Learning Manual

LEARNING MANUAL
Reference Literature for Organisational Management Course Executive MBA

Course Instructor: Madan L. Pradhan
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Assessment Pr 1.
Management and Managers ........................................................................................... 4 1.1 Functions of Management .................................................................................. 6 1.1.1 Theoretical scope ......................................................................................... 6 1.1.2 Nature of Managerial Work........................................................................... 7 1.1.3 The importance of control............................................................................. 7 1.2 Managerial Levels/Hierarchy............................................................................... 8 1.3 Keystone in the Organization.............................................................................. 9 1.3.1 Efficiency and Effectiveness ....................................................................... 10 1.3.2 Four primary processes of management .................................................... 11 1.3.3 The essential roles performed by managers .............................................. 15 1.3.4 Whether the manager's job is generic. ....................................................... 18 1.3.5 General skills necessary for becoming a successful manager ................... 18 1.3.6 Basic Knowledge ........................................................................................ 19 1.3.7 The value of studying management ........................................................... 19 1.3.8 Relevance of popular humanities and social science to practices. ........... 20 1.3.9 The Characteristics of Good Manager and Bad Manager .......................... 20
2. Management History..................................................................................................... 22 2.1 Historical Development .................................................................................... 22 2.2 Human Relations School .................................................................................. 26 3. Organisation and Organising as a Management Function ....................................... 31 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 31 3.2 The Concept of Organising ............................................................................... 31 3.3 The Organisation ............................................................................................. 31 3.4 Purpose of Organisation ................................................................................... 33 3.5 Organisation and Management ......................................................................... 33 3.6 Individuals and Groups in Organisations............................................................ 33 3.7 Individual Contributions to the Organisation ...................................................... 34 3.8 Organisation as a System................................................................................. 35 3.9 The Organisation and its Environment .............................................................. 35 3.10 Open Systems - General Analysis of the Organizations as a System .................... 36 4. Delegation...................................................................................................................... 40 4.1 Responsibility and Accountability ...................................................................... 41 4.2 The Delegation Process.................................................................................... 41 4.3 Poor Delegation............................................................................................... 42
4.4 Advantages of Delegation ................................................................................ 43 4.5 How to Delegate.............................................................................................. 43 4.6 Delegation Authority Skills, Tasks and the Process of Effective Delegation........... 44 4.7 Delegation Tips ............................................................................................... 46 4.8 The Art of Delegation (by Gerard M. Blair) .................................................... 47
Management | Concept
1. Management and Managers

The Industrial Revolution began in the eighteenth century and transformed the job of manager from owner-manager to professional, salaried manager. Prior to industrialization, the United States was predominantly an agricultural society. The production of manufactured goods was still in the handicraft stage and consisted of household manufacturing, small shops, and local mills. The inventions, machines, and processes of the Industrial Revolution transformed business and management (such as, the use of fossil fuels as sources of energy, the railroad, the improvement of steel and aluminum metallurgical processes, the development of electricity, and the discovery of the internal-combustion engine.) With the industrial innovations in factory-produced goods, transportation, and distribution, big business came into being. New ideas and techniques were required for managing these large-scale corporate enterprises. Two large-scale institutions, the church and the military, served as examples of control for these new managers. Many of the management terms and techniques used today have their basis in ecclesiastical and military authority (for example, superior, subordinate, strategy, and mission). Military commanders need only give orders, and then discharge, penalize, and demote those who do not carry them out and reward those who do. Today, business and management continue to be transformed by high technology. In order to keep pace with the increased speed and complexity of business, new means of calculating, sorting and processing information were invented. An interesting description of the modern era is the Information Age that describes the general use of technology to transmit information. Managers realized that they could profit from immediate knowledge of relevant information. The telegraph was the first instrument to transform information into electrical form over long distances. The telephone, radio, television, and computer expanded instant information. Computers store and handle a vast amount of data, automate manufacturing, and enhance modern communication systems. The in the 1970s, the PC the 1980s that and the office networkproduct in the first mainframe part of the 1990s were the inplatforms drove massive development and growth for the technology industry. Communication and processing technologies are an essential tool in almost every field of business. The Internet, with its interconnection of millions of computers, has evolved to potentially become one of the greatest resources available to businesses today. The World Wide Web (www) offers access to vast information resources and an immense number of sites on the Internet. Managers can access, store and move digital information (voice, sound, text and numbers). Private corporate intranets provide a universal interface for sharing company-wide information and work group level information. Employees can access information, collaborate, and distribute results anywhere, anytime.
Learning Manual | Table of Contents
The computer and telecommunications industries continue to converge and have resulted in advances in two-way pagers, digital cellular service, desktop video-conferencing, portable satellite phones, mini-dishes and high-speed Internet access. Business documents include graphics and text on computers around the world, sound, video and simultaneous voice communications. Thus, the Information Age implies a time for a revolution in the information environment for business and management. The changes that are taking place may be more significant to management than the Industrial Revolution. Organizations are two or more people working together in a structured, formal environment to achieve common goals. Managers provide guidance, implementation, and coordination so those organizational goals can be reached. The modern manager coaches employees of the organization to develop teamwork, which effectively fulfills their needs and achieves organizational objectives. The traditional autocratic organization with its hierarchical system of management and an overbearing "boss" that forces performance out of people is no longer needed. The modern manager provides an atmosphere of empowerment by letting workers make decisions and inspiring people to boost productivity. This is Todays Manager. Management comprises directing and controlling a group of one or more people or entities for the purpose of coordinating and harmonizing that group towards accomplishing a goal. Management often encompasses the deployment and mobilisation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources. Management can also refer to the person or people who perform the act(s) of management. The verb manage comes from the Italian maneggiare (to handle especially a horse), which in turn derives from the Latin manus (hand). The French word mesnagement (later mnagement) influenced the development in meaning of the English word management in the 17th and 18th centuries. Management has to do with power by position, whereas leadership involves power by influence. Management refers to the process of getting activities with and through other people through the effective and efficient use of the resources available to the Organisation and individual members. Management is in fact glue that prevents the organization from flying apart. Another widely accepted definition is "the process of planning, organising, leading and controlling the work of organisational members, and of using all available organisational resources to reach the organisational goals" (Stoner, 1995). Management is a set of activities (including planning, decision- making, organising, leading and controlling) directed at the organisation's resources (human, financial, physical and information), with the aim of achieving organisational goals in an efficient and effective manner (Griffin, 1998). Management can also be described as a programme of activities that a manager performs in order to ensure the achievement of organisational goals. The process of management involves the coordination (management) of people, time, tasks, money, place , machinery (technology) and resource materials.
1.1 Functions of Management

Management operates through various functions, leading/motivating and controlling. often classified as planning, organizing,
Planning: deciding what needs to happen in the future (today, next week, next month, next year, over the next five years, etc.) and generating plans for action. Organizing: making optimum use of the resources required to enable successful carrying out of plans. Leading/Motivating: exhibiting skills in these areas for getting others to play an effective part in achieving plans. Controlling: monitoring-checking progress against plans, which may need modification based on feedback.
1.1.1 Theoretical scope

