CH 11

P/M Parts
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 11.1 (a) Examples of typical parts made by powder-metallurgy processes. (b) Upper trip lever for a commercial irrigation sprinkler, made by P/M. Made of unleaded brass alloy, it replaces a die-cast part, at a 60% cost savings. Source: Courtesy of Metal Powder Industries Federation.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Particle Shapes
Acicular (chemical decomposition) Irregular rodlike (chemical decomposition, mechanical comminution) Flake (mechanical comminution) Dendritic (electrolytic)
(a) One-dimensional
(b) Two-dimensional
Spherical (atomization, carbonyl (Fe), precipitation from a liquid)
Irregular (atomization, chemical decomposition)
Rounded (atomization, chemical decomposition) (c) Three-dimensional
Porous (reduction of oxides)
Angular (mechanical disintegration, carbonyl (Ni ))
FIGURE 11.2 Particle shapes and characteristics of metal powders and the processes by which they are produced.
Powder Production
Ladle Molten metal Tundish Atomizing gas spray Atomizing chamber Metal particles (a) Water atomization (b) Dewatering Tundish High-pressure water manifold Atomization tank
Inert gas Ladle Molten metal Tundish Spindle Liquid metal Nonrotating tungsten electrode Collection port (d) Vacuum Rotating consumable electrode
Metal particles Spinning disk (c)
FIGURE 11.3 Methods of metal-powder production by atomization: (a) gas atomization; (b) water atomization; (c) atomization with a rotating consumable electrode; and (d) centrifugal atomization with a spinning disk or cup.
Particle Size Distribution

Cumulative weight finer (%) 100 Particle size (m) (a) 1000 20 15 Weight (%) 10 5 0 10 100 75 50 25 0 10
100 Particle size (m) (b)
1000
FIGURE 11.4 (a) Distribution of particle size, given as weight percentage; note that the highest percentage of particles have a size between 75 and 90 m. (b) Cumulative particle-size distribution as a function of weight. Source: After R.M. German.
Compaction
Upper punch Compacted shape (green) Powder Feed Shoe Die Lower punch
1.
2. (a)
3. Ejector
4.
Upper punch P/M spur gear (green) Die Core rod
Lower punch
FIGURE 11.5 (a) Compaction of metal powder to produce a bushing. (b) A typical tool and die set for compacting a spur gear. Source: Courtesy of Metal Powder Industries Federation.
(b)
Density vs. Compacting Pressure

9 8 7 Density (g/cm3) 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 20 40 60 80 Compacting pressure (tons/in2) (a)
Copper powder, coarse Copper powder, fine Iron powder, coarse Iron powder, fine
200
400
MPa 600 800
lb/in3 1000 1200 0.3 200 Density of iron Tensile strength (MPa) 25 150 psi x 103
Co
nd
0.29 30
0.30
0.31
n s tr e
0.32 40 100 Electrical conductivity (% IACS)
g th
s Ten
ti uc
il e
lb/in3
Apparent Density 3.49 g/cm3 1.44 2.75 1.40
0.1
100 0 100
15
El
on
ga
20
t io
Density of copper
Elongation (%)
0.2
y vit
35
95
30
90
25
85
10
8.0
8.2 8.4 8.6 8.8 Sintered density (g/cm3) (b)
20
80
FIGURE 11.6 (a) Density of copper- and iron-powder compacts as a function of compacting pressure. Density greatly inuences the mechanical and physical properties of P/M parts. Source: After F.V. Lenel. (b) Effect of density on tensile strength, elongation, and electrical conductivity of copper powder. (IACS is International Annealed Copper Standard for electrical conductivity.)
Mechanics of Compaction
L/D = 1.66
700 MPa 600 500 400 300 200 100
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
D/ 2 C L (e)
p0
FIGURE 11.7 Density variation in compacting metal powders in different dies: (a) and (c) singleaction press; (b) and (d) double-action press, where the punches have separate movements. Note the greater uniformity of density in (d) as compared with (c). Generally, uniformity of density is preferred, although there are situations in which density variation, and hence variation of properties, within a part may be desirable. (e) Pressure contours in compacted copper powder in a single-action press. Source: After P. Duwez and L. Zwell.
px
dx
!r
Resultant pressure distribution:

px = poe4kx/D
!r px + d p x
FIGURE 11.8 Coordinate system and stresses acting on an element in compaction of powders. The pressure is assumed to be uniform across the cross-section. (See also Fig. 6.4.)
Cold Isostatic Pressing

