Nazi Germany's Propaganda Aimed at Arabs and Muslims During World War II and The Holocaust. Old Themes, New Archival Findings

Conference Group for Central European History of the American Historical Association
Nazi Germany's Propaganda Aimed at Arabs and Muslims During World War II and the Holocaust: Old Themes, New Archival Findings Author(s): Jeffrey Herf Source: Central European History, Vol. 42, No. 4 (DECEMBER 2009), pp. 709-736 Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of Conference Group for Central European History of the American Historical Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40600977 . Accessed: 05/05/2013 17:44
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42 (2009),709-736. Central History European oftheAmerican Conference History Copyright GroupforCentral European Historical Association doi:10.1017/S000893890999104X
Nazi Germany's Aimedat Arabs Propaganda and Muslims WorldWar II and the During Holocaust: Old Themes, New Archival Findings
Jeffrey Herf
in an World WarII andtheHolocaust, theNazi regime engaged in theMiddleEastand intensive effort to appealto Arabs andMuslims North Africa.1 Itdidso bypresenting theNazi regime asa champion of secularanti-imperialism, as well as by a selective Britain, especially against of the traditions of Islamin waysthatsuggested and reception appropriation withtheideology of NationalSocialism. This article and their compatibility from whichit comesdrawon recent archival that thelarger findings project in this to expand on theknowledge of Nazi Germany's efforts makeit possible in a substantial This essay thathas already been presented scholarship.2 region whilepointing to of Nazismbeyond itsEurocentric limits thehistory pushes ofthemid-twentieth dimensions ofArabic andIslamic radicalism theEuropean in themillions, radioand in printed items distributed On shortwave century. theseemingly insurArabic Nazi Germany's language propaganda leaptacross of Aryanracialsuperiority. mountable barriers created by its own ideology broadcast shortwave Arabic From fall 1939to March1945,theNazi regime proEastandNorth Africa seven andnights a week.Though totheMiddle days grams at thetime, thepreponderance ofitsprint and werewellknown thebroadcasts
the ArabWorld, with Yale Unidraws on myforthcoming Nazi Propaganda 'This article study, for in fall2009. It alsobuilds on Jeffrey Nazi Propaganda Press Herf,The During Jewish Enemy: versity War II andthe Holocaust MA: Harvard World Press, (Cambridge, University 2006). TheThird andthe Arab East(London: Reich 2Seetheclassic Hirszowicz, Routledge study byLukasz workby of Toronto and KeganPaul; Toronto: Press, 1966); and therecent University important Araber undPalstina Wissenschaftliche 2006). Alsosee RobertLewis (Darmstadt: Buchgesellschaft, ofMinPh.D. diss., Melka,"The AxisandtheMiddleEast:1930-1945" (unpublished University R. Nicosia,TheThird Reich andthe Palestine nesota, Question (New Brunswick, 1966); Francis NJ: zurArabischen "Die Beziehungen derAchsenmchte Transaction Publishers, Schrder, 1999);Josef
zur Auenpolitik des DrittenReiches,ed. Welt," in Hitler,Deutschlandund die Mchte. Materialien Klaus Michael Mailmann and Martin Cuppers, Halbmondund Hakenkreuz.Das DritteReich, die
Deutschland Funke(Dsseldorf: DrosteVerlag, Manfred 1976),365-382; PhilipBerndSchrder, Mittlere Osten imZweiten in der Schwanitz, Musterschmidt, 1975); Wolfgang Weltkrieg (Gttingen: WienerPublishers, andthe Middle East, 1871-945 (Princeton, 2004); and NJ:Markus Germany
im Zweiten Weltkrieg Heinz Tillmann, Deutschlands (Berlin: Deutsche Verlag der Araberpolitik
Wissenschaften, 1965).
709
710
JEFFREYHERF
andexamined norhasit radiopropaganda hasnotpreviously beendocumented entered intotheintellectual, and of the Nazi cultural, political history regime In light of new archival we World WarII and theHolocaust. findings, during in of the wartime the arenow ableto present a full picture propaganda barrage course ofwhichofficials oftheNazi regime worked withpro-Nazi Arabexiles inBerlin themes aimed at its and to adapt German general propaganda European audiences to thereligious traditions of Islam andtheregional andlocalpolitical of theMiddleEastand NorthAfrica. Thisadaptation was theproduct realities ofa political andideological collaboration between officials oftheNazi regime, in itsForeign butalsoofitsintelligence thePropaservices, Ministry especially and on the one and Arab exilesin the SS hand, gandaMinistry, pro-Nazi Itdrew on a confluence wartime Berlin on theother. ofperceived shared political interests andideological as wellas on a cultural and fusion, passions, borrowing between Nazi and certain strains of Arab nationalism and interacting ideology Islamic traditions. It was an in the intellecreligious important chapter political, of Nazismduring WorldWar II and comprises a tual,and cultural history in thehistory ofradical Islamist andpolitics. chapter ideology In wartime radical anti-Semitism ofEuropean andGerman-speaking Berlin, foundcommon groundwith radicalanti-Semitism rootedin provenance Koranic verses and thecommentaries on themin thetraditions of Islam. Just as Nazi anti-Semitism was a radicalization of elements thatalready existed within so the anti-Semitism of the pro-NaziArab exiles Europeanculture, resulted from a radicalization of elements thatalready existed within thetraditions of Islam.In bothcases,thesetwentieth-century in patterns extremists, familiar to historians of reception, in whatRaymond Williams called engaged "thelaborof selective tradition." That is, theyactively reworked and approsome elementsand diminishing priatedreceivedtraditions, emphasizing others.3 As a result of their shared and interests, texts passions they produced andbroadcasts that couldnothaveproduced on their own. Through this they activelabor or conserving and reworking theirown while incorporating the Nazis and theirArab collaborators foundcommon traditions, foreign to produce thetexts andbroadcasts that theAxismilitary ground accompanied andpropaganda offensives in North Africa andtheMiddleEastduring thewar.4 andintellectual historians Cultural ofNazism havelongdemonstrated that itcan neither be separated from norreduced to itsEuropean, andChristian German, Thesewerenecessary butnotsufficient conditions foritsemerpredecessors. nationalism and Islamismi of theArab gence.The samewas trueof theradical
3The phrase is fromRaymond Williams, Marxismand Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977). 4On traditions and theirreworking see Edward Shils, Tradition by intellectuals, (Chicago: Univerand thePowersand sityof Chicago Press, 1981), 195-261. Also see Edward Shils, The Intellectuals OtherEssays (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1972).
OLD THEMES , NEW ARCHIVAL FINDINGS
7 11
exileswho joined forces withHitler's Theirpolitical outlookcould regime. neither be separated from nor reducedto itsArabicor Islamicbackground. The historical of WorldWar II brought themtogether in the conjuncture of their own traditions. In shared acaproject radicalizing past contemporary demiclanguage, the meeting betweenNazismand militant Islamand Arab inBerlin wasa chapter inthehistory nationalism oftransnationalism andcultural one that out theworst elements ofthetwocivilizations.5 fusion, brought oftwentieth-century The Nazistaught theArabexilesthefiner Jewpoints andhowto apply itto ongoing aboveall,itsparanoid, hatred, conspiracy theory inBerlin The Arabs andMuslims theNazisthat their hatred ofthe events. taught wasnotasuniqueasthey haveimagined andthus that hadfound might they Jews alliesin unexpected and unforeseen places.NazismbecamelessEurocentric whileArabandIslamic radicalism drew on modern, totalitarian ideolEuropean The Nazi leadership to burst thebondsofnationalist ways ogy. sought particularism andevenofthedoctrine oftheAryan master racein order to appealto in Berlinengaged in a variant Arabs and Muslims. The Arabs and Muslims of a mastery whatI havecalled"reactionary modernism" as theydemonstrated intheinterest ofadvocating a revival ofa funofmodern propaganda techniques version ofIslam.6 Radicalanti-Semitism didnotfirst enter Araband damentalist because ofthecleverness ofNazi propagandists. On thecontrary, Islamic politics inboth inunderstanding that somecurrents Arab their cleverness politics lay partly for ofNazism s ofIslam offered ofentry a positive andthereligion reception points with theArab exiles inBerlin aswellastheOrienNaziofficials working message. text for theSS andtheForeign believed that thefounding talists Ministry working andoralfolk wisdom offered ofIslam, theKoran, aswellascommentaries powerofconnection withmodern anti-Semitism. to fulpoints By referring European toArab nationalthese believed couldsupplement secular texts, they they appeals with basedappeals to Muslims as Muslims. ists religiously NazisnortheArabexilescouldhaveachieved alonewhattheir alliNeither The Nazi regime of Arabic as well as ancemadepossible. lacked native speakers in with the details of local the Middle deficiencies made East, familiarity politics oftheArabexiles who couldmakeNazismsmessage underup bythepresence in fluent, and The standable Arabic to Arabs Muslims. Arab exiles colloquial a massaudiencein their from Palestine and Iraq had no way of reaching Fascist andNazi Germany's radiotransmitters, homecountries. shortwave Italy
andJewHatred:Islamism, Nazism, and theRootsof9/1 , trans.Colin Meade (New York: Telos Press, An Inquiryinto Conflict and Prejudice 2007). Also see Bernard Lewis, Semitesand Anti-Semites:
oftheimpact ofNazismon theMiddleEast,see Matthias 5Fora recent discussion Kiintzel, Jihad
NY: Prometheus Books,2008). History (Amherst, Press, 1984). (New York:Cambridge University
FromSacredTextsto Solemn Islam, see Andrew G. Bostom, ed., The Legacyof IslamicAntisemitism: Modernism: and Politics in Weimar and theThirdReich Herf, Reactionary Culture, 6Jeffrey Technology,
within of W. W. Norton, 1986 and 1999). On theanti-Semitic traditions thereligion (New York:
712
HERF JEFFREY