Mary Parker Follett (18681933), who wrote on the topic in the early twentieth century, defined management as "the art of getting things done through people". One can also think of management functionally, as the action of measuring a quantity on a regular basis and of adjusting some initial plan; or as the actions taken to reach one's intended goal. This applies even in situations where planning does not take place. From this perspective, Frenchman Henri Fayol considers management to consist of five functions: planning organizing leading co-ordinating controlling Some people, however, find this definition, while useful, far too narrow. The phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely, suggesting the difficulty of defining management, the shifting nature of definitions, and the connection of managerial practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or class.
One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to "business administration", although this then excludes management in places outside commerce, as for example in charities and in the public sector. Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments which teach management as "business schools", and some institutions (such as the Harvard Business School) use that name. Speakers of English may also use the term "management" or "the management" as a collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example of a corporation.
1.1.2 Work
Nature
of
Managerial
In for-profit work, management has as its primary function the satisfaction of a range of stakeholders. This typically involves making a profit (for the shareholders), creating valued products at a reasonable cost (for customers), and providing rewarding employment opportunities (for employees). In nonprofit management, add the importance of keeping the faith of donors. In most models of management/governance, shareholders vote for the board of directors, and the board then hires senior management. Some organizations have experimented with other methods (such as employee-voting models) of selecting or reviewing managers; but this occurs only very rarely. In the public sector of countries constituted as representative democracies, voters elect politicians to public office. Such politicians hire many managers and administrators, and in some countries like the United States political appointees lose their jobs on the election of a new president/governor/mayor. Some 2500 people serve at the pleasure of the United States Chief Executive, including all of the top US government executives. Public, private, and voluntary sectors place different demands on managers, but all must retain the faith of those who select them (if they wish to retain their jobs), retain the faith of those people that fund the organization, and retain the faith of those who work for the organization. If they fail to convince employees of the advantages of staying rather than leaving, they may tip the organization into a downward spiral of hiring, training, firing, and recruiting. Management also has the task of innovating and of improving the functioning of organizations.
1.1.3 The importance of control

At least two perspectives on role of control exist: Top management expects to control everything, making all decisions, while middle and lower managers implement decisions, and production workers operate only as instructed Top management does not decide the "right" way to do something, and lower-level staff become involved in decision-making processes.
Some companies use "slopey shoulder syndrome" style management, where people will take credit for when things go right. However when things go wrong they will pass the blame and responsibility to people either below or adjacent in the company structure.
1.2 Managerial Levels/Hierarchy

The extent to which managers perform the functions of management - planning, organizing, directing, and controlling - varies by level in the management hierarchy. The term supervisor could be applied at all management levels of the organization to those who direct the work of others. In common usage, however, the title tends to be used only in the first level of the management hierarchy. If an organization were divided into top, middle, and lower managerial levels, the term generally applies to the lower level.
Supervisors are managers whose major functions emphasize directing and controlling the work of employees in order to achieve the team goals. They are the only level of management managing non-managers. Thus, most of the supervisor's time is allocated to the functions of directing and controlling. In contrast, top managers spend most of their time on the functions of planning and organizing. The top manager determines the mission and sets the goals for the organization. His or her primary function is long-range planning. Top management is accountable for the overall management of the organization. Middle management implements top management goals. Supervisors direct the actual work of the organization at the operating level. The three levels of management are first-line supervisors, middle managers, and top managers.
MANAGERIAL LEVELS
First-line supervisors are the lowest level of management and are typically responsible for directing the day-to-day activities of operative employees. Middle managers represent the levels of management between the first-line supervisor and top management. These individualswho manage other managers and possibly some operative employeesare primarily responsible for translating the goals set by top management into specific details that lower-level managers can perform. Middle management is a layer of management in an organization whose primary job responsibility is to monitor activities of subordinates and to generate reports for upper management. Top managers, at or near the pinnacle of the organization, are responsible for making decisions about the direction of the organization and establishing policies that affect all organizational members. Senior management is generally a team of individuals at the highest level of organizational management who have the day-to-day responsibilities of managing a corporation. There are most often higher levels of responsibility, such as a board of directors and those who own the company (shareholders), but they focus on managing the senior management instead of the day-to-day activities of the business. Operatives are non-managerial personnel. They work directly on a job or task and have no responsibility for overseeing the work of others
1.3 Keystone in the Organization

