1. Introduction Dams A dam is simply a barrier placed across a watercourse to prevent or retard the normal flow of water therein.

It is one of the most ancient of all structural types and scores of thousands of them have been built in the course of history.

1. Introduction Marib Dam, Yemen

Until recently, only a few trained observers had examined the site of the Marib Dam. This barrier, known as Sudd al-Arim, is ranked as the largest of the ancient dams in southern Arabia. According to one report, it was located on the wadi Sadd (Saba) near Marib and roughly 320 kilometers (200 miles) north of Aden. One account described the dam as 3.2 kilometers (2 miles) long, 37 meters (120 feet) high, and 152 meters (500 feet) wide at the base, with a volume of several million cubic meters of rock. But another, much more plausible, version tells of an embankment only a fraction as large and composed of earth. This presumably is the dam whose remains can still be seen today, at a site on the wadi Dhana about 5 kilometers (3 miles) upstream from Marib.

1. Introduction

Marib Dam, Yemen (Present)

2. Terminology
Some of the more common terms used to describe certain portions of a dam (Fig 1a & Fig 1b) are as follows:
1. Abutments Either the sloping sides of the valley upon which the dam is built or the actual part of the dam that rests on this portion of the valley. The center portion of the dam that directly overlies the river channel or that portion of the valley that is so situated. Dam is any artificial barrier and its appurtenant works constructed for the purpose of holding water or any other fluid. It is made by compacting excavated earth obtained from a borrow area.

2.

River or Channel Section Dam

3.

4.

Earth Dam

2. Terminology
5. 6. 7. Gravity Dam Height Heel of the Dam Toe Dam Crest of the It is constructed of concrete and/or masonry and/or laid-up stone that relies upon its weight for stability. It is the vertical dimension from the downstream toe of the dam at its lowest point to the top of the dam. The upstream portion of the dam where it contacts the bearing surface (i.e., the ground or rock foundation). The downstream portion of the dam where it contacts the bearing surface. The top of the dam. If walls are placed along the top of the dam to afford safety to a road or walkway, these walls commonly are called parapet walls. The distance between the highest level of water in the reservoir and the top of the dam.

8. 9.

10.

Freeboard

2. Terminology
11. Axis of the Dam An arbitrary imaginary line drawn either along the exact center of the plan of the crest or along the contact between the upstream part of the crest with the upstream face of the dam. Usually drawn on a vertical plane that is normal to the dam axis. Formed openings within the dam. They provide means for draining water seeping through the face or the foundation, act as openings to drill grout and drainage holes, and provide access to equipment within the dam and for observing its performance. The elevation of the reservoir below which water stays permanently in the reservoir and cannot be withdrawn. Also includes the silt storage, which is that portion of the reservoir basin reserved for storing any silt, which may enter and be deposited.

12.

Dam Cross Section Galleries

13.

14.

Dead-storage Water Surface

2. Terminology
15. Tail Water Water at the downstream base of the dam resulting from backup of water discharged through the spillway, outlet works, or powerhouse. The lowest elevation to which the reservoir can be lowered and water still withdrawn by means of the outlet works The highest elevation at which water can be stored in the reservoir without overtopping the dam or being released through the spillway. These are structures or materials built and maintained in connection with dams. These can be spillways, low-level outlet works and conduits. It is a concrete structure that conveys floodwater from the valley upstream to the valley downstream without damaging the dam or reservoir walls or eroding the foundation or toe of the dam.

16.

Minimum Water Surface Maximum Water Surface Appurtenant works Spillway

17.

18.

19.

2. Terminology
20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Auxiliary spillway Energy Dissipator Low-Level Outlet Diversion Tunnel Conduit Cofferdams It is a secondary spillway designed to operate only during large floods. It is a structure constructed in a waterway which reduces the energy of fast-flowing water. Outlet is an opening at a low level used to drain or lower the water. It is a tunnel constructed within the abutment rocks to carry the water of the stream during construction of the dam. Conduit is an enclosed channel used to convey flows through or under a dam. They are temporary structures built upstream and downstream from a dam to increase the stage of the stream so that the water will flow into the diversion tunnel by gravity. The downstream cofferdam prevents backup of water discharged from the tunnel. These enclose all or part construction area so A fabricated structure orof a the grout curtain placed to that construction proceed ina the dry. intercept seepagecan flow beneath dam.

