ASTR1020

Reminder - Website:
http://cheller.phy.georgiasouthern.edu/~shigdon/astr1020/

Not the National Geographic photo of the year - remember to be skeptical!

Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

Bonus Quiz

Previously Telescopes - Part I

space. (i.e., optical photons, X-ray photons, radio photons etc.) 2) Allow us to see structure in astronomical objects
1) Telescopes have two primary functions: 1)To collect and concentrate weak signals from

Attend the astronomy seminar at 12:30 tomorrow Weds Jan 30th in this room (MP 3001) Sign up on the day and give me a hand written 1 paragraph summary on Thursday in class

3) Refracting telescopes use lenses to bring light to a focus. 4) Reflecting telescopes use mirrors to bring light to a focus. 5) Chromatic aberration is the inability of a lens to bring light of different colors to a single focus. 6) Nearly all modern telescopes used by astronomers are reflectors. Advantages of Reflectors: ! Very large mirrors can be built and supported with no distortion. ! Segmented Mirrors Build big mirrors out of many smaller mirrors ! fewer light losses ! no chromatic aberration

Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

7. Light gathering power is proportional to the collecting area (mirror/lens diameter)2

Telescopes - part II

Table 5-1 Astronomy at Many Wavelengths

8. The Angular Resolution (AR) is the smallest feature that can be distinguished on an image, measured in arcseconds. AR = 0.00025 !nm / dm 9. The earths atmosphere limits AR to ~1 in the optical for most observatories. 10. Adaptive optics (AO) is a technique that tries to correct for the loss of AR due to turbulence in the atmosphere by rapidly deforming a flexible mirror. 11. AO works best in the infrared (easier) and generally works over small regions of sky. 12. Better yet is to put your telescope above the atmosphere, but it is very expensive! 13. The eye is of very limited use in astronomy: - not designed for faint light levels - limited wavelength coverage - cannot integrate a signal - the eye can be fooled!

14. Photographic plates were a big improvement over the eye: - can integrate for hours to build up a faint image - image large region of sky - not very efficient (only ~2% of photons are captured). - narrow wavelength range. 15. Photographic plates have been largely replaced by CCDs - very efficient (~70% of photons are captured) - wide wavelength range - easy to put into computers - limit to small regions of sky
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Today - Our Nearest Star: The Sun

Hubble before and after http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/ space_level2/hubble_improvement.html Hubble Mirror: A Successful Failure http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/638187.stm

1)! What powers the Sun? 2)! A Model of The Constant Sun 3)! A Dynamic & Active Star

Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

Jupiter 11 times Earth diameter

Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

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Earth vs. the Sun

Sun 109 x Earth diameter

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Radius: 6400 km Mass: 6.0 x 1024 kg Density: 5.5 g/cm3 11.1 km/s Vesc Axis Tilt: 23.4 degrees Temp: 300 K Luminosity: 2.0 x 1017 W Rotation: 24-hours
Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

696,000 km 1.9 x 1030 kg 1.4 g/cm3 618 km/s 7.3 degrees 5780 K 3.9 x 1026 W 25-36 days

( 110x Earths) ( 330,000x Earths) ( 26% Earths)

(at surface) (2.0x109 x Earths)

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What Powers The Sun?

The Sun generates a large amount of energy: L! = 3.9 x 1026 Watts. At a distance of 150-million km from the Sun (i.e., 1 A.U.), each square meter of space receives 1400 J of energy each second equivalent to 14 100-Watt bulbs. Fact: Studies of the fossil record of life on Earth indicates that the Suns energy output has remained nearly constant for at least 3-billion yrs. - if the Sun were grew significantly hotter/colder, Earths climate would be drastically different, leading to large scale permanent extermination.
Note food 1 calorie = 1kC = 4 kJ Amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1 degree Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon 13

Gravitational Collapse?
Kelvin-Helmholtz Contraction - huge weight of Suns outer layers causes Sun to contract and heat up i.e compress gas -> Temperature rises e.g. pumping up a bicycle tire

Problem: only last for 25 million years!

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Ordinary burning involves chemical reactions that rearrange the outer electrons of the atom, but do not effect the atoms nuclei. Not much energy released per atom ~ 10-19 J per atom. Is this sufficient to power the Sun? Luminosity of Sun = 3.9 x 1026 J/s How many atoms per second need to be burned? The mass of the sun is 2 x 1030 kg assume it is made entirely of Hydrogen (mass Hydrogen atom =1.7x10-27kg) How many atoms are there? How long would this energy supply last ?
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Chemical Burning?