The keystone view, identified by Professor Keith Davis, is many people's ideal of a supervisor's job. The comparison between an archway and an organization is very interesting. Without the keystone (supervisor), the arch (organization) collapses. The keystone is the central topmost stone of an arch. It is an essential part because it takes the pressure of both sides, exerts pressure of its own and uses them to strengthen the overall arch. The keystone supervisor is the main connector joining management and employees making it possible for each to perform effectively. Supervisors are the level of management linking the operations of each department to the rest of the organization. This view underscores the critical importance of developing people at all levels. Employees need their jobs and want to know what is expected of them and how their work relates to the whole process. The supervisor is the point of contact in the satisfaction of these needs for employees. By his or her efforts toward productivity and efficiency, the supervisor helps make the company successful, which preserves and creates jobs. By interpreting policies and giving instructions and information and through normal, everyday contact with employees, the supervisor serves as the point of contact with management. The keystone has determined that he or she will control the job instead of the job controlling him or her. Thus, It is the confidence in self that will help determine the success of the manager. *Keystone used by Keith Davis, Human Relations at Work: The Dynamics of Organizational Behavior, New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1957 is now in its 10th edition, John W. Newstrom and Keith Davis, Organizational Behavior: Human Behavior at Work 10th Edition, McGraw Hill, 1996.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MANAGERS AND OPERATIVE EMPLOYEES Managers direct the activities of others in an organization. They have such titles as supervisor, department head, dean, division manager, vice president, president, and chief executive officer. Operatives are non-managerial personnel. They work directly on a job or task and have no responsibility for overseeing the work of others.
1.3.1 Efficiency Effectiveness
and
The term management refers to the process of getting things done, effectively and efficiently through and with other people. Several components in this definition warrant discussion. These are the terms process, effectively and efficiently. The term process in the definition management represents the primary activities managers perform.
EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY IN MANAGEMENT
Effectiveness and efficiency deal with what we are doing and how we are doing it. Efficiency means doing the task correctly and refers to the relationship between inputs and outputs. For instance if you get more output for a given input, you have increased efficiency. So, too, do you increase efficiency when you get the same output with fewer resources. Since managers deal with input resources that are scarce- money, people and equipment- they are concerned with the efficient use of those resources. Management, therefore, is concerned with minimizing resource costs in the completion of activities.
Although minimizing resource costs is important, it is not enough simply to be efficient. Management is also concerned with completing activities. In management terms, we call this ability effectiveness. Effectiveness means doing the right task. In an organization, that translates into goal attainment. Although efficiency and effectiveness are different terms, they are interrelated. For instance, its easier to be effective if one ignores efficiency. Hewlett-Packard could produce more sophisticated and longer lasting toner cartridges for its laser printers if it disregarded labor and material input costs. Similarly some government agencies have been regularly attacked on the grounds that they are reasonably effective but extremely inefficient. That is, they accomplish their goals but do so at a very high cost. Our conclusion: Good management is concerned with both attaining goals (effectiveness) and doing so as efficiently as possible. Can organisations be efficient and yet not be effective? Yes, by doing the wrong things well! Of course, high efficiency is associated more typically with high effectiveness. And poor management is most often due to both inefficiency and ineffectiveness or to effectiveness achieved through inefficiency. What is your level of effectiveness? What difference would it make were raised? One of the first steps to achieve this is to understand Many people confuse effectiveness with efficiency. They strive to effectiveness doesn't always improve. Sometimes, the price effectiveness. to your life and work if this level what effectiveness really means. become more efficient, but their of greater efficiency is less
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Being effective means producing powerful effects. Being efficient means producing results with little wasted effort. It is the ability to carry out actions quickly. However, by so doing, you may not be achieving effectiveness. Effectiveness involves achieving your worthwhile goals that support your vision and mission. For instance, you may be very efficient at working through and completing your to-do list. However, when you shift your focus to being effective, you may choose to delegate part of your list, stop doing some of it, and focus on one or two things that enable you to achieve your goals. Perhaps you're efficient at sending follow up letters to potential clients, but being effective may mean only following up more comprehensively on certain key ones.
Few Perspectives
Efficiency is doing something with the least possible expenditure of resources (such as time, energy, etc.) Effectiveness is doing it well, doesn't matter what it takes. Efficiency = output (number of customer service calls taken per hour) Effectiveness = outcome (customers who are satisfied with the answers received) Efficiency: doing things right Effectiveness: doing the right things Peter Drucker once commented on something similar - to paraphrase, effectiveness (doing the right thing) is more important that efficiency (doing things the right way).
Before worrying about how fast your train is going, think about whether it's going in the right direction.
Do these definitions make sense?
1.3.2 Four management
primary
processes
of
Managers create and maintain an internal environment, commonly called the organization, so that others can work efficiently in it. A manager's job consists of planning, organizing, directing, and controlling the resources of the organization. These resources include people, jobs or positions, technology, facilities and equipment, materials and supplies, information, and money. Managers work in a dynamic environment and must anticipate and adapt to challenges. The job of every manager involves what is known as the functions of management: planning, organizing, directing, and controlling. These functions are goal-directed, interrelated and interdependent. Planning involves devising a systematic process for attaining the goals of the organization. It prepares the organization for the future. Organizing involves arranging the necessary resources to carry out the plan. It is the process of creating structure, establishing relationships, and allocating resources to accomplish the goals of the organization. Directing involves the guiding, leading, and overseeing of employees to achieve organizational goals. Controlling involves verifying that actual performance matches the plan. If performance results do not match the plan, corrective action is taken.
Planning: Planning means thinking in advance of something to be done, and preparing ways to perform the desired activity. It is deciding: what activities a person or organisation wishes to do how the activities are to be performed when the activities are to be performed who is to perform the activities what resources (money and equipment) are needed to enable people to perform the activities where the activities are to be performed
Planning bridges the gap between where the organisation is and where it wishes to go. It is said to be the most basic of all the management functions. As the work of the manager becomes more complex and resources become more difficult to obtain (scarce), planning becomes even more important to the manager and the organisation as a whole. The manager makes plans which include selection of staff, organisation of resources, and control and co-ordination of people and activities to ensure the achievement of objectives. Organising: Simply put, organising means ensuring that all activities and processes are arranged so that the organisation can achieve its objectives. The most important aspects of organising are getting the right people, defining their responsibilities, and designing an organisation and structure which ensures that employees know where they work and who they work with and/or report to. Organising also means arranging things so that individuals are able to work together and relate positively to each other, thus, ensuring a healthy environment which promotes effective work. If institutions or businesses are to achieve given objectives, management must develop an organisation capable of the following: definition and delegation of responsibility and authority of managers and other workers, including the establishment of good relationships between people who work closely together. This means ensuring managers and staff know the level of their power and the limitations of their authority to ensure that the work is done properly classification of work and its division into manageable activities. This is called division of labour, and means that each person is given a specific job, which is within his/her level of ability.
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Organising also means defining and delegating responsibility and authority so as to avoid a chaotic situation where workers do what they want to do because there are no clear guidelines about their roles and how to fulfil them. It is the duty of the manager to ensure that every worker/staff member knows exactly what work has been assigned to him/her and the level of responsibility and authority it carries, and has guidelines to assist in job performance. The process of organising consists of the following five steps: Review of plans and objectives: After planning, the primary activity of management is to review the organisation's plans and objectives. This will enable managers organise people and tasks in order to achieve the defined objectives. Determining activities: The next step in the process is for managers to prepare and analyse the set of activities needed to accomplish these objectives. In addition to general activities such as recruiting, training, and allocation of tasks, there are specific activities, which are unique to the type of business or organisation. For example, in the case of an education institution it will be important to focus on educating, hence the people employed will have specific education qualifications and experience. Classifying and grouping activities: Once the tasks have been determined, they must be classified into manageable work units, which is usually done by matching skills to the specific activity. For example, in a manufacturing organisation, the activities may be classified into production, marketing, finance, research and development. These major categories of tasks can be subdivided into smaller units to facilitate effective supervision. Assigning work and resources: This is a critical step in the process of organising, because the right person must be matched with the right job and be provided with the resources to accomplish the assigned tasks. Management must determine who does what and when. The job of the teacher at the school is to teach, however s/he must be assigned to teach the subject for which s/he is qualified. Evaluating results: In this final step, managers seek feedback on the outcome of the planned and organised activities in order to determine how well the plans have worked. The feedback will also help to determine if changes or modifications are necessary or desirable.
Leading/ Co-ordinating (Directing): Managers have to learn leadership skills in order to work effectively. They have to learn how to deal with people and how to influence and motivate them in order to ensure that the work is done. In short, managers also have to be effective leaders. Workers in every organisation have minds of their own, and will do what they wish if they do not like the orders or instructions given by the managers. The managerial function of leading involves: directing influencing supervising guiding Controlling: In all organisations there must be a certain level of control over people, finance, time and activities. Often managers confuse co-ordination with control. Co-ordination implies a softer approach to controlling and control implies that activities are actively supervised/monitored to ensure conformation with rules and regulations.
The management function of controlling involves the measurement and correction of work done by subordinates in order to ensure that organisational plans are implemented effectively. The status of a manager in the organisation determines the level of control. Controlling is a very important function of management. In order for it to be effective, the manager must establish standards, check progress, measure and interpret the results, and take corrective action. The control function allows managers to determine whether the organisation is meeting defined objectives, and so is closely linked with planning. Through the control function managers are able to find out whether they are achieving goals, and if this is not the case, to improve performance in order to increase the chances of doing so. Staffing (Sometimes treated as a fifth function): People are the most important part of every organisation and good managers place much importance on the welfare of their employees. Staffing and personnel management is therefore a critical function of management. A healthy organisation is one which employs healthy workers. Staffing involves defining an organisation's personnel requirements, and includes: selection training promotion compensation Promotion of professional development initiative. In performing this function, managers are essentially communicating and motivating. They must coordinate the activities of individuals with various skills in order to produce goods and services. Regular communication with staff ensures better performance. Staffing also involves training, in order to ensure the organisation continues to improve the skills of its employees. It also means developing managers who can meet the future personnel requirements of the organisation.
FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT Definition of Management Process Planning Includes defining goals, establishing strategy and developing plans to coordinate activities. Organizing Includes determining what tasks are to be done, who is to do them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions are to be made. Leading Includes motivating employees, directing the activities of others, selecting the most effective communication channel, and resolving conflicts. Controlling The process of monitoring performance, comparing it with goals, and correcting any significant deviations. Planning Organizing Leading Controlling
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1.3.3 The managers
essential
roles
performed
by
To meet the many demands of performing their functions, managers assume multiple roles. A role is an organized set of behaviors. Henry Mintzberg has identified ten roles common to the work of all managers. The ten roles are divided into three groups: interpersonal, informational, and decisional. The informational roles link all managerial work together. The interpersonal roles ensure that information is provided. The decisional roles make significant use of the information. The performance of managerial roles and the requirements of these roles can be played at different times by the same manager and to different degrees depending on the level and function of management. The ten roles are described individually, but they form an integrated whole.
The three interpersonal roles are primarily concerned with interpersonal relationships. In the figurehead role, the manager represents the organization in all matters of formality. The top level manager represents the company legally and socially to those outside of the organization. The supervisor represents the work group to higher management and higher management to the work group. In the liaison role, the manger interacts with peers and people outside the organization. The top level manager uses the liaison role to gain favors and information, while the supervisor uses it to maintain the routine flow of work. The leader role defines the relationships between the manager and employees. The direct relationships with people in the interpersonal roles place the manager in a unique position to get information. Thus, the three informational roles are primarily concerned with the information aspects of managerial work. In the monitor role, the manager receives and collects information. In the role of disseminator, the manager transmits special information into the organization. The top level manager receives and transmits more information from people outside the organization than the supervisor. In the role of spokesperson, the manager disseminates the organization's information into its environment. Thus, the top level manager is seen as an industry expert, while the supervisor is seen as a unit or departmental expert. The unique access to information places the manager at the center of organizational decision making. There are four
decisional roles. In the entrepreneur role, the manager initiates change. In the disturbance handler role, the manger deals with threats to the organization. In the resource allocator role, the manager chooses where the organization will expend its efforts. In the negotiator role, the manager negotiates on behalf of the organization. The top level manager makes the decisions about the organization as a whole, while the supervisor makes decisions about his or her particular work unit. The supervisor performs these managerial roles but with different emphasis than higher managers. Supervisory management is more focused and short-term in outlook. Thus, the figurehead role becomes less significant and the disturbance handler and negotiator roles increase in importance for the supervisor. Since leadership permeates all activities, the leader role is among the most important of all roles at all levels of management.
*Henry Mintzberg, The Nature of Managerial Work, Harper & Row, 1973.
Mintzberg Managerial Roles INTERPERSONAL Liaison)

