Chapter 1

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials
MEM
MEM
Mechanics of Materials

Course Web Site: http://www.mem.drexel.edu/mom
Study the behavior of SOLID bodies under the actions of various types of loading Other Commonly Used Names
Strength of Materials Mechanics of Deformable Bodies
Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear
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Why Mechanics of Materials?

Example: A Two-Bar Truss
C Free-Body Diagram for Joint A 600 mm A B 800 mm P = 30 kN 600 mm

SAC
Fx = SAB SAC cos = 0 Fy = SAC sin P = 0

P
SAC SAB A P
3
3 5 4 B 800 mm
SAB
P = 30 kN
What if AB is made of steel and AC is made of paper? Member AC may break long before load P reaches its intended value of 30 kN. The structure fails due to the low strength of member AC.
FHoriz = SAB 5 SAC = 0; FVerti = 5 SAC P = 0

S AC 5 4 = P = 50 kN (tension); S AB = S AC = 40 kN (compression) 3 5
One question we never asked in STATICS:
SNAP!
P << 30 kN
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Will the structure survive this load?

Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear 3 / 54
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C

SAC
600 mm A
SAC
600 mm A B 800 mm
SAB P
P = 30 kN
SAB P
800 mm P = 30 kN
What if AB is made of steel and AC is made of rubber band? The excessive deformation in member AC will prevent the structure from performing properly The structure fails due to the low stiffness of member AC.
SAC SAB

What if AB is a very slender member, i.e., AAB << AAC Member AB may buckle long before load P reaches its intended value of 30 kN. The structure fails due to the problem of instability.
5 / 54 Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear
BUCKLED!
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Most of the real-world structures are statically indeterminate
C

Real world structures are mostly statically indeterminate and are typically designed for strength, stiffness, and stability considerations Strength: The ability of the structures to carry or transmit loads. Stiffness: The ability of the structures to resist changes in shape. Stability: The ability of the structure to resist buckling under compressive loads. None of these can be accomplished with what we have learned in Statics. In MEM230, emphases will be placed on study the strength of the structures in terms of their load bearing capabilities
7 / 54 Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear 8 / 54
F.B.D. and Equilibrium Equations @ A
SAC SAB SAD
Fx = SAB SAC cos SAD cos = 0 Fy = SAC sin SAD sin P = 0

P Three unknowns, two equations
P D
A statically indeterminate structure can not be solved solely by using the equilibrium conditions. Additional conditions pertaining to the displacement of the structure and the relations between forces and displacements are usually needed.
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Real World Structures
Idealized Structures to be Studied in This Course

(Prismatic bars subjected to various types of loading)
Tension/ Compression of a bar Direct shear Torsion of a shaft Bending & shear of a beam
Buckling of a column
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d0 d 1a. Stress/Strain P L0 L P
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d d0 d0
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1b. Constitutive relations (Linearly elastic)
2. Axially loaded members
3. Torsion
4. Shear force and bending moment diagrams
5 and 6. Bending and shear stresses in beams 7. Analysis of stresses; Mohrs circles
8. Applications of plane stress 9. Deflections of beams
10. Statically indeterminate beams 11. Columns
What do we study in Mechanics of Materials

( )
E (G )
E=
P A0
L L0 L0
r F2
STATICS
r F3
If the body is in a state of equilibrium, then
( )
P
G= =
G=
E 2(1 + )
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M V VQ = Ib
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 = 0
and any segment of the body must also satisfy the equilibrium.
P = = = E A L
PL = AE
T = T IP
= = G =
TL GI P
dV = q dx
dM =V dx
r F1 r F2
r F4
r (L) r f i = f i( R )
r F2 r F3 r F1
My = I
1 =
pr pr 2 = t 2t
r F1
r r FR = fi( R ) r r r r r r (L) r r r r F F = F + F + F = 0 F F = F + F + f = 0 4 1 2 L i 4 1 2 r r r r r (R ) r r r F = F3 + F4 + FR = 0 F = F3 + F4 + fi =0
r (L) fi
r (R ) fi
r r FL = FR r r FL = fi( L )
r F3
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r F2
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Mechanics of Materials: The Concept of Stress r