Upper cover Cover Pressure vessel Metal mandrel Fluid Pressure source (a) Wire mesh basket Mold seal plate Rubber mold (bag) Powder Pressure source Lower inside cover (b) Pressure vessel Rubber diaphragm Pressing rubber mold Forming rubber mold Powder Lower outside cover
Fluid
FIGURE 11.9 Schematic illustration of cold isostatic pressing in compaction of a tube. (a) The wet-bag process, where the rubber mold is inserted into a uid that is subsequently pressurized. In the arrangement shown, the powder is enclosed in a exible container around a solid core rod. (b) The dry bag process, where the rubber mold does not contact the uid, but instead is pressurized through a diaphragm. Source: After R.M. German.
Pressures and Capabilities

30 HIP 0.6 20 Size (m) CIP in. 0.4 P/F 0.2 P/M PIM 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 Relative shape complexity 6 0 10
Metal Aluminum Brass Bronze Iron Tantalum Tungsten Other Materials Auminum oxide Carbon Cemented carbides Ferrites Pressure MPa psi 103 70275 400700 200275 350800 70140 70140 110140 140165 140400 110165 1040 60100 3040 50120 1020 1020 1620 2024 2060 1624
FIGURE 11.10 Process capabilities of part size and shape complexity for various P/M operations; P/F is powder forging. Source: Metal Powder Industries Federation.
TABLE 11.1 Compacting Pressures for Various Metal Powders
Hot Isostatic Pressing

Gas inlet End cap Pressure Heating coils Workpiece High-pressure cylinder Temperature Time Part
Insulation
End cap 1. Fill can 2. Vacuum bakeout 3. Hot isostatic press 4. Remove can
FIGURE 11.11 Schematic illustration of the sequence of steps in hot isostatic pressing. Diagram (4) shows the pressure and temperature variation versus time.
Powder Rolling
Metal powder supply Direction baffles
Hopper
Powder
Green sheet Shaping rolls Hot rolls Coiler
Sintering furnace Cooling
FIGURE 11.12 An example of powder rolling. The purpose of direction bafes in the hopper is to ensure uniform distribution of powder across the width of the strip.
Spray Casting
Induction-heated ladle Atomizer (nitrogen gas) Recipient substrate Tube Deposition chamber
Particle injector (optional)
FIGURE 11.13 Spray casting (Osprey process) in which molten metal is sprayed over a rotating mandrel to produce seamless tubing and pipe.
Sintering
1. R 1. Neck formation by vapor-phase material transport 2. R Distance between particle centers decreased, particles bonded 3. (a) 3. (b) r Particles bonded, no shrinkage (center distances constant)
Neck formation by diffusion 2.
FIGURE 11.14 Schematic illustration of two basic mechanisms in sintering metal powders: (a) solid-state material transport and (b) liquid-phase material transport. R=particle radius, r=neck radius, and =neck prole radius.
TABLE 11.2 Sintering temperature and time for various metal powders.
Material Copper, brass, and bronze Iron and iron graphite Nickel Stainless steels Alnico alloys (for permanent magnets) Ferrites Tungsten carbide Molybdenum Tungsten Tantalum
Temperature ( C) 760900 10001150 10001150 11001290 12001300 12001500 14301500 2050 2350 2400
Time (min) 1045 845 3045 3060 120150 10600 2030 120 480 480
Effect of Temperature and Time

