Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
C.
This Iimifs fhe ideoI sife seIecfion fo o very smoII oreo of fhe norfhern
IwoZuIu/MofoI coosf, neor Pichords 8oy. 8y using recircuIofing fechnoIogy, wofer
con be heofed ond moinfoined of fhe correcf femperofure, moking mosf oreos oIong
fhe soufhern Africon coosfIine feosibIe for fish cuIfure. UnforfunofeIy, heofing
requires energy, which increoses fhe running cosf of fhe form, ond wiII hove on
imporfonf impocf on form design ond monogemenf.
The seowofer suppIy musf be free from poIIufonfs, which Iimifs fhe use of
seowofer neor urbon oreos or regions of heovy indusfrioI ocfivify. Mosf of fhe fish
produced on fhe form wiII be for fhe exporf morkef, which meons fhof occess fo on
infernofionoI oirporf is vifoI. InfernofionoI oirporfs ore usuoIIy Iocofed neor highIy
popuIofed urbon oreos. ForfunofeIy fhere ore very few oreos oIong fhe soufhern
Africon coosf fhof ore nof wifhin b0 km of o smoII oirfieId.
Anofher considerofion for sife seIecfion is occessibiIify, in ferms of infrosfrucfure
ond coosfoI fopogrophy. Imron IIonf; of fhe Deporfmenf of IchfhyoIogy ond
Fisheries Science of Phodes Universify corried ouf o 0IS-bosed seorch for
suifobIe morine oquorium fish form sifes. He used fhe foIIowing sife seIecfion
criferio for his sfudy:
- Wofer femperofure
- Lond ovoiIobiIify (ExcIuding urbon ond Mofure Peserve oreos)
7
- Lond occessibiIify (Topogrophy, infrosfrucfure)
- AirfieId wifhin b0 km
He found fhof suifobIe sifes exisf oII oIong fhe coosf, if fhe femperofure criferion
is excIuded (Figure I).
Figure 1, PossibIe morine oquorium hofchery sifes, foIIowing fhe criferio oufIined in
fhe fexf.
8
CHAPTER 3: RULES AND RESULATIONS
8efore procuring fhe use of fhe sife, if is o good ideo fo sorf ouf fhe IegoI ospecf of
seffing up o hofchery ond forming morine oquorium fish. Morine fish forming foIIs
wifhin fhe ocfivify described os moricuIfure, which is now recognised os on
ogricuIfuroI ocfivify rofher fhon on indusfrioI one by fhe Soufh Africon governmenf.
The fishing forming operofion wiII hove fo conform infer oIio: fo fhe foIIowing Acfs:
The Seo Fisheries Acf, I988
The Wofer Acf
The Seo Shore Acf
The Environmenf Acf
The former musf oppIy fo fhe Minisfer of EnvironmenfoI Affoirs ond Tourism for fhe
Pighf fo underfoke moricuIfure ocfivifies in Soufh Africo. This Pighf is onIy ovoiIobIe
fo o Soufh Africon cifi;en, for o renewobIe period of Ib yeors. The Pighf moy onIy be
exercised under fhe oufhorify of o permif, which wiII be issued onnuoIIy. The permif
(ond Pighf) onIy reIofe fo one sife, ond one cofegory of orgonism, such os finfish,
sheIIfish or seoweed efc. The oppIicofion form is ovoiIobIe from fhe Direcforofe of
Morine ond CoosfoI Monogemenf, Deporfmenf of EnvironmenfoI Affoirs ond Tourism
(M&CM) in ferms of secfions I3 ond I8 of fhe Morine Living Pesources Acf, I998. If
needs fo be compIefed in fuII, ond signed in fhe presence of o Commissioner of Oofhs.
A number of onciIIory documenfs ore required when oppIying for fhe Pighf, incIuding:
Proof of properfy ownership ond/or Iond fenure oufhorisofion
Wriffen opprovoI from fhe IocoI governmenf oufhorify
Wriffen opprovoI from fhe provincioI conservofion oufhorify
Descripfions of fhe proposed sife (incIuding o I:b0000 mop wifh fhe properfy
cIeorIy demorcofed)
EnvironmenfoI Impocf Assessmenf
DefoiIs of fhe finonces ond resources ovoiIobIe for fhe operofion
Descripfion of fhe morkefing sfrofegy
DefoiIs of communify invoIvemenf ond supporfing indusfries
DefoiIs of chemicoI ond feed use
DefoiIs of neorby ocfivifies, ond fheir impocf on fhe operofion
DefoiIs of wofer infoke ond dischorge, exfenf of recircuIofion, effIuenf
freofmenf, pipeIine defoiIs
9
Ofher documenfofion, os required by fhe Minisfer
The prescribed fee for on oppIicofion for o Pighf is PI00.00 of presenf (I/I/Z000),
ond fhe fee for fhe renewobIe permif is PI000.00 per onnum.
Once fhe Pighf fo underfoke moricuIfure hos been gronfed, furfher permission is
required fo procure fhe brood sfock ond fo seII fhe producf. A permif is required fo
imporf exofic morine oquorium fish info Soufh Africo. AppIicofion musf be mode fo
M&CM, defoiIing fhe nome of fhe suppIier, counfry of origin, ond voIume of fish. A
veferinory cerfificofe musf occompony oII imporfs. The permif cosfs PZb.00, ond
musf be renewed onnuoIIy. CoIIecfion of IocoI brood sfock from fhe wiId oIso requires
permission. The IocoI provincioI conservofion oufhorify wiII provide fhe coIIecfion
permif, buf if is usuoIIy o once-off orrongemenf wifh fhe oufhorify. Lorge scoIe or
commercioI coIIecfion is nof permiffed.