F2 r F3
Mechanics of Materials: The Concept of Stress

r (L) fi r F1
If the body is in a state of equilibrium, then
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 = 0
and any segment of the body must also satisfy the equilibrium.
r f (t )
r f r f (n )
r F1
f: Total internal force acting on A
r F2
r F4
External forces
r F1
r (L) fi
Internal forces
r (L) r f i = f i( R ) r (R ) fi
r F3
A: An infinitesimal surface element on the internal surface External forces
r n r r f (n ) : Normalcomponentoff r r f (t ) : Tangentialcomponentoff
F = F1 + F2 + fi( L ) =0
r F4 r r r r F = F3 + F4 + fi(R ) =0
r f (n ) NormalStress : = lim A 0 A r f (t ) ShearStress : = lim A 0 A

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Tension
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How Many Different Ways Can you Break a Piece of Chalk?
Examples of Failure Mode

Compression Torsion
Impact Bending Tension Bending Twisting

Ductile Brittle
These structures failed in different modes since they are experiencing different internal stresses
Shear
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Normal Stress in a Prismatic Bar in Tension

Free-body diagram of a segment of the bar. Segment of the bar before loading. Segment of the bar after loading.
Sign Convention for Normal Stresses

When the bar is being stretched by a force, the stresses are tensile and are said to be positive.
Normal stresses in the bar
P A
dA = AdA = A A dA = P
A
Normal stress is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the cross section mn. This is a valid assumption so long as the cross section at each the stress is calculated is at a distance far away from the two ends of the bar.
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If the force is reversed in direction, the bar will be compressed, the stresses are compressive and are said to be negative.
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Units for Stresses

P Stress has units of force per unit area. A Force Pounds = = psi In USCS units: Stresses = Area Square inch
Units for Stresses

Example: A bar of circular cross section with a diameter d = 2.0 in (50.8 mm) is subjected to a pair of forces P = 6,000 lb (26,688 N)
=
=
In SI units:
Stresses =
Force Newtons = = Pascals (Pa ) Area Square meter
P P = A d 2 4
P
= 1,910psi = 1.91ksi
(2.0in )2 4
6 ,000lb
Conversion between psi and Pa:
psi 6,890 Pa
Pa ( 1.45 10-4 ) Psi
(50.8 10 3 m ) 4
2
26,688N
= 13.16 10 6 Pa = 13.16MPa
The following units are often used for convenience :
1 MPa = 106 Pa 1 GPa = 109 Pa 1 ksi = 103 psi 1 Msi = 106 psi
Pa = 13.16 10 6 Pa = 13.16MPa psi psi = 13.16 10 6 Pa 1.45 10 4 = 1,910psi Pa = 1,910psi 6,890

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Limitations on the Assumption of Uniform Distribution of Normal Stresses

1. Non-centroidal force 2. Saint-Venants Effect 3. Stress Concentration
Line of Action of the Axial Forces for a Uniform Stress Distribution The line of action of the axial forces for a uniform stress distribution must pass through the centroid.
Let the line of action of force P be going through p1.
P Moments due to P: M x = Py
( )
(P ) My = Px
Moments due : M x
( )
( ) = y (dA ) M y = x (dA )
Moments due to P must be equal to moments due to

(P ) ( ) Mx = Mx (P ) ( ) Mx = Mx
Py = ydA Px = xdA
For uniformly distributed stresses, = P/A = constant
y=
Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear 21 / 54 Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear
ydA
A
x=
xdA
A
The centroid of the cross section is at p1.