40 0
112 0C (205 0F)
30 Elongation (%)
Dimensional change from die size (%)
20.4
20
1
31
C 5
4 (2
F 0
0 23
C(
0 5 2 2
F)
20.8
12 30 C
(22 50 F)
10
C (2 0 0 2 11
5 0 F)
21.2
15 13
(2 40 0 F)
30 60 90 120 Sintering time (min) (a)
150
21.6
30 60 90 120 Sintering time (min) (b)
150
FIGURE 11.5 Effect of sintering temperature and time on (a) elongation and (b) dimensional change during sintering of type 316L stainless steel. Source: ASM International.
Mechanical Properties of P/M Materials

Designation Ferrous FC-0208 MPIF type N R S FN-0405 S T Aluminum 601 AB pressed bar Brass CZP-0220 Condition AS HT AS HT AS HT AS HT AS HT AS HT T U W Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) 225 295 415 550 550 690 425 1060 510 1240 110 252 165 193 221 Yield Strength (MPa) 205 330 395 655 240 880 295 1060 48 241 76 89 103 Hardness 45 95 70 35 80 40 72 39 80 44 HRB HRB HRB HRC HRB HRC HRB HRC HRB HRC Elongation in 25 mm (%) < 0.5 < 0.5 1 < 0.5 1.5 < 0.5 4.5 1 6 1.5 6 2 13 19 23 Elastic Modulus (GPa) 70 70 110 110 130 130 145 145 160 160
60 HRH 75 HRH 55 HRH 68 HRH 75 HRH
Titanium Ti-6AI-4V HIP 917 827 13 Superalloys Stellite 19 1035 49 HRC <1 Note: MPIF=Metal Powder Industries Federation; AS=as sintered; HT=heat treated; HIP=hot isostatically pressed.
TABLE 11.3 Typical mechanical properties of selected P/M materials.
Titanium Property Comparison

Density (%) 100 100 Yield Stress (MPa) 840 875 Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) 930 965 875 875 975 Elongation (%) 7 14 8 9 14 Reduction of Area (%) 15 40 14 17 26
Process Cast Cast and forged Powder metallurgy Blended elemental (P+S) 98 786 Blended elemental (HIP) > 99 Realloyed (HIP) 100 880 P+S=pressed and sintered; HIP=hot isostatically pressed. Source: After R.M. German
TABLE 11.4 Mechanical property comparison for Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy.
P/M Example: Bearing Caps
FIGURE 11.16 Powder-metal main bearing caps for 3.8- and 3.1-liter General Motors engines. Source: Courtesy of Zenith Sintered Products, Inc., Milwaukee, WI.
Geometry for P/M Dies

