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Stroke
WHAT IS A STROKE? The Basic Process
Blood Flow Blockage. The brain receives about 25% of the body's oxygen, but it cannot store it. Brain cells require a constant supply of oxygen to stay healthy and function properly. Therefore, blood needs to be supplied to the brain continuously through two main arterial systems: The carotid arteries come up through either side of the front of the neck. (The pulse of a carotid artery can be felt by placing the fingertips gently against either side of the neck right under the jaw.) The basilar artery forms at the base of the skull from the vertebral arteries, which run up along the spine, join, and come up through the rear of the neck.
A reduction of, or disruption in, blood flow to the brain is the primary cause of a stroke. Blockage for even a short period of time can be disastrous and cause brain damage or even death.
A stroke is usually defined as two types: Ischemic (caused by a blockage in an artery). Hemorrhagic (caused by a tear in the artery's wall that produces bleeding in the brain). The consequences of a stroke, the type of functions affected, and the severity, depend on where in the brain it has occurred and the extent of the damage. Cell Death. In addition to oxygen cutoff to the brain, other factors are involved in the cycle of events leading to brain cell death after a stroke. The process is not altogether clear, but one hypothesis is as follows: When blood is cut off in the brain, proteins known as excitatory amino acids (such as glutamate and glycine) are released. These amino acids literally excite nerve cells and, when over produced, can kill them. These proteins open channels in the membranes that cover neurons (brain cells), allowing large amounts of calcium to flow in. Calcium reacts within the neurons to release harmful substances that damage cells. Natural particles released by the body's chemical processes, called oxygenfree radicals, may also play a role in the cell damage caused by a stroke. (Some oxygenfree radicals under study are called lipid peroxides.) Another hypothesis focuses on an enzyme called PARP: PARP ordinarily makes minor molecular repairs. Confronted with substantial injury, however, PARP overresponds and takes up a substance called ATP, the major source of energy in cells. The cells die. Within minutes of a stroke, the zone of initial cell death is surrounded by additional damaged and dying brain cells. This process can continue for hours, leading to brain damage, perhaps irreversible.
Ischemic Stroke
Ischemic strokes are by far the more common type, causing over 80% of all strokes. Ischemia means the deficiency of oxygen in vital tissues. Ischemic strokes are caused by blood clots that are usually one of three types: Thrombotic stroke. Embolic stroke. Lacunar stroke. Thrombotic or LargeArtery Stroke and Atherosclerosis. The thrombotic stroke accounts for about 60% of all strokes. It usually occurs when an artery to the brain is blocked by a thrombus (blood clot) that forms as the result of atherosclerosis (commonly known as hardening of the arteries). These strokes are also sometimes referred to as largeartery strokes. The process leading to thrombotic stroke is complex and occurs over time: The arterial walls slowly thicken, harden, and narrow until blood flow is reduced, a condition known as stenosis.
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These now abnormal arteries become vulnerable to injury. Such injuries signal the immune system to release white blood cells (particularly those called neutrophils and macrophages) at the site. This process is the first step in the inflammatory response, which may play a significant role in the stroke. Macrophages literally "eat" foreign debris and become foamy cells that attach to smooth muscle cells of blood vessels causing them to build up. The immune system, sensing further harm, releases other factors called cytokines, which attract more white blood cells and perpetuate the whole cycle. As these processes continue, blood flow slows. In addition, other events contribute to the coming stroke: The injured inner walls fail to produce enough nitric oxide, a substance critical for maintaining blood vessel elasticity. The arteries become calcified and lose elasticity. The arteries, now hardened and rigid, become susceptible to tearing. In this event, the thrombus (blood clot) forms. The blood clot then blocks the already narrowed artery and shuts off oxygen to part of the brain. A stroke occurs. Embolic Strokes and Atrial Fibrillation. An embolic stroke is usually caused by a dislodged blood clot that has traveled through the blood vessels (an embolus) until it becomes wedged in an artery. Embolic strokes account for about 25% of all strokes and may be due to various conditions: In about 15% of embolic strokes, the blood clots originally form as a result of a rhythm disorder known as atrial fibrillation. This abnormal rhythm is a rapid quivering beat in the upper chambers of the heart (the atria). Because of the irregular pumping, some blood may remain in the heart chamber where it forms clots, which can then break off and travel to the brain as emboli. Emboli can originate from blood clots that form at the site of artificial heart valves or as a result of heart valve disorders. Emboli can also occur after a heart attack or in association with heart failure. Rarely, emboli are formed from fat particles, tumor cells, or air bubbles that travel through the blood stream. Lacunar Strokes. Lacunar infarcts are a series of very tiny, ischemic strokes, which cause clumsiness, weakness, and emotional variability. They are actually a subtype of thrombotic stroke and constitute about 38% of this major group. In some populations, such as among Japanese, they are the most common stroke subtypes. They can also sometimes serve as warning signs for a major stroke. Silent Brain Infarctions. Many elderly people have silent brain infarctions, which are small strokes that cause no apparent symptoms. They are detected in between 10% and 38% of elderly patients who undergo imaging tests for problems other than stroke. A 2002 study suggested that they double the risk for future stroke. They also may be major contributors to mental impairment in the elderly. Smokers and people with hypertension are at particular risk.
