conditions of service in a working place eg bonuses, overtime, staff bus, car and housing loan etc. When present, will encourage labor to move. 10. Discrimination: There may be discrimination of sex, color, age, religion etc. This can affect occupational mobility of labor. Efficiency and mobility of labor are very vital pillars in a nation's or region's economy. They can stabilize or decline the rate of development of a region. For a more elaborate information about any of the subject matter discussed here, ranging from medicine to relationships, christianity, sexuality and even politics, you can visit my website. Also, there's lots of entertainment for you as there are about 25 different Music channels (ranging from Gospel praise, worship, contemporary Urban Jazz, Acapella and even kids praise as well as secular Music in Hip hop, blues, R & B, mid-night romantic collections, Mid-night soul blues, Oldskool, raggae, classical, jazz, rock and more) just to satisfy your entertainment needs. Visit the link below

Wages is the payment made to labor for the services they render in production. In other words, wages refer to the rewards paid for the services of labor. Wages are the price of labor. It could be in various types or forms. Below are two types of wages; 1. Nominal wages: Nominal wages refer to the total amount of money paid to a laborer at a particular period of time. Nominal wage, also called money wage, is the total amount of money paid to labor at a stated or stipulated period of time. It is measured in monetary terms. 2. Real wages: real wages refer to the total amount of quantity of goods and services the labor can use his money to buy. Real wage refers to the purchasing power of labor. Wage rate It is the rate at which labor is paid for the services it renders in production. It can be classified into time rate system and piece rate system.

1. Time rate system: he time rate system is the type in which wages paid to labor are based on the number of hours worked. Time rated wages apply to workers whose wages are paid on hourly, daily, fortnightly or monthly basis. Situations where time rate system can be applied are: where the quantity of work done is not easy to measure; where the quality of work done is more important than the quantity; where employees will require supervision of the employers to get the full value of their wages; where certain jobs may not be done for a longer period of time due to their health implications and finally where incentives to workers are not necessary. 2. Piece rate system: The piece rate system is concerned with the wages paid to labor based on the work done. In this system, payment to workers is related to the work done or output. The output of the worker is measured and he is accordingly rewarded. Situations where piece rate system is applied are: where supervision may not be necessary; where output can easily be measured; where large scale production is expected and where incentive to workers is encouraged. Factors responsible for variation in wages are as follows:

1. Differences in cost of training: Professions that are costly or expensive to execute in the course of training tend to attract higher wages than those with cheaper cost of training. 2. Differences in period of training: Some professions attract longer periods of training, for example, the medical profession, and therefore attract higher wages. 3. Skill needed to work: Some professions which require special skill during training tend to have higher wages than those which do not require any skill. 4. Activities of trade unions: Some trade unions determine what their members have to be paid, eg, chartered accountants, and this tends to make them earn high wages. 5. Forces of supply and demand: When the demand for a particular labor is higher than the supply, such labor tends to receive higher wages. 6. Level of productivity: It is assumed that in an ideal situation, the more a worker becomes productive, the higher his wages will be and vice versa. 7. Differences in hours of work: It is also assumed that in an ideal situation, the longer the number of hours worked, the higher the wages, especially when the piece rate system is used. 8. Level of risk associated with a job: Certain jobs, eg, piloting, petroleum engineering etc involve greater risks when in operation and therefore are associated with higher wages. 9. Entry qualification: Certain profession requires tough qualification and lengthy years of training, eg, medical doctor, lawyer, etc which tend to attract higher wages while those with little or no entry qualifications tend to receive lower wages. 10. Prestige associated with jobs: Certain jobs attract high prestige from the society eg, medicine, law, engineering etc, and they therefore attract higher wages while those with low or no prestige receive low wages.

Productivity can be defined as how efficiently and effectively we use our resources at lowest possible cost. Labour plays a very important role and consider as a basic unit for the productivity of any organization.

