I.

INTRODUCTION A. Introduction The Rise and Fall of Behaviorism

It started off slowly in 1910s
Watsons 1913 manifesto, Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, claimed that introspective psychology was unscientific because it did not deal with objective states.
There is a complete rejectionof mentalism byWatson in the 1910s and Skinner in the 1940s

Lecture 12: The Rise and Fall of Behaviorism

By the 1940s and 1950s, behaviorism reigned supreme in American experimental psychology.
There was an emphasis on learning and experience over inheritance of traits in every sphere of applied and theoretical psychology.

I.

INTRODUCTION A. Introduction The Rise and Fall of Behaviorism

By 1965, the tide began to turn.
There was the cognitive revolution" and humanistic psychology which embraced the very mentalism which Behaviorism sought to reject.

I.

INTRODUCTION B. The Context of Behaviorism The zeitgeist of the time resulted in the developing of behaviorism.
Objective psychology was already established in Russia and several functionalists were discussing openly many ideas later emphasized by John Watson.
The success of animal research also contributed greatly to the development of behaviorism.

Why behaviorism declined is complicated.

Behaviorism was demonstrated to be overly simplistic and inadequate philosophically and empirically.

Behaviorism no longer theoretically dominant.

But Behavior Modification, Applied Behavior Analysis, and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy remain viable approaches in applied psychology.

The strain resulting from proposals for a strict objective science of psychology but the continued use of introspection created the atmosphere that ultimately led to the behaviorist revolution.

I.

INTRODUCTION B. The Context of Behaviorism Two sections to the presentation Origins of Behaviorism:
Russian Physiology of Reflexes American Foundations: J.B. Watson British Foundation: MacDougall

II. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM A. Russian Physiology of Reflexes Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov (18291905)
Sechenov's major interest was neurophysiology
He showed that brain activity is linked to electric currents and was the first to introduce electrophysiology.

NeoBehaviorism
Edward Chase Tolman Clark Leonard Hull Edwin R. Guthrie B. F. Skinner

Focused on the nature and inhibition of spinal reflexes

Studying the physiology of reflexes was important port of the context of the founding of behaviorism

II. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM A. Russian Physiology of Reflexes Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov

Sechenov's work laid the foundations for the study of reflexes, animal and human behavior, and neuroscience. Thoughts do not cause behavior.
Both internal behavior (mental processes) and external behavior are reflexive in that they are triggered by external stimulation. Principle of external stimulation also seen in Vyogtskys work.

II. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM A. Russian Physiology of Reflexes Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov

Proposed
Main purpose of the central nervous system was to inhibit reflexive behavior Development establishes inhibitory control over reflexive behavior. Rejected the idea of spontaneous or un-elicited behavior.

The only valid Psychological approach was the objective methods of physiology.

II. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM A. Russian Physiology of Reflexes Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov (1849 1936)
Won the Nobel Prize in 1904 for his work in physiology.
During work on the physiology of the digestive system, he discovered the conditioned reflex.
Noted that objects or events associated with presentation of food also produced gastric secretions. Referred to secretions as conditional (mistranslated as conditioned) responses because they depended on something else

II. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM A. Russian Physiology of Reflexes Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov

For details of Classical Conditioning, see the textbook.
He applied objective physiological measures to study the association between stimulus and response Explained how reflexes can be modified by environmental associations. Even explained neurosis
Experimental neurosis occurs when excitatory and inhibitory conditioned tendencies are brought into conflict.

II. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM A. Russian Physiology of Reflexes Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov

Pavlovs Signal Systems
First-signal system or the first signals of reality.
Stimuli (conditioned stimuli) that come to signal biologically significant events

II. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM A. Russian Physiology of Reflexes Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov

Pavlovs Signal Systems
First-signal system or the first signals of reality.
Stimuli (conditioned stimuli) that come to signal biologically significant events

Second-signal system or signals of signals

Humans learn to respond to symbols of physical events (use of language, words are symbols referring to events).

Second-signal system or signals of signals

Humans learn to respond to symbols of physical events (use of language, words are symbols referring to events).

Low opinion of psychology.

But big influence on the discipline!

Low opinion of psychology.

But big influence on the discipline!

II. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM A. Russian Physiology of Reflexes Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev (18571927)
Neurophysiologist who noted the role of the hippocampus in memory around 1900.
He founded the field of psychoreflexology.
An objective study of relations between environmental influences and overt behavior. In humans

II. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM B. American Behaviorism: Watson John Broadus Watson (1878 1958)
Founder and promoter of behaviorism
Objective methodology applicable to humans and animals Physiological basis

Critical of Pavlov's work

He transformed and applied it from dog secretions to human behavior.

Critical paper was Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It (1913)

Polemical tone Emphasis on application

II. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM B. American Behaviorism: Watson John Broadus Watson

Start at Chicago with Dewey. At Harvard he worked with James Angell and Jacques Loeb
Shows that the behavior of simple organisms could be explained as being automatically elicited by stimuli

II. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM B. American Behaviorism: Watson John Broadus Watson

1908 announces behaviorist views and 1913 publishes the so-called Behaviorist Manifesto
Psychology is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its method. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between man and brute

Influenced by his early research with rats running in mazes

Early research running rats in mazes helped him formulate some of his later ideas regarding a purely objective science of psychology.

II. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM B. American Behaviorism: Watson John Broadus Watson

Four types of behavior
Explicit (overt) learned behavior
talking, writing, etc.

II. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM B. American Behaviorism: Watson John Broadus Watson

Four methods of research
Observation, naturalistic or controlled Conditioned-reflex method, proposed by Pavlov and Bechterev Testing, meant taking samples of behavior and not measurement of capacity or personality Verbal reports, which were treated as any other type of overt behavior.

Implicit (covert) learned behavior

increased heart rate caused by a feared stimulus

Explicit unlearned behavior

grasping, blinking, sneezing, etc.

Implicit learned behavior

glandular secretions

All behavior, including thinking, falls into one of the categories.

II. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM B. American Behaviorism: Watson John Broadus Watson

Language & thinking as behavior.
Speech overt behavior, while thinking was sub-vocal speech.

II. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM B. American Behaviorism: Watson John Broadus Watson

Proposed that children should be raised in an objective manner
Little displays of affection; treated as adults; receive sex education.

There were a few simple reflexes

No complex innate behavior; only experience impacts behavior

Contiguity and Frequency

Events associated in time, which produces conditioning of behavior.

Humans inherit basic reflexes and emotions of fear, rage, and love.
These Emotions elicited by stimuli and others are derived from the 3.
Little Albert and emotional conditioning

Adopted physical monism.

Switched to a physical monism mind-body position, rejecting mental events (consciousness) altogether.

II. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM B. American Behaviorism: Watson John Broadus Watson Watsons Behaviorism had two long-lasting effects
Psychologys main goal changed from description and explanation of states of consciousness to the prediction and control of behavior. Overt behavior was the almostexclusive subject matter of psychology.

II. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM B. American Behaviorism: McDougall William McDougall (1871 1938)
He wrote a number of highly influential textbooks
He as particularly important in the development of the theory of instinct and of social psychology.

Critiqued Watsons behaviorism for its lack of instinct and purpose.

His work was very well known and respected among lay people.

II. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM B. American Behaviorism: McDougall William McDougall

Defined psychology as the science of behavior
Mental events valued and could be studied objectively by observing their influence on behavior.

II. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM B. American Behaviorism: McDougall William McDougall

Believed that all behavior is stimulated by instinctual energy
Instincts provides motivation to act in certain ways. Single event or thought tends to elicit several instinctual tendencies Associating multiple instincts with a single object or thought creates a sentiment

Behavior is goal-directed and stimulated by instinctual motive

Minimized environmental events and emphasized purposive nature of behavior.

Most human social behavior is governed by sentiments.

II. ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM B. American Behaviorism: McDougall McDougall vs. Watson

On Instincts
Watson denied humans instincts whereas for McDougall they motivated of all behavior.

III.

NEOBEHAVIORISM A. Introduction Characteristics of Neobehaviorism

Were radical empiricist
All theoretical terms must be operationally defined as demanded by Logical Positivists of the Vienna Circle (philosophers committed to eliminating metaphysics)

On Reinforcement
Watson rejected reinforcement in learning whereas for McDougall reinforcement was a process of need reduction central to learning

Nonhuman animals should be used as research participants for two reasons:

Relevant variables are easier to control in animals than when using human subjects. Perceptual and learning processes in animals differ only in degree from those processes in humans Information gained from research with nonhuman animals can be generalized to humans.

On Debates
McDougall is seen as the narrow victor.over Watrson in debates.

III.

NEOBEHAVIORISM A. Introduction Characteristics of Neobehaviorism

Learning processes are of prime importance because learning is the primary mechanism by which organisms adjust to a changing environment. Despite agreeing on a few important issues, there were major differences among the neobehaviorists:
Tolman Hull Gutherie Skinner

III.

NEOBEHAVIORISM B. E. C. Tolman Edward Chance Tolman (1886 1959)

American psychologist best known for his studies of learning in rats using mazes.
His major theoretical contributions came in his 1932 book, Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men Psychological Review papers included
The determinants of behavior at a choice point (1938) Cognitive maps in rats and men (1948) Principles of performance (1955)

III.

NEOBEHAVIORISM B. E. C. Tolman Edward Chance Tolman

Purposive and molar behavior
Studied purposive (molar) behavior in contrast to the molecular behavior that he saw Watson studying.

III.

NEOBEHAVIORISM B. E. C. Tolman Edward Chance Tolman

Learning can occur without reinforcement or motivation.
Distinguished learning & performance
Learning takes place constantly as the organism interacts with its environment. Whether the organism uses what it has learned is determined by its motivational state.

Rats used to avoid introspection

Rats guarded against even indirect introspection that could occur if humans were experimental participants.

Performance is translation of learning into behavior.