Hemorrhagic Stroke
Over 15% of strokes occur from hemorrhage (sudden bleeding) in the brain. In a healthy brain, brain cells called neurons are protected from exposure to blood by the bloodbrain barrier, a wall of tiny vessels and structural cells. In a hemorrhagic stroke, however, this barrier is broken. Hemorrhagic strokes may be categorized by how and where they occur.
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Parenchymal, or cerebral, hemorrhage strokes. These strokes occur within the brain and account for about 10% of all strokes. They are most often the result of hypertension exerting excessive pressure on arterial walls already damaged by atherosclerosis. Heart attack patients who have been given drugs to break up blood clots or bloodthinning drugs have a slightly elevated risk of this type of stroke. Subarachnoid hemorrhagic strokes. This other major hemorrhagic stroke accounts for about 5% of all strokes. They occur when a blood vessel on the surface of the brain bursts, and blood leaks into the subarachnoid space, an area between the brain and the skull. They are usually caused by the rupture of an aneurysm, a weakening in the blood vessel wall, which is often an inherited trait. Arteriovenous malformation (AVM)is an abnormal connection between arteries and veins. If it occurs in the brain and ruptures, it can also cause a hemorrhagic stroke.
Symptoms From Blockage in the Carotid Arteries. The carotid arteries stem off of the aorta (the primary artery leading from the heart) and lead up through the neck around the windpipe and on into the brain. When TIAs or stroke occur from blockage in the carotid artery, which they often do, symptoms may occur in either the retina of the eye or the cerebral hemisphere (the large top part of the brain). They include the following: When oxygen to the eye is reduced, people describe the visual effect as a shade being pulled down. People may develop poor night vision. About 35% of TIAs are associated with temporary lost vision in one eye. Although such events are risk factors for future stroke, they pose a lower risk for a stroke and its complications than more widespread TIA symptoms. When the cerebral hemisphere is affected, a person can experience problems with speech and partial and temporary paralysis, drooping eyelid, tingling, and numbness, usually on one side of the body. The stroke victim may be unable to express thoughts verbally or to understand spoken words. If the stroke injuries are on the right side of the brain, the symptoms will develop on the left side of the body and vice versa. Uncommonly, patients may experience seizures. Symptoms From Blockage in the Basilar Artery. The other major site of trouble, the basilar artery, is formed at the base of the skull from the vertebral arteries, which run up along the spine and join at the back of the head. When stroke or TIAs occur here, both hemispheres of the brain may be affected so that symptoms occur on both sides of the body. The following symptoms may develop: Temporarily dim, gray, blurry, or lost vision. Tingling or numbness in the mouth, cheeks, or gums. Headache, usually in the back of the head. Dizziness. Nausea and vomiting. Difficulty swallowing. Weakness in the arms and legs, sometimes causing a sudden fall. Such strokes usually occur in the brain stem, which can have profound affects on breathing, blood pressure, heart rate and other vital functions, but does not affect thinking or language. Speed of Symptom Onset. The speed of symptom onset of a major ischemic stroke may indicate its source: If the stroke is caused by a large embolus (a clot that has traveled to an artery in the brain), the onset is sudden. Headache and seizures can occur within seconds of the blockage. When thrombosis (a blood clot that has formed within the brain) causes the stroke, the onset usually occurs more gradually, over minutes to hours. On rare occasions it progresses over days to weeks.
Stroke
Age
Older Adults. People most at risk for stroke are older adults, particularly those with high blood pressure, who are sedentary, overweight, smoke, or have diabetes. Older age is also linked with higher rates of poststroke dementia. In the older age groups, studies are mixed on the effects of stroke by gender. Younger Adults. Younger people are not immune, however; about 28% of stroke victims are under 65. Strokes in younger people affect men and women equally.
Gender
In most age groups except older adults, stroke is more common in men than in women. However, it kills more women than men, regardless of ethnic groups. Women may have a higher risk for hemorrhagic strokes than men (although this risk is not consistent in all countries). It is not clear why women have a higher mortality rate from stroke. In one study comparing men and women with atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries), the risk for stroke in women appeared to be higher with less blockage in the blood vessels. Another study also reported that women had a higher risk for fatal strokes after heart surgery. The arteries that lead to the brain may be more vulnerable to the effects of plaque buildup in women than in men.
Ethnicity
All minority groups, including Native Americans, Hispanics, and African Americans, face a significantly higher risk for stroke and stroke death than American Caucasians. The risk is also higher in Asian Americans, although some evidence reports a marked decline in incidence in this group over the past decades. The differences in risk among all groups diminish as people age. The greatest disparity in risk occurs in young adults. Middle aged African Americans are two to three times more likely to experience a stroke than their Caucasian peers and four times more likely to die from one. (They also face a higher risk for death from heart disease.)