How many atoms per second need to be burned? Luminosity of Sun = 3.9 x 1026 J/s Burn Hydrogen: energy release ~ 10-19 J /atom = 3.9 x 1026 J/s = 3.9 x1045atoms/s 10-19 J/atom How many atoms are there?

Chemical Burning?

The mass of the sun is 2 x 1030 kg assume it is made entirely of Hydrogen (mass Hydrogen atom =1.7x10-27kg) = 1057 atoms Number of atoms = 2 x 1030kg 1.7x10-27 kg/atom How long would the energy supply last? = 3 x 1011 seconds = 104 years ! 1057 atoms 3.9 x1045atoms/s

Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

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Energy Generation in Stars

The high pressure & temperature at the Suns center mean that particles will be colliding very violently (i.e., high speed). This realization provided the main clue to what powers the Stars. Like-charges (2 protons) repel each other. At low speeds (i.e., low temperature) they will never get very close to each other. The temperature in the Suns core is such that a sizable fraction of protons are moving fast enough to get close enough for the Strong Nuclear Force to come into play. The Strong Nuclear Force is the force that binds atomic nuclei together. It is a very short range force.
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Energy Generation in the Sun

In the centers of stars, protons collide with sufficient speed to get close enough for the Strong Nuclear Force to fuse them into a single nucleus. This fusion reaction can be written:
1H
1H

+ 1H ! 2H + ! + e+

= proton 2H = proton + neutron " ! = neutrino e+= positron (i.e., anti-electron)

This is the first step in a series of fusion reactions that take place in stars like the Sun. It is called the Proton-Proton Chain
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Fusing Hydrogen to Helium: The Proton-Proton Chain

Nuclear Fusion
Albert Einstein 1905 Special Relativity (see later in course)

E = mc2
E = energy in joules m = mass in kg c = The speed of light = 3 x 108 m/s Coupled with Arthur Eddingtons theory that the center of the sun is very hot and Robert Atkinson suggestion that under these extremely hot and dense conditions Hydrogen could fuse to Helium.
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Step 1 (twice) 1H + 1H " 2H + " + e+; e+ + e- " 2 high-energy photons Step 2 (twice) 2H(deuteron) + 1H " 3He + high-energy photon 3He + 3He " 4He + 1H + 1H Step 3
Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

Net Reaction: 4( 1H) " 4He + photons (energy) +2 neutrinos(escape)

Hydrogen Fusion
4 x1H -> 4He + neutrinos + gamma-rays Difference in Mass: 4 hydrogen atoms = 6.693 x 10-27 kg -1 Helium atom = 6.645 x 10-27 kg Mass lost = 0.048 x 10-27 kg = 0.7% E = mc2 = 4.8x10-29kg x (3x108 m/s)2 = 4.3 x 10-12 J
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How Many Tonnes of Hydrogen are fused to Helium per second?

For every kg of Hydrogen 0.7% of this mass is converted into energy during the fusion to Helium. E = mc2 =0.007 kg x (3 x 108 m/s)2 = 6.3 x 1014 J Amount of H = 3.9 x 1026 J/s 6.3 x 1014 J/kg = 6 x 1011 kg/s = 600 million metric tonnes of hydrogen fused to helium every second!
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How Long could The Sun Fuse Hydrogen at this rate?

Fuses 6 x 1011 kg/s Mass Sun = 2 x 1030 kg Could fuse hydrogen for ?? yrs

Applying The Scientific Method To The Sun

Can not send a probe so need to construct a model

Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

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Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

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The Sun is Constant

The Suns diameter has not changed appreciably over the ~400 years weve been observing it with telescopes. Records of solar eclipses goes back ~4,000 years (Egypt, Sumer, China, Greece, Meso-America). This implies that the Sun has had the same angular size as the Moon (1/2 degree) during this time. The fossil record shows that over very longer timescales the solar radiation has been roughly constant The Sun is in a state of Hydrostatic Equilibrium at every point gravity is balanced by the outward pressure of the hot gases.

Hydrostatic Equilibrium
Sun is not undergoing any drastic changes (Fossil Record). This means the sun is in both hydrostatic and thermal equilbrium

Fish float. How do you sink?

Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

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Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

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Thermal Equilibrium
Sun is hot and gaseous. Gas more compressed at greater depth so Density & temperature increases with depth Thermal Equilibrium: Temperature at each depth approx constant Energy generated by fusion at core must be transported to the surface to maintain equilibrium e.g too little and core temperature will rise, too much and core will cool - both bad news for us!
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The Sun Is A controlled fusion reactor - built in thermostat.

If the core temperature suddenly drops. The Suns pressure drops as the rate of fusion reactions decreases. The Sun contracts.

As the Sun contracts it gets hotter again. This increases the fusion reactions until pressure and gravity are in balance again. " Hydrostatic Equilibrium.

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Energy Transport
Given the basic properties of the Suns composition, Hydrostatic Equilibrium produces detailed temperature distribution within the Sun. In all stars, temperature increases with depth, peaking in the very center. For stars like the Sun, the peak temp. is T ~ 15-million degrees. Temperature falls off gradually with radius, reaching T ~ 6000 K at the surface for stars like the Sun.

Journey of a photon to Earth

Radiative Zone: Core - 0.7 Rsun Radiative diffusion Convective Zone T ~ 2 x 106 K hydrogen recombination i.e hydrogen atoms - efficient absorbers of photons so medium becomes opaque. Energy transport now via convection

Slow progress: radiative zone 6.96x105km takes 170,000 Yrs 50cm/hr Sun-> Earth 150 million km takes 8 minutes! 1014cm/hr
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Solar Model

Solar Interior: Helioseismology

1960 Robert Leighton Caltech high-precision Doppler shift measurements of solar surface: patches rise/ fall 10 m every 5 mins Sun can oscillate in millions of ways. Strongest tone .003hertz 13 octaves below our audible range.

Using the equations from hydrostatic and thermal equilibrium and energy transport we construct a scientific model. Core density 160,000kg/m3 (14 x Lead) Core Temperature 10 million K Core Pressure 3.4 x 1011 atm (~1 atm in the class room)
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Observations used to set limits on amount of He in the Sun and determine the thickness of the transition region between radiative and convective zones
Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

motion

Computer simulation of sound wave resonating in Sun. red inward, blue outward

Note: It is thought that the Suns magnetic field originates in thin layer between the convective and radiative zones

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1038 neutrinos per second leave the Sun

Solar Neutrinos - direct evidence of fusion

The Sun is very Active

Weve shown that the Suns luminosity has been fairly constant over the last few billion years. Now we will look at the outer layers of the Sun, which are far from constant!
http://video.google.com/videoplay? docid=-2362494916765406787&q=coronal+mass+ejection&total= 16&start=0&num=10&so=0&type=search&plindex=4

~ 1012 pass through your head every second! Hard to detect no charge and very low mass - can pass through the Earth without interacting with matter, but occasionally they do interact and can be detected. Three types of neutrinos (electron, muon and tau) - Sun only produces one type (electron) but the neutrinos can undergo a neutrino oscillation and change type before arriving at Earth! For more information see: http://www.hep.upenn.edu/SNO/intro.html
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Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

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The Photosphere - sphere of light

Suns visible light originates in this hot, thin & opaque layer of gas ~ 400 km. Temperature profile - hot at bottom, cooler at top. Evidence: Absorption lines: Lower layer ~ 5800 K cooler upper layer 4400 K Limb Darkening: line of sight through limb only sees cooler (dimmer) upper layer Granules: convection cells the size of Texas & Oklahoma (1000 km) - again due to hotter lower layer

Lower contrast than granules - hard to see

Supergranules

Doppler Image shows supergranules giant convection cells ~ 35,000 km (few hundred granules) Churns at 0.4 km/s (1/10 speed in granules) lasts ~day They carry magnetic field bundles to cell edges where they form the chromospheric network

http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/feature1.shtml
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The Chromosphere- sphere of color

Normally invisible - seen here during an eclipse which blocks the light from the photosphere. The red gas is Halpha emission from the tenuous gas (density is 10-4 that of photosphere; 10-8 that of our atmosphere. 2000 km thick and temperature RISES bottom is 4400 K top is 25,000 K ! Note can see chromosphere at any time, not just eclipse, if use a narrow Halpha filter.
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Spicules
Jets of rising gas lasts 15mins rises few 103 km Spicules found above edges of Supergranules Spicules rising gas - at supergranule boundary gas is cool and falling. Not thermal motion - gases pulled by Suns magnetic field

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Hot thin gas 10-6 x as bright as photosphere extends for few 106 km T ~ 2 x 106 K (see [FeXIV] emission line) But compare densities corona 1011 atoms/m3 photosphere 1023 Our atmosphere 1025 Energy density in photosphere much higher than in the Corona

Solar Corona -``crown

Solar Wind
Coronas high temperature translates to high speeds ~ 106 km/hr Some of the gas can escape the Suns gravitational pull. Composed mainly of electrons, hydrogen and helium nuclei some heavier ions. Winds stream out through coronal holes(gas thinner) Million tonnes (109 kg) every second is lost as wind. Is this a lot? Given the Suns mass = 2 x 1030 kg And it will fuse hydrogen for 1010 yrs
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False color UV image

What percentage of its mass will be lost as wind?