Step requires up to 12 taper to assist ejection 0.250.50 mm parallel surface to prevent punch jamming 23 taper to assist ejection 0.12 0.25 mm parallel surface to prevent powder capture in die Upper punch Die Workpiece Maximum feasible taper is 15 when bottom compaction is employed 0.250.50 mm step to prevent powder capture in die Lower punch
FIGURE 11.17 Die geometry and design features for powder-metal compaction. Source: Metal Powder Industries Federation.
Poor
Good
Sharp radius
Poor
Fillet radius
Good
Sharp radius (a)
Fillet radius (e)
Design Considerations
Sharp radius
Fillet radius
Sharp radius
Fillet radius
(b)
(f)
Acceptable
Die Punch
Best
0.25 mm (0.010 in.) (min) 3045
Max 30 Must be machined (c) Can be molded Workpiece (g)
Upper punch
Die Feather edge required on punch
0.25 mm (0.010 in.) (min)
Acceptable, with additional operations
Flat Workpiece (d) Hole must be drilled (h) Thread must be machined
FIGURE 11.18 Examples of P/M parts, showing various poor and good designs. Note that sharp radii and reentry corners should be avoided, and that threads and transverse holes have to be produced separately, by additional operations such as machining or grinding. Source: Metal Powder Industries Federation.
Design Considerations
Poor Good
Thicker flange Thin section r Taper to assist ejection Radius for ease of ejection Radius to reduce likelihood of chipping r 0.2H (max) H 0.15H (max) H
Poor
Good
up to 12
FIGURE 11.19 (a) Design features for use with unsupported anges. (b) Design features for use with grooves. Source: Metal Powder Industries Federation.
(a)
(b)
Excessive binder
Mold
Powder build-up
Flow direction
FIGURE 11.20 The use of abrupt transitions in molds for powder injection molding causing non-uniform metal-powder distribution within a part.
Excessive binder
Process Comparison
Process Casting Advantages Over P/M Wide range of part shapes and sizes produced; generally low mold and setup cost. High production rate of a wide range of part sizes and shapes; high mechanical properties through control of grain ow. High production rate of long parts; complex cross-sections may be produced. Wide range of part shapes and sizes; short lead time; exibility; good dimensional control and surface nish; simple tooling. Limitations as Compared With P/M Some waste of material in processing; some nishing required; may not be feasible for some high-temperature alloys. Some nishing required; some waste of material in processing; die wear; relatively poor surface nish and dimensional control. Only a constant cross-sectional shape can be produced; die wear; poor dimensional control. Waste of material in the form of chips; relatively low productivity.
Forging (hot)
Extrusion (hot) Machining
TABLE 11.5 Competitive features of P/M and some other manufacturing processes.
Type Oxide Ceramics Alumina Zirconia Carbides Tungsten carbide Titanium carbide Silicon carbide Nitrides Cubic boron nitride Titanium nitride Silicon nitride Sialon Cermets Nanophase ceramics Silica Glasses Glass ceramics Graphite Diamond
General Characteristics High hot hardness and abrasion resistance, moderate strength and toughness; most widely used ceramic; used for cutting tools, abrasives, and electrical and thermal insulation. High strength and toughness; resistance to thermal shock, wear, and corrosion; partially-stabilized zirconia and transformation-toughened zirconia have better properties; suitable for heat-engine components. High hardness, strength, toughness, and wear resistance, depending on cobalt binder content; commonly used for dies and cutting tools. Not as tough as tungsten carbide, but has a higher wear resistance; has nickel and molybdenum as the binder; used as cutting tools. High-temperature strength and wear resistance, used for engines components and as abrasives. Second hardest substance known, after diamond; high resistance to oxidation; used as abrasives and cutting tools. Used as coatings on tools, because of its low friction characteristics. High resistance to creep and thermal shock; high toughness and hot hardness; used in heat engines. Consists of silicon nitrides and other oxides and carbides; used as cutting tools. Consist of oxides, carbides, and nitrides; high chemical resistance but is somewhat brittle and costly; used in high-temperature applications. Stronger and easier to fabricate and machine than conventional ceramics; used in automotive and jet-engine applications. High temperature resistance; quartz exhibits piezoelectric eects; silicates containing various oxides are used in high-temperature, nonstructural applications. Contain at least 50% silica; amorphous structure; several types available, with a wide range of mechanical, physical, and optical properties. High crystalline component to their structure; stronger than glass; good thermalshock resistance; used for cookware, heat exchangers, and electronics. Crystalline form of carbon; high electrical and thermal conductivity; good thermalshock resistance; also available as bers, foam, and buckyballs for solid lubrication; used for molds and high-temperature components. Hardest substance known; available as single-crystal or polycrystalline form; used as cutting tools and abrasives and as die insert for ne wire drawing; also used as coatings.
Types of Ceramics and Glasses
TABLE 11.6 Types and general characteristics of ceramics and glasses.
Ceramic Structure
Silicon ions Oxygen ions
Aluminum ions OH ions
FIGURE 11.21 The crystal structure of kaolinite, commonly known as clay; compare with Figs. 3.2-3.4 for metals.
Properties of Ceramics
Transverse Rupture Compressive Elastic Strength Strength Modulus Material Symbol (MPa) (MPa) (GPa) Aluminum oxide Al2 O3 140240 10002900 310410 Cubic boron nitride cBN 725 7000 850 Diamond 1400 7000 8301000 Silica, fused SiO2 1300 70 Silicon carbide SiC 100750 7003500 240480 Silicon nitride Si3 N4 480600 300310 Titanium carbide TiC 14001900 31003850 310410 Tungsten carbide WC 10302600 41005900 520700 Partially stabilized zirconia PSZ 620 200 Note: These properties vary widely, depending on the condition of the material. Hardness (HK) 20003000 40005000 70008000 550 21003000 20002500 18003200 18002400 1100 Poissons Ratio ( ) 0.26 0.25 0.14 0.24 0.3 Density (kg/m3 ) 40004500 3480 3500 3100 3300 55005800 10,00015,000 5800
TABLE 11.7 Approximate range of properties of various ceramics at room temperature.
Strength:
UTS UTSoenP
Elastic modulus:
E Eo(1 1.9P + 0.9P2)
Thermal conductivity:
k = ko(1 P)
Temperature Effects
400 2.0 1.8 1.6 Linear thermal expansion (%) F 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 Partially stabilized Cast iron and MgO ZrO
2
Ni-base superalloy Polyethylene Nylon
600
500
1000
F 1500
800
2000 2500
F 1600
2400 400
SiC
60
90
Al2O3
Modulus of elasticity (psi x 106)
High-purity silicon nitride (Fine grain) 500 Tensile strength (MPa) 400 300 High-purity silicon nitride Al2O3 High-purity SiC SiC
80 70 60 psi x 10 3 50 40 30 20 10
50
1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 20.2
TiC Al2O3 MgO Si3N4
300
40
Al alloys ZrSiO4 (zircon) SiC Si3N4
30 20
ThO2
SrO2
200
200 Sialon 116 Silicon nitride (reaction bonded) 100 Glass ceramic Low-density SiC 0 200 400
10 0 0
MgAl2O4
100
Lithium aluminum silicate Fused SiO2 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Temperature (C)
0 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Temperature (C)
400 800 1200 Temperature (C)
0 1600
FIGURE 11.22 Effect of temperature on thermal expansion for several ceramics, metals, and plastics. Note that the expansions for cast iron and for partially stabilized zirconia (PSZ) are within about 20%.
FIGURE 11.23 Effect of temperature on the strength of various engineering ceramics. Note that much of the strength is maintained at high temperatures; compare with Figs. 2.9 and 8.30.
FIGURE 11.24 Effect of temperature on the modulus of elasticity for various ceramics; compare with Fig. 2.9. Source: After D.W. Richerson.
GPa
Example: Ceramic Bearings
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 11.25 A selection of ceramic bearings and races. Source: Courtesy of Timken, Inc.
Processes & Particle Production