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Example 1-1
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The Concept of Normal Strains

=
ChangeinLength (L + ) L = = OriginalLength L L
Normal Stresses and Strains

P = 54kips = 54 ,000lb d1 = 3.6in d2 = 5.0in L = 40.0in
Sign Convention
Elongation (bar in tension) is positive Shortening (bar in compression) is negative
Units
Normal strain is the ratio of two lengths, hence is a dimensionless quantity, i.e., it has no units. In practice, the original length units are often attached to the strain, e.g., mm/mm, in/in, etc. Sometimes it is also expressed as a percent. Example: If L = 2.0 m, = 1.4 mm
= 0.022in
d1=3.6 in d2=5.0 in
(d22 d12 ) = 9.456in 2 4 P 54 ,000lb = = = 5 ,710psi A 9.456in 2

A= 0.022in = = = 550 10 6 in/in L 40in
Cross section
Fig. 1-5 Example 1-1. Hollow aluminum post in compression.
=
Fig. 1-2 Prismatic bar in tension
1.4 mm = = 0.0007 m m 2.0 m L = 700 106 m m = 700 m m = 0.07%

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How do we characterize the relationship between and ?

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How Do You Break

A Piece of Chalk A Paper Clip
Mechanical Properties of Materials

The mechanical behaviors (or properties) of materials are characterized by the relationship between stress and strain. Stress
Ultimate Stress Strength
Failure
Stiffness
Toughness
Strain Brittle Materials

Ductile Materials
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Ultimate strain
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Material properties are usually characterized in terms of its stressstrain relations under loading conditions of simple tension, simple compression, simple shear, etc. The test methods and specimen dimensions must comply with American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), American Standards Association (ASA), or National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) codes.

A Note on the Stress-Strain Relations A0
A P
L0 P
Before After
Initial cross-sectional area and length: A0, L0 Instantaneous cross-sectional area and length: A, L
TrueStress : =
P A
P A0
L TrueStrain : = ln L 0
NonimalStress : =
NonimalStrain : =
L0
Typical stress-strain diagram for a structural steel in tension.
Typical stress-strain diagram for an aluminum alloy.
Typical stress-strain diagram for a brittle material (e.g., glass).

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In this course, the terms stresses and strains always imply nominal stresses and nominal strains, respectively, i.e., stresses and strains are determined based on the initial cross-sectional area and length.
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True Stress-Strain Curve

Definition of Yield Point
Modulus of Elasticity (Youngs Modulus)
Structural steel (with a clearly definable yield point)
Aluminum alloy (without a clearly definable yield point)
Actual scale
Fig. 1-10 Stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel in tension (not to scale).
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Arbitrary yield stress determined by the (0.2%) offset method.

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Creep and Relaxation
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Ductile vs. Brittle Elastic v.s. Elastic-Plastic
Mechanical Properties of Materials Modulus of Elasticity (Youngs Modulus)

The slope of the linearly elastic portion of the stressstrain curve is called modulus of elasticity, or Youngs Modulus, and is denoted as E.
= E
This equation relates the longitudinal stresses and strains developed in simple tension or compression of a bar, is a very limited version of the so-called Hookes law. More extensive versions of the Hookes law will be discussed later.
Reading assignment: Sections 1.3 and 1.4

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P = 140k
L = 4.0ft d1 = 4.5in d2 = 6.0in E = 30 ,000ksi
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Mechanical Properties of Materials Poissons Ratio

Let L0 and d0 be the length and diameter of the bar before loading, and L and d the length and diameter of the bar after loading. The axial and lateral strains are given by, respectively, L L0 d d0 = = L0 d0 The Poissons ratio is defined as
Fig. 1-22 Axial elongation and lateral contraction of a prismatic bar in tension: (a) bar before loading, and (b) bar after loading. (The deformations of the bar are highly exaggerated.)
Example 1-3 A steel pipe in compression

Stress =
140k P = 12.37in 2 A = 11.32ksi(Compression)
Strain =
11.32 ksi = 377.3 10 6 30,000ksi
= 0.30
= L = ( 377.3 10 6 )(4.0 12 ) = 0.018in
(a) Change in length of the pipe
lateralstrain = = axialstrain NOTE: Poissons ratios are always positive as axial strains and lateral strains always have opposite signs. The values of Poissons ratio for commonly used materials range from 0.25 to 0.35.
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= = (0.30 )( 377.3 10 6 ) = 113.2 10 6