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African Americans have a higher prevalence of diabetes and hypertension than other groups. However, studies suggest socioeconomic factors are important in these differences. Poorer diets, higher stress levels, and lack of access to health care certainly play a role in the higher rates. Socioeconomic disparities may play a large role in the differences in mortality between all major American minority ethnic groups and Caucasian Americans. All African Americans face discrimination, but women may be at particular risk for unequal treatment. (In one study in which female actors portrayed heart patients, African American women were 60% less likely to receive aggressive diagnostic tests than African American men or any Caucasians, even though they presented with similar symptoms.) While African Americans comprise 13% of the US population, African Americans have comprised only 2% to 9% of subjects in most of the major research trials, and so knowledge about their specific risks is limited.
Geography
People in the Southeastern US have had the highest risk for stroke in the country for some years; those at particular risk live in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. This risk may be shifting westward so that high stroke rates are also occurring in the lower Mississippi valley and in Southern California. Socioeconomic differences do not fully explain these higherrisk areas.
Stroke from Low Blood Pressure (Hypotension). Uncommonly, blood pressure that is too low can reduce oxygen supply to the brain and cause a stroke. This can occur from a heart attack, a major bleeding episode, an overwhelming infection, or rarely, from surgical anesthesia or from overtreatment of high blood pressure.
Stroke
fibrillation, in fact, poses a sixfold increased risk for stroke and may also pose a higher risk for complications after a stroke. Atrial fibrillation is uncommon in people under 60 years old, but about 6% of adults over 80 have this heart rhythm disorder. In this patient group, the risk for stroke may be higher or lower with the presence of other risk factors, including having heart failure, high blood pressure, diabetes, and a previous history of stroke, TIA, or rheumatic heart disease. More women than men have AF, but risk for stroke is higher in women with this condition than in men. [See Box Atrial Fibrillation and Its Treatments.] Patent Foramen Ovale. Patent foramen ovale (PFO) is a flaplike opening between chambers of the heart. The foramen ovale is always open during fetal development to enhance blood flow to the fetus. It then typically closes after birth when the lungs take over. However, evidence suggests that it remains open in up to 30% of adults. In such cases, blood moves backward (right to left) through this opening when pressure in the right chamber exceeds the left. Large PFOs in fact, be turn out to be a major cause of stroke, particularly in younger adults. A 2001 study suggested that stroke patients with PFO have a higher risk for a recurring stroke only if they also have atrial septal aneurysm. [See below.] The process leading to blood clots and stroke in such cases are complex and not entirely clear. Treatments include anticlotting agents and procedures for closing the opening. Atrial Septal Aneurysm. Atrial septal aneurysm is an inborn condition in which part the atrium (one of the heart chambers) bulges out. Studies indicate that this may pose a slight risk for stroke in young people. Note: It had been commonly believed that mitralvalve prolapse is a major cause of stroke in young people, but the connection has not been well researched. A 1999 study found no evidence that this usually mild heart abnormality has any effect on stroke.
Smoking
People who smoke a pack a day have almost two and a half times the risk for stroke as nonsmokers. Smoking increases both hemorrhagic and ischemic stroke risk. The risk for stroke may remain elevated for as long as 14 years after quitting, so the earlier one quits the better.
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Chlamydia Pneumonia. Some investigators suspect that some infections may produce inflammation in the arteries that can lead to stroke over time. (Similar work is underway in heart disease.) Researchers are particularly interested in Chlamydia pneumoniae, a nonbacterial organism that causes mild pneumonia in adults. Chronic infection has been linked with a higher risk for stroke and evidence of the organism has been observed in thickened inner vessel walls of the carotid arteries in some studies. Chlamydia has also been linked to heart disease. Periodontal Disease. A number of studies now strongly support an association between periodontal disease and cardiovascular disorders. According to a major 2003 analysis, periodontal (gum) disease is associated with a 20% higher risk for ischemic stroke and heart disease. (The added risk may be even greater in adults under 65.) Recent evidence is pointing to the inflammatory response as the common element.
Other Medical or Physical Conditions Associated with a Higher Risk for Stroke
A number of medical or physical conditions may contribute to the risk for stroke: Sleep apnea. This common disorder, in which the throat becomes obstructed during sleep, may contribute to the narrowing of the carotid artery, appearing to increase the risk for stroke three to sixfold. Pregnancy. Pregnancy carries a very small risk for stroke, mostly in women with pregnancy related high blood pressure and in those with cesarean delivery. The risk appears to be higher in the postpartum (postdelivery) period, perhaps because of the sudden change in circulation and hormone levels. Antiphospholipid antibodies. Nearly 40% of young people with strokes and 10% of all stroke patients have components of the immune system known as antiphospholipid antibodies that increase the chance for blood clots. Sicklecell anemia. People with sicklecell anemia are at risk for stroke at a young age. Drug abuse, particularly with cocaine and increasingly methamphetamine (an amphetamine), is a major factor in the incidence of stroke in young adults.