ROLES
(Figurehead,
Leadership
and
Figurehead Managers are required to perform some duties, which are ceremonial and symbolic in nature, such as receiving visitors and other public performances. Leadership Managers fulfil leadership roles, which include motivating subordinates to perform their duties better. This leadership role also involves hiring, training and disciplining employees. Liaison The third role within the interpersonal grouping is the liaison role. Mintzberg described this activity as contacting outsiders who provide the manager and organisation with information. These may be individuals or groups either inside or outside the organisation. INFORMATIONAL
ROLES
Monitor Managers often receive and collect information from organisations other than their own. Typically, this is done by reading magazines and talking with others to learn about changes in public taste and the plans of competitors. Mintzberg called this the monitor role. Disseminator Managers also act as conduits through which information is transmitted to organisational members. In the performance of their duties they should transmit much of the information collected to their subordinates. This is the disseminator role. Spokesperson Managers perform a spokesperson role when they represent the organisation to outsiders.
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DECISIONAL ROLES Mintzberg also identified four roles that revolve around making choices (Decisions). Entrepreneur In the entrepreneur role, managers initiate and oversee new projects that will improve their organisation's performance. Disturbance handler As disturbance handlers, managers take corrective action(s) in response to previously unforeseen problems that arise. Resource allocator As resource allocators, managers are responsible for allocating the physical and monetary resources of the organisation to different people or places. Negotiator Lastly, managers perform the negotiators role, in which they discuss and bargain with other units to gain advantages for their own unit. They frequently negotiate with clients, customers, suppliers, etc., on matters affecting the organisation and its environment. Mintzberg's role approach enables the management student to understand the day-to-day activities of the practising manager.
FIGUREHEAD E.G. - ATTEND EMPLOYEE RETIREMENT CEREMONY
INTERPERSONA L
LEADE R
E.G. - ENCOURAGE WORKERS TO INCREASE PRODUCTIVITY.
LIAISON
E.G. - COORDINATE ACTIVITIES OF TWO COMMITTEES.
MONITOR
E.G. - SCAN BUSINESS WEEK FOR INFORMATION ABOUT
INFORMATIONA L
DISSEMINAT OR
E.G. - SEND OUT MEMOS OUTLINING NEW POLICIES.
SPOKESPERSON
E.G. - HOLD PRESS CONFERENCE TO ANNOUNCE NEW PLANT.
ENTREPRENEUR
E.G. - DEVELOP IDEA FOR NEW PRODUCT AND CONVINCE OTHERS OF ITS MERITS; RESOLVE DISPUTE
DECISION MAKING
DISTURBANC E - HANDLER RESOURCE ALLOCATOR NEGOTIATOR
E.G. - ALLOCATE BUDGET REQUESTS;
Important Managerial Roles
1.3.4 Whether generic.
the
manager's
job
is
Management has several generic properties. Regardless of level in an organization, all managers perform the same four activities; however, the emphasis given to each function varies with the manager's position in the hierarchy. Similarly, for the most part, the manager's job is the same regardless of the type of organization he or she is in. The generic properties of management are found mainly in the world's democracies. One should be careful in assuming that management practices are universally transferable outside so-called free-market democracies.
1.3.5 General skills necessary for becoming manager
a successful
In order to perform the functions of management and to assume multiple roles, managers must be skilled. Robert Katz identified three managerial skills that are essential to successful management: technical, human, and conceptual. Technical skill involves process or technique knowledge and proficiency. Managers use the processes, techniques and tools of a specific area. In other words, technical skills refer to the manager's mental ability to use the tools, procedures, and techniques of a specialized field.
SKILLS NEEDED AT DIFFERENT MANAGEMENT LEVELS
Human skill involves the ability to interact effectively with people. Managers interact and cooperate with employees. It refers to the manager's mental ability to work with, understand, mentor, and motivate others, both individually and in groups. Conceptual skill involves the ability to analyse, diagnose complex situation and formulate ideas. Managers understand abstract relationships, develop ideas, and solve problems creatively. It also refers to manager's mental ability to coordinate all of the organization's interests and activities. A new addition to the list of general skills is: Political Skills: ability to enhance ones position, build a power base and establish the "right" connections. Thus, technical skill deals with things, human skill concerns people, and conceptual skill has to do with ideas, political skills has to do with smart visibility and positioning. A manager's level in the organization determines the relative importance of possessing technical, human, and conceptual skills. Top level managers need conceptual skills in order to view the organization as a whole. Conceptual skills are used in planning and dealing with ideas and abstractions. Supervisors need technical skills to manage their area of specialty. All levels of management need human skills in order to interact and communicate with other people successfully.
*Robert Katz, "Skills of an effective administrator," Harvard Business Review, September-October 1974, pp. 90-101.
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MANAGEMENT SKILLS AND MANAGEMENT FUNCTION MATRIX
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1.3.6 Knowledge
Basic
Most managers perform their duties without acquiring the necessary knowledge and skills. Managers must acquire knowledge in the following areas, which are considered crucial to the success of any organization: The organisation: its purpose and business, why it is in the business, the culture of the organisation, its norms, ethos and values. The people: the people with and for whom they will work. The work place: the political, social and economic context, accepted standards and expectations, what others are doing and how this organisation fits in
1.3.7 The management
value
of
studying
People in all walks of life have come to recognize the important roles that good management plays in our society. For those who aspire to managerial positions, the study of management provides the body of knowledge that will help them to be effective managers. For those who do not plan on careers as managers, the study of management can give them considerable insight into the way their bosses behave and into the internal activities of organizations.
UNIVERSAL NEED FOR MANAGEMENT
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1.3.8 Relevance management practices.
of
popular
humanities
and
social
science
courses
to
Management does not exist in isolation. Rather, management practices are directly influenced by research and practices in such fields as anthropology (learning about individuals and their activities); economics (understanding allocation and distribution of resources); philosophy (developing values and ethics); political science (understanding behavior of individuals and groups in a political setting); psychology (learning about individual behavior); and sociology (understanding relationships among people).
1.3.9 The Characteristics Manager