Cross-sectional area:
(b) The lateral strain
A= =
(d
2 2
2 1
(6.02 4.52 ) 4 = 12.37in 2
d2 = d2 = (113.2 10 6 )(6.0in ) = 0.000679in d1 = d1 = (113.2 10 6 )(4.5in ) = 0.000509in
(c) The increases in outer and inner diameters
t = t = (113.2 10 6 )(0.75 ) = 0.000085in =
(d) Increase in wall thickness
d2 d1 2
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MEM Shear Stress and Strain; Bearing Stress

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials Example Bolted connection in which the bolt is loaded in double shear. Flat Bar Bolt Clevis P P/2 P/2
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Bearing and Shear Stresses

P/2 P Average bearing stress: b = Fb Ab
( 2) Fb( 2 ) = P , Ab = t Bar d Bolt P ( 2) b = t Bar d Bolt
P/2
dBolt
Top View
t Bar
( 1) ( 3) Fb(1) = Fb( 3) = P 2 Ab = Ab = tClevis d Bolt P2 ( 1) ( 3) b = b = tClevis d Bolt
dBolt
Bearing Stresses Shear Forces Shear Stresses
Average shear stress: aver = V A

2 V = P 2 A = d Bolt 4
Bearing Stresses
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A schematic of the actual bearing stress and shear stress distributions

aver =
P2
2 dBolt 4
2P
2 d Bolt
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Shear Stress and Strain

Equality of Shear Stresses on Perpendicular Planes
2 3 4 1
1. 1 = V/A 2. There must exist a 3, equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to 1, to satisfy the equilibrium in the ydirection. 3. 1 and 3 form a couple, which must be balanced by another couple, equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, formed by shear stresses acting on the top face (2) and bottom face (4). Furthermore, 2 and 4 must be equal and opposite to each other to satisfy equilibrium in the x-direction. 4. Moment due to 1 and 3 is (1bc) a; moment due to 2 and 4 is (2ac) b. Equating these two moments results in 1 = 2 = 3 = 4.
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2 3 4
1
3-D
2-D
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Fig. 1-27 Small element of material subjected to shear stresses.

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Equality of Shear Stresses on Perpendicular Planes Shear stresses on opposite (and parallel) faces of an element are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Shear stresses on adjacent (and perpendicular) faces of an element are equal in magnitude and have directions such that both stresses point toward, or both point away from, the line of intersection of the faces.

Shear Strains Shear stresses do not elongate or shorten the element. Rather, they change the shape of the element by changing the angles between the side faces of the element. Shear strain is defined as change of angle of side faces that are originally perpendicular to each other. For example, shear strain in (b) is since the angles at points q and s are reduced by while the angles at points p and r are increased by .)
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Sign Conventions for Shear Stresses and Strains
Positive x-face Positive y-face

Sign Conventions for Shear Stresses and Strains
Positive y-face Positive x-face
Negative x-face
Negative y-face
Negative x-face
Negative y-face
A shear stress is positive if it is acting on a positive face and in the positive direction of one of the coordinate axes, or on a negative face and in the negative direction of one of the coordinate axes. A shear stress is negative if it is acting on a negative face and in the positive direction of one of the coordinate axes, or on a positive face and in the negative direction of one of the coordinate axes.
A shear strain in an element is positive when the angle between two positive faces (or two negative faces) is reduced, and is negative if the angle is increased.
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Hookes Law in Shear

Shear stress-strain diagrams are similar in shape (but different in magnitude) to the stress-strain diagrams of tension test for the same materials.
Example 1-4 A steel strut S serving as a brace for a boat hoist transmits a compressive force P to the deck of a pier
P = 54kN = 40 o dPin = 18mm dbolt = 12mm t strut = 12mm tGussets = 15mm t Base = 8mm
(a) Bearing Stress Between Strut and Pin:
G = or = G
For homogeneous and isotropic materials:
G=
E 2(1 + )
tStrut
b1 =
54kN 2 P2 = = 125MPa tStrut dPin (12mm )(18mm )
P/2
dPin
For most metals and many other engineering materials
P/2
tGussets
Pin
(b) Bearing Stress Between Pin and Gussets P2 54kN 2 b 2 = = = 100MPa tGusset dPin (15mm )(18mm ) (c) Shear Stress in Pin:
0.25 0.35G 0.37 E ~ 0.4 E