If is iIIegoI fo fronsIocofe fish species from one region fo fhe nexf in Soufh Africo,
If brood sfock ore fronsporfed fo fhe form, or juveniIe fish ore fronsporfed fo
morkef, permission musf be obfoined from eoch of fhe IocoI provincioI conservofion
oufhorifies fhrough which fhe fish wiII froveI.
FinoIIy, depending on fhe species (Inysno seohorse, for exompIe), on exporf permif
moy be required by M&CM.
10
CHAPTER 4: HATCHERY DESISN
Once fhe Iond hos been procured, if is imporfonf fo choose fhe buiIding sife
corefuIIy. One of fhe greofesf running cosfs of fhe hofchery wiII be pumping
seowofer oshore. Wifhin reoson, if is besf fo sifuofe fhe hofchery os cIose fo fhe
shoreIine os possibIe, fo sove on piping ond pipe moinfenonce cosfs. Pumping ogoinsf
o pressure heod is energeficoIIy cosfIy, so fhe hofchery shouId be consfrucfed os
cIose fo seo IeveI os possibIe. The hofchery shouId be buiIf on o fIof, homogenous
subsfrofe. If fhe subsfrofe is heferogeneous, if moy subside ond compocf of
differenf rofes under fhe weighf of fhe hofchery, cousing crocks fo oppeor. The
fIoor of fhe hofchery musf be re-enforced, fo supporf fhe moss of wofer in fhe
hofchery. The seowofer shouId be pumped oshore from o weII poinf, which is sunk
info fhe sond beIow fhe spring Iow wofer IeveI. If is beffer fo pump fhe seowofer
from o weII poinf fhon direcfIy from fhe seo, os fhe sond fhrough which fhe wofer
is drown ocfs os o mechonicoI fiIfer.
Two imporfonf considerofions infIuence hofchery design, energy efficiency, ond
diseose epidemic confroI. If is IikeIy fhof fhe hofchery wiII be buiIf in on oreo
where fhe ombienf femperofure rises obove ond foIIs beIow Zo
C os fhe seosons
chonge, which meons fhe hofchery wiII hove fo be insuIofed. Morine oquorium
hofcheries ore usuoIIy designed os one unif fo opfimise cIimofe confroI ond Iower
buiIding cosfs. The brood sfock, IorvoI reoring ond grow-ouf secfions of fhe
hofchery ore oII under one roof, wifhin insuIofed woIIs. WhiIe fhis sysfem is more
energy efficienf if con Ieod fo diseose monogemenf nighfmores, o diseose oufbreok
in one sysfem con quickIy spreod fhrough fhe resf of fhe hofchery. A compromise
is fo keep oII fhe sysfems under one roof, buf seporofe fhe differenf sysfems info
rooms which con be effecfiveIy isoIofed from fhe resf of fhe hofchery. The mosf
imporfonf sysfem is fhe brood sfock sysfem, juveniIe fish con oIwoys be repIoced,
buf ony Ioss of brood sfock fish or egg producfion wiII hove o disosfrous effecf on
hofchery producfion.
Every hofchery shouId hove o quoronfine room. This room musf be compIefeIy
seporofe from fhe resf of fhe hofchery. Even if fhe quoronfine room shores fhe
some sfrucfure os fhe resf of fhe hofchery, if musf be compIefeIy seoIed off, ond
shouId onIy be occessed from o seporofe enfronce, oufside fhe hofchery. The
quoronfine sysfem ond oII ifs equipmenf musf be compIefeIy, physicoIIy isoIofed
from fhe resf of fhe sysfems in fhe hofchery. The quoronfine sysfem shouId hove
11
ifs own suppIy of fresh ond morine wofer, oir ond oxygen. A weII-sfocked suppIy of
phormoceuficoIs shouId be ovoiIobIe of oII fimes, os weII os indusfrioI ond personoI
disinfecfonfs. IdeoIIy, personneI working in fhe quoronfine sysfem of o Iorge
hofchery shouId nof hove occess fo fhe resf of fhe fociIify.
The quoronfine room is used fo keep newIy ocquired fish under observofion for
diseose oufbreoks, os weII os fo freof sick fish from fhe hofchery. Fish ore
severeIy sfressed during hondIing ond fronsporf, ond fhere is usuoIIy o Z - 4 week
Iog befween o sfressfuI evenf ond fhe resuIfing oufbreok of diseose. The fish need
fo be kepf in quoronfine during fhis fime, so fhof fhe infecfion is nof spreod fo fhe
resf of fhe hofchery.
The bosic hofchery Ioyouf is described in Figure Z. Eoch room con be enfered from
o cenfroI oreo, so fhof fhere is no need fo poss fhrough one room fo reoch onofher.
Access fo eoch room musf be fighfIy confroIIed, onIy personneI working in fhe room
shouId be oIIowed info if. Eoch room musf be provided wifh eIecfricoI poinfs ond oir,
freshwofer ond seowofer suppIy. Eoch sysfem shouId hove ifs own equipmenf, such
os nefs, buckefs, siphon pipes, efc. Equipmenf musf never be shored befween
sysfems.
Figure Z, An exompIe of o morine oquorium fish hofchery ond grow-ouf fociIify, in
one insuIofed buiIding.
12
The oufer woIIs of fhe hofchery shouId be insuIofed. This con be ochieved in mony
woys. The oufer woII of fhe Phodes Universify hofchery consisfs of o doubIe Ioyer
of bricks, seporofed by o norrow Ioyer of fropped oir. Mony fypes of insuIofing
moferioI con be pIoced befween o doubIe woII in fhis woy, buf buiIding cosfs wiII be
higher, ond if nof corried ouf correcfIy, fhe buiIding sfrucfure wiII be weokened.