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Electrons and ions from solar wind enter Earths Upper atmosphere - spiral down magnetic field lines near poles. Collisionally excite atoms in our atmosphere (remember the photon firing range and the emission line spectra!)
Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

Aurora

Lower temperature region in photosphere - huge Earth and Jupiter sized spots! Appear darker as lower flux Stefan-Boltzmann

Sunspots

= (4300 K)4 =0.3 Flux from umbra Flux from photosphere (5800 K)4 30% of the light compared to same size patch of photosphere Groups of spots like bar magnets. leading group have SAME magnetic polarity to that of the nearest pole i.e. N if closest to N pole, following group have OPPOSITE magnetic polarity as nearest pole
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11 Year Sunspot Cycle

Magnetic Dynamo model

Butterfly diagram - at beginning of 11 year cycle spots found near latitudes 30 N & S end of cycle nearer to equator Remember leading spots in a group have the same polarity (N or S) as the suns magnetic pole in that hemisphere.

Differential rotation (measured by observing sun spots) causes magnetic field lines to be wrapped and concentrated near equator. Convection creates tangles & kinks. Sunspots appear where kinks protrude through surface of photosphere Differential rotation eventually undoes the kinks. The leading/proceeding spots migrate to the equator - polarity cancels as meets another proceeding group from the other hemisphere The following spots in the group migrate to the poles. They have the opposite polarity of the pole and first cancel and eventually reverse the polarity.
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Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

Sunspots Produced by 22 Year Cycle in Suns magnetic Field

It is thought that the Suns magnetic field originates in thin layer between the convective and radiative zones. The magnetic dynamo model successfully predicts ! Polarity of preceding and following spots. Preceding spots in a group have the same polarity (N or S) as the Suns magnetic pole in that hemisphere. ! Reversal of polarity of Suns magnetic field ! Formation of greater numbers of sunspots initially at high latitudes and at the end of the cycle in greater numbers closer to the equator Suns magnetic poles reverse every 11 years so whole cycle repeats every 22 years
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Prominences, Flares and Coronal Mass Ejections

Left:H-alpha image of chromosphere during sunspot maximum. Bright plages (beaches) appear just prior to new groups of sunspots.

Filaments appear dark - cooler parts of chromosphere pulled upwards along magnetic field lines. Seen side-on they are called prominences can last for mere hours or months - most energetic erupt as flares
Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon SOHO UV image [HeII] filter 46

Solar Flares
1030 J = 1014 one megaton nuclear weapons Brief eruption of hot ionized gas from a sunspot group Hazardous to astronauts and satellites

Coronal Mass Ejection is much much larger than a solar flare!

Coronal Mass Ejection: huge magnetic bubble of plasma ejected from the Sun

1012 kg - a billion tonnes of high temperature coronal gas ejected into space at 100s km/s in the space of a few hrs Caused by magnetic reconnection. See Fig 16 25b in book
Above SOHO X-ray image of coronal mass ejection (Suns image is UV) Takes a few days to reach Earth - thank goodness for our magnetosphere! Left - TRACE false-color UV image. Showing glowing gas trapped along magnetic field lines.

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Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

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The active Sun: http://sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov/data/aiahmi/browse.php http://stereo.gsfc.nasa.gov/

http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2362494916765406787&q=coronal+mass+ejection&total= 16&start=0&num=10&so=0&type=search&plindex=4

Video Of Solar Activity

Can Earths Magnetic Poles Reverse?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3za7Y-aIKb0 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QdwGb-iJOeI http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/gallery/movies.html

Hubble before and after http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/space_level2/ hubble_improvement.html Hubble Mirror: A Successful Failure http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/638187.stm

http://science.nasa.gov/sciencenews/science-at-nasa/ 2003/29dec_magneticfield/

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Lec 5 Prof Sarah Higdon

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Summary: Our Nearest Star

Write your summary here -

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