Stroke
WHAT ARE THE MEDICAL AND LIFESTYLE MEASURES FOR PREVENTING A STROKE? Guidelines for Preventing Heart Disease and Stroke
In 2002, the American Heart Association revised its guidelines for preventing heart disease, which include the following: Improve Cholesterol. People with at least two risk factors and a 10year risk for heart disease or stroke of more than 20% should aim for LDL levels of less than 100 mg/dl. Raising HDL levels is important for people at risk for stroke. Statins are now used in most cases. [See also Raising HDL Cholesterol, below.] Keep Blood Pressure Low. People in normal health should aim for 139/89 mm Hg or less. Patients with certain health problems, such as diabetes, should aim lower. [See also Reducing Blood Pressure, below.] Exercise. Everyone in normal health should engage in at least moderate physical activity for a minimum of 30 minutes on mostif not alldays of the week. [See also Exercise, below.] Healthy Diet. Everyone should aim for a diet that contains a healthy balance of fruits, vegetables, grains, fish, nuts, legumes, poultry, lean meat, and lowfat dairy items. Avoid saturated fats and transfatty acids. [See also Diet and Weight Control, below.] Quit Smoking. Also avoid exposure to secondhand smoke. Maintain Weight. People should aim for a BMI index of 18.5 to 24.9. In people who are obese, reducing weight to this level can reduce the risk for stroke by 15% in men and 22% in women. [See also Obesity and Weight Control, below.] Taking Aspirin. People whose risk for heart disease within ten years is 10% or more should take a lowdose aspirin every day, unless they have medical reasons to avoid aspirin. It may also be helpful to prevent a second stroke, although it is unclear if it is helpful in preventing a first stroke, except possibly in patients with TIAs. [See also What Are the Drugs Used to Treat Stroke Patients and Prevent Recurrence?] Control Diabetes. People with diabetes should aim for fasting blood glucose levels of less than 110 mg/dl and hemoglobin A1C of less than 7%.
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Control Atrial Fibrillation. People with atrial fibrillation should use anticoagulants to reduce their risk of blood clots. [See box Atrial Fibrillation and Its Treatments.]
Vitamins
Folic Acid. The vitamin B, folate (usually in the form of folic acid) may protect against stroke. Studies have suggested that people who have higher blood levels of folate have a lower than average risk for stroke. Its primary benefit in this case appears to be to reduce levels of homocysteine, an amino acid that has been strongly linked to an increased risk of coronary artery disease, stroke, and Alzheimer's disease. A major 2002 study suggested that lowering homocysteine levels with folic acid would reduce the risk for heart disease by 16% and stroke by 24%. Antioxidant Vitamins. The effects of antioxidant vitamins and carotenoids on stroke, dementia, or both have been studied. Studies are conflicting, however. A very important 2001 study reported no protection from stroke with vitamins A, E or beta carotene.
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Exercise
The benefits of exercise on stroke are less established than on heart disease, but a number of studies, including the following, suggest positive benefits: According to one analysis of a group of 11,000 men, those who burned between 2,000 and 3,000 calories a week (about an hour of brisk walking five days a week) cut their risk of stroke in half. Groups who burned between 1,000 and 2,000 calories or more than 3,000 calories per week also gained some protection against stroke but to a lesser degree. In the same study, exercise that involved recreation was more protective than exercise routines consisting simply of walking or climbing. A 2000 study of women also found substantial protection from brisk walking or striding (rather than casual walking).
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Stroke
For patients with no heart disease, the first choices include sotalol, flecainide, or propafenone, which are often used sequentially. If these fail, then amiodarone or a newer agent dofetilide (Tikosyn) may be tried. Others include ibutilide (Covert), and azimilide. If these agents are not effective, than other drugs tried include quinidine, procainamide, and disopyramide. In patients with heart disease, amiodarone, dofetilide, or sotalol are commonly used depending on the cause of heart disease. Amiodarone is more effective than most others and has been thought to be safer than many other similar drugs. Even in low doses, however, there is a high incidence of side effects, including thyroid disorders, neurologic, skin, and eye problems, and abnormally slow heart beats. Many of these drugs carry a small but significant increased risk, however, for a lifethreatening arrhythmia called torsades de pointes and should be avoided by people with certain heart conditions. Surgical Procedures for Complex AF. In some difficult cases, surgery may be recommended. The options and candidates depend on other complicating factors. The following are some examples: AV node ablation involves severing the communication between the atria (the two upper chambers of the heart) and the ventricles (the two lower chambers). A pacemaker is then implanted just under the skin with electrodes leading to the ventricles. This approach is very effective, but it is irreversible and must be used lifelong. Radiofrequency ablation may be an option in some patients. A more aggressive procedure uses open chest surgery, in which a maze of cuts is made in the atria. As they heal, the scar tissue prevents the heart circuitry from misfiring. It controls atrial fibrillation in more than 90% of appropriate candidates. A new procedure is similar but less invasive.