F.B.D. for left-half of the pin

Pin =
54kN 2 P2 = = 106MPa 2 dPin 4 (18mm )2 4

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Example 1-4 A steel strut S serving as a brace for a boat hoist transmits a compressive force P to the deck of a pier
P = 54kN = 40 o dPin = 18mm dbolt = 12mm t strut = 12mm tGussets = 15mm t Base = 8mm
(d) Bearing Stress Between Bolts and Base Plate: P cos 40 o 4 b3 = t Base d Bolt
o
Example 1-5. Punching a hole in a steel plate.

dPunch = 0.75in t Plate = 0.25in P = 28 ,000lb
(a) Average Shear Stress in the Plate

aver =
P P = = 47 ,500psi As d Punch t Plate
dBolt
40
P cos 40
(54kN )(cos 40o ) 4 = 108MPa (8mm )(12mm )
(b) Average Compressive Stress in Punch

c =
28 ,000lb P P = 2 = = 63 , 400psi 4 (0.75in )2 4 APunch dPunch
t Base
Bolt =
(e) Shear Stress in Anchor Bolts:

P cos 40 o 4 (54kN )(cos 40 o ) 4 = = 91.4MPa 2 d Bolt (12mm )2 4 4
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F.B.D. of the bolt
NOTE: This analysis is highly idealized as the impact effects that occur when a punch is rammed through a plate is disregarded.
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Example 1-6. Bearing pad in shear.
EXAMPLE: The connection shown in the figure consists of five steel plates, each 2.5 mm thick, to be joined by a single bolt. Determine the required diameter of the bolt if the allowable bearing stress, b, is 180.0 MPa and the allowable shear stress, allow, is 45.0 MPa?
(a) Average Shear Stress in the Elastomer:
aver =
V ab
1,800 N 3,000 N 2,400 N 3,000 N 1,800 N
1,800 N 3,000 N 1,200 N 1,200 N 3,000 N 1,800 N
1,800 N 1,800 N 1,200 N 2,400 N 1,200 N 1,800 N 1,800 N
(b) Horizontal Displacement of the Plate, d::
aver
Ge
V abGe
V hV d = h tan = h tan abG h = abG e e

Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear 47 / 54 Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear
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MEM230 Mechanics of Materials Allowable bearing stress, b, is 180.0 MPa Allowable shear stress, allow, is 45.0 MPa? Maximum Bearing Stress:
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Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads

Strength: The ability of a structure to resist loads
1,800 N 3,000 N 1,200 N 1,200 N 3,000 N 1,800 N 1,800 N 1,800 N 1,200 N 2,400 N 1,200 N 1,800 N 1,800 N
Pb 3,000N b = = = 180MPa t plate d bolt (2.5 10 3 m )d bolt
Factorofsafetyn =
d bolt =
3,000N (2.5 103 m ) 180 106 N m 2 = 0.00667m = 6.67mm
Actualstrength Requiredstrength
Marginofsafety = n 1 Yieldstrength Factorofsafety Allowablestresses = Ultimatestress Factorofsafety forductilematerials forbrittlematerials
Maximum Shear Stress:
1,800N V = 2 = 45MPa Abolt d bolt 4

4 1,800N
dbolt =
allow
4 1,800N 45 10 6
dbolt = 7.14 mm
For Axial Loads and Direct Shear

Allowableload=Allowablestress Area
= 0.00714m = 7.14mm
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Example 1-7. Determine the allowable load P based on the following four considerations.
(a) The allowable tensile stress in the main part of the hanger is 16,000 psi.
Design for Axial Loads and Direct Shear