The mosf cosf effecfive mefhod of insuIofion is simpIy fo cover fhe inferior side of
fhe oufer woIIs wifh on insuIofing moferioI. Mony producfs ore ovoiIobIe fhof wouId
normoIIy be used fo insuIofe fhe roof of o buiIding, such os sisoIofion, poIysfyrene
or AeroIife~. A ceiIing is nof necessory in fhe hofchery, os Iong os fhe inferior of
fhe roof is Iined wifh insuIofion.
A skyIighf shouId be sef info fhe roof of fhe hofchery obove fhe brood sfock room
ond fhe grow-ouf room (Fig. 3). AnecdofoI evidence poinfs fo sunIighf pIoying on
imporfonf roIe in fhe inducfion of spowning in some species of fish, whiIe fhe
coIourofion of juveniIe fish exposed fo sunIighf is more deveIoped fhon in fish
exposed fo orfificioI Iighf onIy. Direcf sunIighf moy sfress fhe fish, ond promofes
oIgoI growfh, so if shouId be diffused fhrough o 40 - o0 7 shode cIofh curfoin.
Figure 3, The Phodes Universify morine hofchery, wifh fhe skyIighf obove fhe
brood sfock room circIed in red.
The humidify in o weII-insuIofed hofchery confoining seowofer of Zo
o
C wiII quickIy
reoch sofurofion poinf. Mof onIy is if uncomforfobIe fo work in fhese condifions, if
13
is impossibIe fo moinfoin mefoI-bosed equipmenf, fiffings, eIecfricoI sysfems, efc.
for ony Iengfh of fime. For fhis reoson, fhe hofchery musf be fiffed wifh
exfrocfor fons. Poof-mounfed, wind-driven exfrocfor fons ore moinfenonce-free
ond cosf effecfive. They shouId hove o movobIe cover fiffed over fhe oir inIef of
fheir bose, so fhof fhey con be opened ond cIosed os required.
The ombienf femperofure wifhin fhe hofchery is moinfoined of o consfonf
femperofure of ZI - Zb
C in o recircuIofing sysfem, if
fhe ombienf room femperofure is kepf obove ZI
C.
The hofchery musf be kepf os cIeon os possibIe fo discouroge diseose oufbreoks.
To fhis end fhe woIIs ond fIoor of fhe hofchery shouId be coofed wifh on epoxy
poinf fhof is resiIienf enough fo be scrubbed cIeon on o reguIor bosis. The fIoor of
eoch room shouId fiIf sIighfIy foword o droinoge poinf, so fhof spiIf wofer does nof
coIIecf on fhe fIoor. The droin shouId be of Ieosf II0 mm in diomefer, fo prevenf
cIogging. Eoch room in fhe hofchery shouId be suppIied wifh numerous, sfrofegicoIIy
Iocofed overheod eIecfricoI poinfs. Overheod power poinfs ore used so fhof wiring
is kepf off fhe fIoor ond ouf of fhe woy of personneI, os weII os fo fociIifofe fhe
sproying down of fhe woIIs ond fIoor of fhe hofchery during cIeoning.
14
CHAPTER : SYSTEM DESISN
Two exfremes of wofer use ore possibIe in Iond-bosed morine oquocuIfure fociIifies,
fhe fIow-fhrough sysfem, ond fhe re-use or recircuIofing sysfem. In fhe fIow-
fhrough sysfem, wofer is pumped from fhe seo, mechonicoIIy fiIfered, sferiIi;ed
wifh uIfro vioIef irrodiofion, o;one or chemicoIs, ond fempororiIy sfored in Iorge
sforoge fonks. The wofer used in fhe fish fonks in fhe hofchery is drown direcfIy
from fhe sforoge fonks. EffIuenf wofer droins from fhe hofchery info o wofer
freofmenf pIonf, where if is recondifioned ond oIIowed fo fIow bock info fhe seo.
This sysfem works weII in fhe wormer cIimofes, where fhe femperofure of fhe seo
is nof much Iower fhon fhe required femperofure of fhe wofer in fhe hofchery.
The incoming wofer con be heofed whiIe in sforoge, buf fhe energefic cosf is
prohibifive. AIso, fhe orgonisms wifhin fhe hofchery connof be profecfed from fhe
chonges fhof moy occur in coosfoI wofer quoIify (eg. Up-weIIing, red ond bIock fides,
poIIufion).
In o fuIIy recircuIofing sysfem, fhe seowofer used in fhe fish fonks is pumped from
o reservoir, fhe effIuenf wofer from fhe fish fonks is recondifioned using o series
of mechonicoI ond bioIogicoI fiIfers, ond fhen refurned fo fhe reservoir. Some
wofer exchonge is unovoidobIe, os wofer Iosf fhrough evoporofion, spiIIoge or
Ieokoge hos fo be repIoced. AImosf I007 wofer re-use hos been ochieved in some
experimenfoI hofcheries, using mocro-oIgoe (eg. CouIerpo spp.) or onoerobic
bocferio fiIfrofion fo remove nifrofes from fhe sysfem. Mifrofe occumuIofes in o
recircuIofing sysfem os fhe finoI resuIf of fhe nifrogenous wosfe breokdown
process, which occurs in fhe bioIogicoI fiIfers. Even fhough oIgoe ond onoerobic
bocferio con be used fo remove nifrofe, fhe process is sIow ond fhe fechnoIogies
ore new, wifh unpredicfobIe resuIfs. Mosf hofcheries confroI nifrofe buiId-up
fhrough o porfioI wofer exchonge of I0 - Z07 per week.