FIGURE 11.26 Methods of crushing ceramics to obtain very ne particles: (a) roll crushing, (b) ball milling, and (c) hammer milling.
(a) (b) (c)
Process Slip casting Extrusion Dry pressing
Advantages Large parts; complex shapes; low equipment cost. Hollow shapes and small diameters; high production rate. Close tolerances; high production rate with automation. Complex shapes; high production rate. Strong, high-density parts. Uniform density distribution. High production rate with automation; low tooling cost. Complex shapes; high production rate.
Wet pressing Hot pressing
TA B L E 1 1 . 8 characteristics of processing methods.
General ceramics
Isostatic pressing Jiggering Injection molding
Limitations Low production rate; limited dimensional accuracy. Parts have constant cross-section; limited thickness. Density variation in parts with high length-to-diameter ratios; dies require high abrasive-wear resistance; equipment can be costly. Limited part size and dimensional accuracy; tooling costs can be high. Protective atmospheres required; die life can be short. Equipment can be costly. Limited to axisymmetric parts; limited dimensional accuracy. Tooling costs can be high.
Slip Casting
Trimming knife
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
FIGURE 11.27 Sequence of operations in slip casting a ceramic part. After the slip has been poured, the part is dried and red in an oven to give it strength and hardness. The step in (d) is a trimming operation. Source: After F.H. Norton.
Doctor-Blade Process
Air (filtered) in Ceramic tape on carrier tape Drying chamber Exhaust out
Slurry chamber and doctor blade
Ceramic slurry
Take-up spool Controller for take-up spool Carrier film
FIGURE 11.28 Production of ceramic sheets through the doctor-blade process.
Doctor blade Ceramic film
Carrier film
Density Variation in Compacts