Analysis: Given the structure and loads, determine stresses and strains. Design: Given the loads and allowable stresses, determine the properties of the structure. Design for axial loads and direct shear entails finding the required area to carry the loads
Requiredarea = Loadtobetransmitte d (i.e.,StrengthConsiderat ion) Allowablestress
P1 = allow A = allow b1t = 12 ,000lb

(b) The allowable tensile stress in the hanger at its cross section through the bolt hole is 11,000 psi.
P2 = allow A = allow (b2 d )t = 11,000lb

(c) The allowable bearing stress between the hanger and the bolt is 26,000 psi.
P3 = b A = b dt = 13,000lb
(d) The allowable shear stress in the bolt is 6,500 psi.
Other design considerations include

Stiffness: Designing the structure to resist changes in shape. Stability: Designing the structure to resist buckling under compressive loads. Optimization: Designing the best structure to meet a particular goal.
P4 = allow A = allow (2 d 2 4 ) = 10 ,200lb
P3 > P1 > P2 > P4 Pallow = P4 = 10 ,200lb

Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear 51 / 54 Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear 52 / 54
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MEM230 Mechanics of Materials From F.B.D. (a) MC = 0 RAH (2.0m ) (2.7kN)(0.8m ) (2.7kN )(2.6m ) = 0
R AH = 4.590kN F = 0 horiz RCH = RAH = 4.590kN
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Example 1-8. Two-bar truss ABC supporting a sign of weight W.
From F.B.D. (b) M B = 0 RCV (3.0m ) + (2.7kN)(2.2m ) + (2.7kN)(0.4m ) = 0

RCV = 2.340kN
Back to F.B.D. (a) Fvert = 0 RAV + RCV 2.7kN 2.7kN = 0

RAV = 3.060kN
RA =
(RAH )2 + (RAV )2
= 5.516kN;RC =
(RCH )2 + (RCV )2
allow
FAB =
= 5.152kN;FAB = RA = 5.156kN
Determine the required cross-sectional area of bar AB and the required diameter of the pin at support C
Required area of bar AB: Required diameter of pin at C:
AAB =
5.516 kN = 44.1 mm2 125 MPa
allow = 125Mpa; allow = 45Mpa

Free-body diagram
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Apin =
VC RC 5.152kN = = = 57.2mm 2 ;d pin = 4 Apin = 8.54mm 2 allow 2 allow 2(45MPa )

54 / 54

Chapter 1

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Chapter 1

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MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

Strength of Materials Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear

Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

Why Mechanics of Materials?

Why Mechanics of Materials?

Fx = SAB SAC cos = 0 Fy = SAC sin P = 0

FHoriz = SAB 5 SAC = 0; FVerti = 5 SAC P = 0

Will the structure survive this load?

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

Why Mechanics of Materials?

Why Mechanics of Materials?

Fx = SAB SAC cos = 0 Fy = SAC sin P = 0

Fx = SAB SAC cos = 0 Fy = SAC sin P = 0

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

Why Mechanics of Materials?

Why Mechanics of Materials?

F.B.D. and Equilibrium Equations @ A

SAC SAB SAD

Fx = SAB SAC cos SAD cos = 0 Fy = SAC sin SAD sin P = 0

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

Real World Structures

Idealized Structures to be Studied in This Course

Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear

Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

1b. Constitutive relations (Linearly elastic)

2. Axially loaded members

4. Shear force and bending moment diagrams

8. Applications of plane stress 9. Deflections of beams

10. Statically indeterminate beams 11. Columns

What do we study in Mechanics of Materials

If the body is in a state of equilibrium, then

Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

Mechanics of Materials: The Concept of Stress r

Mechanics of Materials: The Concept of Stress

If the body is in a state of equilibrium, then

f: Total internal force acting on A

A: An infinitesimal surface element on the internal surface External forces

r f (n ) NormalStress : = lim A 0 A r f (t ) ShearStress : = lim A 0 A

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

How Many Different Ways Can you Break a Piece of Chalk?

Examples of Failure Mode

Impact Bending Tension Bending Twisting

Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear

Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

Normal Stress in a Prismatic Bar in Tension

Sign Convention for Normal Stresses

Normal stresses in the bar

Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear