A. F.

Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves Fields & Waves Note #13 Introduction to Magnetostatics

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Objectives: Discuss the concepts of magnetic force, magnetic field, and magnetic flux. Present the Biot-Savart Law, Gauss Law for the magnetic field, and Amperes Circuital Law. Introduce permeability and relative permeability. Finally, obtain the magnetostatic boundary conditions at the interface between two materials. Amperes Force Law In a manner similar to the phenomenon of the force experienced between two point charges, two current-carrying wires in empty space (Figure 1) experience a force that can be calculated from the expression F=

curve 2

I2d l2

m 0 I1d l1 R 4p R 2 curve 1

(13.1)

Equation (13.1) involves two integrals over the mathematical contours of the wires, where the displacement vector R points from the point of integration on contour 1 to the point of integration on contour 2, and yields the collective force on wire 2. The expression contains a parameter

m 0 = 4p 10 7

N H = A2 m

(13.2)

known as the permeability of free space. This parameter plays the role of a constant of proportionality in (13.1), and converts the units accordingly. A Newton per (Ampere)2 is the same as one Henry per meter. Biot-Savart Law The expression in (13.1) is rather complicated, and seldom produces closed-form expressions for force in practical situations. Instead, we seek an alternative normalization of the force that normalizes out the effect of the second wire. Two alternative fields that can in some sense substitute for the force are the magnetic field H and the magnetic flux density B . The magnetic flux density is the normalized force per Ampere-meter, or B= m 0 I1d l1 R 4p R 2 curve 1 N A - m (13.3)

The units of N/(Am) are equivalent to Webers/m2 (Wb/m2) and to Tesla (T):

A. F. Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves N Wb = 2 =T A-m m

10/04 (13.4)

The expression in (13.3) removes the effect of the second current-carrying wire in (13.1). A comparable normalization is given by H ( x, y, z ) =

curve 1

I1d l1 R 4p R
2

A m

(13.5)

which differs from (13.5) only by the absence of the parameter m0. The magnetic field has units of N A2 A = A-m N m It follows that in empty space, the magnetic field and flux density are related by B = m0H (13.7) (13.6)

It is important to note that neither B nor H point in the same direction as the original force in (13.1). Equations (13.3) and (13.5) are somewhat easier to work with than (13.1), and either equation is known as the Biot-Savart Law. We illustrate the application of the BiotSavart Law for one example, the infinite straight wire.

Example:

A thin wire carrying total current I resides along the z-axis. magnetic field produced by this current.

Find the

Solution:

Figure 2 shows the geometry. Cylindrical symmetry is suggested, and since changes in f or z should not affect the result, we locate the observer at the point (r, 0, 0). The integration along the z-axis involves a differential length vector d l = dz z (13.8)

The displacement vector pointing from the point of integration on the z-axis (0, 0, z) to the observation point (r, 0, 0) is given by - z z R=rr and the intermediate product d l R is obtained as (13.9)

A. F. Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves

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d l R = rdz f Equation (13.5) can be simplified to the integral H ( r,f, z) = H ( r, 0, 0) = =

z =-

(13.10)

4p r 2 + ( z ) 2

Ir f 4p

Irdz f

z =-

[r

dz
2

3/2

(13.11)

+ ( z ) 2

3/2

Using the evaluation

z =-

[r

dz
2

+ ( z )

2 3/2

r2 r2 + ( z ) 2

=
z =-

2 r2

(13.12)

we obtain the result H ( r,f, z) == Ir 4p I = 2pr 2 f r2 f

(13.13)

We observe that the magnetic field of a line current along the z-axis has only a fcomponent. This result suggests the so-called right hand rule: if the thumb of a persons right hand is pointed in the direction of current flow, the fingers of that hand indicate the direction of the magnetic field. We also observe that the magnetic field of a line source of current decays as the reciprocal of distance, like the electric field of a line charge density.

Permeability In empty space, the magnetic flux density and magnetic field are related by (13.7). In other materials, this relation must be generalized to B = mH where the permeability of the material may be expressed as (13.14)

A. F. Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves

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m = m 0m r

(13.15)

The relative permeability parameter mr is a unitless scale factor that accounts for the materials response to an applied magnetic field. Most common materials are essentially non-magnetic, and exhibit permeabilities very close to that of empty space. Materials that deviate significantly from that value usually contain iron or iron alloys. Table 1 provides a list of relative permeabilities for several materials.

Table 1. Relative permeabilities of common materials silver 0.99993 copper 0.999991 water 0.999991 air 1.0000004 aluminum 1.00002 cobalt nickel mild steel iron mumetal 250 600 2000 5000 100,000

The relation in (13.14) is often more complicated for magnetic materials than suggested by the simple form of (13.15). Some magnetic materials have a stronger magnetic effect in one direction than another, and therefore interact to a differing extent with different components of the field. These are known as anisotropic materials. (Permanent magnets are an obvious example of this class of materials.) In a large number of magnetic materials, a saturation effect occurs as the field strength is increased. For those materials, the relative permeability decreases as the field strength increases. In these materials, the linear relation suggested by (13.15) is actually nonlinear since the relative permeability mr is a function of the field. In addition, some materials retain a residual magnetism after an applied field is removed. These effects, while beyond the scope of our discussion, are responsible for many interesting application of magnetic materials.