26.

Cut-off

2. Terminology

2. Terminology

3. Classification Of Dams
3.1 According To Purpose
3.1.1 Stage Control Dams Diversion Dam Navigation Dam Check Dam 3.1.2 Storage Dams Flood control Dam Water supply Dam Hydroelectric power Dam Sedimentation Dam Recreation Dam Groundwater recharge

3. Classification Of Dams
3.1.3 Multipurpose Dams 3.1.4 Barrier Dams Levees and dikes-to protect land areas from overbank flow Cofferdams-for temporary dewatering of construction sites

3.2 According To Material

Concrete Dams Masonry Dams Earthfill Dams Rockfill Dams Steel Dams Timber Dams

3. Classification Of Dams
3.3 Structural Types
3.3.1 Gravity Dams Concrete gravity dams-designed so that water and other loads are resisted by weight of dam (Fig 2). Concrete arch dams-loads resisted by arch action carried to abutments. Gravity-arch dams-loads resisted by combination of gravity and arch action. Buttress dams-loads resisted by slab or arch action between successive buttress support.

3.3.1 Concrete Gravity Dams

Altus Dam

Angostura Dam

Olympus Dam

3.3.1 Concrete Arch Dams

Horse Mesa dam (thin arch)

Gibson dam (thick arch)

Hungary Horse dam (thick arch)

3.3.1 Concrete Buttress Dams

Bartlett dam

Lake Tahoe dam (slab & buttress) Pueblo dam (massive head buttress)

3. Classification Of Dams
3.3.2 Masonry Dams Stone-masonry gravity dams Stone-masonry arch dams 3.3.3 Earth-Fill Dams Homogeneous embankment dams Zoned-earth embankment dams-with internal core of relatively impermeable material Diaphragm-type embankment dams-with central core wall of concrete, steel or timber 3.3.4 Rock-Fill Dams Rockfill dam with central earth core Rockfill dam with bituminous concrete core Decked rockfill dam (cement concrete / bituminous concrete face

3.3.2 Stone Masonry Gravity Dam

3.3.2 Earthfill Dams

Anderson Ranch Dam

Davis Dam

Pinto Dam

3. Classification Of Dams
3.3.5 Steel Dams Steel slab-buttress dams Sheet-steel cofferdams Cellular-steel cofferdams 3.3.6 Timber Dams Timber slab-buttress dams Timber crib dams, with rock-filled cribs

3.4 According To Size Of Dam And/Or Reservoir

Large Dams Small Dams

4. Factors Governing Selection Of Type Of Dam

4.1 Site Conditions
4.1.1 Geological Factors Uncertain or variable foundation, Suitable rock in the vicinity-may be obtained from quarries, An adequate amount of clay in the vicinity to be used either as a vertical core or as a sloping core. 4.1.2 Topography Of Site Gorge: Chord to height ratio (C/H) <3
*Thin arch, cupola, dome dams

Narrow Valleys: C/H=3-6

*Gravity arch dams, gravity dams, thick arch dams

4. Factors Governing Selection Of Type Of Dam

Wide Valleys: C/H > 6-7
* Gravity, buttress, multiple arch, earthfill, rockfill dams

Flat country: Plains

* Embankments

4.1.3 Availability Of Materials Convenient source of earth or aggregate may indicate earth or masonry dam Buttress dam requires smallest quantity of materials

4.2 Hydraulic Factors

Spillway requirements Diversion requirements Outlet works and penstock

4. Factors Governing Selection Of Type Of Dam

4.3 Climatic Effects
Spelling of concrete in cold climates disadvantage of thin arch and buttress dams

4.4 Traffic Factors

Crest highways costly for thin arch and buttress dams Navigation locks precluded for arch dams

4.5 Social Factors

Gravity dams provide greatest safety against sudden destruction due to earthquake, bombing, etc., with resultant damage to affected communities

4. Factors Governing Selection Of Type Of Dam

Benefits to be derived may control cost of dam; temporary dam may have to suffice if benefits are small or short-range Volume of employment, particularly of local labor Aesthetic considerations.