HOW ARE STROKES AND TRANSIENT ISCHEMIC ATTACKS DIAGNOSED? Diagnosing Transient Ischemic Attacks (TIAs) and Determining Risk for Stroke
In people who experience transient ischemic attacks or small strokes, it is important to determine the source of these attacks in order to prevent a major stroke. A complete blood count, chest xray, and electrocardiogram are usually performed. Discouragingly, a 2001 study reported that over 30% of patients with TIA who called their primary care physician were neither evaluated nor sent to the hospital within the month after a first event. Examining the Carotid Artery. The physician usually first examines the carotid artery to determine if it is severely narrowed. If it is, the patient is in danger of a major stroke. (The thickness of the carotid artery is also proving to be a valuable indicator for longterm risks for stroke, as well as heart disease and mortality rates in general.) The physician may use a number of approaches to determine the thickness of the artery: An important clue to a blocked carotid artery is a bruit. This is a whooshing sound caused by blood flow turbulence in the narrowed artery. A physician may be able to hear a bruit using a stethoscope. Occasionally, even a patient can hear the sound. The presence of a bruit, however, is not necessarily a sign of an impending stroke, nor does the absence of a bruit indicate an unblocked artery. Carotid ultrasound is a very valuable tool for measuring the width of the artery. At this time, ultrasound is most useful in people between the ages of 40 and 60 years. It should be noted that severely blocked carotid arteries may distort some measurements, so other tests may be required to confirm the results. Measuring blood pressure to the eye may also be important in identifying problems in the carotid artery. If blood flow to the eye is reduced, then it is likely that the carotid artery is severely narrowed. Imaging Techniques for TIAs. A number of imaging techniques may be useful for identifying small clots or other indicators of risk in the brain. [See Imaging Techniques, below.]
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before they reach the hospital. For example, an assessment tool called the Face, Arm, Speech Test (FAST) is proving to be highly accurate. It involves watching for the following signs: Face: The face is not symmetrical. The mouth droops and the patient is unable to show teeth when smiling. Arm: The patient is unable to lift an arm above shoulder level. Speech: The patient has a hard time talking clearly and following simple instructions. In one study, emergency workers who used this test accurately identified more people with stroke than either primary care or emergency room physicians. Determining Ischemia Versus Hemorrhagic Stroke. Once a stroke has been determined, the next important step is to determine as quickly as possible whether it is hemorrhagic or ischemic. Clotbusting drug therapies can be lifesaving for ischemic stroke patients, but they are effective only in the first three hours. In addition, they cause bleeding and can be lethal if the stroke is actually caused by a hemorrhage. A computed tomography (CT) scan is essential for identifying or ruling out hemorrhagic strokes. The goal is to complete the CT examination and obtain and interpret the results within 45 minutes of arrival at the hospital. (The ultrasound technique, transcranial duplex sonography, may be sensitive enough to differentiate between hemorrhagic and ischemic strokes if CT scans are not available.) [For a description of these tests, see Imaging Test, below]. Certain factors may also suggest a hemorrhagic rather than ischemic stroke. They include specific symptoms (e.g., coma, vomiting, and severe headache), taking anticoagulants, very high systolic blood pressure, or high blood sugar levels in nondiabetics. However, such findings are not conclusive, and a CT scan or MRI is always needed. Ruling Out Other Disorders. In most cases of stroke, the diagnosis is evident although a number of conditions may cause similar symptoms. These include seizures; infections that cause mental confusion; syncope (fainting); hypoglycemia; and brain tumors.
Imaging Tests Used for Stroke and Risk Factors for Stroke
Computed Tomography. A computed tomography (CT) scan is the standard imaging test for the brain. It is performed as early as possible. It is essential in ruling out hemorrhagic stroke and can accurately diagnose about 95% of hemorrhagic strokes. The full evidence of an ischemic stroke will usually not show up on a CT scan for hours to days. A CT scan, however, may be useful in identifying early signs of injury from ischemic strokes that could effect the decision to use thrombolytics (clotbusting drugs). Highspeed CT scans (called helical or spiral CTs) that quickly identify ischemic strokes and the location of the blockage are now available in many centers. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). A standard magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan is able to evaluate the blood vessels and the brain's circulation and determine injuries from ischemic strokes. It is not very useful in the first hours of a stroke, however, since it tends to show abnormalities that may not be significant. Advanced MRI techniques, such as diffusion or perfusionweighted MRIs, may be sensitive enough to identify injured areas within minutes of symptoms. MRIs cannot be used by patients with pacemakers, any metal implants, or who are claustrophobic. Ultrasound. Ultrasound may be used in different circumstances. This imaging technique is painless and noninvasive. Carotid ultrasound (also called Doppler or duplex sonography) is used to determine blockage in the carotid arteries that could lead to or be causing a stroke. Transcranial duplex sonography is used to identify blockage in large arteries in stroke patients and to monitor the effects of thrombolytic therapy. Cerebral Angiography. Cerebral angiography is an invasive procedure that may be used for patients with TIAs who require surgery. It can also detect aneurysms and be used to monitor thrombolytic therapy. It requires the insertion of a catheter into the groin, which is then threaded up through the arteries to the base of the carotid artery. At this point a dye is injected and xrays, CTs, or MRI scans are used to determine the location and extent of the narrowing, or stenosis, of the artery. It should be noted that in people with TIAs the risk of stroke itself increases using this technique, particularly in elderly people with diabetes. Other Techniques. Other imaging tests, including positronemission tomography (PET) and single photonemission computed tomography (SPECT), may further refine the physician's knowledge of the injuries caused by the stroke.