GOOD MANAGER
of Good Manager
and Bad
From all the information on management functions, styles, roles, skills and needs contained in this chapter, it is not easy to determine exactly what is needed in a manager. A good guideline for managers is to trust their instincts and aim for consistency. There is no point in attempting to be a super-manager. Managers who do so, will set impossible targets for themselves and their staff. Instead, managers should aim to be just good managers, who are respected and trusted and who can: help individuals and groups identify goals and priorities and develop action plans consult, listen, learn and share take responsibility, make decisions and get things done be firm without being rigid, and understanding without being soft manage her/his own time and energy delegate responsibility trust people to get on with work, and give them the support they need without being intrusive
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give praise and appreciation for work well done, and help people to learn and improve when work has not been done as well as it could or should be inspire confidence in herself/himself, in the management process and in the organisation.
THE BAD MANAGER abdicate responsibility, and are indecisive, unreliable and uninformed undermine other people and stop people from getting on with their work take credit for the successes of others will not consult, listen, learn or share make judgments about people on the basis of stereotypes and prejudices create an environment in which someone always has to be blamed when things go wrong, so people are not encouraged to admit and learn from their mistakes lack confidence in themselves, in management and in the organisation.
REWARDS AND CHALLENGES OF BEING A MANAGER
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Management | History
2. Management History
2.1 Historical Development
Difficulties arise in tracing the history of management. Some see it (by definition) as a late modern (in the sense of late modernity) conceptualization. On those terms it cannot have a pre-modern history, only harbingers (such as stewards). Others, however, detect management-like activities in the pre-modern past. Some writers trace the development of management-thought back to Sumerian traders and to the builders of the pyramids of ancient Egypt. Slave-owners through the centuries faced the problems of exploiting/motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial enterprises, given their small scale, did not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically. However, innovations such as the spread of Hindu-Arabic numerals (5th to 15th centuries) and the codification of double-entry bookkeeping (1494) provided tools for management assessment, planning and control. Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized record-keeping and recording before the industrial revolution, it made sense for most owners of enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by and for themselves. But with growing size and complexity of organizations, the split between owners (individuals, industrial dynasties or groups of shareholders) and day-to-day managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually became more common. 19TH CENTURY Some argue that modern management as a discipline began as an off-shoot of economics in the 19th century. Classical economists such as Adam Smith (1723 - 1790) and John Stuart Mill (1806 1873) provided a theoretical background to resource-allocation, production, and pricing issues. About the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney (1765 - 1825), James Watt (1736 - 1819), and Matthew Boulton (1728 - 1809) developed elements of technical production such as standardization, quality-control procedures, cost-accounting, interchangeability of parts, and work-planning. Many of these aspects of management existed in the pre-1861 slave-based sector of the US economy. That environment saw 4 million people, as the contemporary usages had it, "managed" in profitable quasi-mass production. By the late 19th century, marginal economists Alfred Marshall (1842 - 1924) and Lon Walras (1834 - 1910) and others introduced a new layer of complexity to the theoretical underpinnings of management. Joseph Wharton offered the first tertiary-level course in management in 1881. 20TH CENTURY By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as a thoroughly scientific basis (see scientism for perceived limitations of this belief). Examples include Henry R. Towne's Science of management in the 1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor's Scientific management (1911), Frank and Lillian Gilbreth's Applied motion study (1917), and Henry L. Gantt's charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote the first college management textbook in 1911. In 1912 Yoichi Ueno introduced Taylorism to Japan and became first management consultant of the "Japanesemanagement style". His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese quality-assurance.
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The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920. The Harvard Business School invented the Master of Business Administration degree (MBA) in 1921. People like Henri Fayol (1841 - 1925) and Alexander Church described the various branches of management and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, people like Ordway Tead (1891 - 1973), Walter Scott and J. Mooney applied the principles of psychology to management, while other writers, such as Elton Mayo (1880 - 1949), Mary Parker Follett (1868 - 1933), Chester Barnard (1886 - 1961), Max Weber (1864 - 1920), Rensis Likert (1903 - 1981), and Chris Argyris (1923) approached the phenomenon of management from a sociological perspective. Peter Drucker (1909 2005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: Concept of the Corporation (published in 1946). It resulted from Alfred Sloan (chairman of General Motors until 1956) commissioning a study of the organisation. Drucker went on to write 39 books, many in the same vein. Dodge, Ronald Fisher (1890 - 1962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques into management-studies. In the 1940s, Patrick Blackett combined these statistical theories with microeconomic theory and gave birth to the science of operations research. Operations research, sometimes known as "management science" (but distinct from Taylor's scientific management), attempts to take a scientific approach to solving management problems, particularly in the areas of logistics and operations. Some of the more recent developments include the theory of constraints, management by objectives, reengineering, and various information-technology-driven theories such as agile software development, as well as group management theories such as Cog's Ladder. As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century and gave perceived practitioners of the art/science of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way opened for popularised systems of management ideas to peddle their wares. In this context many management fads may have had more to do with pop psychology than with scientific theories of management. Towards the end of the 20th century, business management came to consist of six separate branches, namely: Human resource management Operations management or production management Strategic management Marketing management Financial management Information technology management responsible for management information systems
21ST CENTURY In the 21st century observers find it increasingly difficult to subdivide management into functional categories in this way. More and more processes simultaneously involve several categories. Instead, one tends to think in terms of the various processes, tasks, and objects subject to management. Branches of management theory also exist relating to nonprofits and to government: such as public administration, public management, and educational management. Further, management programs related to civil-society organizations have also spawned programs in nonprofit management and social entrepreneurship.
Note that many of the assumptions made by management have come under attack from business ethics viewpoints, critical management studies, and anti-corporate activism. As one consequence, workplace democracy has become both more common, and more advocated, in some places distributing all management functions among the workers, each of whom takes on a portion of the work. However, these models predate any current political issue, and may occur more naturally than does a command hierarchy. All management to some degree embraces democratic principles in that in the long term workers must give majority support to management; otherwise they leave to find other work, or go on strike. Hence management has started to become less based on the conceptualisation of classical military command-and-control, and more about facilitation and support of collaborative activity, utilizing principles such as those of human interaction management to deal with the complexities of human interaction. Indeed, the concept of Ubiquitous command-andcontrol posits such a transformation for 21st century military management Modern managers use many of the practices, principles, and techniques developed from earlier concepts and experiences. The Industrial Revolution brought about the emergence of large-scale business and its need for professional managers. Early military and church organizations provided the leadership models. In 1975, Raymond E. Miles wrote Theories of Management: Implications for Organizational Behavior and Development published by McGraw Hill Text. In it, he popularized a useful model of the evolution of management theory in the United States. His model includes classical, human relations, and human resources management. CLASSICAL SCHOOL The Classical school of thought began around 1900 and continued into the 1920s. Traditional or classical management focuses on efficiency and includes bureaucratic, scientific and administrative management. Bureaucratic management relies on a rational set of structuring guidelines, such as rules and procedures, hierarchy, and a clear division of labor. Scientific management focuses on the "one best way" to do a job. Administrative management emphasizes the flow of information in the operation of the organization. Bureaucrac y Max Weber (1864-1920), known as the Father of Modern Sociology, analyzed bureaucracy as the most logical and rational structure for large organziations. Bureaucracies are founded on legal or rational authority which is based on law, procedures, rules, and so on. Positional authority of a superior over a subordinate stems from legal authority. Charismatic authority stems from the personal qualities of an individual. Efficiency in bureaucracies comes from: (1.) clearly defined and specialized functions; (2.) use of legal authority; (3.) hierarchical form; (4.) written rules and procedures; (5.) technically trained bureaucrats; (6.) appointment to positions based on technical expertise; (7.) promotions based on competence; (8.) clearly defined career paths. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT Scientific management focuses on worker and machine relationships. Organizational productivity can be increased by increasing the efficiency of production processes. The efficiency perspective is concerned with creating jobs that economize on time, human energy, and other productive resources. Jobs are designed so that each worker has a specified, well controlled task that can be performed as instructed. Specific procedures and methods for each job must be followed with no exceptions.
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Frederick Taylor (1856-1915) Many of Frederick Taylor's definitive studies were performed at Bethlehem Steel Company in Pittsburgh. To improve productivity, Taylor examined the time and motion details of a job, developed a better method for performing that job, and trained the worker. Furthermore, Taylor offered a piece rate that increased as workers produced more. In 1911, Frederick Taylor, known as the Father of Scientific Management, published Principles of Scientific Management in which he proposed work methods designed to increase worker productivity. One of his famous experiments had to do with increasing the output of a worker loading pig iron to a rail car. Taylor broke the job down into its smallest constituent movements, timing each one with a stopwatch. The job was redesigned with a reduced number of motions as well as effort and the risk of error. Rest periods of specific interval and duration and a differential pay scale were used to improve the output. With scientific management, Taylor increased the worker's output from 12 to 47 tons per day! The Taylor model gave rise to dramatic productivity increases. FRANK (1868-1924) GILBRETH
AND
LILLIAN
(1878-1972)
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth emphasized method by focusing on identifying the elemental motions in work, the way these motions were combined to form methods of operation, and the basic time each motion took. They believed it was possible to design work methods whose times could be estimated in advance, rather than relying upon observation-based time studies. Frank Gilbreth, known as the Father of Time and Motion Studies, filmed individual physical labor movements. This enabled the manager to break down a job into its component parts and streamline the process. His wife, Lillian Gilbreth, was a psychologist and author of The Psychology of Work. In 1911 Frank Gilbreth wrote Motion Study and in 1919 the couple wrote Applied Motion Study. Frank and Lillian had 12 children. Two of their children, Frank B. Gilbreth, Jr. and Ernestine Gilbreth Careyone, wrote their story, Cheaper by the Dozen. One of Frank Gilbreth's first studies concerned bricklaying. (He had worked as an apprentice bricklayer.) He designed and patented special scaffolding to reduce the bending and reaching which increased output over 100 per cent. However, unions resisted his improvements, and most workers persisted in using the old, fatiguing methods. The Gilbreths believed that there was one best way to perform an operation. However, this "one best way" could be replaced when a better way was discovered. The Gilbreths defined motion study as dividing work into the most fundamental elements possible, studying those elements separately and in relation to one another; and from these studied elements, when timed, building methods of least waste. They defined time study as a searching scientific analysis of methods and equipment used or planned in doing a piece of work, development in practical detail of the best way of doing it, and determination of the time required. The Gilbreths drew symbols on operator charts to represent various elements of a task such as search, select, grasp, transport, hold, delay, and others. They called these graphical symbols "therbligs" (Gilbreths spelled backwards).
HENRY GANTT (1861-1919) Henry Gantt developed the Gantt chart, which is used for scheduling multiple overlapping tasks over a time period. He focused on motivational schemes, emphasizing the greater effectiveness of rewards for good work (rather than penalties for poor work). He developed a pay incentive system with a guaranteed minimum wage and bonus systems for people on fixed wages. Also, Gantt focused on the importance of the qualities of leadership and management skills in building effective industrial organizations. ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT Administrative management emphasizes the manager and the functions of management. Henri Fayol (1841--1925), known as the Father of Modern Management, was a French industrialist who developed a framework for studying management. He wrote General and Industrial Management. His five functions of managers were plan, organize, command, coordinate, and control. His fourteen principles of management included division of work, authority and responsibility, discipline, unity of command, unity of direction, subordination of individual interests to general interests, renumeration of personnel, centralization, scalar chain, order, equity, stability of tenure of personnel, initiative, and esprit de corps (union is strength). Mary Parker Follett's concepts included the universal goal, the universal principle, and the Law of the Situation. The universal goal of organizations is an integration of individual effort into a synergistic whole. The universal principle is a circular or reciprocal response emphasizing feedback to the sender (the concept of two-way communications). Law of the Situation emphasizes that there is no one best way to do anything, but that it all depends on the situation.
2.2 Human Relations School