A compromise befween fhe fwo exfremes of wofer use is fhe semi-recircuIofing
sysfem. The sysfem is engineered fo be fuIIy recircuIofing, in cose of source wofer
vogories, buf fhe wofer in fhe sysfem is exchonged of o rofe in excess of I07 per
doy, depending on energy (heofing vs pumping) cosfs. 8y using fhis opprooch,
exceIIenf wofer quoIify con be moinfoined, wifhouf socrificing environmenfoI
confroI.
The morine hofchery consisfs of differenf fypes of sysfems, for brood sfock,
15
IorvoI reoring, juveniIe grow-ouf, quoronfine ond Iive food cuIfure. Eoch sysfem
consisfs of four focefs, fonks, bioIogicoI fiIfrofion, mechonicoI fiIfrofion ond
sferiIisofion. Eoch focef con be mode up of o number of porfs, depending on fhe
requiremenfs of fhe sysfem. ExceIIenf descripfions of fhe differenf fypes of fonks
ond fiIfers used in oquocuIfure, os weII os discourse on fheir pros ond cons, moy be
found in works by oufhors such os Fred Wheofon
I
ond Sfephen Spoffe
Z
.
,1 rood stock system,
The si;e, shope ond depfh of fhe brood sfock fonks ore dependenf on fhe species.
Mosf of fhe fropicoI reef species fhof con be bred in copfivify do nof require Iorge
or deep fonks. CIownfish for exompIe, seIdom foroge for from fheir nesfs,
requiring reIofiveIy smoII, shoIIow fonks of opproximofeIy 80-I00 . Some species of
seohorse, on fhe ofher hond, require fonks deeper fhon 40 cm, so fhof fhey moy
compIefe fheir compIex verficoI mofing donces.
The fonks con be mode of mony differenf fypes of moferioI, incIuding gIoss,
fibregIoss, PVC pIosfic, fibregIoss-coofed morine pIy-wood, even concrefe. The
prerequisife for fhe consfrucfion moferioI is fhof fhe inner surfoce of fhe fonk is
smoofh, woferfighf ond sfobIe in seowofer. This is porficuIorIy imporfonf when
using PVC pIosfics. Heovy mefoIs such os codmium ore somefimes used os o
coIouring pigmenf, which Ieoches ouf of fhe pIosfic in fime, ond con poison fhe
orgonisms in fhe fonk. Af Ieosf one side poneI of fhe fonk shouId consisf of gIoss
or cIeor perspex, so fhof fhe behoviour of fhe fish con be observed. Tonk shope is
usuoIIy recfonguIor, primoriIy for economy of spoce. AII fonks shouId be covered
wifh sfurdy Iids, os morine oquorium fish fend fo jump when excifed.
The boffom of fhe fonks shouId be covered wifh some form of subsfrofe, ond fhe
fish musf be suppIied wifh o refuge. AII fropicoI morine species require some form
of refuge in fhe fonk, fo foke fhe pIoce of fhe refuges provided by fhe coroI ond
reefs of fheir nofuroI environmenf. The fype of subsfrofe ond refuge depends on
fhe species. CIownfish, for exompIe, onIy require o shoIIow subsfrofe of groveI, or
crushed coroI or sheII, which fhey reorronge during breeding rifuoIs. An
eorfhenwore fIowerpof Iying on ifs side is on occepfobIe oIfernofive fo o seo
onemone for o refuge, ond provides on exceIIenf surfoce upon which fo Ioy eggs.
I
Wheofon, F.W. I977. AquocuIfuroI engineering. John WiIey & Sons, Inc.
Z
Spoffe, S. I99Z. Copfive Seowofer Fishes: Science ond fechnoIogy. John WiIey & Sons, Inc.
16
The bIue-cheek gobies (VoIencienneo sfrigofo) on fhe ofher hond, require o
reIofiveIy deep (b0 mm) subsfrofe of crushed coroI, which fhey bife info ond siff
fhrough fheir giIIrokers, feeding on fhe smoII orgonisms fhey fiIfer ouf in fhis woy.
An inverfed fIowerpof provides fhem wifh on ideoI cove refuge, in which fhey Ioy
fheir eggs.
The infIow wofer is odded fo fhe fonks of fhe surfoce, of o rofe of opproximofeIy
one exchonge per hour. Wofer is droined from fhe boffom of fhe fonks, using
eifher fhe upsfond pipe or drop pipe mefhod (Fig. 4 o&b). The ouffIow pipe shouId
be fwice fhe diomefer of fhe infIow pipe. This procfice oppIies fo oII fhe
recircuIofing sysfems in fhe hofchery, oII droinoge pipes shouId be fwice fhe
diomefer of fhe infIow pipes Ieoding from fhe pump. This ensures fhof wofer
connof enfer o fonk fosfer fhon if con Ieove if, cousing fIooding.
Figure 4, Droinoge sysfems fhof ore used in fhe brood sfock ond grow-ouf fonks.
The fonks con be sef up os sfond-oIone sysfems, using on under-groveI, pIenum,
infernoI corfridge or exfernoI bioIogicoI fiIfer, or os porf of o Iorge recircuIofing
sysfem. The odvonfoge of fhe sfond-oIone fonks is fhof eoch poir of brood fish is
isoIofed, in fhe odvenf of o diseose oufbreok. However, fhere ore mony drowbocks
fo sfond-oIone sysfems. They ore energy inefficienf, os fhe femperofure of eoch
fonk needs fo be reguIofed. They ore Iobour infensive, os fhe fiIfers need fo be
reguIorIy moinfoined, fhe soIinify of eoch fonk hos fo be monifored ond fhe wofer in
fhe fonks need fo be consfonfIy fopped up. AIso, fhe micro-environmenf of eoch
fonk is differenf, ond fhere is no wofer quoIify buffer effecf which one hos wifh
fhe Iorger, recircuIofing sysfem. Under-groveI ond pIenum fiIfers ore difficuIf fo
17
moinfoin in cIownfish fonks, os fhe fish confinuousIy reorronge fhe subsfrofe os
porf of fheir breeding behoviour.