Heart Evaluation
Electrocardiogram (ECG). A heart evaluation using an electrocardiogram (ECG) is important in any patient with a stroke or suspected stroke. An ECG records the electrical current in the heart muscle. Echocardiogram. An echocardiogram uses ultrasound to view the chambers and valves of the heart. It is generally useful for stroke patients to identify blood clots or risk factors for blood clots that can travel to the brain and cause
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stroke. There two are types: Transthoracic echocardiograms (TTE) view the heart through the chest. It is noninvasive and is the standard approach. Transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE) examines the heart using an ultrasound tube that the patient literally swallows and is passed down the throat. It is uncomfortable and requires sedation. It is typically used to obtain more accurate images of the heart if a TTE has suggested abnormalities, such as atrial fibrillation or patent foramen ovale (PFO).
Other Tests
Blood Tests. A number of blood tests may be helpful for predicting the risk for a stroke as well determining the severity and complications of an existing stroke. Some of these are investigatory. Specific blood tests are important to determine clotting times, to check electrolytes (potassium, calcium, sodium), and to measure factors indicating liver or kidney problems. Blood sugar (glucose) levels are measured. Hyperglycemia (elevated levels) may indicate a worse outcome for some strokes (although not hemorrhagic or lacunar strokes). Hypoglycemia (low levels) is a common complication of diabetes treatments and its symptoms may mimic those of a stroke. Blood tests showing high levels the amino acid glutamate indicate a severe stroke. Examination of Spinal Fluid.If the CT scan is negative, but the physician still suspects a subarachnoid hemorrhagic stroke, a spinal tap may be indicated. Spinal fluid containing significant amounts of blood will usually confirm a hemorrhagic stroke.
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Maintain Adequate Delivery of Oxygen. It is very important to maintain oxygen levels. In some cases, airway ventilation may be required. Supplemental oxygen may also be necessary for patients when tests suggest low blood levels of oxygen. Hyperbaric oxygen (which is oxygen administered under pressure) may help specific stroke patients, although it is not recommended for most patients, since there is some risk of significant adverse effects using this approach. Managing Fever and Lowering Body Temperature (Hypothermia). Fever should be aggressively treated, since strong evidence suggests that its presence predicts a poorer outlook. Some evidence, in fact, suggests that hypothermiareducing body temperaturemight protect nerve cells in stroke patients. Cooling is done through special cooling blankets, ventilators, or infusion of cool fluids. Unfortunately, there are severe side effects with even moderate hypothermia (86F, 30C), which can include pneumonia, blood clotting disorders, heart rhythm disturbances, and others. Studies using mild hypothermia (89 to 93F, 32 to 34 C), however, are reporting protection from developing brain injuries. In one, it was administered with nerveprotecting agents (calcium, magnesium, glutamate, and an antioxidant) within three hours of the stroke. Compared to patients without hypothermia, brain injuries were reduced by 45% to 74%, depending on how quickly the patients were treated. Maintain Electrolytes. Maintaining a healthy electrolyte balance (the ratio of sodium, calcium, and potassium in the body's fluids) is critical. Managing Blood Pressure. Managing blood pressure is essential and complicated. Patients with stroke and pressures above 220 (systolic) or 120 (diastolic) should be treated. Lowering blood pressure too quickly can be dangerous, however in patients with both ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes. In general, however, experts do not advise aggressively lowering elevated pressures below 220/120 in patients unless they have other conditions, such as a heart attack, that require pressurelowering treatments. In patients who require thrombolytic agents, blood pressure should cautiously be lowered to 185/110 mm Hg. In most cases, blood pressure declines when these patients become stabilized. Managing Increased Brain Pressure. Hospital staff should watch carefully for increased pressure on the brain, which is a frequent complication of hemorrhagic strokes. It can also occur a few days after ischemic strokes. Early symptoms of increased brain pressure are drowsiness, confusion, lethargy, weakness, and headache. A number of medications, such as mannitol and other, may be given during a stroke to reduce pressure or the risk for it. Keeping the top of the body higher than the lower part, such as by elevating the head of the bed, can reduce pressure in the brain and is standard practice for patients with ischemic stroke. However, this practice also lowers blood pressure in general, which may be very dangerous in patients with massive stroke. The experts in the study recommend keeping the bed level for all ischemic stroke patients. More work needs to be done to clarify this simple procedure. Monitoring the Heart. Heart attack and arrhythmias are potential complications of ischemic stroke. Patients must be monitored using electrocardiographic tracings. Controlling Glucose Levels.Elevated glucose (blood sugar) levels can occur with severe stroke and may be a marker of serious trouble. In general, it is advisable to lower glucose levels that are about 300 mg/dL, usually with insulin. It is not clear, however, if glucoselowering treatments offer any advantage. Excessive lowering of glucose levels can have damaging effects on the brain. Studies are underway to determine the best approach.
WHAT ARE THE DRUGS USED TO TREAT STROKE PATIENTS AND PREVENT RECURRENCE? The Polypill
An intriguing study in 2003 suggested that taking a single daily pill containing a number of heart and circulatory protective agents could largely prevent heart attacks and stroke in nearly everyone over 55. It would contain the following: A statin (such as Lipitor or Zocor). Statins inhibit the liver enzyme HMGCoA reductase, which is used in the manufacturing of cholesterol. They are the most effective drugs for the treatment of high cholesterol, and, according to a 2003 major analysis over 200 studies, they reduce risk for heart events by 60% and stroke by 17%. In addition, statins may have nerveprotecting properties that may help stroke sufferers. Three bloodpressure lowering agents in low doses (e.g., a thiazide diuretic, a beta blocker, and an ACE inhibitor). An important study in 2003 suggested that using lowdoses of three different agents to lower pressure may reduce the risk of stroke by 63% and heart disease by half. Using low doses also reduces the risk for side effects. Aspirin (lowdose). Folic acid. Folic acid lowers levels of homocysteine, an amino acid believed to increase the risk for heart disease and stroke.
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The experts in the study believed this combination would reduce ischemic heart events by 88% and stroke by 80%. Only between 1% and 2% of the population would have to withdraw because of side effects. More research on this is certainly warranted.
Stroke
Warfarin. The anticoagulant warfarin (Coumadin) is a potent anticoagulant and needs to be monitored carefully. Studies have been mixed on its value for protecting against future stroke. A 2001 study found no additional benefits for patients with ischemic stroke compared to aspirin. Warfarin is, however, very important in highrisk patients with atrial fibrillation. It may be useful in other situations, such as patients with patent foramen ovale (PFO), those whose stroke followed a heart attack, or in highrisk patients who do not respond to or cannot take other antiplatelet drugs. Heparin. Intravenous heparin, a potent antiplatelet agent, has been used for ischemic stroke since 1941. Although many physicians continue to use it, five out of six major studies have reported no clear protective benefits compared to aspirin with the use of standard heparin or any heparinlike agents. They also pose a much higher risk for hemorrhagic stroke. Experts now recommend heparins only for preventing thromboembolism in stroke patients at risk for this condition. Direct Thrombin Inhibitors (DTIs). Direct thrombin inhibitors are a more recent group of anticoagulants. The first DTI hirudin, a natural substance derived from the saliva of leeches. New forms include argatroban (Novastan), bivalirudin (Angiomax), danaproid (Orgaran), lepirudin (Refludan), desirudin (Revasc), inogatran, and efegatran. Ximelagatran (Exanta) is new oral agent that is showing great promise for protection against stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation while posing a low risk for bleeding. All anticlotting drugs carry a risk for bleeding and a slightly increased risk for hemorrhagic stroke.
WHAT ARE THE SURGICAL PROCEDURES FOR PREVENTING OR TREATING STROKE? Carotid Endarterectomy to Prevent Ischemic Stroke
Carotid endarterectomy is a surgical procedure used to clean out and open up the narrowed carotid artery. It is used in patients at high risk for thrombotic ischemic strokes, which are caused by blockage in the internal carotid artery. It is also sometimes used after a stroke in certain patients. In such cases, patients have reported improvements in vision, speech, swallowing, functioning of arms and legs, and general quality of life. The studies showing such high benefits of surgery versus drug therapy were done in institutions whose surgeons are experienced with such operations. Anyone undergoing this procedure should be sure their surgeon is experienced in recent techniques and that the medical center has complication rates of less than 3%. A 2000 study reported that older surgeons had a worse record than younger ones, possibly because they relied on residents or were less likely to adopt new procedures. Procedure Description. The procedure generally is as follows:
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The patient is usually given general anesthesia, although it has been reported that using local anesthetic is just as safe and reduces the cost of the procedure. A bypass tube is put in place to transport blood around the blocked area during the procedure. The surgeon scrapes away the plaque on the arterial wall. The artery is sewn back together and blood flow is restored. The patient generally stays in the hospital for about two days. There is often a slight aching in the neck for about two weeks, and the patient should refrain as much as possible from turning the head during this period. Patients who have this procedure after a stroke are usually advised to wait six weeks. Studies are reporting, however, that having the procedure earlier does not pose greater risks.