in North armies and from 1940 to 1943,their their fighting printing presses, was Nazi Germany's Africa made thatpossible. Arabic-language propaganda and canonicaltexts the result of translation of Nazi ideology not primarily in Arabic translated intoArabic before 1939,neither profigured prominently nor s The entry neither did Hitler's Indeed, speeches Goebbels essays. paganda. toArabs andMuslims wasitsselective and ofNazism s propaganda reading point oftheKoranandthetraditions ofIslam. TherewereGerman diploquotation to limit to appeals to secular mats who preferred Arabic-language propaganda Britain andtheUnitedStates or to Arab Arabanti-imperialism directed against with tothetraOthers were more comfortable anti-Communism. explicit appeals In practice, andreligious dimenditions ofIslam. thedistinction between secular In thesame texts theNazisspoke sions blurred into andbroadcasts, insignificance. ofattacks on American, and "Jewish" thesecular British, imperialism language as theancient traditions ofhatred of whilealsoappealing to whatthey depicted in Islamitself. Nazi Germany itself bothas an allyof Arab theJews presented as wellas a soulmateofthereligion ofIslam. anti-imperialism The events inNorth Africa andtheMiddleEastandtheir interaction with the war in Europe have long preoccupied and diplomatic historians of military historian HeinzTillmann in DeutschWorld WarII.7 In 1965,theEastGerman in theMiddleEastfrom the to examine thepolicyof "German imperialism" The Third Reich andthe 1930sto spring 1943.8In 1966,LukaszHirszowiczs Eastpresented an enduring ofmilitary, andpolitical Arab synthesis diplomatic, the chronology and history up to the end of WorldWar II.9 He established theprospects forvictory concerning by and thecauses keycausalarguments in the region, in Iraq of Fascist of defeat Italyand Nazi Germany especially Klaus MichaelMalimann and and Egypt.In 2006, two Germanhistorians, and SS archives MartinCuppers,drawing on Germandiplomatic, military, in theinterim, Halbmond und that hadbeen openedand declassified published
in und Palstina.10 Hakenkreuz. Das Dritte Reich,die Araber Reflectingthe shift drew on then-available landsAraberpolitik im ZweitenWeltkrieg German archives into Arabic. Although Mein Kmpfend the Protocols of theEldersofZion were
attention to the connection historical which led to much greater analysis

at Arms:A Global History 7For recentexamples, see GerhardWeinberg,A World of WorldWarII (New York: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1994); and Horst Boog et al., The Global War: Widening into a World War and the Shiftof the Initiative, 941 -1943, trans. Ewald Osers of the Conflict Press,2001). The German originalis Horst Boog et al., Das Deutsche (New York: Oxford University Vol. 6, Der GlobaleKrieg:Die Ausweitung zum Weltkrieg undderWechsel ReichundderZweite Weltkrieg. 1941-1943 (Stuttgart: Deutsche VerlagsderInitiative, Anstalt,1990). im ZweitenWeltkrieg. 8Tillmann,Deutschlands Araberpolitik Hirszowicz, The ThirdReichand theArab East. 10Mallmannand Cuppers, Halbmondund Hakenkreuz.Also see Klaus Michael Mallmann and Martin Cuppers, "'Elimination of theJewishNational Home in Palestine': The Einsatzkommando Studies35, no. 1 (2007): 111-141. of the Panzer ArmyAfrica,1942," Yad Vashem
OLD THEMES, NEWARCHIVAL FINDINGS
713
between theHolocaust andWorld WarII, Mallmann andCuppers revealed that theSS had plansto extend the FinalSolutionto the700,000Jewsof North Africa and theMiddleEast.The question of whether wouldbe able to they at El Alameinand laterin do so dependedon the outcomeof the battles and the TunisiabetweenGermany's GeneralErwinRommel'sAfrika Korps Alliedarmedforces. As theIsraeli historian TuviaFriling haspointed out,in theproximity ofRommel's Afrika thefear ofGerman inva1942given Korps, sion of Palestine was "indeedreal."The mutual amongitsJewish population attraction and Arab radicalism had among FascistItaly,Nazi Germany, in Palestine theArabrevolt between1936 and 1939. Then emerged during bothGerman and Italian andprobably alsomoney andarms, suppropaganda, theBritish Mandate whileHaj Aminel-Hustherebellion andattacked ported and his supporters seini, the Grand Muftiof Jerusalem, deepened their enthusiasm forthe Nazis and the Fascists. In lightof thetensions between refusal the British and theJewsin Palestine, and British to allow increased to Palestine theHolocaust, it is ironic to notethat during Jewish immigration Britain and Australia's at thebattle at El Alamein was botha decisive victory ofWorld WarII and a successful effort to prevent turning pointin thehistory oftheMiddleEast.12 theextension oftheHolocaust to the700,000 Jews theactions and beliefs of historical has documented scholarship Significant face and voice of Nazi aimed themostimportant Husseini, public propaganda Husseini and Hitler and Muslims.13 The mutual admiration between at Arabs
188 1-2001 (New York: Vintage, 1999, Arab Conflict, of the ZionistRighteousVidims:A History ArabNationalMovement: FromRiotstoRebel2001), 128-135; and Yehoshua Porath, The Palestinian
TheStruggle Palestine Schocken Books,1976);Benny Morris, (New York: nSeeJ.C. Hurewitz, for
andJewish 1929- 1939 (LondonandTotowa, Cass,1977).On Britain Two, lion,Volume NJ:Frank seeBernard Britain andthe 1939- 1945,2nded. to Palestine, Wasserstein, Jews of Europe, emigration 1999. (Londonand New York:Leicester University Press.
of Wisconsin trans. WI: University theHolocaust, Ora Cummings Press, 2005), (Madison, during in 1942,Ben Gurionsaid,"The Nazis are notfaraway, butwe 64-65. In a speechin Palestine not onlyby Rommelin NorthAfrica. We are also in danger of invasion are beingthreatened 64. RobertSatloff has recently described from Syriaand evenIraq and Turkey," policiesof antiofharsh theNorth Africa andtheestablishment laborcamps Semitic during occupation persecution theNazisand andFascist Yetas terrible as these France, were, Vichy Italy. policies byNazi Germany, either in theregion or via allieswereunableto implement their plansto engagein massmurder theRighteous: LostStories to deathcampsin Europe.See RobertSatloff, Among from deportation into ArabLands(New York:PublicAffairs, theLongReachoftheHolocaust 2006). In thissense, to theMiddleEast. theHolocaust wasnotextended thanks to Alliedmilitary victories, und die el-Husseini andNazi Germany, seeKlausGensicke, DerMufti von 13OnHaj Amin Jerusalem
Einepolitische Aminel-Husseinis Nationalsozialisten. (Darmstadt:Wissenschaftliche Biographie Buchgesellschaft, 2007); Zvi Elpeleg, The Grand Mufti: Haj Amin al-Hussaini, Founderof the Palestinian
in theDark: David Ben-Gurion, the YishuvLeadership, and RescueAttempts Tuvia Friling,Arrows
Joseph B. Schechtman, The Mufti and the Fhrer. The Rise and Fall of Haj Amin el-Husseini
David Harvey, ed. Shmuel Himelstein National trans. Cass, 1993); and Movement, (London:Frank
De Luca,"'Der Grossmufti inBerlin: The Politics Thomas Yoseloff, 1965);andAnthony (New York: International EastStudies of Collaboration," 10, no. 1 (February 1979): 125-138. Journal ofMiddle in wartime Berlin havebeenpublished in German. See Gerhard Husseini s majorspeeches Hpp,
714
HERF JEFFREY
andhisvirulent area matter ofpublicrecord. DetailsabouthiscolJewhatred laboration withHeinrichHimmler and his knowledge about the Holocaust came to light after thewaras well. Husseini was also a keyfigure in finding commongroundbetweenthe ideologyof NationalSocialismon the one as well as the doctrines of militant Islamon the hand,and Arabnationalism in thishistorical other. While the Muftiwas a keyfigure episode,so, too, were manyotherGermanintelligence officers, officers, diplomats, military members oftheGerman ofpolitical division announcradio, Foreign Ministry's and editors native ers,writers, alongwithmostly anonymous Arabic-speaking andwriters. The broadcasts radioannouncers weretheresult ofa cooperative in effort German officials Radio in including working theDivisionofPolitical von Ribbentrop's withoccasional assistance from Joachim Foreign Ministry Goebbels s Propaganda assistance from OrientalJoseph Ministry. Theyreceived in thecultural ists division ofHeinrich Himmler 's Reich Security Main Office, andfrom German Orientalists who advised theForeign andworked in Ministry theSS research offices.15 The pro-NaziArabexilesgavetheNazis a resource hadnothadbefore or possessed in suchabundance. they The Arabic withshortwave was far radio, propaganda campaign, especially moreextensive thanthe previous focuson the Muftialone would suggest. Fascist Arabicprograms from1934 to 1943. Nazi shortwave Italybroadcast Arabic untilFebruary or broadcasting beganin October1939 and continued March1945. "Berlinin Arabic"and the "Voice of FreeArabism" and other stations a mixture broadcast of music, sevendaysand news,and commentary a week. They broadcast about two hoursof news and commentary nights each evening. Information about the size of the listening audienceremains In August1941, theUnitedStates scarce. of WarInformation Office (OWI) estimated that there wereabout90,000shortwave in theregion: radios report 150 in Aden; 55,000 in Egypt;4,000 in Iraq; 24,000 in Palestine; 6,000 in heardin cafesand other Syria;and 25 in Saudi Arabia. Radios wereoften was a kindof collective Radio was publicplaces,and listening experience.
Reden und Aufrufe AmTnal-usainsaus dem Exil 1940- 945 ed., MuftiMemoranden, Papiere.Briefe, (Berlin: Schwarz, 2001). See my examination of some of the texts in Herf,JewishEnemy,172174, 179-180, and 243-244. Also see Philip Mattar, The Muftiof (New York: Columbia Jerusalem University Press, 1988). 14One well-knownannouncerwas Yunus Bahri. He has written a memoir in Arabic of his yearsin Berlin. See Yunus Bahri, Hun BirlTn, ayyal-Arab (Beirut: Dr al-Nashr lil-Jmi Tyn, 1955). On the centralrole of the German ForeignMinistry in producingforeign-language propaganda, see PeterLongerich, Propagandisten imKrieg.Die Presseabteilung desAuswrtigen Amtesunter Ribbentrop (Munich: R. Oldenbourg, 1987). 16AnneH. Fuller,"Memorandum on Radio Reception in the Near East and India" (August 18, 1941), National Archives and Record Administration, NARA), Record College Park (hereafter Informational Files on the RG) 208, Records of the Office of War Information, Group (hereafter Near East, 1941-1946, Box 417.