There ore mony possibIe fiIfer configurofions ovoiIobIe for fhe brood sfock
recircuIofing sysfem. Eoch fiIfer configurofion shouId perform fhree primory
funcfions, fhe removoI of mefoboIic wosfe fhrough bioIogicoI fiIfrofion, fhe removoI
of porficuIofe wosfe fhrough mechonicoI fiIfrofion, ond fhe removoI of dissoIved
orgonic wosfe fhrough foom frocfionofion.
The firsf configurofion is bosed on fhe serioI, submerged-medium fiIfer. This fiIfer
consisfs of o bed of groded sfone medium, where fhe effIuenf from fhe fonks is
chonneIIed fhrough o sequence of increosingIy smoIIer bocferio-Ioden gronife chips.
The groded sfone ocfs os o mechonicoI fiIfer, ond fhe bocferio coIonising fhe
surfoce of fhe sfone reduce ommonio fo nifrife, ond nifrife fo nifrofe
(nifrificofion). This fype of bio-fiIfer is usuoIIy connecfed in series wifh fhe
recircuIofing sysfem, which meons fhof oII fhe wofer in fhe sysfem is possed from
fonk, fo reservoir, fo fiIfer in one exchonge Ioop. The Ionger fhof fhe effIuenf
wofer is exposed fo fhe sfone medium during ifs possoge fhrough fhe fiIfer, fhe
more efficienf fhe fiIfer. This is why fhe fiIfer usuoIIy consisfs of o series of
boffIes confoining fhe differenf si;ed medio (Fig. b). The some effecf con be
offoined by possing fhe wofer fhrough o series of smoII, foIse-boffomed fonks of
groded sfone. Wofer is drown from beneofh fhe foIse boffom ond is possed fo fhe
surfoce of fhe nexf fonk. The drow bock of fhis fype of fiIfer is fhof ifs
mechonicoI fiIfrofion copobiIify mokes if o high moinfenonce, inefficienf bioIogicoI
fiIfer.
Figure . Submerged, groded medium fiIfer bed.
The bocferio in o bioIogicoI fiIfer coIonises fhe exposed surfoce of fhe fiIfer
medium in fhe wofer, fhe more exposed surfoce oreo, fhe more bocferio, ond fhus
18
fhe more efficienf fhe bioIogicoI fiIfer. However, os fhe bocferio reproduce ond
die, on exponding bocferioI mof forms, reducing fhe efficiency of fhe surviving
bocferio on fhe exposed surfoce oreo. If fhe infersfifioI spoces befween fhe fiIfer
medio ore cIogged wifh porficuIofe moffer, fhe exposed surfoce oreo of fhe
medium is drosficoIIy reduced. FIow rofe fhrough fhe fiIfer is reduced, ond
conoIisofion con occur, oIIowing Iorge porfions of fhe fiIfer fo sfognofe ond die.
These probIems con be overcome fo some exfenf if fhe wofer is mechonicoIIy
fiIfered before if enfers fhe serioI, submerged medium fiIfer. However, if fhe
wofer is going fo be mechonicoIIy fiIfered onywoy, fhere ore for more efficienf
bioIogicoI fiIfers ovoiIobIe.
The mosf common fiIfer configurofion in use of presenf is fhe exposed medium
frickIe fower, oIso known os fhe drip or wef/dry fiIfer, coupIed fo o sond fiIfer ond
o foom frocfionofor. The frickIe fower is cheop ond eosy fo consfrucf, ond is very
Iow moinfenonce. If does nof gef cIogged wifh wosfe moffer, ond excessive
bocferioI mof buiId-up periodicoIIy "sIoughs off" fhe fiIfer medium fhrough o
combinofion of grovify ond fhe mechonicoI ocfion of fhe fIowing wofer. The fiIfer
consisfs of o coIumn of Iighf-weighf pIosfic medium which hos been designed fo
hove o high surfoce:voIume rofio. CommercioI producfs such os 8io-boIIs, 8io-
sfrofo" ond 8io-pok" ore ovoiIobIe, buf ofher Iighf-weighf, inerf medio con oIso be
used, such os hoir curIers, or shredded pIosfic sfrips, which hove o surfoce:voIume
rofio greofer fhon Zb0 m
Z
.m
-3
. The fiIfer medium coIumn is pocked wifhin o wofer
proof confoiner, such os o pIosfic borreI, convos bog, or Iorge diomefer (Z00 mm)
PVC piping. The ideoI shope for fhe fower is foII ond round in cross-secfion, so fhof
no deod spoces occur wifhin fhe medium, ond fhe wofer hos o Ionger refenfion fime
in fhe fiIfer (Fig. o).
The frickIe fower fiIfer is usuoIIy connecfed in poroIIeI fo fhe primory wofer
exchonge Ioop. Some of fhe wofer is diverfed before if is pumped fo fhe fonks, ond
is sproyed evenIy over fhe fop of fhe medio in fhe fower using o diffuser such os o
shower rose, sproy bor or rofory sprinkIer. The wofer frickIes down fhrough fhe
fower, coming info confocf wifh fhe bocferio coIonising fhe domp, exposed medio.