5. Dam Site Investigation

5.1 Surface Investigation
5.1.1 Topography A suitable dam site must exist. The cost of real estate of the reservoir (including road, railroad, cemetery, and welling relocation) must not be excessive. The reservoir site must have adequate capacity. A deep reservoir is preferable to shallow one because of lower land costs per unit of capacity, less evaporation loss, and less likelihood of weed growth.

5. Dam Site Investigation

Tributary areas which are unusually productive of sediments should be avoided if possible. The quality of the stored water must be satisfactory for its intended use. Site from which a considerable quantity of leakage may occur should be avoided. Sites susceptible to sliding should be avoided.

5. Dam Site Investigation

5.1.2 5.1.3 5.1.4 5.1.5 Hydrology Geology Hydrogeology Seismicity

5.2 Subsurface Investigations

5.2.1 Subsurface Investigation Methods Geophysical methods Core drilling Adits Trenches Shafts In-situ Tests Water Pressure Test

7. Design Of Dams
7.1 Gravity Dams
7.1.1 Forces On Gravity Dam 7.1.2 Stability Analysis Of Gravity Dam A. Stability Analysis Overturning Cracking Sliding 7.1.3 Seepage And Leakage

7. Design of Dams- Gravity Dam

7. Design Of Dams Embankment Dam

7.2 Embankment Dams
7.2.1 Zoning Of Embankment (Earth Fill And Rock Fill) Dams And Typical Construction Materials 7.2.2 Seepage Through The Dams And Foundation 7.2.3 Seepage Analysis And Design 7.2.4 General Problems Of Soil Foundation 7.2.5 Typical Design Measures And Seepage Analysis A. Typical Design measures B. Seepage Analysis Excessive Exit Gradient Excessive Pore Pressure Excess Seepage Flow

7. Design Of Dams
7.2.6 Design Of Different Sections Of Embankment And Slope Stability Analysis A. Freeboard Table 5 Freeboard Requirement
Sr. Nr. 1 2 3 4 5 1.6 4 8 16 Largest Fetch (km) Less than 1.6 Normal Freeboard (m) 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.4 3.0 Min Freeboard (m) 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1

7. Design Of Dams
B. Crest of Dam Embankment Dams W = 0.2Z + 3.3 m where W = Width of crest in meters Z = Height of the dam above stream bed in meters

7. Design Of Dams
C. Core Table 6 Core Permeability
Sr. Nr. 1 2 Permeability Coefficient (cm/sec) 1.01 to 1.01x103 1.01 x 103 to 1.01 x 104 Typical Soil Sands Silty Sands Value as Core Considerable Leakage Usable with good control, if some leakage can be tolerated 3 4 1.01 x 104 to 1.01 x 106 1.01 x 106 and lesser Silts Silty Clay, Clay Little leakage if well compacted Impervious

7. Design Of Dams
D. Shell Slopes and Material Table 7 Tentative Design Slopes Earth Dams
Sr. Nr. 1 2 3 4 Soil Type Gravel, Sandy Gravels with core Clean sands with core Low Density Silts, Micaceous Silts Low Plasticity Clays Upstream 2.5H: 1V 3.0H : 1V 3.5H: 1V 3.0H : 1V Downstream 2H : 1V 2.5H:1V 3.0H:1V 2.5H: 1V

7. Design Of Dams
E. Internal Drainage System Table 8 Categories of Base Soil Material

Category 1 2 3 4

Percent Finer than the No 200 (0.074 mm) size > 85 40 85 15 39 <15

7. Design Of Dams
E. Internal Drainage System Table 9 Criteria for Filters
S r. N r. 1 2 B a s e S o il D e s c r ip t io n a n d P e r c e n t F in e r T h a n N o 2 0 0 ( 0 .0 7 4 m m ) s ie v e F in e s ilt s a n d c la y s ( m o r e t h a n 8 5 % f in e r ) Sands, S ilt s , C la y s and S ilt y & D 15F < 0 .7 m m C la y e y S a n d s ( 4 0 % t o 8 5 % f in e r ) 3 S ilt y a n d C la y e y S a n d s a n d G r a v e ls ( 1 5 % t o 3 9 % f in e r ) 4 S a n d s a n d G r a v e ls ( L e s s t h a n 1 5 % f in e r ) D 15F < 0 .7 m m + ((4 0 - A )x (4 x D 85B 0 .7 m m ))/2 5 D 15F < 4 D 85B D 15F < 9 D 85B F ilt e r C r it e r ia