715
efforts in theMiddleEastin this of crucial to propaganda periodbecauserates were so after there Government conducted illiteracy significant. surveys in Egypt rates werestillalmost WorldWarII foundilliteracy eighty percent in Libya.In Palestine, theBritish and eighty-five mandatory governpercent mentcensusof 1931 put the overall ratesamongArabssevenyears literacy it was fourteen and olderat abouttwenty percent. AmongMuslims, percent (twenty-five percent amongmenand onlythree percent amongwomen).By rate Palestine's Arabcommuobserver assessed theliteracy 1947,another among to be twenty-seven and twenty-one forMuslims (thirtypercent percent nity forwomen).17 Therefore shortwave fivepercent formen and sevenpercent a farlarger audiencethandid print materials. the radioreached Throughout Axispropaganda aimedat theMiddleEastalsoincluded thediswar, however, of Arabic-language leaflets and brochures. Some were tribution of millions weredistributed on theground from theairbytheLufiwaffe. Others by dropped theAxisarmed German forces, accompanying diplomats propaganda companies of Germansecretagentsand Arab collaborators in Tunisia, and networks in theMediterranean.18 andsmall boats on railways moving in North forces werepresent Between 1940andspring 1943,theAxisarmed ended.At no defeat in theBattleof Tunisia, that Africa. After their presence or Italians on the theremainder of thewarwerethe Germans pointduring and in theMiddleEast.So formostofthewarin mostof theregion, ground in volatile its most Palestine, Syria, notably politically places, Egypt, especially themosteffective Lebanon, broadcasts), Iraq,and Iran(withPersian-language radiobroadcasts. a broader Arabicpublicwereshortwave meansof reaching in or to be more from the Most of thebroadcasts Berlin, originated specific, even safer and moresecuresmalltown of Zeesen,just outsidethe capital. of hours of this six-year-long From the thousands barrage, propaganda containtranscripts from archives Germangovernment only 1940 and 1941. or trannever recorded waseither The rest ofwhathadbeena massive output or was intentionally or it was lost,fellvictimto Alliedbombing, scribed, in thelastmonths ofthewar. officials themselves destroyed byGerman arrived American in under the direction of summer 1941, recently Beginning to the Cairo to Egypt,Alexander Ambassador Kirk,Americandiplomats theAxisbroadcasts and translate is, Italian (that Embassy beganto transcribe Kirktookup hispostin Cairoon March29, Arabic and German broadcasts). in Berlin in d'affaires oftheUnitedStates 1941. He hadbeen charg Embassy
vol. 1 (Paris: UNESCO, 1955), 216 and 424. 17See "Egypt" and "Libya," World Survey ofEducation, 900- 1948 (Austin, and Literacy, in Palestine,see Ami Ayalon,ReadingPalestine: On literacy Printing
inPalestine theliteracy rates for Christians ofTexas TX: University Press, 2004),16-17. Bycontrast, for women. formenandsixty-five in 1947wereeighty-five percent percent in Turkey andSyria," see "Enemy Courier On thecourier NARA, RG 226, network, Systems ofStrategic Cairo Sl/X-2,Box 4. RecordsoftheOffice Services,
716
HERF JEFFREY
he had sentinformative memos to Washington 1939 to 1940. In that capacity, He remained the American Ambassador aboutNazi anti-Jewish persecution. March29, 1944.Kirksentthefirst or one ofthefirst ofhisdisto Egypt until in Nazi Arabic to the Office of ofState about radio broadcasts Secretary patches In on September 1941. he summarized CordellHull in Washington 13, it, in thebroadcasts ofAugust 18 to September themes 7, 1941.19The summaries in length anddetail until staff continued andexpanded April1942whenKirk's in in Cairo to verbatim at theAmerican Embassy began produce transcripts of Nazi radio broadcasts to the translation English Germany's Arabic-language MiddleEast.Kirksentthetexts to Washington weekuntil March1944. every the his to Thereafter until theend of war, successor, Tuck,continued Pickney I do so. As faras havebeen able to determine, theresulting several thousand in anylanguage themostcomplete record of Nazi anywhere pagescomprise to influence theArabandIslamic world viaitsmost efforts Germany's important theshortwave radiobroadcasts. The transcripts of Axis propaganda program, in Arabicwereplaced in the UnitedStatesNationalArchives in broadcasts in 1977 but have not previously and declassified College Park,Maryland, entered into historical sourcefor scholarship.20 They are an indispensable examination of Nazism's efforts to extend itsappeals to theAraband Muslim societies. ingeneral, Before theNaziscouldappeal toArabs, andMuslims Persians, they iftheir needed toclarify "anti-Semitism" extended to thenon-Jewish Semites of In MeinKampf, theArab, andMuslim world. Hitler itdid.He Persian, thought inEgypt" with disdain abouthopesfor ortheidea "anymythical spoke uprising others that"thatnow perhaps are ready to shedtheir blood forus." English machine bombswouldbring sucha Holy War"to an gunsand fragmentation end."It was,he continued, to overwhelm infernal witha coalition "impossible that isdetermined tostake, ifnecessary, ofcripples a powerful state itslast of drop bloodforitsexistence. As a vlkisch manwho appraises thevalueofmenon a of the racialinferiority of racialbasis,I am prevented by mereknowledge from these so-called nations' thedestiny of myown people 'oppressed linking a broadmeaning, withtheirs."21 Hitler's famous book gaveanti-Semitism one
19Alexander of Statefrom Kirk,"Telegram Sent,September 13, 1941,8 p.m.,to Department Posts CairoLegation, Number Service oftheUS. Department 1361,"1-3, NARA RG 84, Foreign ofState RG 84), CairoLegation andEmbassy, Secret andConfidential General Records, (hereafter Box 4, Folder 820.02 1941. 1939,1941-1947, 1941,820.02-830, of theKirkdispatches to other of theUnited 20Onsomeexamples of thedistribution agencies see ShlomoAronson, "Dimensions ofAlliedResponse PoliStates to Hitlers government, 'Jewish in Aronson, the andthe tics'and theDeepening oftheTrap," Hitler, Allies, (New York:CamJews Press, 2004), 54-64. University bridge 2 Adolf Mein trans. 1943and1971), Hitler, (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, Kampf, RalphMannheim 658-659.
7 17
first andforemost tothe butthat alsoencompassed that Jews, non-Jewish applied suchas Arabs andMuslims. "Semites" theBerlin of1936alerted German diplomats Disputes surrounding Olympics a for that Hitler's broadviewof anti-Semitism posed problem effective propaThe Arabbelief that theNuremandMuslims. Persians, gandaaimedatArabs, racelawsin 1935discriminated "noncaused consternation against Aryans" berg in 1936. in Egypt to boycott in Egypt. Officials threatened theBerlin Olympics them should athletes travel to a that asked, country regarded Why, they Egyptian In a series in 1936and 1937,high-ranking offias racially inferior? ofmeetings in the the Nazi cials theGerman Party's Foreign Ministry, Propaganda Ministry, ofRacial Politics and Himmlers Reich Security Office Amt), (Rassenpolitisches Main Office hours to conclude that Nazi racial (SS) devoted many finally legislation between Germans andJews, notAryans andnon-Aryans.22 distinguished Arabs andMuslims as simply The Nazi regime different, (andPersians) regarded beforeand The ForeignMinistry devotedconsiderable effort not inferior. Persians and Muslims that World WarII to convince Arabs, (Iranians), during at its anti-Jewish policieswere not based on a biologicalracismdirected in general. at the or "Semites" Ratherthey wereonlydirected "nonAryans" who were,theNazis claimed, thecommon"enemy"of Nazi Germany Jews in MiddleEast.As was thecase in Nazi propaganda and theAraband Islamic aimed at the Arab and MuslimMiddle East Nazi anti-Semitism Germany, in a conspiracy one that on a political accusation embedded focused theory, an anti-Semitism basedon racial biology. superseded withthecharge thattheir racism extended to Arabsand Havingdispensed Nazi propagandists Muslims, appealedto themas alliesin a commoncause, the Jews.In September the fight 1939, Hitlerresolveda dispute against Minister Goebbelsand Foreign Minister between Joachim Propaganda Joseph aimedabroadin favor of the overcontrol overpropaganda von Ribbentrop hoursof was broadcasting fifteen latter. By October1939, Nazi Germany air timein 113 dailybroadcasts. By theend of 1940,about500 peoplewere in the offices of German radioaimedabroad.24 By 1943, the Nazi working in on sixteen such stations thirteen different was broadcasting languages regime Bose from Prominent exile such as Subhas Chandra politicians, every day. fromIraq; and Haj Amin el-Husseini, the Grand India; Rashid al-Khilani
Perser undTrken zurarisee "Zugehrigkeit dergypter, On these Iraker, Iraner, discussions, Amt(Berlin) R99173. Archive desAuswrtiges schen Rasse,Bd. 1, 1935-1936,"Politisches Amtund demReichsministerium fr Volkszwischen demAuswrtigen "Arbeitsabkommen Receivedby the undPropaganda," NARA, Recordsof theGerman Foreign Ministry aufklrung No. T120, Roll 396, frames 304653-304666. On Ribbentrop, of State, Microcopy Department imKrieg. theForeign and Nazi propaganda, see Longerich, Ministry, Propagandisten Haude andSpenersche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1971),16. 25. 25Ibid.,
imther. Der deutsche imZweitenWeltkrieg 24Werner (Berlin: Auslandsrundfunk Schipps, Wortschlacht
718
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theForeign DiviMufti of Within Office Political Jerusalem; frequently.26 spoke the Orient Division oversaw and Office, VII, sion, strategy, propaganda political toward SaudiArabia, broadcasts, Palestine, Syria, including Egypt, Afghanistan, An Office for Political Radio (RundIndia,Iran, Sudan,andCeylon.27 Turkey, existed within theForeign Office Political Division.28 funkpolitischen Abteilung) its staffincluded 226 Kurt 1, 1943, BySeptember employees.29 Georg Kiesinger, theChancellor oftheFederal 1966 and 1969, Republicbetween subsequently intheoffice andwasitsdirector from 1943to 1945.30 The staff metregworked with theForeign ArabCommittee, which included on the Office ularly experts and officials forcontact withprominent Arabexilessuchas region responsible Husseiniand Khilani.31 of the Foreign Office Amongthe variousdivisions on foreign division broadcasts, onlytheRussian working language broadcasting to the enormous EasternFrontwas larger.32 The director of DivisionVII the war was KurtMunzel,a diplomat and Orientalist who had throughout worked in the Dresdner Bank in Cairo in the decadebefore the war. By 1942 he led a staff of nineteen, from the names)seven including (judging native Arabicspeakers and four"scholarly thatis, Germans with assistants," ofArabic and Islam.In addition to broadcasts, theoffice knowledge published Barid and worked (Orient Post),an Arabic-language as-Sarq magazine, closely withtheArabCommittee in theForeign Office.