Behavioral or human relations management emerged in the 1920s and dealt with the human aspects of organizations. It has been referred to as the neoclassical school because it was initially a reaction to the shortcomings of the classical approaches to management. The human relations movement began with the Hawthorne Studies which were conducted from 1924 to 1933 at the Hawthorne Plant of the Western Electric Company in Cicero, Illinois. THE STUDIES HAWTHORNE
Harvard Business School researchers, T.N. Whitehead, Elton Mayo, and George Homans, were led by Fritz Roethlisberger. Elton Mayo, known as the Father of the Hawthorne Studies, identified the Hawthorne Effect or the bias that occurs when people know that they are being studied. The Hawthorne Studies are significant because they demonstrated the important influence of human factors on worker productivity. There were four major phases to the Hawthorne Studies: the illumination experiments, the relay assembly group experiments, the interviewing program, and the bank wiring group studies. The intent of these studies was to determine the effect of working conditions on productivity. The illumination experiments tried to determine whether better lighting would lead to increased productivity. Both the control group and the experimental group of female employees produced more whether the lights were turned up or down. It was discovered that this increased productivity was a result of the attention received by the group. In the relay assembly group experiments, six female employees worked in a special, separate area; were given breaks and had the freedom to talk; and were continuously observed by a researcher who served as the supervisor. The supervisor consulted the employees prior to any change. The bank wiring group studies were
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analyzed thoroughly by Homans and were included in his now classic book, The Human Group. The bank wiring groups involved fourteen male employees and were similar to the relay assembly group experiments, except that there was no change of supervision. Again, in the relay and bank wiring phases, productivity increased and was attributed to group dynamics. The conclusion was that there was no cause-and-effect relationship between working conditions and productivity. Worker attitude was found to be important. An extensive employee interviewing program of 21,000 interviews was conducted to determine employee attitudes toward the company and their jobs. As a major outcome of these interviews, supervisors learned that an employee's complaint frequently is a symptom of some underlying problem on the job, at home, or in the person's past. CHESTER 1961) BARNARD (1886-
When Chester Barnard retired as the CEO of New Jersey Bell Telephone, he recorded his insights about management in his book, Functions of the Executive. It outlined the legitimacy of the supervisor's directives and the extent of the subordinates' acceptance. He developed the concepts of strategic planning and the acceptance theory of authority. Strategic planning is the formulation of major plans or strategies, which guide the organization in pursuit of major objectives. Barnard taught that the three top functions of the executive were to (l) establish and maintain an effective communication system, (2) hire and retain effective personnel, and (3) motivate those personnel. His Acceptance Theory of Authority states that managers only have as much authority as employees allow them to have. The acceptance theory of authority suggests that authority flows downward but depends on acceptance by the subordinate. The acceptance of authority depends on four conditions. (1.) Employees must understand what the manager wants them to do. (2.) Employees must be able to comply with the directive. (3.) Employees must think that the directive is in keeping with organizational objectives. (4.) Employees must think that the directive is not contrary to their personal goals. Barnard believed that each person has a zone of indifference or a range within each individual in which he or she would willingly accept orders without consciously questioning authority. It was up to the organization to provide sufficient inducements to broaden each employee's zone of indifference so that the manager's orders would be obeyed. HUMAN SCHOOL RESOURCES
Beginning in the early 1950s, the human resources school represented a substantial progression from human relations. The behavioral approach did not always increase productivity. Thus, motivation and leadership techniques became a topic of great interest. The human resources school understands that employees are very creative and competent, and that much of their talent is largely untapped by their employers. Employees want meaningful work; they want to contribute; they want to participate in decision making and leadership functions. INTEGRATING THEORIES
THE
MANAGEMENT
Systems theory and a contingency view can help integrate the theories of management. Appropriate managerial techniques can be applied as required by environmental conditions. A broad perspective is valuable to managers when overseeing one unit or the total integration of all subunits. Systems Theory During the 1940s and World War II, systems analysis emerged. This viewpoint uses systems concepts and quantitative approaches from mathematics, statistics, engineering, and other related fields to solve problems. Managers find optimal solutions to management problems by using scientific analysis which is closely associated with the systems approach to management. A system is an interrelated and interdependent set of elements functioning as a whole. It is an open system that interacts with its environment. It is composed of inputs from the environment (material or human
resources), transformation processes of inputs to finished goods (technological and managerial processes), outputs of those finished goods into the environment (products or services), and feedback (reactions from the environment). Subsystems are systems within a broader system. Interdependent subsystems (such as production, finance, and human resources) work toward synergy in an attempt to accomplish an organizational goal that could not otherwise be accomplished by a single subsystem. Systems develop synergy. This is a condition in which the combined and coordinated actions of the parts of a system achieve more than all the parts could have achieved acting independently. Entropy is the process that leads to decline. Contingency View In the mid-1960s, the contingency view of management or situational approach emerged. This view emphasizes the fit between organization processes and the characteristics of the situation. It calls for fitting the structure of the organization to various possible or chance events. It questions the use of universal management practices and advocates using traditional, behavioral, and systems viewpoints independently or in combination to deal with various circumstances. The contingency approach assumes that managerial behavior is dependent on a wide variety of elements. Thus, it provides a framework for integrating the knowledge of management thought. EMERGING POSITIONS MANAGEMENT
New management viewpoints are emerging. Quality management emphasizes achieving customer satisfaction by providing high quality goods and services. Reengineering the organization redesigns the processes that are crucial to customer satisfaction. Chaos models the corporation as a complex adaptive system that interacts and evolves with its surroundings. Many seemingly random movements in nature exhibit structured patterns. Living systems operate at their most robust and efficient level in the narrow space between stability and disorder -- poised at "the edge of chaos." It is here that the agents within a system conduct the fullest range of productive interactions and exchange the greatest amount of useful information WHAT WERE THE GENERAL ADMINISTRATIVE THEORISTS CONTRIBUTIONS TO MANAGEMENT PRACTICE? General Administrative Theorists: Writers who developed general theories of what managers do and what constitutes good management practice. A number of our current ideas and practices in management can be directly traced to the contributions of the general management theorists. For instance the functional view of the managers job owes its origin to Henri Fayol. Although many of his principles may not be applicable to the wide variety of organsiatins that exist today, they were a frame of reference for many current concepts. Webers bureaucracy was an attempt to formulate an ideal model for organization design and a response to the abuses that Weber observed within organizations. Weber believed that this model could remove the ambiguity, inefficiencies, and patronage that characterized most organizations at that time. Webers bureaucracy is not a s popular as it was a decade ago, but many of its components ate still inherent in large organisations Henry Fayol, who is known as the father of administrative management, was a French engineer who developed a systematic method of management. His most important work: General and Industrial Management was translated into English in 1930. Fayols work was based on his own experience as a senior manager of a mining company in France.
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In his theory of administrative management, Fayol divided the activities of an industrial or commercial undertaking into six groups, and postulated the following six basic functions: 1. Technical (production, manufacturing, adaptation). 2. Commercial (buying, selling and exchange). 3. Financial (search for and optimum use of capital) 4. Security (protection of people and property) 5. Accounting (costs, stocktaking, balance sheets, statistics). 6. Managerial (planning, organising, directing, controlling, co-ordinating). Fayol believed that the following management functions reflect the core of the management process: Planning Organisation Command Co-ordination Control These functions form the basis of todays management processes. Fayol noted that management principles are flexible, not absolute and must be useable regardless of changing and special conditions. Based on his experience he listed fourteen principles of management which he believed guide managers to improve organisational effectiveness. These are stated below: Fayol's Fourteen Principles of Management (DUE)2S3ARCOI 1. Division of Work: This principle is the same as Adam Smith's "division of labor." Specialization increases output by making employees more efficient. 2. Authority: Managers must be able to give orders. Authority gives them this right. Along with authority, however, goes responsibility. Wherever authority is exercised, responsibility arises. 3. Discipline: Employees must obey and respect the rules that govern the organization. Good discipline is the result of effective leadership, a clear understanding between management and workers regarding the organization's rules, and the judicious use of penalties for infractions of the rules. 4. Unity of Command: Every employee should receive orders from only one superior. 5. Unity of Direction: Each group of organizational activities that have the same objective should be directed by one manager using one plan. 6. Subordination of Individual Interests to the General Interest: The interests of any one employee or group of employees should not take precedence over the interests of the organization as a whole.
7. Remuneration: Workers must be paid a fair wage for their services. 8. Centralization: Centralization refers to the degree to which subordinates are involved in decision making. Whether decision making is centralized (to management) or decentralized (to subordinates) is a question of proper proportion. The task is to find the optimum degree of centralization for each situation.
9. Scalar Chain: The line of authority from top management to the lowest ranks represents the scalar chain. Communications should follow this chain. However, if following the chain creates delays, cross-communications can be allowed if agreed to by all parties and superiors are kept informed.
10. Order: People and materials should be in the right place at the right time. 11. Equity: Managers should be kind and fair to their subordinates. 12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel: High employee turnover is inefficient. Management should provide orderly personnel planning and ensure that replacements are available to fill vacancies. 13. Initiative: Employees who are allowed to originate and carry out plans will exert high levels of effort. 14. Esprit de Corps: Promoting team spirit will build harmony and unity within the organization. Weber's Ideal Bureaucracy(DAFFIC) Weber described an ideal type of organization that he called the bureaucracy. Weber recognized that this ideal bureaucracy didn't exist in reality but, rather, represented a selective reconstruction of the real world. He used it as a basis of theorising about work and the way that work that could be done in large groups. The features of Weber's ideal bureaucratic structure are outlined below. 1. Division of Labor: Jobs are broken down into simple, routine, and well-defined tasks. 2. Authority Hierarchy: Offices or positions are organized in a hierarchy, each lower one being controlled and supervised by a higher one. 3. Formal Selection: All organizational members .are to be selected on the basis of technical qualifications demonstrated by training, education, or formal examination. 4. Formal Rules and Regulations: To ensure uniformity and to regulate the actions of employees, managers must depend heavily on formal organizational rules. 5. Impersonality: Rules and controls are applied uniformly, avoiding involvement with personalities and personal preferences of employees. 6. Career Orientation: Managers are professional officials rather than owners of the units they manage. They work for fixed salaries and pursue their careers within the organization. WHAT CONTRIBUTIONS (SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT ?
DID
FREDERICK
TAYLOR
MAKE
TO
MANAGEMENT
PRACTICE
Scientific Management: The use of the scientific method to define the one best way for a job to be done. The main features of Taylor's Four Principles of Management are outlined below: 1. Develop a science for each element of an individual's work, which replaces the old rule-ofthumb method. 2. Scientifically select and then train, teach, and develop the worker. (Previously, workers chose their own work and trained themselves as best they could.) 3. Heartily cooperate with the workers so as to ensure that all work is done in accordance with the principles of the science that has been developed. 4. Divide work and responsibility almost equally between management and workers. Management takes over all work for which it is better fitted than the workers. (Previously, almost all the work and the greater part of the responsibility were thrown upon the workers.)
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Management Function | Organisation & Organising
Management Func tion | Organisation & Organising
3. Organisation and Organising as a Management Function