There are many factors that influence on the labour productivity and it is very difficult to measure... There are many factors that increase the efficiency and effectiveness of any organization but labor is consider as one of an important element... Labour efficiency depends upon their skills and knowledge towards their job.If their attitude towards job is positive and they are internally satisfied with their job they will do their work honestly and they will be loyal with their jobs and their attitude at the work place will be better than those who are not internally satisfied with their jobs.So there should be right people at right place... Experience makes the labour skills high,the high experience in field leads to high performance at workplace. More experience and high skilled employees play a very important role in the productivity of any organization. Attitude also consider a lot... if any employee has high skills but has poor attitude,his performance and output will be low and this will produce a negative effect on the overall performance of any organization.So there should be always positive attitude towards work for better performance. Training also counts a lot. If employees have not accurate knowledge about their work then the organization's productivity can be low. If the employees do not know how to use the new technology or new machinery and they have no knowledge to handle the new technology and they are not trained how to use this, then this can produce a negative effect on the efficiency of the organization and the organization can not compete in the market. Motivation is also another factor in the productivity of any organization.if employees are motivated by their manager their performance level is limited to a limited level. Managers should keep their employees' motivation level high he can motivate them by fulfilling their basic needs, their safety need, he can motivate them by increase their salary by giving them bonus on their work. He should rewarded their employees and treat them equally and eliminate the discrimination among them. He should show sympathy with their personal problems, promote their work level and should increase their wages etc. So there are many factors which can enhance the efficiency of the labours and decrease the efficiency of the labours.By eliminate the negative factors and increase the positive factors we can increase the overall performance of our organizations.

A population's growth rate is the measurement of its increase or decrease in numbers over time. A zero population growth rate means as many individuals are entering the population as are leaving it. A population reaches carrying capacity when the population's environment cannot handle an increase in the population's numbers. Four factors contribute to a population's natural growth rate.

Births

Births increase a population's growth rate through reproduction. Factors that positively affect birthrate include food abundance, suitable habitat for raising young and availability

of healthy mating partners. Some pregnant animals, such as rabbits, can spontaneously abort if food supplies run low so the female rabbit can save her reproductive energy for another litter. In areas of habitat loss, mating partners may have difficulty finding one another as in the case of pandas.

Deaths

Mortality rate defines how many deaths contribute to a decrease in population size. Death within a population is caused by factors such as disease, age, predation and starvation. For example, the Black Death in Medieval Europe was a disease that eliminated nearly two-thirds of Europe's human population.

1. Immigration
o

Populations can increase when members from another group move in to the population. This can be seen in some herding animals where the groups merge together. Wolves who leave their own pack and join another are examples of immigration. Humans often immigrate to another population in search of a better life.

Emigration
o

Emigration decreases a population when individuals leave the population for reasons other than death. Emigration can occur when populations get too large and need to split off to have enough resources. During the Potato Famine, a large group of Irish emigrated from Ireland to avoid starvation. Emigration can also happen when individuals are kicked out of the population. Wolf packs may chase an individual wolf out of the pack who doesn't behave. This ostracized wolf may or may not join another pack.

Need for controlling the growth of population Overpopulation is, indeed, a serious socio-economic problem of India. This problem has adversely affected the progress of the economy and the standard of the living of the people. The problem is an urgent one and needs immediate solution. Overpopulation is related to the size of the population and the population and the utilization of the countries resources. The problem should be tackled from both the sides. Firstly, production

should be increased to meet the needs of the people. Secondly, size of the population should be controlled and reduced. Measure of increase production Growing the population of the country can be supported through increase production. Agricultural and industrial productions are to be increased for this purpose. 1.Increase in agricultural production: It is necessary to resort to modern scientific cultivation in order to increase agricultural output. Use of irrigation, high yielding seeds, rotation of crops, utilization of chemicals, fertilizers, manures and such other means are to be adopted for this purpose. 2.Increase in industrial production: The process of industrialization is to be accelerated. Modern sophisticated technology must be made use for industrial production. The industrial strategy should be such that it should be able to increase production and at the same time provides job facilities to a sizable number of people. 3.Development of trade and commerce: The development of trade and commerce will contribute to additional income and help the country to support the growing the population. Measure to control and reduced population The problem of overpopulation can be effectively dealt with only if the rapid growth rate of population is contained. Various measures are to be undertaken in this regard. 1.Family planning measures: Family planning is nowadays considered an indispensable method of controlling population. The motto of planning is-"child by choice and not by chance" or "child by desire not by accident." The size of the family must be limited voluntary. 2.Providing education facilities of the people: Illiteracy is one of the factors of overpopulation. It is to be countered in order to contain the population growth. Spread of education among illiterate hassles is a significant step in reducing the birth rate. 3.Rise in the age of marriage:

