Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
N
(z) =
1
N
z
-1
I
(z)
N-1
I=0
(8)
where, N =number of samples integrated,
Simulation results are tabulated in Table 2 below.
TABLE III
DIGITAL FILTERS FREQUENCY RESPONSE
Channel
Integration
Time (ms)
No. of Samples
Integrated (N)
Sampling
Rate
(KHz)
-3dB
Freq
(Hz)
1 8
128 16 55
64 8 110
32 4 219
16 2 429
2 2
128 64 221
64 32 440
32 16 876
16 8 1716
3 1
128 128 441
64 64 880
32 32 1752
16 16 3432
D. Comparison of analog and digital filters response
Overall comparison of frequency response of simulated
analog and digital filters for all the channels of radiometer is
shown in Table 3 below.
TABLE IIIII
ANALOG AND DIGITAL FILTERS FREQUENCY COMPARISON
Channel
Analog
Filter
Digital Filter
Bandwidth
Improvement
(B/A)
-3dB
Freq
(Hz)
(A)
No. of
Samples
Integrated
-3dB Freq
(Hz) (B)
1 20
128 55 2.75
64 110 5.50
32 219 10.95
16 429 21.45
2 80
128 221 2.75
64 440 5.50
32 876 10.95
16 1716 21.45
3 160
128 441 2.75
64 880 5.50
32 1752 10.95
16 3432 21.45
From Table 3 it is observed that the -3dB cut-off frequency
for each digital filter is much higher than the corresponding
analog filter for the respective channels. Signal bandwidth due
to digital integration for all the channels improves by 2.75
times to 21.45 times over the analog filter bandwidth for
different integration factors. Hence, the performance of digital
filters is better than analog filter.
Also among the digital filters with in a channel, it is
observed that the bandwidth reduces with increase in number
of samples for integration. Bandwidth of digital filter with 16
samples is 7.8 times better than bandwidth of digital filter
with 128 samples. Hence, a digital filter with 16 samples for
integration is better than a digital filter with higher samples
for integration.
IV. DETERMINATION OF OPTIMUM AVERAGING FACTORS FOR
DIGITAL INTEGRATION AND SNR IMPROVEMENT
As already explained in section III B, the front-end
receiver output radiometer has a low pass filter with 5 KHz
cut-off frequency to limit the input bandwidth. According to
Nyquist criterion i.e. (fs 2 BW), the minimum sampling rate
can be 10 KHz. Considering the sampling rates available for
different integration factors for different channels following
conclusions are made:
2 KHz, 4 KHz and 8 KHz sampling rates cannot be used
for channel-1.
8 KHz sampling rate cannot be used for channel-2.
Low Pass
Filter
Sampler &
Quantiser
FIR Filter
Length N
Decimator
N
International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT) - Volume4Issue4- April 2013
ISSN: 2231-5381 http://www.ijettjournal.org Page 802
Channel-3 has all sampling rates above the Nyquist
sampling rate of 10 KHz and hence all sampling rates can
be used.
Hence, the minimum sampling rate for all the channels is
16 KHz and the optimum averaging factors corresponding to
16 KHz sampling rate for different channels are given in
Table 4 below.
TABLE IVV
OPTIMUM AVERAGING FACTORS FOR DIGITAL INTEGRATION
Channel
Acceptable
sampling
rates
(fs > 10 KHz)
(KHz)
Minimum
acceptable
sampling rate
for all
channels
Optimum
Averaging
Factors
(corresponding
to 16 KHz)
1 16
16 KHz
128
2 16, 32, 64 32
3 16, 32, 64, 128 16
Signal bandwidth improvement due to digital integration of
samples is already established in section III D and the
improvement factors for different channels with different
integration factors is give in Table 3. Signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) for digital receiver due to digital integration of
optimized averaging factors can be calculated using (9).
Digital receiver SNR =Analog receiver SNR X Improvement factor
(9)
An analog receiver is already designed by French Space
Agency (CNES) for three low frequency channels (18.7 GHz,
23.8 GHz and 36.5 GHz) of MADRAS microwave radiometer
and SNR performance of these three channels for analog
receiver as reported in literature is given in Table 5 below [6].
TABLE V
ANALOG RECEIVER SNR
Channel
Integration Time
(ms)
Analog Receiver SNR
18.7 GHz 8 141
23.8 GHz 8 107
36.5 GHz 8 141
SNR of digital receiver for three low frequency channels of
MADRAS radiometer with optimized averaging factors is
calculated using (9) and the results are shown in Table 6
below.
TABLE VI
DIGITAL RECEIVER SNR
Channel
Analog
Receiver
SNR
Bandwidth (Hz)
Bandwidth
Improvement
Digital
Receiver
SNR
Analog
Filter
Digital
Filter
18.7GHz 141 20 55 2.75 388
23.8GHz 107 20 55 2.75 294
36.5GHz 141 20 55 2.75 388
SNR comparison of analog and digital receivers of a three
channel microwave radiometer is shown in Fig.3 below.
Fig. 3 Analog and digital receiver SNR comparison
V. CONCLUSIONS
The digital integration and control module of a microwave
radiometer carries out the functions of analog processing of
the received video signals, digitization of the video signals
and integrating the digitized video signals using digital
domain approach. An analytical and simulation model of
analog and digital integrators has been developed to compare
their frequency response and to arrive at optimum averaging
factors for the digital integration of different channels of a
multi-channel radiometer. Simulation results showed that
performance of digital integrator is much better than analog
integrator over wide frequency band. Signal bandwidth
improvement due to digital integration of samples. Signal-to-
noise ratio of digital integrator is much better than its analog
counterpart.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors would like to acknowledge the help rendered by all
scientists / engineers of Space Applications Centre, ISRO,
Ahmedabad and Director, RITS, Bhopal for his
encouragement and guidance during various phases of the
project.
REFERENCES
[1] Nilesh Desai, A novel digital receiver concept for ISROs future
remote sensing radars. Proceedings of SPIE Volume 6410, 64100H
(2006).
[2] Nilesh M. Desai et. al., Onboard Signal Processors for ISRO's
Microwave Radars, Proceedings of the 60th IAC (International
Astronautical Congress), Daejeon, Korea, Oct. 12-16, 2009.
[3] F. D. Natali, Comparison of Analog and Digital Integrate-and-Dump
Filters, Proc. IEEE, Vol. 57, pp. 1766 1768, October 1969
[4] William D. Stanley, Preliminary Development of Digital Signal
Processing in Microwave Radiometer, NASA CR-3327, September
1980.
[5] N. Papamarkos and C. Chamzas, A new approach for the design of
digital integrators, IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I, Fundam. Theory
Appl., vol. 43, no. 9, pp. 785791, Sep. 1996.
[6] C. Goldstein et al, Present and future R&T development in CNES for
Microwave radiometer, IEEE MicroRad 2006, pp. 60-65
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18.7 GHz 23.8GHz 36.5 GHz
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Channel
SNR Comparison
AnalogReceiver SNR(Previous Work)
Digital Receiver SNR (Proposed Work)