L = 1.75 D Die 65 50 54 40 L 20 10
90
0 10
Punch
Punch D
FIGURE 11.29 Density variation in pressed compacts in a single-action press. Note that the variation increases with increasing L/D ratio; see also Fig. 11.7e. Source: After W.D. Kingery.
Extruding and Joggering

Water To vacuum Bat former Deairing Clay chamber slug Jigger tool Formed ware
FIGURE 11.30 (a) Extruding and (b) jiggering operations in shaping ceramics. Source: After R.F. Stoops.
Extruder Mold return (a) (b)
FIGURE 11.31 Shrinkage of wet clay, caused by removal of water during drying; shrinkage may be as much as 20% by volume. Source: After F.H. Norton.
Interparticle water (a)
Pore water (b)
Clay particles (c)
Dry
Glasses
Soda-lime Glass High Low Low Moderate Good Good Poor Fair Poor Lowest Lead Glass Highest Low Low Best Best Good Fair Poor Poor Low Borosilicate Glass Medium Moderate Good Good Fair Poor Good Good Fair Medium Fused Low High Better Good Poor None Better Good Good High 96% Silica Glass Lowest Highest Best Good Poorest None Best Best Good Highest
Density Strength Resistance to thermal shock Electrical resistivity Hot workability Heat treatability Chemicals resistance Impact abrasion resistance Ultraviolet-light transmission Relative cost
TABLE 11.9 General characteristics of various types of glasses.
Glass Sheet & Tubing

Controlled Molten atmosphere furnace tin
Molten glass
Tube Mandrel
Rollers Furnace Float bath Lehr
Rollers
FIGURE 11.32 The oat method of forming sheet glass. Source: Corning Glass Works.
FIGURE 11.33 Continuous manufacturing process for glass tubing. Air is blown through the mandrel to keep the tube from collapsing. Source: Corning Glass Works.
Glass Bottles
Gob Blow head Air Blank mold Baffle
Neck ring
Tip Air 2. Gob in blank mold 3. Blow down in blank mold 4. Blow back in blank mold
1. Gob falling into blank mold
Air Blow mold Parison
Tongs
5. Blank mold reversed
6. Parison hanging on neck ring, reheated during transfer
7. Parison in blow mold
8. Bottle blown, cooling
9. Finished bottle removed by tongs
FIGURE 11.34 Stages in manufacturing a common glass bottle. Source: After F.H. Norton.
Glass Pressing
1. Empty mold
2. Loaded mold
3. Glass pressed
4. Finished piece
FIGURE 11.35 Manufacturing steps for a glass item by pressing in a mold. Source: Corning Glass Works.
1. Empty mold
2. Loaded mold
3. Glass pressed
4. Finished product
FIGURE 11.36 Pressing glass in a split mold. Note that the use of a split mold is essential to be able to remove the part; see also Figs. 10.34, 10.35, and 10.36. Source: After E.B. Shand.
Residual Stresses in Glass