7. Design Of Dams
E. Internal Drainage System Table 10 D10F and D90F Limits for Preventing Segregation
S r. N r. 1 2 3 4 5 6 M in im u m D 1 0 F (m m ) < 0 .5 0 .5 1 .0 1 .0 2 .0 2 .0 5 .0 5 .0 1 0 10 50 M a x im u m D 9 0 F (m m ) 20 25 30 40 50 60

7. Design Of Dams
E. Internal Drainage System Table 11 Minimum Thickness of Upstream Blanket for Different Materials
Sr. Nr. 1 2 3 Fine Sand Coarse Sand Gravel Filter Thickness for Given Head 0 23m 150 mm 225 mm 300 mm 23 45 m 300 mm 450 mm 600 mm 45 90 m 450 mm 600 mm 750 mm

7. Design Of Dams

Typical Filter Gradation

7. Design Of Dams
F. Riprap Table 12 Minimum Riprap Thickness
Sr. N r. 1 2 3 4 5 W ave H eight (m ) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 D 50 0.19 0.37 0.55 0.73 0.92 R iprap Size (m ) 3H : 1V Slope D 100 0.27 0.55 0.82 1.10 1.38 2 H : 1V Slope D 50 0.21 0.42 0.63 0.84 1.05 D 100 0.3 0.63 0.95 1.26 1.58

7. Design Of Dams

Typical Filter Gradation

7. Design Of Dams
G. Slope Stability Analyses Table 13 Minimum Factors of Safety
L o a d in g C o n d it io n A . E n d o f 1 . S h e a r S t r e n g t h P a r a m e t e r s * E ffe c t iv e G e n e r a t io n p r e s s u r e s la b o r a t o r y p o r e d u r in g in fo u n d a t io n o f e x c e s s m a t e r ia ls a n d p o r e w ith o f c o n s t r u c t io n e m b a n k m e n t a n d P o r e P r e s s u r e M in im u m F a c t o r o f S a fe t y 1 .3 C h a r a c t e r is t ic s

d e t e r m in a t io n

p r e s s u r e

m o n it o r in g

c o n s t r u c t io n o r e x c e s s m a t e r ia ls a n d n o p o r e a n d n o 1 .4

G e n e r a t io n p r e s s u r e s fie ld in fo u n d a t io n

e m b a n k m e n t a n d d u r in g la b o r a t o r y p o r e 1 .3

m o n it o r in g

c o n s t r u c t io n G e n e r a t io n p r e s s u r e s w it h in

d e t e r m in a t io n o f e x c e s s e m b a n k m e n t o n ly d u r in g a n d n o la b o r a t o r y 1 .3

o r w it h o u t fie ld

m o n it o r in g

c o n s t r u c t io n 2 . U n d r a in e d S t r e n g t h

d e t e r m in a t io n

7. Design Of Dams
G. Slope Stability Analyses Table 13 Minimum Factors of Safety
B. Steadystate seepage C. Operational Conditions Effective or Undrained Rapid draw down from norm al water surface to inactive water surface Rapid draw down form m axim um water surface to inactive water surface D. Unusual Effective or Undrained Drawdown at m axim um outlet capacity 1.2 1.3 1.3 Effective or Undrained Effective Steady-state seepage under active conservation pool Steady-state seepage under m axim um reservoir level 1.5 1.5

7. Design Of Dams
Shear Strength Data and Sources Determination of Pore Pressures Methods of Analysis Slip Surface Configuration

7.2 Embankment Dam Major Sections

Earth and Rockfill-Central Core-Scale B

7.2 Seepage Designs

7. Embankment Dam Zones - Description

7. Embankment Dam Construction Material

7. Design Of Dams

7. Design Of Dams
7.3 Miscellaneous Problems
7.3.1 Sedimentation In Reservoirs 7.3.2 Problems Associated With Foundation Rocks A. Shales B. Sandstones C. Carbonate Rocks D. Evaporites E. Extrusive Rocks F. Intrusive Rocks G. Metamorphic Rocks