58. 26Ibid., PAAA R67478 Referat Ru Pers.Ru HS, Bd. 3: Amt,Politische 27"Auswrtiges Abteilung," Personal Haushalt, 1939-1943,Bde. 3-4. (Handakte Bartsch), 28" der Rundfunkpolitische Amtes vom Haushaltsvoranschlag Abteilungdes Auswrtigen 1.4.1942bis31.3.1943,PAAARundfunkpolitische R67477 Referat Ru Pers.Ru HS, Abteilung, Bd. 1: Verwaltung Organisation 1941-1943,Bde. 2-3. 9" 1: Zahlenmige bersicht berdenInlandspersonalbestand derAbteilung Ru., Stand Anlage PAAARundfunkpolitische vom 1.9.1942," R67477 Referat Ru Pers.Ru HS, Bd. 1: Abteilung, 1941-1943,Bde. 2-3. Verwaltung Organisation Personalbestand derRundfunkpolitische 14, 1943),PAAARund(Berlin, Abteilung August R67476 Referat Ru Pers.Ru HS, Bd. 1: Verwaltung Abteilung, funkpolitische Organisation 1939-1945,Bde. 1-2. 31 "bersicht ber die Arbeitsgebiete der Rundfunkpolitischen und ihrer Referat, Abteilung R67477 Referat Ru Pers. Ru HS, Bd. 1: Verwal6,"PAAARundfunkpolitische Abteilung, Anlage - 1943,Bde. 2-3. The leading in theForeign 1941 officials with tung Organisation Ministry dealing Erwin theMiddleEastincluded Fritz Werner OttovonHentig, Wilhelm Ettel, Grobba, Melchers, andErnst Woermann. CarlPrfer, 32" Ru Pers. Ru HS, Bd. l: Verwaltung Ru, Anlagela," R67477 Referat Abteilung Organisation bersicht berdenInlands1941-1943,Bde. 2-3; and"Anlagela, Abteilung Ru, Zahlenmige derAbteilung PAAARundfunkpolitische Ru., Standvom 1.9.1942," personalbestand Abteilung, R67477 Referat Ru Pers.Ru HS, Bd. 1: Verwaltung Organisation 1941-1943,Bde. 2-3. 33Ibid.In 1948, Munzel completed a doctoral dissertation at the University of Erlangen. He intheWest inthe1950s. returned toservice German Office Die NachSee Ludmila Foreign Hanisch, Harrassowitz (Wiesbaden: Verlag, 2003), 199. 34"bersicht ber die Arbeitsgebiete der rundfunkpolitischen und ihrerReferat, Abteilung Ref. VII Orient,"4; and "Rundfunkabteilung Inland,Personalstand 1.9.1942, ReferatVII R67477 Referat Ru Pers.Ru HS, Bd. 1: Orient,"16, PAAA Rundfunkpolitische Abteilung,
in derersten derExegeten. des Vorderen Orients des20. Jahrhunderts folger Hlfte Deutschsprachige Erforschung
7 19
From 1939to fall1941,theArabic broadcasts drew on theexperSeptember thelocal tiseofGerman Orientalists ofArabic andIslamic literature andpoetry, in the and on German years knowledge gained by diplomats prewar pro-Axis in Berlin whenthewarbegan.Most of thesebroadcasts had the Arabs living well-informed one toneof a sympathetic, scholar, eagerto politically engaged not able to the ins and outs of local politics. These pleaseyet quite pickup sent a clear that the Nazi rather than celebrate broadcasts early message regime, ofAryans overinferior MiddleEastern wasa friend to thesuperiority Semites, andMuslims. Several illustrate On bothArabnationalists examples keythemes. VII broadcast "a paperaboutthe December3, 1940,Munzel'sOrientOffice of Egypt." With the incantation "Oh, Mohammedaner" English occupation thebroadcast madea direct and not only (Oh, Muslims!), appealto Muslims rulein Egypt. It didso in therepetitive to Arabnationalists opposedto British ofa religious sermon that evoked theauthority ofthe"holy Koran" incantations andpastdays ofpiety. none is more Aboveall of the othercommandments, Oh, Gods servants! thanpiety, forpiety is thecoreof all virtues and to theMuslims important human characteristics. are now backthebondofallhonorable Muslims, you anddo notfear him. ward because God theproper youhavenotshown piety that that arenotcommanded, andyouleaveto thesidethings You do things ones to be true, andyouarenow thehumiliated are.God'swordhasproven in your Thishascomeaboutbecause own country. youdon'thavethepiety one cansaythat ofGod as your forefathers did. Of andfear them, they pious and merciful Oh "are strong the unbelievers amongthemselves." against oftheprophMuslims! Direct your gazeto theholyKoranandthetradition toward law is driven God and ets.Then you will see thatIslamic by piety all other comThe Koraninscribed as above fear of hispunishment. piety the words,"Oh, believers, be pious and mandments. Read, forexample, StandbyGod and don'tbe divided."36 do notdie without beinga Muslim. thatthevaluesof Islam, suchas piety, Nazi broadcasts obedience, repeated and division were thanskepticism, individualism, community, unityrather Thatthis anti-modernist assault wasconveyed similar to those ofNazi Germany. in 1940wasanother modern means ofelectronic communication via themost
in the Foreign of the Orientoffice 1941-1943, Bde. 2-3. Personnel Verwaltung Organisation
Also see Kurt Munzel, gyptischer-arabischer Ministry'sRundfunkpolitischen Abteilung. Sprachfhrer
Otto Harrassowitz, 1958and 1983). (Wiesbaden: Talkvom3. Dezember1940,"Ein Blatt 35Kult.R.Ref. Vili (VII) (Orient) Mn/P/BKultureller in gypten," Berlin(December Berlin derEnglander berdie Besetzung 3, 1940),Bundesarchiv Ref. VIII Arabische und Iranische Amt,R73039 Rundfunkabteilung, (BAB), R901 Auswrtiges vorl.39, Dez. 1940-Jan. 1941,2. Sendungen, 2. 36Ibid.,
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ofwhatI'vepreviously calledthe"reactionary modernist" character of example of Nazi and This and other broadcasts the aspects ideology policy.37 conveyed that a revival offundamentalist Islam wasa parallel to National message project In and revolt western Socialism's political ideological against political modernity. this a literal of the and its to selective and Koran coneffort, reading application events was presented as notonlyor primarily a relicof a backward temporary culture butpartof thegreat movement now in powerin Nazi Germany and Fascist On December for German radio announced 12, 1940, Italy. example, that Islam"is a religion of thecommunity, nota religion of theindividual. It is thus a religion ofthecommon welfare and not of self-interest [Gemeinnutzes] Islamtherefore is a just and truenationalism forit callson the [Eigennutzes]. Muslimto place thegeneral interest aheadof private to livenotfor interests, but for his and his is himself fatherland. This themostimportant religion goal Itisatthebasis that Islam follows. ofitsprayers andcommandments."38 The priof "the commonwelfare" overself-interest was a continuing and key ority oftheNazi Party 1933 and theNazi regime theme before afterward. in thesebroadcasts The Nazis hoped the appealsto Islamic themes would serve as an entry and Muslimhearts and minds and foster a pointintoArabic to listen to Nazism s secular as willingness amongMuslims political messages well.On thesamedaythat Radio Berlin broadcast theabovemessage, it also sentout "A Government Statement fortheArabs."39 Fromthe samestation in thesamehour,perhaps withthesameannouncer, Nazi radiomovedfrom the specifically to the clearly secularand political. heard Listeners religious thatGermany "fullsympathy" fortheArabs'"struggle forfreedom expressed and independence" could "taketheir so that they proper placeunderthesun and honorin service and to recover theglory of humanity and civilization." The German of "love and sympathy" fortheArabs government's expression had "founda strong echo amongthe Germanpeople" while strengthening "thebondsof friendship withtheArabswhichthe Germans havecherished for manyyears." This connection was not surprising, the talk continued, because Germansand Arabsshared"manyqualitiesand virtues," such as in war. . . heroism, and manly in the character." "courage They"bothshared and injustices after the end of the [First] WorldWar.Both of these suffering
Modernism 37Herf,Reactionary Press, 1984). (New York: Cambridge University BundesarchivBerlin, [Lichterfelde] (BAB) R901 AuswrtigesAmt, R73039 Rundfunkabteilung, Ref. VIII Arabische und Iranische Sendungen, vorl. 39, Dez. 1940-Jan. 1941, Kult.R, Ref. VIII (Orient), Mu/Scha "Religiser Wochentalkvom 12. Dez. 1940 (arabisch)Die Freigebigkeit,"broadcaston December 12, 1940, 14-16. Althoughmost of the Division of Radio Policy files are Political Archive of the German Foreign Ministry, these filesfrom1940-1941 are in the Bundesarchivin Lichterfelde. 39"Zur Regierungserklrung furdie Araber,"Talk vom 12. Dezember 1940 (arabisch), (BAB) R901 Auswrtiges Ref. VIII Arabischeund IranischeSendungAmt, R73039 Rundfunkabteilung, en, vorl. 39, Dez. 1940-Jan. 1941, Kult.R, Ref. VIII (Orient), Mu/Scha, 11-13.