A. F. Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves Magnetic flux and Gauss Law for the Magnetic Field The magnetic flux passing through a surface S is given by Ym = B dS
S

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(13.16)

Since the B -field has units of Wb/m2, the magnetic flux has units of Webers. Gauss Law for the magnetic field, another experimental law, states that the total magnetic flux out of a closed surface is zero, or

B dS = 0
S

(13.17)

for any closed surface S. This law can be interpreted as stating that all the magnetic field flux lines entering a region must leave the region, or equivalently that the field lines cannot converge together (as the E -field lines do at a point charge, for instance). Gauss Law is another way of stating that there is no magnetic analogy to a point source of electric charge (no magnetic monopole). In the limiting case as the surface S in (13.17) is allowed to shrink down around a point (as discussed in Note #7), we obtain the differential form of Gauss Law: B = 0 (13.18)

This equation holds at points and is sometimes called the point form of Gauss Law. Example: A vector function is given by + 3y 2 y + 2 xyz z C = 4y x Could this function be a B -field? Solution: To test, we see if the vector function satisfies (13.18), by expanding the divergence operation C = ( 4 y ) ( 3 y 2 ) (2 xyz) + + z y x = 0 + 6 y + 2 xy (13.19)

(13.20)

Since this result is not zero, the vector function does not satisfy Gauss Law in (13.18). Therefore, it cannot be a B -field.

A. F. Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves

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Amperes Circuital Law Another experimental law relating the magnetic field to the current was proposed by Ampere in the form

H d l = J dS
C S

(13.21)

In (13.21) S denotes an open surface that terminates on the closed contour C, and the differential surface vector dS is chosen to satisfy the so-called right-hand screw convention with respect to the orientation of the contour C (Figure 3). The dS vector must point through S in the same direction that a screw penetrating S would point, if the screwdriver used to tighten the screw is turned in the direction indicated by the contour C. The integral on the right-hand side of (13.21) is interpreted as the total current Ienclosed passing through S, regardless of the specific form of the current (volume current density, surface current density, etc.) Amperes Law can be used in highly symmetrical situations to determine the magnetic field produced by a current distribution. We illustrate by repeating the earlier example.

Example:

A thin wire carrying total current I coincides with the z-axis. Find the magnetic field outside this wire. By symmetry, we expect that the H -field will not be a function of either f or z. Based on the knowledge of the right-hand rule, we expect that H will component. Therefore, we choose the contour C to be a circle have only a f in a constant-z plane, centered at the z-axis. For such a circle,

Solution:

H dl =
C

2p

f =0

rdf H f

(13.22)

= 2prHf We are free to choose any surface S that terminates on this contour, but would like to select S to simplify the problem as much as possible. The easiest surface to work with is the disk of radius r, parallel to the x-y plane. The dS vector is selected according to the right-hand screw convention, direction: which dictates that it point in the + z dS = rdrdf z (13.23)

A. F. Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves For any radius r, the total current through S is

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J dS = I
S

(13.24)

Therefore, we obtain 2prHf = I or equivalently Hf = I 2pr (13.26) (13.25)

This result is the same as that obtained using the Biot-Savart Law.

Additional applications of Amperes Law will be considered in Notes #14 and #15. Magnetostatic Boundary Conditions Gauss Law and Amperes Law can be used to explore the behavior of the magnetic field at material interfaces. Figure 4 shows two materials of different permeability and a contour C that straddles the interface between them. An application of Amperes Law in (13.21) to the contour C, as the contour shrinks down to the interface from either side, yields the approximate evaluation

H dl @ H dl + H
1 C C1 C2 tan 1

dl

(13.27)

tan Dl ( @ H Dl l + H2 l)

where H itan denotes a component tangential to the interface, on the region i side of the interface, and l is a unit tangential vector along the interface. The right hand side of (13.21) yields the result

J dS @ J
S

in s

Dl

(13.28)

where J sin denotes the surface current density on the interface (if any) flowing into the page in Figure 4. By imposing (13.21), we obtain H1tan Dl H 2tan Dl @ J sout Dl u (13.29)

A. F. Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves

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is a unit vector pointing into the page (perpendicular to the contour C) in Figure 4. where u satisfies the relation The vector u n l=u (13.30)

is a normal vector to the interface pointing into region 1. Therefore, Equation where n (13.29) can be expressed in vector form as ( H1 - H 2 ) n = Js interface (13.31)