The fhin fiIm of wofer possing over fhe medio becomes highIy oxygenofed, oIIowing
fhe oerobic nifrifying bocferio fo funcfion opfimoIIy. Wofer fIow fhrough fhe fiIfer
musf be fosf enough fo ensure fhof fhe medio is kepf domp, buf sIow enough fo
prevenf fhe sIoughing off of fhe bocferio due fo mechonicoI ocfion, or fo fIood fhe
fiIfer. The freofed wofer fhen posses ouf of fhe open-ended fower ond is coIIecfed
19
in o sump or fhe reservoir of fhe sysfem. The frickIe fower oIso ocfs os on oerofion
ond degossing coIumn. The fhin fiIm of wofer covering fhe medio hos o Iorge
surfoce oreo, oIIowing fhe supersofurofed goses in fhe wofer fo escope, whiIsf
becoming sofurofed wifh oxygen. Super-sofurofion occurs when oir ond wofer
combine under pressure, ond goses in fhe oir ore forced info soIufion, even fhough
fhe wofer is oIreody fuIIy sofurofed wifh fhe gos. This somefimes hoppens if oir
gefs info fhe impeIIer chomber of fhe pump, or is enfroined info o high-pressure
pipe fhrough on oir Ieok. Super-sofurofed wofer con horm fhe fish, cousing gos
bubbIe diseose.
Figure , Exposed medium frickIe fower.
The effIuenf wofer from fhe fonks droins info fhe Iorge sump or reservoir of fhe
sysfem. Wofer is pumped from fhe sump fhrough o pressurised sond fiIfer, which
ocfs os o mechonicoI fiIfer ond frops porficuIofe moffer Iorger fhon I00 m.
AIfhough indusfrioI morine wofer pumps ond sond fiIfers ore ovoiIobIe, fhey ore
expensive. Swimming pooI pumps ond sond fiIfers ore jusf os effecfive for o
medium si;ed recircuIofing sysfem ond ore cheop ond reodiIy ovoiIobIe. Sond fiIfers
use up o si;obIe porfion of fhe pressure heod deveIoped by o pump, ond fhis musf
be considered when designing o sysfem. A combinofion swimming pooI pump ond
sond fiIfer con be boughf os o unif (Fig. 7), ond fheir rofe of wofer deIivery is
20
meosured posf-sond fiIfer, moking if eosier fo purchose fhe correcf combinofion
for your sysfem. If is besf fo over-esfimofe your wofer requiremenfs, os sond
fiIfers cIog quickIy. This increoses fhe wofer pressure needed fo poss fhrough fhe
sond fiIfer, ond Iess pressure is ovoiIobIe fo fhe resf of fhe sysfem. Sond fiIfers
shouId be bock-fIushed doiIy, fo wosh fhe coIIecfed moffer from fhe fiIfer, ond fo
reseffIe fhe sond fo prevenf conoIisofion. Af fhe Phodes Universify morine
hofchery, 0.b kW swimming pooI pumps coupIed fo sond fiIfers were used fo suppIy
4.0 m
3
recircuIofing sysfems wifh ompIe wofer fIow. There is enough pressure fo
pump wofer in o Io0 mm diomefer pipe fo o heod in excess of Z.0 m.
Figure 7,TypicoI swimming pooI pump ond sond fiIfer fhof con be used fo drive fhe
recircuIofing sysfems of o morine oquorium fish hofchery.
Affer mechonicoI fiIfrofion fhe wofer is possed fhrough o foom frocfionofor, oIso
known os o profein skimmer or oir sfripper. There ore mony commercioIIy ovoiIobIe
frocfionofors, buf fhey ore very expensive. ExceIIenf frocfionofors con be mode
very cheopIy. There ore mony designs ovoiIobIe, buf fhey oII perform fhe some
funcfion, fo o more or Iess efficienf degree. A fine misf of oir bubbIes is possed
fhrough o coIumn of wofer in fhe confocf chomber. EIecfricoIIy chorged orgonic
moIecuIes concenfrofe of fhe oir-wofer inferfoce of fhe bubbIe, wifh fheir chorged
(hydrophiIic) ends poinfing info fhe seowofer, ond fheir non-chorged (hydrophobic)
ends profruding info fhe oir. In fhis woy fhey deveIop o fhin fiIm of surfoce-ocfive
moferioI oround fhe oir bubbIes, which bursf on surfocing, forming Ioyers of foom.
The foom is coIIecfed from fhe surfoce of fhe wofer, effecfiveIy removing bofh
dissoIved ond porficuIofe orgonic wosfe from fhe sysfem.
The ideoI bubbIe si;e shouId be opproximofeIy 0.8 mm in diomefer, infroduced info
fhe confocf chomber of o rofe of I.8 cm.sec
-I
per squore cenfimefre of chomber
cross-secfion (Spoffe, I99Z). 8ubbIes ore usuoIIy produced fhrough sfone or
21
wooden diffusers, or by fhe venfuri effecf of oir enfroined info fosf fIowing wofer.
Wofer in fhe confocf chomber moy fIow wifh fhe rising bubbIes, or, more
effecfiveIy, ogoinsf fhe fIow of fhe rising bubbIes (counfercurrenf sysfem). A
simpIe counfercurrenf foom frocfionofor design is oufIined in Figure 8. The heighf
of fhe confocf chomber depends on fhe oir pressure (or pump pressure in fhe cose
of fhe venfuri sysfem) ovoiIobIe. The foom frocfionofor is connecfed fo fhe moin
recircuIofing sysfem in poroIIeI, offer fhe wofer hos possed fhrough fhe mechonicoI
fiIfers, ond droins bock info fhe reservoir of fhe sysfem.
Figure , A simpIe counfer-currenf profein foom frocfionofor.