72 1
honorinsulted; their weredeniedand trampled rights great peopleshad their from the same and both also had the same underfoot. Both bled wounds, theAllieswho dividedthemand allowedthemno claimto enemy: namely in getting out from underthisdisgrace has succeeded honor.Now Germany so that voiceis now heardeveryall ofitsold rights and regaining Germany's was a model to whereand has againtakenits old place/'40 Nazi Germany hadbeenhumiliated hadrecovered itsindependence ofa nation that emulate yet andunity. boththetalent as wellas thelimits of Nazi Theseearly broadcasts displayed of local idioms Orientalism. Theylackeda certain political punchand grasp in Berlin in November 1941 ofHaj Aminel-Husseini andpolitics. The arrival andtheir endedthis andRashidal-Khilani entourage shortcoming. Theyboth withHitlerand Ribbentrop. had much-publicized They and their meetings in its in the Nazi ForeignMinistry associates workedcloselywith officials in theOffice of Political Radio to fashion radio Araband Orientcommittees In a particularly famous for Arabsand Muslims.42 and printpropaganda in Berlin heard Husseini withHusseini on November 28, 1941,Hitler meeting in thewar,and his support forNazi Germany lavish praiseon him,express in support of Arab and Italyissuea strong declaration thatGermany request Britain. thatthetimehad notyet from ThoughHitlerreplied independence whentheGerman sucha declaration, he toldHusseini that arrived forissuing exit"from theCaucuses, on theEastern Front reached "thesouthern armies thatits hourof liberation Hitlerwould "give the Arabworldthe assurance wouldthenbe solely thedestruction of the had arrived. Germany's objective in of British the Arab under the element protection residing sphere Jewish in thesameperiodin whichHitlerhad takenthe words, power." In other he decisionto launchthe Final Solutionof theJewish Questionin Europe, to extendit outside also made clear to Husseinithathe intended Europe, in Egypt, and Iraq. thatis, at leastto theJewsliving Palestine, Trans-Jordan, radio writersand speakers Husseini,Khilani, and the Arabic-language in could foster for the Axis armiesfighting them support accompanying
40lbid. 41 in Berlin, and RashidAli el Khilani see Elpeleg,TheGrand On Haj Aminal-Husseini Mufti; Mallmann and Cuppers, Halbmond Der Mufti von unddie Nationalsozialisten; Gensicke, Jerusalem undHakenkreuz. 105-120: and Hirszowicz. TheThird Reich andthe Arab East.211-228. imKrieg. 42SeeLoneerich, Propagandisten Record of the of the Foreign Minister's 43"No. 515, Memorandum Secretariat, by an Official on November between theFhrer and theGrandMufti ofJerusalem Conversation 28, 1941,in Minister and Minster Berlin(November of Reich Foreign Grobbain Berlin," the Presence 30, D (1937- i 945) Volume on German XIII, The War (DGFP) Series 1941),Documents Policy Foreign D.C.: UnitedStates Government 23-December Office, 11, 1941 (Washington, Years, Printing June andthe ArabEast, see Hirszowicz, The Third Reich 1949-1984), 881-882, 884. On themeeting, von unddieNationalsozialisten, 60-63. DerMufti 218-221; and Gensicke, Jerusalem
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to the ofthe an extension oftheFinalSolution North Africa as wellas for Jews MiddleEast.44 of Arabic broadcasts Kirksdispatch ofApril18, 1942,summarized German thatis, the periodsinceHusseiniand Kilanihad the preceding six months, the war. in Berlin.45 thatcontinued arrived These were themes throughout Arabs of he to convince the German broadcasts, wrote, attempted propaganda with the Arabs The Axis countries had "a natural the following. sympathy withthecivilization introandtheir theonly one comparable civilization, great duced by the New Order into Europe,whichis now beingsuppressed by andmore 'Bolshevik and'Jewish 'British recently barbarity,' greed' Imperialism,' "one ofthemainGerman waraims"was "to 'American materialism.'" Indeed, of Arabcountries from theoppressive release grip Anglo-Bolshevik Imperialfor "the Arab countries to aid theirliberators ism." It was necessary by the common enemy." They could do so with confidence uniting against and because"the Allies'despisebut fear'the Arabs"while German victory In werebecoming morecertain. thescramthebreak-up oftheBritish Empire British ble thatwould followthis"imminent collapse"when "Americans, andJews"would "tryto seize the countries now held by Britain, Russians, if they do not move with new masters the Arabs may find themselves are friends because "her promises quickly." They could neverbe Britain's Arabunity and murdered Arabpatriots; she has false." Britain had "destroyed handedPalestine overto theJewsand loosedthe Communists overIranand in the "thegenerous madebyBritain remembered promises Iraq."The Arabs while"British continued lastwar."Those promises werebroken oppression" World WarII, Nazi Germany intothecurrent presented period.46 Throughout to Arabs andMuslims as a champion ofanti-imperialism. itself Kirknotedtheblendofsecular andreligious from theAxis."Before appeals themselves. Islam"the Arabshad been dividedagainst "When Mohammed as they can now overthrew thePersians, united Romans,andJews them, they
aware of the threat.According in Arrows in theDark observesthatBen-Gurion was fully 44Friling to the language of the Genocide Convention adopted by the United Nations afterWorld War II, some of the resultingbroadcastswould meet its definitionof "incitement" and could thus be describedas partof the crime of genocide. Clause 3 in Article3 of the "Convention on the Prevento commit tion and Punishmentof the Crime of Genocide" includes "directand public incitement While genocide" as actsthatshould be punishable.See http://www.hrweb.org/legal/genocide.html. the Reich PressChief, Otto Dietrich, was triedand convicted of "crimes againsthumanity"forhis role in Nazi propaganda in Germany, Husseini and other pro-Nazi Arabs involved in Arabiclanguage broadcastsin Berlin faced no postwarjudicial reckoning.On the Dietrich trial,see Herf, 272-27 r4. Jewish Enemy, 45 Alexander Kirk to Secretary of State, "Telegram 340, General Summaryof Tendencies in Axis Broadcastsin Arabic,"Cairo (April 18, 1942), NARA, RG659, United StatesDepartmentof State, CentralDecimal Fe, 1940-1944, 740.001 1/European War 1939, Microcopy No. M982, Roll 114, 21414. 46Ibid., 1-2.
FINDINGS OLD THEMES,NEWARCHIVAL
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would"be led by andAmericans." Now they theBritish, overthrow Russians, Ali [Kilani] Amin and Rashid Mufti leaders the their al-Husseini] [Haj great with Hitler andMuswho arecontinually messages exchanging congratulatory An later the Allies.47 Britain and to Islamwouldsupport solini." Onlytraitors when the vicin theMiddleEastwouldbe "a bad dayfortraitors Axisvictory revolt ofIslam arrive" assisted liberators torious andrighteous by"a widespread attacked the Axisradio theentire Middle-East" Jews bytheArabs.48 throughout andtheU.S., were"the the backed that "ad nauseam," byBritain Jews, claiming finance andforced RooseAmerican ofIslam." arch-enemies Theycontrolled criminals andChurchill, ofaggression. Roosevelt topursue a policy velt though in thehands ofthe fiends who aredestroywere"playthings themselves, Jewish ofJews' andmost that "theWhiteHouse 'is full Itwasknown ingcivilization." The Zionist leader in theNearEastareJews." theAllies eminent among figures He was "deterto thethrone ofPalestine." wasan "aspirant ChaimWeizmann will be unitedas a pureJewish and Transjordan minedthatPalestine, Syria, the the whole of the Middle East and, eventually, centerthatwill control thisplan. The Arabswho had "lost America and Britain world." supported in Palestine and their settlers landsand wealthto the rapacious their Jewish famine and discomfort will now be deported to suffer to theBritish, liberty Five on themin Palestine." thanthosepalmedoff in landsevenmorebarren to The Jewspromised to Palestine. million Jewswere soon to be brought to but in reality to assist theAllies, of 20,000 men "ostensibly raisean army advance." Germanradiorepeatedly wipe out theArabsshouldthe Germans intotheterritories oftheexisting wouldexpand a newJewish state claimed that Arabcountries.49 Afrika ErwinRommel's In thespring, andfallof 1942,as General summer, Nazi Gerwest of within miles had advanced to Alexandria, Egypt, sixty Korps in Hitler in Africa be their North leaders grasp. victory might thought many's declaration aboutArabindependecided to issuethepublic then andMussolini in Rome arrival sincetheir Husseini andKilanihadbeenrequesting dencethat nor Fascist had Neither France fall.50 andBerlin theprevious Italy goneto Vichy Arabs. Hitler had to the and warinorder toguarantee independence sovereignty Britain whenhe had first sucha declaration so as notto offend hesitated to make notto underwithit and thenin order an accommodation hopesofreaching that an uprisin Now the Mediterranean. of mineMussolini's hopes expansion of the dictators British armed both undermine in forces, agreed might ing Egypt in in orderto assist their to go aheadwiththedeclaration military operations
47Ibid.,2. 48Ibid.,2-3. 49Ibid. Reichand theArabEast, 21 1see Hirszowicz, The Third 50On the decision to issue the declaration, 228.
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thatGermany NorthAfrica. On July 3, 1942,"Berlinin Arabic"announced arevictoriously resolved that "thetroops oftheAxispowers andItaly advancing andsovereignty." ... to guarantee intoEgyptian Egypt's independence territory the British from The Axis forces were entering Egypt"to dismiss Egyptian of East from the British . . . to liberate the whole the Near and yoke. territory The policyof the Axis powersis inspired by the principle 'Egyptforthe her ofEgypt from thechains whichhavelinked The emancipation Egyptians.' from ofwar,willenableherto assume withBritain, and hersecurity therisks states."51 "Berlinin Arabic" her position sovereign amongthe independent Mufti statement the Grand ofJerusalem, thenbroadcast thefollowing Haj by in North Aminel-Husseini: "The glorious secured the Axis victory by troops their hearts the Arabsand the whole East,and filled Africa has encouraged and the of the Axis solwith admiration for Marshall Rommel's bravery genius, that theAxisPowers arefighting diers. Thisis becausetheArabs believe against theBritish and theJews, and in order to remove thecommon enemy, namely from the [Allied] the danger of communism following aggression spreading, willhavefar-reaching on Iran. Thesevictories, repercussions generally speaking, thelossoftheNile Valley andoftheSuez Canal,andthecolon Egypt, because overtheMediterranean andtheRed Sea,willbring mastery lapseoftheBritish thedefeat ofBritain and theend oftheBritish nearer Empire."52 from in theCairoEmbassy theArabic broadcasts The Americans monitoring that a steady dietof anti-Semitic echoedthe Berlin wererecording arguments in Europe.The Nazis accusations at the core of Nazi propaganda political oftheJews, that World claimed that Britain and theU.S. had becomestooges Allied wouldmean domination andthat WarII wasa Jewish war, victory Jewish of theMiddleEast.At 8:15 p.m. Cairo timeon July 7, 1942,theAmericans broadcasts of thewar to thatpoint. recorded one of the mostinflammatory "Kill theJews Before The "VoiceofFreeArabism" (hereafter VFA) statement line in the linksbetweenthe general propaganda They Kill You" illustrated that to theMiddleEastcontext. It was a statement Europeand itsadaptation in itsanti-Semitic ofHitler andGoebbels radicalism. The broadcast equaledthat in Egypt "a largenumber ofJews and a that residing beganwitha lie,namely with and FreeFrench havebeen issued number of Poles,Greeks, Armenians, in orderto "help themagainst the Egyptians at revolvers and ammunition" The statement is forced to evacuate thelastmoment, whenBritain Egypt."53 continued:
51 in Arabic for theAmerican at Cairo,Egypt, AxisBroadcasts No. 502 from Legation "Despatch Posts Service ofthe thePeriod 3 to 9, 1942,Cairo, 21, 1942,"1, NARA, RG 84 Foreign July July CairoEmbassy, ofState, General Department Records, 1942,815.4-820.02,Box 77. 1-2. *2Ibid., 53<<Kill the Before Jews TheyKillYou,"ibid.,13.
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ifthelife itbest, we think In thefaceofthis barbaric bytheBritish, procedure riseas one manto kill that theEgyptians istobe saved, nation oftheEgyptian theEgyptian havea chanceofbetraying before the people.It is the they Jews their to annihilate theJewsand to destroy property. dutyof theEgyptians out Britain's thatit is theJewswho are carrying Egyptcan neverforget are thesourceof all and thatthey policyin theArabcountries imperialist of theEast. The Jewsaim whichhavebefallen the countries thedisasters, but their the Arab countries, theirdomination at extending throughout to save That is why theyare trying future victory. dependson a British to killtheArabs and is arming them andwhyBritain from herfate Britain savetheBritish Empire. who before You mustkilltheJews, they open fireon you. Kill theJews, and who are plotting haveappropriated against yoursecurity. yourwealth The Jewsare for? whatareyou waiting of Syria, Arabs Iraq,and Palestine, kill and to to violate to children, women, destroy you. your your planning which ofyourlifeis a duty thedefense to theMuslimreligion, According Thisis yourbestopportunity theJews. can onlybe fulfilled byannihilating and brought to get rid of thisdirty race,whichhas usurped yourrights their Killthe burn countries. on your anddestruction misfortune propJews, ofBritish basesupporters annihilate these their stores, imperialerty, destroy theJewsbefore lies in annihilating ism.Your sole hope of salvation they annihilate you. wasthesamelogicofprojecto theArabandMuslim context, Here,applied anti-Semis radical feature of Nazism was thedefining that tionand paranoia accusations thepolitical It combined to be moreblunt. It wasimpossible tism. in ofIslam.It was unusual demands ofthereligious ofNazismwithevocation in that weremoreimplicit threats to whichit voicedthegenocidal theextent were broadthe that of the and assertions about other Jews venality power many ofthe radio. Whiletheanti-Semitic caston Nazi Arabic-language propaganda was that the and listeners assured readers in Nazi regime Germany regime the and "annihilate" to "exterminate" Hitler's threats Jews, making good on to took an even further the Arabic-language stepin incitement propaganda and that for audience in its clear violence participation appeal anti-Jewish intotheir own hands. listeners takematters of and summer in thespring and Cuppers havedocumented, As Mallmann Arab of evidence services and German 1942, reported diplomats intelligence in the forthe Nazi cause rootedin hopes thatRommel'svictory sympathy evidence In view of the of the to would lead they gathJews.55 expulsion region the the hopes and actionsof radicalArabsin thesemonths, ered regarding to themood amonganti-Semitic drewparallels authors Lithuanian, Latvian,
54Ibid., 13-14. 55Mallmannand Cuppers, Halbmondund Hakenkreuz,155-164.