This result can specialized to two cases of interest, the case when one of the materials is a conductor, and the case where both are (lossless) magnetic materials. Suppose that region 2 is a conductor, and suppose further that the magnetic field is zero throughout region 2. (The second condition is often the case, but is not always the case as a static magnetic field can exist within a conductor.) In that situation there may be a nonzero surface current density on the conductor surface, and (13.31) can be expressed as H n
surface of a conductor

= Js

(13.32)

On the other hand, if neither region is a conductor (with region 1 having permeability m1, and region 2 having permeability m2), (13.31) implies that the tangential magnetic field H is continuous at the interface, which can also be expressed as ( H1 - H 2 ) n =0 interface (13.33)

The preceding constraints apply only to the tangential component of the magnetic field or flux density. To investigate the normal component, consider Gauss Law in (13.17) and the illustration in Figure 5. Figure 5 shows a closed surface S that straddles the interface between two materials. If S is allowed to shrink down, so that one face of S resides on the region 1 side of the interface while the other remains in region 2, the surface integral in (13.17) can be evaluated approximately to yield

B dS @ B dS + B dS
S S1 S2

(13.34)

@ B DA - B DA
nor 1 nor 2

where the normal direction is assumed to point into region 1. By enforcing (13.17), we obtain
nor B1nor DA - B2 DA @ 0

(13.35)

A. F. Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves

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As in the preceding analysis, we may specialize this result to the case when material 2 is a conductor. In that situation, the magnetic flux density within the conductor is usually (but not always) zero, and we obtain B1nor = 0 or B n =0 surface of a conductor (13.37) (13.36)

In the situation when both regions are magnetic (with region 1 having permeability m1, and region 2 having permeability m2), equation (13.35) states that the normal component of B is continuous across the interface: ( B1 - B2 ) n =0 interface (13.38)

This result implies that the normal component of the magnetic field H must exhibit a jump discontinuity, according to
nor (m1H1nor - m 2 H 2 ) interface = 0

(13.39)

or (m1H1 - m 2 H 2 ) n =0 interface (13.40)

These results can be used to determine the fields on one side of an interface given those on the other. In addition, they prove useful as boundary conditions to augment differential equations.

Example:

Region 1, consisting of all the points where x + 2y > 3, has permeability m1 = 5m0. Region 2 has m2 = 2m0. In region 2, at a point on the interface, the magnetic field is +5 y -2 z ) H 2 = H 0 (3 x (13.41)

where H 0 is an arbitrary constant. What is the magnetic field along the Region 1 side of the interface at this point? Solution: We first decompose the given field into its normal and tangential components. The normal vector pointing into region 1 is

A. F. Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves + 2y x 5

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= n Therefore,

(13.42)

nor H2 H2 =n

+ 2y x +5 y -2 z ) = H 0 (3 x 5 = In vector form, H 2nor = + 2y + 26 y 13 13 x x H0 = H0 5 5 5 13 H0 5

(13.43)

(13.44)

The tangential component of the magnetic field may be obtained from H 2tan = H 2 - H 2nor +5 y -2 z ) - H 0 = H 0 (3 x = H0 - y - 10 z 2x 5

+ 26 y 13 x 5

(13.45)

Since the tangential component of the magnetic field is continuous, H1tan = H 2tan = H 0 - y - 10 z 2x 5 (13.46)

From (13.40), we observe that the normal component of the field satisfies H1nor =

m 2 nor H m1 2 + 26 y 2 13 x = H0 5 5 + 52 y 26 x = H0 25

(13.47)

By combining the tangential and normal components together, we obtain

A. F. Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves H1 = H1tan + H1nor - y - 10 z + 52 y 2x 26 x = H0 + H0 5 25 + 47 y - 50 z 36 x = H0 25 To check our work, we test equation (13.33) directly, using + 47 y - 50 z 36 x +5 y -2 z ) - (3 x H1 - H 2 = H 0 25 + 47 y - 50 z 75 x +125 y - 50 z 36 x = H0 25 25 78 y -39 x = H0 25 to obtain + 2y -39 x 78 y x ( H1 - H 2 ) = n H0 interface 25 5 x y z 1 = 1 2 0 25 5 -39 -78 0 =z =0 We can also test equation (13.40) directly, using 1 (-78 + 78) 25 5

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(13.48)

(13.49)

(13.50)

m1H1 - m 2 H 2 = 5

+ 47 y - 50 z 36 x +5 y -2 z ) - 2( 3 x 25 + 47 y - 50 z 30 x + 50 y - 20 z 36 x = 5 5 3y - 30 z 6x = 5

(13.51)

to obtain

A. F. Peterson: Notes on Electromagnetic Fields & Waves + 2y 3y - 30 z x 6x (m1H1 - m 2 H 2 ) = n H m 0 0 interface 5 5 = m0H 0 =0 Thus, the result for H1 in (13.48) satisfies both boundary conditions. 6-6+0 5 5

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(13.52)