In order to reduce the child-bearing period of women (reproductive span of women), it is necessary to rise the minimum age of marriage from 18 to for females and 21 to 24 for males. Child marriages should be prohibited. 4.Improving status of women: Experience in the west has shown that high status of women is closely associated with a low birth rate. The desire to rise in the social scale develops a strong feeling for a smaller family. 5.Propaganda in Favor of Small Family: Enough publicity is to be given in a country like India regarding the benefits of a small family to the general masses. Mass media of communication like the press, radio, television and movies are of great help in this regard. 6.Provision of Incentives: Incentives such as cash payments and promotion in jobs, free education, preference in admission to technical courses, etc. could be given to the people who accept and adopt family planning. 7.Increasing the Standard of Living of the Mass: People with higher standard of living normally opt for small family. Hence, it is necessary to increase the standard of living of the masses. I am Senba Ga Raman completed my UG degree, now am working in Bangalore. Optimum population may be defined as the type of population which when combined with the available resources and the given level of existing technology secure a maximum return per head. Optimum population is neither too small or too large. In other words, optimum population stands in between the two other extremes of over population and under population. It is the best type of population and it differs from country to country and from time to time. Optimum population is dynamic, hence it changes according to the changing quantity and quality of a country's available resources. Implications 1. At a given level of technology, it balances population with available resources. 2. The management or control of economy that has optimum population is very easy. 3. An optimum population ensures or secures a maximum return per head. 4. An optimum population is the population that produces full employment. 5. Optimum population is a dynamic population that changes with the changing quantity and quality of a country's available resources. 6. Optimum population also ensures the highest standard of living in a country. Malthusian Population Theory The Malthusian population theory is the outcome of an easy title "An Essay on Population"

written in 1798 by Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus, an Anglican clergyman and a well known political economist. The essay he wrote was influenced greatly by the rate at which the population in Europe at that time was growing at a very fast rate. In his essay, he highlighted the relationship between population and means of subsistence. The main features of Malthusian theory The main views or features of the Malthusian theory about population are: 1. That population was growing at a geometric progression such as 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc, while food production or supply was growing at an arithmetical progression such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 etc. 2. That there is a tendency for all living things to grow beyond the food available to them. 3. That unless population increase is matched with means of subsistence, negative and positive checks will come into force. 4. That the checks can be war, diseases, epidemics and famine 5. That population is essentially limited by the means of subsistence. Developments or events that have proven Malthusian theory wrong Developments or events that have rendered Malthusian theory wrong or irrelevant in present day situation is found in developed countries such as England, America, Japan, Germany etc. These developments include: 1. Development of technical knowledge and mechanization: The development of technical knowledge and mechanization of agriculture in advanced or developed countries has helped to increase food supply. 2. Changes in social attitude: Changes in social attitude like family size and family planing or birth control in these countries. 3. Efficient transportation system: Increased efficiency in the transportation system enables more materials to be provided to areas that needed them. 4. Industrial revolution: The industrial revolution, especially in Europe, also changed the idea of land as a fixed factor of production. 5. Medical improvement: Medical improvement by way of efficient health care services also enables people to enjoy long life thereby proving Malthus theory wrong. 6. Opening of new colonies: The opening of new colonies like America, Canada, Australia etc provided the necessary land for human habitation. 7. Interdependency of nations: The interdependency of nations for goods and services available in large quantities as a result of international trade. Developments or events that have proved Malthusian theory right Developments or events that have proved Malthusian theory right or valid in developing countries in Asia and Africa. These events are as follows: 1. Negative attitude: Negative attitude like practice of polygamy, giving birth to many children, etc, have made the population of many developing countries increase on daily basis. 2. High population and low food production: The population of many developing countries is growing at a geometric progression while food production is growing at an arithmetical progression. 3. Difficulties in eradicating poverty; Poverty, which is inherent in a given society according to Malthus, has proven extremely difficult to be wiped out of many poor countries. 4. Poor economic development: Rapid population growth militates against rapid economic