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nationalists in spring 1941preceding theGerman invasion ofthe andUkranian of At theend of 1942,Walter the chief SovietUnion in June. Schellenberg,
that "theArabs' to theForeign Office (RSHA) reported friendly extraordinarily was due to thehopethat 'Hitler willcome'to moodtoward Germany basically in further thattheArabsstill believed Schellenberg reported expeltheJews." and that even a few" heard German shortwave German "only victory though in "exaggerated and embroidered" fashionspread radio, the broadcasts An word of mouth. of SS quicklyby Einsatzgruppe troopsunder the command of Obersturmbannfhrer Walter Rauff wasprepared to depart to Palesif El tineto murder the Rommel won the battle of Alamein. Jewish population from Arabs and otherGermanofficials received radical Schellenberg support andanti-Zionist Nazi probecauseoftheshared anti-Semitic precisely goals.57 Arabs andMuslims to thesideofthe hadthedualpurpose ofdrawing paganda them to support Nazi plans to extend theFinalSolution Axisas wellas inciting in limits. As hadbeenthecasein itspropaganda beyond Europe's geographical theAlliesand thewaragainst theJews and Europe,thewaragainst Germany intoone mutually endeavor. reinforcing merged a grimpicture The conflict overPalestine Axisradiopainted of Palestine. It was "swimming came to occupya central broadcasts. place in itswartime in a pool ofblood."Itspeoplelived"in an atmosphere ofshameand misery" and were"ruledbya reign of terror dominated British and the by thebrutal the Arab"holyplaces," famine and The British violated dirty Jews." spread and brutally ruledtheArabs whomthey weresoon goingto deport. poverty, in to combine Palestine withSyriaand Transjordan The Jews wereintending a "huge Home."Britain's mainaimin theMiddleEastwas"to annihilate Jewish and to aid in this ofJews arebeing theArabs entirely purpose, largenumbers
56Citedin ibid., 157. The originalarchivecitationis CdS/VI C 13 an AA v.21.12.1942, BAB, NS 19/186. 57Ibid., chapters7-8. 58We cannot be certain how Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany would have treated Arabs and Muslims if they had defeated the Allies in North Africa and occupied the Middle East. Within went hand in hand with atrociouscrimescommitted Europe, the doctrineofAryanracialsuperiority Slavic populations of easternEurope and the Soviet Union. We know that againstthe non-Jewish, beforeand duringthe German invasionof Poland in September 1939 and beforeand duringOperforthese crimesin ation Barbarossain June 1941, Nazi propagandaoffered ideological justifications the form of vast amounts of racist propaganda about "Slavic sub-humans." Aside from Hitlers remarksabout the Arabs dating from the 1920s in Mein Kampf,however, German propaganda about Arabs and Muslims, whether in Germany or aimed at Arabs and Muslims in North Africa and the Middle East, did not echo the racistideology directed at easternEuropeans and citizens of the Soviet Union. On the contrary, German propaganda went to great lengths to convince but not an anti-Semitic, Arabs and Muslims thatGermanywas an anti-Jewish, regime. If,following a victoryin North Africa,Nazi Germanywould have treated Arabsand Muslims as racialinferiors, it thataccompanied itswar crimesin eastern would have done so without the ideological preparations Europe.
forthe Sicherheitsdienst (SD) in the Reichssicherheitshauptamt foreign intelligence
111
enlisted in a Palestine Thisidea,namely that the weregoingto pararmy." Jews in the annihilation of the was a Middle-Eastern Arabs, counterpart ticipate that WorldWar II in Europewith to the Nazi assertion Jewswerefighting to Britain and the theintent of annihilating the German people.In addition in arrive. It was "a new the of the U.S.A." was soon to Jews, oppressor shape seize the British intend to known"thatwhen the Americans Empirethey to their masters theJews."59 handoverPalestine the British disaster at Tobruk, President Rooseveltdecidedto Following in NorthAfrica. In to aid theBritish sendtanks and othermilitary supplies theAxisin North Africa becameanAmerandsummer 1942,defeating spring entered thefray, themore as well. The moretheUnitedStates ican priority linkedFranklin Rooseveltto theJews.On July2, Fritz Axis propaganda in Berlin, in theForeign Office thehead of theOrientCommittee Grobba, of the directive entitled "The JewsAre theWirepullers wrotea propaganda in He urgedthatmorethanin thepast,Germanpropaganda Americans."60 thateveryAmericanwho "comes to the Orient Arabicneeded to stress comesin serviceof theJews.He is senthereby theJews,even if he does His memo of the Americans." not know it. The Jewsare the wire pullers of Franklin intoArabicof theanti-Semitic calledfordiffusion interpretation in farein German-language Rooseveltthathad been standard propaganda in in the ForeignMinistry Yet as late as March 1943, officials Germany.61 Berlin acknowledgedthat German propagandain North Africa was because leadingArab circlesare hostileonly to into difficulties "running the Americans. we should Britain. As in the pasttheystilltrust Therefore, materials aboutZionism.In parthenecessity ofusingall relevant againstress to establish boundaries we should to the desire ticular, [inPalestine] Jews' point that is, [boundaries that extend] to the rooted in the Old Testament, theArabs' concanbe usedgradually to shatter River.Thismaterial Euphrates theNazi regime in theAmericans' fidence encouraged Although promises."62 in the1930sundertheTransfer to Palestine limited Agreeemigration Jewish out of Germany butnot was to facilitate itspurpose ment, Jewish migration Zionistgoals.63 Nazi Germany of supporting with the intent consistently one thatit viewedas of a Jewish statein Palestine, opposedthe formation Antianotherpotentialoutpost of an international Jewishconspiracy. Zionismbecamebotha keythemein itsappealsto theMiddleEast as well
15. 59Ibid., der Amerikaner," Berlin(July 60Fritz sinddie Drahtzieher 2, 1942), PAAA, Grobba,"Juden um Roosevelt, R60690 KultPol, Orient. 1941-1942,Bd. 1. Juden 61 on Roosevelt, see Herf, On theNazi attack Enemy. Jewish HerrnDr. die BFP im Stabedes HerrnReichaussenministers fur Preikecher, "Aufzeichnung Office, (March16, 1943),NARA, RG242, RecordsoftheGerman Foreign Microcopy Magerle," No. T120, roll1015.
63See Nicosia, The ThirdReichand thePalestine Question.
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HERF JEFFREY
as an important American and policy. Nazi aspectof Nazi antipropaganda and at times radiobroadcasts denounced "Roosevelt the repeatedly Jews," and that American evengoingso far as to claimthat FDR himself wasJewish German officials viewedthe policywas an exampleof "Jewish imperialism." adminisanti-Semitic about domination of the Roosevelt argument Jewish vital for in North tration as anti-Americanism Africaand the stimulating MiddleEast. The question oftheimpact andreception ofthepropaganda wasone that preandAmerican British in officials. wartime German, British, occupied censorship forpro-Fascist made it difficult and pro-NaziArabsand Egyptand Palestine there to express their viewspublicly. An adequateassessment awaits Muslims further workby scholars who readArabic(andPersian). Thatsaid,reports by in theregion American and intelligence indicated thatantidiplomats agents andanti-Zionist elements ofNazi propaganda found a positive Jewish reception in some quarters. in theregionwerefarless The American broadcast efforts extensive thantheGermans'. The BBC was a muchgreater Arabic-language Alliedpresence. Yetneither theBBC northeUnitedStates VoiceofAmerica runby the Office of War Information (VOA) broadcasts (OWI) decidedto a warofideas with Nazism over theissue ofanti-Semitism. BoththeAmerfight that Alliedidentification icansandtheBritish withtheJews andwith thought Zionism was a hindrance to building Araband Muslimsupport fortheAllied cause.In a "Weekly Directive" ofNovember 14,1942,theOverseas Propaganda Branch oftheOffice ofWarInformation established thefollowing Operations for Voice of Americabroadcasts for Palestine.65 The Voice of guidelines America had to speakto thepeopleof Palestine withgreater tactand caution in theMiddleEast. thanelsewhere 1. Spoken andwritten words must alike be guided of byanhonest acceptance thefact that thesubject ofZionist cannot be mentioned, inasaspirations muchas anyserious outbreak of anti-Jewish whichmight result feeling in amongthe Arabpeoplesin thisarea wouldjeopardizeour strategy theEastern Mediterranean. 2. Equallytaboo,at present, is anymention of a Jewish army. 3. Itmust be remembered as a whole,the arestaunchly that, Jews supporting thecauseoftheUnitedNations: theArabs arenot.Therefore, ourwords
64OnNazi Germany and anti-Zionism, seeJeffrey The ClassicCase Nazi Herf, "Convergence: and Anti-Zionism WorldWar II," in Anti-Semitism and AntiAnti-Semitism, Germany, during Zionism in Historical Herf (London and New York: Routledge,2007), ed. Jeffrey Perspective, 50-71; and Herf, 72-76, 180-181, and246. JeuHsh Enemy, 65"Office ofWarInformation, Overseas Branch, D.C., 'Weekly Operations Washington, PropaPalestine,'" 14, 1942),NARA, RG165 Recordsof theWarDepart(November gandaDirective, mentGeneral and SpecialStaff, Division(hereafter MID), "RegionalFile." Military Intelligence 1922-1944 Palestine, Box 2719,Folder 2930.