Latent Learning: Tolman & Honzik, (1930) Latent Extinction: In extinction, an animals expectation is modified by a lack of contingency.

Cognitive intervening variables

To Tolman, cognitive processes (hypotheses, expectations, beliefs, and sometimes cognitive maps) intervene between stimuli and responses.

III.

NEOBEHAVIORISM C. Clark L. Hull Clark Leonard Hull (1984 - 1952)

American who explained motivation and learning by scientific laws
His most significant works were the Mathematico-Deductive Theory of Rote Learning (1940), and Principles of Behavior (1943), established his formal analysis of learning and conditioning.

III.

NEOBEHAVIORISM C. Clark L. Hull Clark Leonard Hull (1984 - 1952)

Hulls hypothetico-deductive theory of learning
Used intervening variables as Tolman, but used them more extensively. From summarizing the research on learning, he formed postulates from which he inferred theorems that yielded testable propositions.
Hulls intervening variables were primarily physiological, in contrast to the cognitive variables of Tolman. His final theory had 17 postulates and 133 theorems.

Model is couched in biological terms:

Organisms suffer deprivation. Deprivation creates needs. Needs activate drives. Drives activate behavior. Behavior is goal directed. Achieving goals have survival value.

III.

NEOBEHAVIORISM C. Clark L. Hull Clark Leonard Hull (1984 - 1952)

Reinforcement: Drive-reduction theory of reinforcement.
A biological need creates a drive and the decrease of drive constitutes reinforcement

III.

NEOBEHAVIORISM C. Clark L. Hull Clark Leonard Hull (1984 - 1952)

Halls legacy No trace of Hulls theory in textbooks, yet there is of Tolman
The clarity of its predictions generated lots of research on Hulls theory Researchers devised projects to test the theorys predictions and validity. Hard to call this a failure.

Habit strength: An increase in habit strength constitutes learning.

The number of reinforced pairings between an environmental situation and a response.

Reaction potential: Probability a learned response will occur.

Function of amount of drive and habit strength and other intervening variables.

Today its legacy is mathematical psychology.

III.

NEOBEHAVIORISM D. Edwin R. Guthrie Edwin R. Guthrie (1984 - 1952)

American who played an important role in the development of the contiguity theory of learning.
Contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be created) Reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are central to explaining the learning process.

III.

NEOBEHAVIORISM D. Edwin R. Guthrie Edwin R. Guthrie

Details of contiguity learning in textbook but some general issues:
Stimuli which accompany a movement will on its recurrence, tend to be followed by that movement.
Rejected the law of frequency and postulated one-trial learning.

Distinguished movements and acts.

Movement: A specific response to a stimuli configuration in which an association is learned at full strength after one exposure. Act: Made up of movements and a skill is made up of acts

He developed a one-trial, contiguity, non-reinforcement theory of learning

III.

NEOBEHAVIORISM E. B. F. Skinner Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904 1990)

American who discovered the operant conditioning which was the basis of:
An approach to psychology The Experimental Analysis of Behavior and a philosophy of psychology Radical Behaviorism Skinner was listed as the most influential psychologist of the 20th C. He published 21 books and 180 articles.

III.

NEOBEHAVIORISM E. B. F. Skinner Burrhus Frederic Skinner

Radical Behaviorism
Scientists were to collect empirical facts and then infer knowledge from the facts
Science is to be descriptive and inductive rather than theoretical and deductive.

Functional analysis of behavior

An analysis of the relations between environmental and behavioral events.
Internal events have no place in such an analysis because they are events also and thus need to be explained also. Internal events cannot serve as explanations or causes of behavior.

III.

NEOBEHAVIORISM E. B. F. Skinner Burrhus Frederic Skinner

Operant behavior
Two types of behavior
Respondent behavior is reflexive behavior in which Watson and Pavlov were interested Operant behavior is influenced by its consequences. (Gets around calling it volitional)

III.

NEOBEHAVIORISM E. B. F. Skinner Burrhus Frederic Skinner

Operant conditioning
Punishment is when a consequence decreases the rate/probability of behavior
Reinforcement exerts better control over behavior than punishment.

Operant conditioning occurs as behavior affected by its consequences.

Reinforcement is when a consequence increases the rate/probability of behavior
The reinforcer can be anything as long as its effect is an increase in behavior probability.

Selection of behavior by consequence is a Darwinian idea.

The organism produces a variety of behaviors
Some will result in consequences that will increase the behavior (reinforcing). These behaviors will be selected as part of the organisms repertoire while others will not

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III.

NEOBEHAVIORISM E. B. F. Skinner Burrhus Frederic Skinner

Behavior Analysis
Skinner and other behavior analysts have always sought to apply operant principles to solve practical problems.
Applied behavior analysis has provided a behavior technology to change behavior in multitudes of settings.

Prominent area is application of to help people in educational settings

Problems ranging from psychosis, drug addiction, mental retardation/ learning disabilities, speech disorders, shyness, phobias, and juvenile delinquency.

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