development and it grows faster than per capital income. 5. Fallen standard of living: The standard of living of many developing countries has fallen as a result of increase in population. Demographic transition theory The theory of demographic transition is the latest attempt made to provide a historical analysis into the population problems of developing countries. It tends to explain the reasons why all developed countries several years ago went through three identical stages of population history. The demographic transition theory puts up a model which recognizes three main stages in the process of population growth or demographic transition. The three stages are: Stage 1: The pre-industrialization stage: The main feature of this stage is high birth rate and high death rate. The population at this stage is either static or increasing or decreasing at a very low rate. The population transition remains fairly stable. Stage II: Transitional stage: This stage is characterized by high birth rate accompanied by low death rate. This stage leads to high population as a result of a number of factors such as industrialization, urbanization, better diet, higher income, improved medical services, etc. This stage marks the beginning of demographic transition. Many developing countries are currently at this stage of population growth. Stage III: Post transition stage: This stage is characterized by a low birth rate and low death rate. In other words, there is a relatively stable population with an older and larger population. This stage is associated with developed countries. Criticism against demographic transition theory 1. It is completely wrong to use the theory for general applications as it varies from one country to another. 2. Crude birth rate widely used in the theory is not the only way to measure fertility. 3. The main causes of decline in population may be different countries. 4. It fails to predict the levels of birth and death rates. Sex distribution The sex distribution refers to the classification of a given population according to sex or gender (male or female). Sex distribution can easily be obtained from a population census of a given country which shows the total number of males and the total number of females. A knowledge of the total number of makes and females in a country will assist the government to make the necessary plans to cater for the population. If, for example, the population of the female is higher than that of the males, it means government will have to plan to provide goods and services for more people because such a country will give rise to high population. Nature has, however tried to balance the number of males with that of the female in such a way that the differences in number between the two is usually very small. Occupational distributions Occupational distribution of a population refers to the classification of the working population into different types of work they engage in. The occupational distribution in any population is influenced by a number of factors. These include:

1. The level of education 2. Availability of natural resources 3. The level of technology 4. The types of productive activities. The major types of productive activities are primary (extractive), manufacturing, construction, commercial, direct and indirect services. In west Africa for instance, majority of the occupationally distributed population are found in farming, mining fishing and lumbering. Geographical distribution Geographical distribution of a given population refers to the spread of people into separate geographical areas within a country. The distribution may be due to occupational, presence of mineral resources, historical factors, seat of government, availability of social amenities etc. Reasons for high population density due to geographical distribution are: favorable climate, fertile soil, natural attachment/historical factors, administrative headquarters, employment opportunities, presence of minerals, presence of industries, presence of social amenities and infrastructure, commercial activities and migration. Economic Implications or Effects of Increase in the Population of Dependants The Dependants are the population that are between 0-17 years, which include the infants, pupils in nursery, primary, secondary and those in tertiary institutions, and the old age (over 60 years that are not working) but depend on the working population (18-60 years) to cater for all their needs or requirement. If the population of the dependents is higher than that of the working class it has the following economic implications: high taxation, increase in prices, increase in government expenditures, low savings, low investment, fall in standard of living, increase in demand for goods and services, increase in imports, decrease in exports and low supply of labor. here are three main factors which determine the population size and growth of a given country. There three factors are birth rate, death rate and migration. Birth rate The birth rate 9or natality rate) of a country refers to the rate at which children are being given birth to in that country. Generally, high birth rate may lead to increase in population or over population while low birth rate can lead to low population. Birth rate can be influenced by: 1. Early marriage: In many communities in the developing nations or Islamic regions, people encourage early marriage and this gives rise to increase in population as many children being given birth to. 2. Desire for large families: In most communities in developing nations and some races making up a facet of the American population, people tend to have many children as this places them in a special class or gives them better grounds of residency. Some men even go ahead to marry many wives just to achieve this. 3. Religious belief: While certain religion, eg, Christianity discouraged polygamy, others like Islam encourage marrying of many wives that will give birth to many children. 4. Improved medical services: as a result of improved medical services, death rate has reduced