729
in must be addressed to MoslemandChristian Arabs, primarily especially viewoftheeffectiveness ofenemy propaganda.66 ownobservations inregard toalien races should VOA broadcasts "quoteHitlers and while "the andcultures, andholdthem to ridicule scorn" up stressing paganwithBiblicaland Koranic ism of our enemies and embroider our comments "theterrible conseContrasts should be drawn between ofdenunciation." phrases and in countries with of rule her own allies the German occupied quences upon In tobe reaped all when is ours."67 accounts ofthe benefits short, victory by people fortheAlliedcausein Palestine, American in order to win andsustain support it was essential not to the anti-Semitic WI officials directly thought challenge The assumption from Axis Arabic shortwave radio. barrage arriving many evenings in underNazi propaganda washaving success theWI directive wasthat behind was a the Allies them to the This concern for bylinking Jews. mining support in Office of Services theme (OSS) and by Strategic subsequent reports repeated in war.68 the course of the American military intelligence agents andincite, notinform. ofNazi radiobroadcasts wasto inflame The purpose the to the converted rather than to sway were to literally preach They designed in the offered or often viewsof theuncommitted. little, wayof nothing They setbacks. From 1943 Nazi hardnews,especially military regarding Germany's "Berlinin Arabic"and "The Voice of Free to theend of thewar,however, of thecatasconstant and increasingly Arabism" warnings desperate presented if win thewar. and Muslims the Allies were to that would befall Arabs trophe s "Do You WantTotalWar?"speechof February In Germany, Goebbels 18, facedwithsetbacks. While the 1943, had set the tone forNazi propaganda in thelongerterm, it turned to in victory confidence expressed propaganda should the disasters to befall the Germans vivid of increasingly descriptions focused on thesupposedly The Arabic-language broadcasts losethewar.69 they in in the had store for Arabs and awful Muslims, particular following plans Jews inTunisia inMay1943.On September defeat theGerman 8, 1943,for example, would "The Ambitions oftheJews."70 The Jews in Arabic"described "Berlin
66Ibid. 67lbid.
Beirut to Office of WarInformation, forexample, "UnitedStates 68See, (George)Wadsworth, andLegation U.S. Consulate 17, 1943),NARA RG84, Lebanon: SecState, (February Washington," General and Embassy, Classified Records,1936-61, 1943: 110.2 to 1943-891 Box 8, 2-3; and "Political Noteson Lebanonand ofWarInformation, UnitedStates Office Beirut, GeorgeBritt, 13, 1943), NARA RG84, Lebanon.U.S. ConsulateLegationand Embassy (February Syria," Records1943: 1943 110.2 to 1943 - 891, 1; and George General 1936-1941, Classified Beirut, toJune"(June "Beirut Britt, 1943) NARA RG84, Lebanon.U.S. Consulate Legation September General Records1943: 1943 110.2to 1943- 891, 7. andEmbassy Beirut, 1936-1941,Classified 192-196. 69SeeHerf Jewish Enemy, Kirkto ofthe Alexander in Arabic," 70"Berlin 8, 1943,"Talk:The Ambitions Jews," September inArabic for theperiod Cairo(September ofState, 23, 1943),"No. 1313,AxisBroadcasts Secretary Cairo Embassy General 2 to 8, 1943,"NARA, RG 84, Egypt: Records,1933-1955, September
730
HERF JEFFREY
between theTigris andtheNile until made"every notbe satisfied territory they the the from all Arab was to "remove Cross and Crescent Their goal Jewish." a Arab Muslim or Ifthey "there will remain not countries." succeeded, single and all the Arab in the Arab world.Arabs!ImagineEgypt, Christian Iraq, there."71 On Septemwithno Christianity or Islam countries becoming Jewish this lineofattack whenitasked, "What continued ber24,VoiceofFreeArabism Palestine. Zionism?"72 The did not want aims of international arethe Jews only intheeast andthewest" ofallArabcountries Rather up sought "possession they In to theAtlantic Ocean. thewestthey Morocco,andTunisia, Algeria, sought to Lebanon andthen addbothto whileintheeast, wanted to connect Syria they thatwould facethe Palestine. This "Jewish plan" was the "greatest danger" if "our enemiesthe British, and Bolsheviks Arabsand Muslims Americans, victorious." It was the "sacredduty"of Arabsto unitein orderto emerge from this menace"and prevent "Jewish being Jewish imperialism" "repulse An Alliedvictory wouldenable withtheassistance of theBritish. established theArabs"to live as nomads." theJewsto realizethesedreams and to force iftheAlliesand "theJews"won thewar remained Predictions of catastrophe until a keytheme of Nazi propaganda and Nazi Arabic-language propaganda thewar's end.73 A month on November discussed later, 3, 1943,theVoiceof FreeArabism theBolsheviks and theJews." It mirrored theincitement "Palestine between in Germany. to murder ofNazi propaganda low raceto realize their hasallowedthis Shouldwe notcursethetimethat as Britain, desires fromsuch countries America,and Russia?The Jews for thiswar in the interests of Zionism.The Jewsare responsible kindled hasincreased hasbeen shed.Despitethis, theblood that Jewish impudence of this to suchan extent thattheyclaimthattheyalone are the sacrifice bitterness. The worldwill neverbe at war and thatthey alone are tasting
"Do You Want TotalWar?" see Herf, 1943,Box 93. On Goebbels's 820.00-822.00, speech, Jewish 192-196. Enemy, "Palestine theBolsheviks andthe VoiceofFreeArabism, November between 3, 1943,8:15p.m., Kirkto Secretary Alexander of State, Cairo (November 19, 1943),6-7, "No. 1410,Axis Jews," in Arabic 3 to 9, 1943,"1-2, NARA, RG 84, Egypt: Cairo Broadcasts fortheperiodNovember General 1943,Box 93. Records,1933-1955,820.00-822.00, Embassy of FreeArabism, 72Voice 24, 1943,8:15 p.m.,"WhataretheAimsof International September Alexander Kirkto Secretary ofState, Cairo(October Zionism?" 5, 1943),"No. 1325,AxisBroadin Arabic fortheperiodSeptember 23 to 29, 1943,"NARA, RG 84, Egypt: CairoEmbassy casts General 1943,Box 93. Records, 1933-1955,820.00-822.00, 73Ibid. "Palestine between theBolsheviks andthe VoiceofFree November Arabism, 3, 1943,8:15p.m., Alexander Kirkto Secretary of State, Cairo (November 19, 1943),6-7, "No. 1410,Axis Jews," in Arabic fortheperiodNovember 3 to 9, 1943,"1-2, NARA, RG 84, Egypt: Cairo Broadcasts General Records,1933-1955,820.00-822.00, 1943,Box 93. Embassy
731
the raceis exterminated, otherwise wars willalways exist. peaceuntil Jewish in theworld." The Jews arethegerms whichhavecausedall thetrouble in thefaceofcommon Not onlydidthese assertions senseandwildly fly exagthe of the but also theglobalsignifigerate power Jews, they vastly exaggerated between andArabs overPalestine. In World canceoftheconflict WarII, Jews in in after the Allied the Battle of Tunisia 1942-1943, the victory especially in North Africa was and the conflict over Palestine wasa sideshow over, fighting ofthewarinEurope. Yetwith this VFA the to themaindrama broadcast, found for a state causeofWorld WarII as a wholeto liein theZionist aspiration Jewish the in Palestine. Hence theonlywayto establish world peace,andalsoprevent wouldbe to exterminate "theJewish race." establishment ofsucha state, to thefusion anddifel-Husseini's distinctive contributions One ofHaj Amin in and societies his ofradical anti-Semitism to theArab Islamic fusion lay ability with references totheKoran. Nazi ideology On November to combine 5, 1943, in Berlinof "all the thatHusseinihad spokenat a meeting VFA reported theBalfour Declaration. The and Europe"to protest Moslemsof Germany in Berlinpublished a Germantext of Husseini's IslamicCentralInstitute of copies thousands Protest and theForeign Balfour Ministry printed speech, itsclandestine courier themthrough of thespeechin Arabicand distributed of the The Muftimade clearthathis hatred in the MiddleEast.77 network secular sources. texts as well as in modern religious Jewslaybothin ancient Declaration of November The Balfour 2, 1917,whosegoalwas theestablishment of a Jewishnational home in Palestine,"was the result of a "an in thelastwar."The declaration gavePalestine, conspiracy Jewish-English to theJewsand in so of great to Muslims, Arab-Islamic importance country" Husto Arableaders ofpostwar Britain's broke independence. promises doing, to their "overof theJews.He referred hisintense hatred seinipouredforth their"contemptible whelming egoism" that was part of theircharacter, claimthateverything belief"thattheywereGods chosenpeople,and their that fortheir own sake and that"othermen are animals had been created of thesecharacteristics, own purposes."78 As a result could be used fortheir into anothernation. theJewscould not be loyal to anyoneor integrate livelikea spongeamongpeoples,sucktheir Rather"they blood,seize their
75Ibid. oftheMoslems ofEurope November 76Voice ofFreeArabism, 5, 1943,6:30 p.m.,"The Protests Kirkto Secretary ofState, Cairo(November Alexander theBalfour 19, 1943), Declaration," against inArabic theperiod November 3 to 9, 1943," for "No. 1410,AxisBroadcasts 3-4, NARA, RG 84, General CairoEmbassy 1943,Box 93. Records, 1933-1955, 820.00-822.00, Egypt: Des Grossmufti anlasslich derProtestkundRede S. Em. [SeinEminenz] el-Husseini, Haj Amin am 2. November 1943 (Berlin: Islamische Zentral-Institut, gegendie Balfour-Erklrung gebung 1942-1944,297878-886. 1943),PAAAR27327, Grossmufti, 297878-879. 78Ibid.,
732
HERF JEFFREY
morals still demand therights oflocalinhabitants. undermine their yet property, Allofthis has won't assume but want any obligations! They every advantage they and nourished the hatred the world down on them the of Jews' brought hostility all the peoples."He thathad been burning fortwo thousand yearsagainst in theHoly mentioned that"God's anger and thecurseon theJews believed The who had "tormented Koran"wasdue to these characteristics. Jews Jewish Islam since itsemerfor been the of the Arabs and of theworld have enemy ages 'You in the words: The Koran this old Holy enmity following gence. expressed tried willfind those whoaremost hostile to thebelievers arethe that Jews.' They to to poisonthe great and nobleprophets. werehostile them, They resisted was the case for For all and them. This 1,300years. them, intrigued against the Arabsand thattime,theyhave not stoppedspinning intrigues against the a ofhisunderMuslims."79 Husseini's hatred of Jews was central component of theKoran.For him,Islamrootedin the of Islamand his reading standing doctrine. He placedtheefforts ofDisraeli, Koran wasan inherently anti-Semitic LordBalfour, LionelRothschild, andNathaniel Rothschild to establish a Jewish homein Palestine intothis ofJewish-Muslim Indeed, continuity enmity. longer he calledtheJews"thedriving forces of thedestruction of theregime of the in theMiddleEast.The Jews Islamic usedtheir powerin finance, Caliphate" andthepress andMuslims all knewof "Jewish to thisend.The Arabs politics, desire"to seize the Islamicholysites, suchas theAl AksaMosque and "to builda temple on itsruins." andreligious found Thiscultural fusion ofracism, fanaticism anti-Semitism, on theradioin thelast anda half ofthewar.On January regular year expression "Arabsand Moslemsat war with 29, 1944, "Berlinin Arabic"broadcast It presented the two as distinct and different not onlyas religions Jewry."80 theJewswere but also as races.While the Arabswere "lavishly generous," miserly." "meanly and warlike, theJewsare cowardly and While the Arabsare courageous werethereason for fearful. The differences between thetworaces theendurthat which hasalways existed between them. We therefore believe ingenmity willalways thisenmity and strife between theArabs and theJews be maintained until one ofthetworacesis destroyed. Thisstruggle or warbetween theArabsand theJewsis based on beliefs, and suchconflicts cannotend other thanwiththedestruction of one party. thatthe We mustalso admit forthisracial warbetween theArabs and theJews lieson the responsibility
79IbicL 297880. in Arabic," andMoslems atWarwith Alexander 80"Berlin 28, 1944,"Talk:Arabs January Jewry," in Arabic Kirkto Secretary ofState, Cairo (February forthe 6, 1944),"No. 1581,AxisBroadcasts NARARG 84,CairoEmbassy General 1936-1955: 1944, 1944," Records, Periodjanuary22to28, 820.02-822,Box 112.