Determining Who Should Have Surgery. Evidence strongly suggests that most patients with severe stenosis (over 70% of the carotid artery is obstructed) can benefit from endarterectomy. And, it is also clear that patients with mild stenosis (less than 50% obstruction) would do better with medicationseven if they have symptoms. The benefits of endarterectomy for people with stenosis between 50% to 70% are not clear, however. The best candidates for preventive carotid endarterectomy in such cases may be those that meet all of the following conditions: They have symptoms that indicate blockage in the brain. They are male. The benefits of this procedure for women are uncertain. They have a history of a stroke that occurred three months earlier or less. They have access to a medical center in which major complications rates after endarterectomy are less than 3%. Significant controversy surrounds the treatment of patients who have severe stenosis but who do not have symptoms. A 1995 study estimated that endarterectomy in such patients would reduce the risk for stroke from 11% to 5%. However, these patients were treated in medical centers with highly skilled staff and less experienced centers have reported higher complications and lower success rates. A 2002 study suggested that, in any case, asymptomatic patients even with blockages of well over 50% actually have a low risk for a stroke. In this small study, such patients had only a 9.3% risk for a stroke at 10 years and a 15% risk at 15. Furthermore, an important 2000 study found that only 3.5% of the strokes that occurred in such patients were due to blockage in the carotid arteriesthe only condition that is benefited by carotid endarterectomy. Over half of the strokes in that study were caused by embolisms (traveling clots) or lacunar infarcts (very tiny, ischemic strokes). Some experts still believe that many asymptomatic patients are good candidates for the procedure. However, to be beneficial, the procedures should be performed only in experienced medical centers. Complications. There is a risk of a heart attack or even stroke from the procedure. Studies have reported, in fact, that strokes occur during or immediately after the operation in up to 9% of these operations. The other overall risk of death from postoperative stroke was 2.8%. Women appear to have a significantly higher risk for postoperative stroke than men have.
Hemicraniectomy
Hemicraniectomy is surgical removal of a bone patch from the skull to relieve pressure. The bone is stored under sterile conditions and reimplanted a few months latter. It may have be a lifesaving option for some patients with severe stroke that has resulted in swelling and injury to a large area in the brain. Studies are showing some benefits for highrisk patients, but more information is needed to determine specific conditions that will respond to this treatment. (In one study, for example, patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage had a poor outlook after this procedure.)
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ExtracranialIntracranial Bypass
Extracranialintracranial (ECIC) bypass has been under investigation for decades for ischemic stroke, but has had very mixed results, some extremely negative. With this procedure a healthy artery in the scalp is rerouted to an area of the brain that was deprived of blood because of a blocked artery. This procedure is now sometimes used for patients with aneurysms. Some experts hope, however, that, in specific cases chosen via careful imaging and using the latest surgical techniques, ECIC may prove to be helpful for some stroke patients.
HOW IS STROKE RECOVERY MANAGED? Reducing Risk Factors for Another Stroke
Patients should begin all measures, including any medications and lifestyle changes needed to prevent another stroke. For those whose stroke was ischemic, aspirin, warfarin, or both will usually be prescribed. [See What Are the Medical and LifeStyle Measures for Preventing a Stroke? And What Are the Drugs Used to Treat Stroke Patients and Prevent Recurrence?] Using a neurologist as the primary physician after a stroke, rather than some other specialist or primary care doctor, significantly increases the chance for survival. In any case, patients or their families should be persistent in requesting the best care possible during this important early period.
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Being treated initially in a stroke unit instead of a general ward plays a strong role for better longterm quality of life. Rehabilitation services aimed at patients living at home are also very effective in improving independence. Unfortunately, Medicare cuts are making it difficult to obtain adequate rehabilitation. Patients or their families should seek patient advocates or support associations.
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to become more active. More studies are necessary. Physical exercise relating to the disability caused by the stroke is, in any case, important and may actually help repair the brain. Speech therapy and sign language. Intense speech therapy (about 9 hours a week for three months) after a stroke is important for recovery. (The less intense the program the less chance for success.) While professional speech therapy progresses, the patient's caregivers should use and encourage the patient in nonverbal communications, such as pantomime, facial expressions, and pen and paper. Learning and using the signlanguage alphabet may be helpful both in communicating and improving smallmotor dexterity. Biofeedback techniques combined with physical therapy. This combination has been beneficial in certain cases. Electrical stimulation of the throat, for example, may help patients with dysphagia recover their ability to swallow faster. Stimulation of the wrist and finger is also showing promise for improving motor capabilities. Swallowing exercise. A very promising 2002 study reported that swallowing improved when patients performed a simple exercise three times a day for six weeks. They lay flat and raised their heads three times, holding them up for one minute with a minute rest in between. This was followed by 30 consecutive head lifts. Attention training. Problems in attention are very common after strokes. Direct retraining teaches patients to perform specific tasks using repetitive drills in response to certain stimuli. (For example, they are told to press a buzzer each time they hear a specific number.) A variant of this approach trains patients to relearn reallife skills, such as driving, carrying on a conversation, or other daily skills. For example, in one study, small electric cars were used in a lab to teach driving. Occupational training. Occupational therapy is important and improves daily living activities and social participation.
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It should be noted that many drugs for psychologic disorders affect the central nervous system and can actually delay rehabilitation. Skilled professional help is needed to determine the most effective and safest treatments. The Emotional State of the Caregiver.The caregiver's emotions and responses to the patient are critical. Patients do worse when caregivers are depressed, overprotective, and not knowledgeable about the stroke. Unfortunately, in one study, over half of the caregivers themselves were depressed, particularly if the stroke victims were left with dementia or abnormal behavior.
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