while birth rate has been boosted. 5. Government aids: Where the government increases the aids it gives to people, families are encouraged to have more children thereby increasing the population. 6. Improved standard of living: This encourages men to marry more wives in favorable communities thereby increasing birth rate. Death rate Also known as mortality rate of a country and it refers to the rate at which people (both adult and children) die in a country. Generally, high death rate leads to population decrease or low population, while low death rate leads to increase in population. Death rate can be influenced by: 1. Ratio of male to female: When there are more males than female, there will be a low childbearing rate, which will reduce the population. 2. Poor medical services: When medical services are poor, death rate tends to increase. 3. High rate of infant mortality: High rate of infant mortality leads to decrease in population. 4. Poverty: High level of poverty among the people leads to high death rate, as such people may not have the means of taking care of their families. 5. Natural disasters: Natural disasters like earthquakes, flooding can lead to high death rate. 6. Man-made disasters: The occurrence of man-made disasters like wars, conflicts, pollutions etc, is capable of leading to high death rate. Migration This is the movement of people from one geographical area to another, involving permanent or temporary residence or settlement. In migration, the region where people are leaving is called the source region while the region where people are entering is called the receiving or destination region. There are two major types of migration. These are emigration and immigration. Emigration is the type of migration in which people leave their own countries, i.e movement out of a country. Immigration is the type of migration in which people enter into another country, ie, movement into another country. Migration from one place to another takes different forms, these include: 1. Rural-urban migration: This is the movement of people from rural areas. 2. Rural-rural migrations: This is the movement of people from one rural area to another rural area or from one ghetto to another ghetto. 3. Urban-rural migration: This is the movement of people from one Urban center to rural areas (especially the missionaries or for creating establishments). 4. Urban-Urban migration: This is the movement of people from one Urban center ( Town or city) to another. 5. International migration: This is the movement of people from one country into another. 6. Seasonal migration: This is the movement of people from one place to another at a particular season, maybe going abroad during summer holidays. Stabilzing these three factors can contribute to a very strong economy. The United states of America is a good example of a nation which has created an equilibrium between these three

factors and still find huge success. It has been estimated that immigrants now contribute to 30% of the nation's economy. Definitely, the United states visa lottery is not just there for a game-it has a purpose in which it is realizing. POPULATION CENSUS Characteristics 1. It must be conducted by government of the state or country where the census is taking place. 2. It must be conducted at the same time (simultaneously) throughout the country. 3. It must involve regular counting at specific intervals of time, eg, United state of America's population taken in 1790, 1800, 1810, 1820... 2010 which is an interval of 10 years. 4. It must reveal the population of a country at a specific period of time e.g America's population census as of 1790 was 3,929,214; as of 1890, it was 62,979,766; as of 1990, it was 248,709,873. 5. It must involve the physical counting of people rather than by proxy. 6. It must involve experts who are knowledgeable in population studies and they must be of high integrity. Types of population Census There are two main types of population census and they are: 1. Defacto Population census: This is the type of population census which involves the counting of only those who are present physically during census. In this group, only those who are present physically or seen are counted. 2. De jure population census: This is the type of population census which involves the counting of people who have been permanent residents of a specific area. It does not matter whether the person is present of not. This is population census commonly referred to as counting by proxy. Importance or Reasons of Population Census The importance or reasons for conducting a population census include:aiding the government to know the number of people living in the country and the structure of the population; helping in the determination of taxable adults so as to know the amount of revenue expected from that sector; enabling the country to forecast her future economic needs eg, housing, food etc and the provision of statistics to the government to determine the level of unemployment in the country Further importance could be: its assistance in the determination of the standard of living of the people in a country through per capital income; using the statistics of the number of people in a country to formulate economic policies eg, revenue formula is at times based on population figures; the estimation of the number of immigrants in a country, the assistance to the government in the distribution of resources eg, areas of high population will get more resources than areas of Low population; giving the government an idea of the different population in various parts of the country and this can help in the provision of social amenities like housing, water, electricity, roads, schools, hospitals etc. It doesn't just end there, Population census is also

very vital in giving detailed information to the government on areas of the country where population per land area is high or low; reveals level of man power by helping to reveal the total number of people who are working-when the level of manpower is high, the economic development of the country is assured and assists international agencies and governments in giving aids and other assistance to countries; assists international investors in making investment decisions. In some developing nations, Population is often used to allocate parliamentary seats. States with high Population are given more parliamentary seats than states with low population. So all said and done, population census as we can now see is far beyond just counting the population of a particular area at a particular time. It can go a long way in helping an area's or nation's economy to grow even as it varies from one year to another. For a more elaborate information about any of the subject matter discussed here, ranging from medicine to relationships, Christianity, sexuality and even politics, you can visit my website. Also, there's lots of entertainment for you as there are about 25 different Music channels (ranging from Gospel praise, worship, contemporary Urban Jazz, Acapella and even kids praise as well as secular Music in Hip hop, blues, R & B, mid-night romantic collections, Mid-night soul blues, Oldskool, raggae, classical, jazz, rock and more) just to satisfy your entertainment needs. Visit the link below

Population distribution refers to the ways in which the population of a given country is distributed into certain categories such as age, sex, occupation and geographical distribution. Age distribution This is the break down of the population of a country into age groups. age distribution in economics is very important as it shows the usefulness of population and the supply of labor required in different sectors of the economy. The population of a country can be divided into the following three age groups. These are; 0-17 years, 18-60 years and 60 years and above. From the above classification, the population within the age bracket 0-17 years includes the infants, children, pupils in nursery, primary, secondary and tertiary institutions. This age group is called dependent population because they are not economically productive as they cannot be employed in the labor market. They will need to depend on the other groups for their needs. If the population of this age group is very high, it has lots of economic implications such as putting more pressure on the working class, low savings, provision of schools and other children goods and services. The age group 18-60 years is popularly referred to as the active population or working population or labor force. this is the economic age bracket that are involved in productive activities or employment. because they are the working population and depend on themselves for

substance, they are collectively called independent population. If the number of people in this group is high, there will be higher supply of labor and higher standard of living. The age group 60 years and above is the old age, just like the children (0-17 years), they do not involve themselves in productive activities hence they are also classified as dependent population. In summary, the age distribution of any given population can be grouped as follows: 0-17 years is children (dependent population) 18-60 years is adult (working population or labor force) 60 years and above: Old age (dependent populations). Importance of Age distribution of Population 1. Determination of tax: With the knowledge of age distribution of the population, the expected tax can be determined based on the number of people in the working group of labor force. 2. Knowledge of dependent: The number of the dependents (0-17 years and 60 years and above) can be determined easily through age distribution in a population. 3. Size of labor force: With a good age distribution, the number of people working can easily be determined. 4. Determination of government budget: The age structure of a population will assist government to draw up its budget. If for example the population of the children (0-17 years) is very high, it means the government will need to vote a huge amount of money to provide goods and services required by this age group than for other groups. 5. Production pattern: the age distribution of the population will help the manufacturer to determine the pattern of production to meet the needs of a particular age group. 6. It determines the nature of market: The understanding of the age structure of a population will help to determine the nature of market, eg, a population with high number of children will create more market for children goods and services. 7. It determines the birth and death rates: the age structure of a population will determine the rate of birth and death, eg, when the population of old people is higher than that of other groups, it means the death rate is going to be higher. 8. It determines the standard of living: The age structure of a given population will reveal the income per capital and standard of living. While high dependency population reduces income per capital and standard of living, high working population or labor force increases income per capital and standard of living.