FINDINGS OLD THEMES, NEWARCHIVAL
733
of the Arabs,theirgenerosity, shoulders of theJews.The characteristics andwillto sacrifice cannot lead to war. unselfishness, But it ArabandJew, sinceancient times. hasalways existed between Enmity In Islam, the found a theappearance ofIslam. since hasbeenaccentuated Jews when and his and the to their beliefs. followers, fought They Prophet danger weregaining found that theMoslems among strength, they intrigued they from theProphet. This enmity hasexisted to assault them. Theyeventried must free their when Moslems realize that thentillthe present they day, that theJews theevilsoftheJews. It is a fact landsfrom paganism preferred to the effect that thenreada saying to Islam.The speaker by theProphet enemies oftheMoslems.81 arethemostardent the Jews conclusion theManichean andreligious Boththeracial arguments supported endin thedestruction andJews wastotal andmust between Arabs that a conflict drew on an interpretaofthebroadcast The anti-Semitism ofone or theother. secular anti-Semitic viewof theJewsand thenaddedmodern, tionof Islam's in WarI and decisive role of the World about the Jews supposed arguments of the broadcasts was both ancientand WorldWar II. The anti-Semitism of Islam thatextended back to the founding a continuity modern, evoking anti-Semitic as the Nazi as to date twentieth-century conspiracy regime's yet up theories. Senateand in theUnitedStates wereintroduced In spring 1944,resolutions to PalesonJewish to lift restrictions theHouse ofRepresentatives emigration there. ForNazi propagandists ofa Jewish state thecreation tineandto support war.On thatthewarwas a Jewish confirmed their assertion theseinitiatives stated thatthe "Berlinin Arabic"on March1, 1944, Haj Aminel-Husseini and there the Arabsare now clearer, intentions toward "wickedAmerican in to establish a Jewish no doubtsthattheyare endeavoring remain empire this criminal American Arabs theArabworld.More than400 million oppose
sacred Kill the movement.. . . Arabs!Rise as oneandfight rights. Jewswherforyour serves honor. God and This them. This ever your pleasesGod, history, religion. you find
ofJuly in original]. As in thebroadcasts iswith 1942,Husseini you"[emphasis listeners to take Araband Muslim announcers on Nazi radiourged and other violenceagainst own handsand engagein murderous matters intotheir Jews them." "wherever youfind of prothat prevented open expressions censorship DespiteAlliedwartime intelAmerican andBritish inNorth Africa andtheMiddleEast, Nazi sympathy Nazi and anti-Zionist were aware that anti-Jewish Germany's agencies ligence in the region. of chords Withthelifting struck some responsive propaganda
81lbid. Review of Foreign Broadcasts, F.C.C., No. 118, 3/4/44,Near and MiddleEast," 82"Weekly Folder 2930. NARA, RG165 MID, "RegionalFile."1922-1944 Palestine,
734
HERF JEFFREY
aboutthe wartime thepostwar months andyears evidence controls, produced In summer Husseini fled aftereffects of theNazi propaganda 1945, campaign. he was arrested in France. circumstances but Under Germany suspicious in In French and arrived Cairo. the OSS custody Washington, "escaped" in theMiddle issueda report on June23, 1945, aboutthepolitical response of East to possible war crimestrials Arabs. The authors against pro-Nazi wrotethat"in theNear East "The Near Eastand theWarCrimesProblem" thepopular attitude toward thetrial of [Nazi] warcriminals is one of apathy. to As a result of thegeneral Near Eastern of feeling hostility theimperialism is a tendency to sympathize withrather of certain of theAlliedpowers, there thancondemn those who haveaidedtheAxis." A year to Egypt. The reaction offered an example of later Husseini returned in whattheOSS analysts had mind. thewar, American andBritish Throughout hadbeenconcerned aboutthepro-Axis ofthe intelligence sympathies agencies in Egypt. Muslim Brotherhood itsleader, On June11, 1946,Hassanal-Banna, sentthefollowing statement to officials oftheArabLeague. Al-Ikhwan Al-Muslimin Moslem andallArabs the [the Brotherhood] request ArabLeagueon whichArabhopesarepinned, to declare that theMufti is welcome to stayin any Arab country he may choose and thatgreat welcome should be extended to himwherever he goes,as a signofappreciation for hisgreat services for theglory ofIslam andtheArabs. . . . The hearts in of theArabs with at that the Mufti has succeeded joy hearing palpitated an Arabcountry. The newssoundedlike thunder to the earsof reaching someAmerican, andJewish The lion is at lastfree and he British, tyrants. will roamthe Arabian to clear it of the . . . wolves. What a hero, jungle whata miracle of a man.We wishto knowwhattheArabyouth, Cabinet richmen,and princes of Palestine, Morocco, Ministers, Syria, Iraq,Tunis, andTripoli aregoingto do to be worthy ofthis hero.Yes, this hero who chal-
entrusted himwitha mission and he must succeed.. . . The LordAlmighty Amin for nothing. did not preserve There mustbe a divinepurpose behind the preservation of the life of this man, namelythe defeatof Zionism.Amin!Marchon! God is withyou!We are behindyou! We are to sacrifice our necks forthecause.To death! Forward March. willing
83t"The Near East and the War Crimes Problem': Office of StrategicServices, Research and AnalysisBranch, R and A, No. 1090.116, 23 June 1945, Situation Report: Near East, Analysisof Current Intelligencefor the Use of OSS," 1-28, in NARA, RG 84, Syria: Damascus Legation, ConfidentialFe, 1945: Vol. 1-2, 030-800B, ClassifiedGeneral Records, Box 4, Vol. H, 711-800B. 84Ibid., "Summary." 85"Hassan Al-Banna and the Muftiof Palestine" in "Contents of Secret Bulletin of Al Ikhwan alMuslimin dated 11 June 1946," Cairo July23, 1946). NARA, RG 226, Officeof Strategic Services, WashingtonRegistrySI Intelligence,Field Files, Entry 108A, Box 15, Folder 2.
an empire and with thehelpofHitler and Germany. Zionism, Germany lenged fought and Hitleraregone, butAmin Al-Husseiniwill continue thestruggle. . . . God
735
A plausiblereadingof al-Banna'sstatement would be that Haj Amin Hitler and Germany, as well was continuing the same that el-Husseini struggle WorldWar II. Indeed,foralhad been wagingduring as Husseini himself, in theMiddleEast. If wereto be continued Banna,thatwar and itsthemes leaderwith rolethana political and religious to playa leading so, who better in Europe.Farfrom him in fighting theJewish criticizing enemy experience admiration and Hitler," al-Bannaexpressed forhaving sidedwith"Germany al-Bannaand the 's wartime activities. forHusseini Livingin wartime Egypt, Brotherhood wouldhavebeenableto hearwhatHusoftheMuslim members He found hadto say aboutthe andtheAllies. andothers on Axisradio seini Jews and admirable. Husseini's these words andactions survival, Moreover, "escape," in Cairowereproof that God approved as well. arrival
Conclusion
aimedat North of Nazi Germany's The history Arabic-language propaganda was nota WarII and theHolocaust and theMiddleEastduring World Africa ofJerusalem," aboutone man,the"GrandMufti Haj Aminel-Husseini. story of Nazi ideology of thediffusion it was partof a muchbroader Rather, story s efforts tointegrate totheMiddleEastandoftheNazi regime from proEurope in the in its unsuccessful with military operations military strategy paganda we are material from American and German the added With archives, region. to the history of Nazi Germany's moredetailand texture now able to offer framework as well as to understand efforts to extendbeyonda Eurocentric andArabradicalism. withIslamic how it interacted between and ideological fusion drewon a political The propaganda barrage radical and and radical Arab NationalSocialist nationalism, equally ideology, and Nazism rested on a selective Islam. as militant reading appropriation Just andGerman ofEuropean ofsomeelements traditions, so,too,did themilitant in Berlin.Both rephis associates wartime Husseini and Islamexpressed by andChrisof ofalready resented a radicalization existing components European traditions on theother. on theone hand,andArabandMuslim tiantraditions in general, an expression of thesetraditions was simply While neither they selective of their without also seeingthemas a result cannotbe understood In wartime theimprobable andradicalization. Berlin, reception, appropriation, towardnon-Aryan "Semites"in of Nazi ideologyand its hatreds diffusion and a leap beyond the racial particularism the Middle East presupposed was justlyfamousand the forwhich Nazi Germany extreme nationalism of allies. to theunlikeliest resulting appeals Nazi officials and their between and ideological The political cooperation of whathistorians Berlinwas an example Araband Muslimalliesin wartime or "hybridity," in recentyearshave called "transnationalism" thoughit
736
HERF JEFFREY
The radiobroadcasts and wasnotwhatis usually meant terms. bythose perhaps material that from the hothouse of wartime Berlin documentemerged printed ed a meeting ofhearts andminds oftwodifferent traditions that found common in their different the hatred of and liberal ground Jews modernity despite starkly ethnic and barriers. The Arab exiles aided differences, linguistic starting points, in this radicalization oftheir owntraditions out where their underbypointing toradical anti-Semitism ofpassages from theKoranoffered standing entry points The Nazi officials, to and hatred of democracy. were Hitler, including pleased hatreds learn that culturalcomponents of anothercivilization produced similar as theNazishadlearned how to radicalize to their own.Just preexisting in Europeanand Germanculture, so the officials and anti-Semitic potentials on aimed at Arabs and Muslims learned how ideologues working propaganda to buildon thealready themes thatcomprised one comexisting anti-Jewish ofthetraditions An adequate ofIslam. answer to theimportant ponent question oftheimpact ofthis in NorthAfrica and theMiddleEast propaganda barrage in this remains theevidence The evidence is compelbeyond presented paper. Nazi Germany's that andto lingandpersuasive appealbothto Arabnationalism thetraditions ofradical Islam a central rolein itsfortunately failed efforts played to extend itsinfluence to NorthAfrica and theMiddleEast. University of Maryland, College Park

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oftheimpact ofNazismon theMiddleEast,see Matthias 5Fora recent discussion Kiintzel, Jihad

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