The fhird configurofion is bosicoIIy fhe some os fhe second, buf o fIuidised bed up-
weIIing bioIogicoI fiIfer repIoces, or compIemenfs fhe frickIe fower bio-fiIfer. The
up-weIIing fiIfer consisfs of o foII fower usuoIIy consfrucfed from o Iorge diomefer
(Z00 mm) PVC or ocryIic pipe. The fower is hoIf-fiIIed wifh smoII, rounded fiIfer
gronuIes, such os course river sond, gIoss beods or high-densify pIosfic beods.
Wofer is pumped info fhe boffom of fhe fower, fhrough o diffusion pIofe, under
pressure, cousing fhe gronuIes fo seporofe ond "fIuidise" in fhe wofer coIumn (Fig.
9). The wofer pressure shouId be powerfuI enough fo Iiff ond seporofe fhe
gronuIes, wifhouf forcing fhem ouf of fhe fop of fhe fower, wifh fhe effIuenf
wofer. The up-weIIing fower is fhe mosf efficienf of fhe bioIogicoI fiIfers, os fhe
enfire surfoce oreo of eoch of fhe gronuIes con be coIonised by bocferio, ond is
22
exposed fo fhe wosfe-corrying wofer. The fIuidised nofure of fhe fiIfer bed meons
fhof if connof become cIogged wifh porficuIofe moffer, whiIe fhe fumbIing ocfion
ond confinuoI coIIisions of fhe gronuIes ensure fhof excessive bocferioI mof buiId up
is removed. The onIy drow bock of fhe up-weIIing fiIfer is fhof if requires o
subsfonfioI omounf of consfonf-heod wofer pressure fo keep fhe fiIfer gronuIes
fIuidised. The up-weIIing fiIfer is usuoIIy suppIied by o seporofe wofer pump,
drowing wofer direcfIy from fhe reservoir, ond eifher droining direcfIy bock info
fhe reservoir, or vio o frickIe fower. Some oxygen depIefion occurs in fhe up-
weIIing fower, which is why if is usuoIIy used in conjuncfion wifh o frickIe fower.
Figure 9, A fIuidised-bed upweIIing bioIogicoI fiIfer.
The bio-Iood per brood sfock fonk is normoIIy very Iow, consisfing of o poir of fish,
seIdom exceeding Z0 g eoch. The brood sfock fish ore hond-fed o ronge of diefs fo
visuoI sofiofion fwice doiIy. Consumpfion is corefuIIy confroIIed, fhe emphosis being
on quoIify, fo moinfoin breeding condifion, rofher fhon quonfify, fo promofe growfh,
os in fhe grow-ouf sysfem. This meons fhof fhere is IiffIe demond pIoced on fhe
fiIfers due fo excess, uneofen food. The omounf of bioIogicoI fiIfrofion required by
o recircuIofing sysfem depends on fhe moss of fish supporfed by fhe sysfem, ond
fhe omounf of food fed fo fhe fish.
23
The voIume of fhe bio-fiIfer con be coIcuIofed occording fo fhe mefhod described
beIow. AIfhough is oImosf impossibIe fo occurofeIy coIcuIofe fhe required bioIogicoI
fiIfer voIume for o commercioI recircuIofing sysfem, we con fry for on esfimofion
fhof shouId of Ieosf be in fhe righf "8oII Pork".
Food, in fhe form of profein, is fhe primory source of nifrogen mefoboIifes,
whefher processed by fhe fish ond converfed fo ommonio ond ureo, or Ieff in fhe
sysfem fo breok down fhrough bocferioI ocfion. The mosf foxic producf of profein
breokdown is ommonio. Ammonio exisfs in fwo phoses when in soIufion, MH
4
+
ond
MH
3
. 8ecouse MH
4
+
is ionic, if normoIIy exisfs os porf of o Iorger, compIex moIecuIe.
If is foo Iorge fo poss fhrough fhe epifheIioI membrone of fhe fish, ond is
fherefore Iess foxic fhon MH
3
. The un-ionised MH
3
moIecuIe is obIe fo enfer fhe
fish, concenfrofing in fhe bIood ond poisoning fhe fish. The fwo phoses of ommonio
exisf in o sfofe of equiIibrium, where fhe reIofive concenfrofion of fhe MH
3
phose
increoses wifh increosing pH ond femperofure.
Aerobic bocferio breok down fhe ommonio fo nifrife in fhe bioIogicoI fiIfer. Mifrife
is oIso foxic fo fhe fish of simiIor concenfrofions fo ommonio, buf in o properIy
funcfioning bioIogicoI fiIfer fhe nifrife is broken down of fhe some rofe os fhe
ommonio. The producf of fhe denifrifying bocferio is nifrofe, fhe Iosf sfoge of fhe
nifrogen mefoboIife breokdown process. Mifrofe is o sfobIe ond reIofiveIy inocfive
moIecuIe fhof is I00 fimes Iess foxic fhon ommonio. Even so, nifrofe concenfrofions
con buiId up fo o IeveI fhof is foxic fo fhe fish. Mifrofe is normoIIy fIushed from
fhe sysfem during wofer chonges, buf con be broken down very sIowIy by onoerobic
bocferio.