Step 1 Step 2
Thickness 1. Hot glass, no stresses. 2. Surface cools quickly, surface contracts, center adjusts, only minor stresses. (a) 3. Center cools, center contracts, surface is compressed, center in tension.
Step 3
Compression
Tension
Residual stresses (b)
FIGURE 11.37 Stages in the development of residual stresses in tempered glass plate.
Metal-Matrix Composites
Fiber Graphite Matrix Aluminum Magnesium Lead Copper Aluminum Magnesium Titanium Aluminum Lead Magnesium Aluminum, titanium Superalloy (cobalt base) Superalloy Typical Applications Satellite, missile, and helicopter structures Space and satellite structures Storage-battery plates Electrical contacts and bearings Compressor blades and structural supports Antenna structures Jet-engine fan blades Superconductor restraints in fusion power reactors Storage-battery plates Helicopter transmission structures High-temperature structures High-temperature engine components High-temperature engine components
Boron Alumina Silicon carbide Molybdenum, tungsten
TABLE 11.10 Metal-matrix composite materials and typical applications.
Example: Brake Caliper
FIGURE 11.38 Aluminum-matrix composite brake caliper, using nanocrystalline alumina-ber reinforcement. Source: Courtesy of 3M Specialty Materials Division.
Powder-in-Tube Process
Superconducting ceramic powder High-purity silver tube
Hopper
Wire 1. Fill 2. Pack 3. Extrude/Draw 4. Roll
Strip
FIGURE 11.39 Schematic illustration of the steps involved in the powder-in-tube process. Source: Courtesy of Concurrent Technologies Corporation.
Case Study: Engine Valves

Steel shaft Tungsten-carbide wear face
Copper interlayer Steel cap
FIGURE 11.40 A valve lifter for heavy-duty diesel engines, produced from a hot-isostatically-pressed carbide cap on a steel shaft. Source: Courtesy of Metal Powder Industries Federation and Bodycote, Inc.

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P/M Parts

Spherical (atomization, carbonyl (Fe), precipitation from a liquid)

Irregular (atomization, chemical decomposition)

Rounded (atomization, chemical decomposition) (c) Three-dimensional

Porous (reduction of oxides)

Angular (mechanical disintegration, carbonyl (Ni ))

Metal particles Spinning disk (c)

Particle Size Distribution

100 Particle size (m) (b)

Upper punch P/M spur gear (green) Die Core rod

Density vs. Compacting Pressure

MPa 600 800

0.32 40 100 Electrical conductivity (% IACS)

Apparent Density 3.49 g/cm3 1.44 2.75 1.40

8.2 8.4 8.6 8.8 Sintered density (g/cm3) (b)

Resultant pressure distribution:

Cold Isostatic Pressing

Pressures and Capabilities

TABLE 11.1 Compacting Pressures for Various Metal Powders

Hot Isostatic Pressing

Green sheet Shaping rolls Hot rolls Coiler

Sintering furnace Cooling

Particle injector (optional)

Neck formation by diffusion 2.

Effect of Temperature and Time

Dimensional change from die size (%)

30 60 90 120 Sintering time (min) (a)

30 60 90 120 Sintering time (min) (b)

Mechanical Properties of P/M Materials

60 HRH 75 HRH 55 HRH 68 HRH 75 HRH

TABLE 11.3 Typical mechanical properties of selected P/M materials.

Titanium Property Comparison

TABLE 11.4 Mechanical property comparison for Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy.

P/M Example: Bearing Caps

Geometry for P/M Dies

Sharp radius (a)

Fillet radius (e)

Max 30 Must be machined (c) Can be molded Workpiece (g)

Die Feather edge required on punch

0.25 mm (0.010 in.) (min)

Acceptable, with additional operations

Extrusion (hot) Machining

Types of Ceramics and Glasses

TABLE 11.6 Types and general characteristics of ceramics and glasses.

Aluminum ions OH ions

TABLE 11.7 Approximate range of properties of various ceramics at room temperature.

Ni-base superalloy Polyethylene Nylon

Modulus of elasticity (psi x 106)

1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 20.2

TiC Al2O3 MgO Si3N4

Al alloys ZrSiO4 (zircon) SiC Si3N4

0 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Temperature (C)

400 800 1200 Temperature (C)

Example: Ceramic Bearings

Processes & Particle Production

Process Slip casting Extrusion Dry pressing

Wet pressing Hot pressing

TA B L E 1 1 . 8 characteristics of processing methods.

Isostatic pressing Jiggering Injection molding

Slurry chamber and doctor blade

Take-up spool Controller for take-up spool Carrier film

FIGURE 11.28 Production of ceramic sheets through the doctor-blade process.