The recircuIofing sysfem is o cIosed one, fhus we con ossume fhof fhe omounf of
nifrogen puf info fhe sysfem os food hos fo be boIonced by fhe omounf nifrogen
converfed fo nifrofe. The nifrifying ond denifrifying bocferio oppeor fo be foirIy
consisfenf in fhe omounf of nifrogen mefoboIife fhey con process in o given fime,
for o specific femperofure, pH ond soIinify. They converf opproximofeIy 0.30 g
ommonio fo nifrofe per squore mefre of covered surfoce oreo per doy in seowofer
of o femperofure of Zo C. The bocferio form o monoIoyer on oII fhe surfoces
exposed fo fhe ommonio-beoring wofer in fhe bioIogicoI fiIfer os weII os fhe fonks
ond piping of fhe sysfem ifseIf. In essence o bioIogicoI fiIfer is jusf on oreo wifhin
fhe sysfem Ioop fhof confoins o moferioI fhof hos o very high subsfrofe surfoce
oreo fo voIume rofio. Eoch fype of subsfrofe hos o fixed surfoce oreo:voIume rofio
24
(TobIe Z).
TubIe Z, The surfoce oreo fo voIume of some bioIogicoI fiIfer subsfrofes.
SUSTRATE SURFACE AREA:VOLUME
Eorfhenwore boIIs (I.0 cm dio.) Z70 m
Z
/m
3
Hoir curIers (o.0 cm) Zo0 m
Z
/m
3
Honeycomb fube (Z.b cm ceIIs) I30 m
Z
/m
3
Honeycomb fube (4.0 cm ceIIs) I000 m
Z
/m
3
Honeycomb fube (8.0 cm ceIIs) b00 m
Z
/m
3
Sfyrofoom pocking peonufs ZZb m
Z
/m
3
b cm pieces of b0 mm pipe IZ4 m
Z
/m
3
PVC pIosfic neffing 3b0 m
Z
/m
3
PIosfic pocking fibres I440 m
Z
/m
3
If fhe omounf of exposed surfoce oreo in fhe sysfem is known, fhen fhe omounf of
ommonio fhof con be processed by fhe bocferio con be coIcuIofed. 8y fhe some
foken, if fhe omounf of ommonio in fhe sysfem is known, fhen fhe subsfrofe
surfoce oreo required in fhe bioIogicoI fiIfer con be coIcuIofed, ond fhus fhe voIume
of fhe fiIfer unif. The ommonio inpuf info fhe sysfem depends on fhe omounf of
food fed per doy, ond fhe profein confenf of fhe food.
For exompIe: Esfimofe fhe si;e of o bioIogicoI fiIfer unif required fo supporf o
cIownfish brood sfock sysfem.
VuriubIes:
Averoge moss of fish ~ I0 g
Mumber of fish ~ I000
7 food fed/doy ~ 8.0 7
Profein in food ~ 40 7
Profein ufiIi;ofion by fish ~ o0 7
7 Mifrogen in profein ~ Io 7
25
8ocferio nifrificofion rofe ~ 0.3 g/m
Z
Surfoce oreo of subsfrofe ~ Zo0 m
Z
/m
3
(hoir curIers)
CuIcuIutions:
Food fed/doy ~ moss x Mo. x 7 food/body weighf
~ I0 x I000 x 0.08
~ 800 g
Mifrogen/doy ~ food/doy x 7 P in food x 7 unused P x 7 M
~ 800 x 0.4 x 0.4 x 0.Io
~ Z0.b g M/doy
Ammonio inpuf info sysfem is obouf Zb g MH
3
/doy.
Ammonio conversion rofe ~ nifrificofion rofe x surfoce oreo
~ 0.3 x Zo0
~ 78 g/m
3
/doy
MH
3
conversion rofe in sysfem is 78 g per cubic mefre of fiIfer subsfrofe per
doy.
VoIume of bio-fiIter required ~ ommonio inpuf/ommonio conversion
~ Zb/78
~ 0,3Z m
3
Hoving coIcuIofed fhe voIume of fhe biofiIfer foIIowing fhe obove procedure, if
musf be re-iferofed fhof fhe finoI resuIf is on esfimofe of besf. I recommend fhof
o fudge focfor of of Ieosf b0 7 be odded fo fhe coIcuIofed fiIfer voIume. Affer oII,
if is beffer fo overesfimofe fhe si;e of fhe bioIogicoI fiIfer, fhon hove one fhof is
foo smoII.
The brood sfock sysfem does nof need Iorge or compIex fiIfer sysfems, buf if does
need sfobIe wofer quoIify. This con be ochieved by hoving o Iorge sump or reservoir
reIofive fo fhe si;e of fhe fonks. IdeoIIy, fhe reservoir shouId confoin fhe some
omounf of wofer os oII fhe fonks puf fogefher. This Iorge body of wofer ocfs os o
buffer fo sIow down chemicoI or physicoI chonges in fhe wofer. 8y pIocing o series
26
of boffIes in fhe reservoir, fhe fIow rofe of fhe wofer possing fhrough fhe
reservoir con be sIowed, oIIowing Iorger porficuIofe moffer fo seffIe ouf of fhe
wofer, where if con be siphoned from fhe reservoir. The reservoir shouId be
insuIofed fo buffer femperofure chonges, covered wifh o Iid fo prevenf
evoporofion, ond kepf dork, fo inhibif oIgoI growfh. WhiIe oIgoe moy remove some of
fhe nifrofes in fhe sysfem, if hos o more pronounced effecf on wofer quoIify,
infIuencing pH, corbon dioxide, ond oxygen IeveIs diurnoIIy, os weII os cIogging
fiIfers wifh orgonic moffer.
Consfonf femperofure confroI is vifoI for sfobIe wofer quoIify ond for moinfoining
brood sfock condifion. As previousIy nofed, fhe Phodes Universify hofchery uses on
onfogonisfic sysfem fo moinfoin consfonf femperofure. WhiIe fhe ombienf
femperofure of fhe brood sfock room is kepf wifhin o ronge of ZI-Zb
C fhrough
oir-condifioning, on immersion heofer eIemenf is used fo heof fhe wofer in fhe
recircuIofing sysfem fo o consfonf Zo