3.1 Introduction
Every person is associated with some kind of organisation. People live, work and interact within one type of organisation or another, e.g., the home, a club or school is an organisation. In this book however, an organisation is referred to as a place where people work or study for a specified purpose. Organisations provide us with jobs, leisure, health care, education, safety, security, etc. The effectiveness with which services are delivered depends on how well managers and other employees understand their organisations.
3.2 The Concept of Organising

Organising is a function that enables the manager to generate and establish orderly uses of resources. Managers also have to structure tasks so that all employees know what they are required to do and how they can perform efficiently and effectively in order to ensure achievement of the organisation's objectives. Organising includes determining what tasks are required, how they are grouped and who is responsible for their performance.
3.3 The Organisation

An organisation is a structure within which a group of individuals with different skills and backgrounds are brought together to perform specific duties. Their tasks are supervised and co-ordinated by managers. Employees assist managers to achieve the objectives set by the "owners" of the organisation. The owners can be government, private business people or the workers themselves. An organisation can range from a small family shop to a government ministry. It may be established for providing educational services (schools and colleges), health services (hospitals, clinics and health centres), welfare (welfare and development organisations) or commercial profit-making ventures (shops, factories and restaurants). The common factor to all is that they are composed of people. However, people alone do not constitute an organisation. There are tasks (work) to be performed, places at which to work (school, factory, office) and an environment (community, society, country) within which to work. For managers to perform their duties to a maximum effect, they must have a very good understanding of their organisations.
Definitions
An organisation consists of a group of individuals who are brought together to work for a defined purpose. The activities are co-ordinated at different levels, by different managers other persons authorised to do so, for the purpose of achieving the goals of the organisation. An organisation is designed for the purpose of accomplishing pre-determined objectives/goals. The work performed by the various sections/ programmes within the organisation is aimed at helping the achievement of these goals. The central aspects of
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successful organisations are the achievement of objectives/goals through people (Hall 1997). According to Chester Barnard, an organisation is a system of consciously co-ordinated activities or efforts by two or more persons. A formal organisation is the coming together of persons who have formally agreed to combine their efforts for a common purpose, whether it is producing and selling or organising welfare and charitable activities. It is important to note that an organisation is about people and co-ordination. It implies formal planning, allocation of tasks and co-ordination of work. Gerloff suggests that "organisations are distinct entities in our environment, and they are also the natural consequence of dividing work ... Simply stated, advantages and efficiencies accrue where the efforts of many individuals are properly organised and combined. We need organisations for collective and individual success..." (1985). Louise Allen defines organisation as "the process of identifying and grouping the work to be performed, defining and delegating responsibility and authority, and establishing relationships for the purpose of enabling people to work most effectively together in accomplishing objectives" (p57). The organisation is also said to be a mechanism through which management directs, coordinates and controls its operations. Organisations are designed to facilitate the achievement of different objectives at different times and within different environments. They vary in the design of methods and technologies used to achieve these objectives. Likewise, Bedeian and Zamnuto have defined organisations as social entities that are goal directed, deliberately structured activity systems with permeable boundaries. There are four key elements in this definition: Social entities. The coming together of people and their social interaction are major features of every organisation. Organisations will cease to exist if are no people to run them, even if other things remain intact. For example, if everybody resigns from a company and no one is replaced, then it is no longer an organisation, even though all the material assets of the company are not disposed of. There are also organisations such as some clubs and social associations which consist only of people, without any physical assets. Accordingly, it is the people and their roles which are the building blocks of an organisation. Goal directed. All efforts of organisations are directed towards the achievement of a common goal. A common purpose gives the organisation members a rallying point for effective performance. While the primary goal of any commercial organisation is to generate financial gains for its owners, this goal is inter-related with many other goals, including the goals of individual members for earning money and achieving job security. For example, a carpet manufacturing company may have the commercial goal of producing and selling more carpets every year. The community where the factory is located has a goal of preventing the pollution created by the manufacturing process. The company's employees may have individual goals of earning and success. Such different goals should be blended into the common goal.
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Deliberately structured activity systems. An organisation can use its resources more efficiently by systematically dividing complex tasks into specialised jobs and categories of activities into separate departments. Sub-division of activities helps achieve efficiency in the work place. The organisation is deliberately structured in such a manner so as to co-ordinate the activities of separate groups and departments for the achievement of defined objectives. Permeable boundary. All organisations have boundaries that separate them from other organisations. These boundaries determine who and what is inside or outside the organisation. Sometimes, these boundaries are vigorously protected. However, the dynamics of a changing world has made these boundaries less rigid and more permeable in terms of sharing information and technology for mutual benefit. For example, IBM joined Motorola and Apple Computers in 1993 to bring out a new Power PC chip.
3.4 Purpose of Organisation

An organisation is designed to accomplish pre-determined objectives/goals. The work of various sections or programmes is aimed towards the achievement of these goals. The achievement of objectives/goals through effective management is the purpose of every organisation, and defines organisational effectiveness. Organisational goals also serve as evaluation benchmarks. Goals, therefore, can serve both a unifying force and a standard by which to measure performance.
3.5 Organisation and Management

Management is the process of ensuring that organisations achieve defined goals. The process of management involves the co-ordination of human and material resources in order to accomplish objectives. The organisation is a mechanism through which management directs, co-ordinates and controls operations and is the foundation upon which management builds its programmes. Organisations are designed to facilitate the achievement of objectives at different times within different environments. They vary in design methods and technologies used. An organisation is active if it changes its environment and passive if it adapts to environmental changes. An ill-designed organisation can create management problems and make life difficult to all of its workers.
3.6 Individuals and Groups in Organisations

Organisations are made up of people who perform specific tasks, applying appropriate technologies to achieve defined goals. People are heterogeneous rather than homogenous, and their different contributions add up to achieve organisational success. Organisations consist of three different levels: (a) the individual (b) the group (sub-system) and (c) the organisation (system).
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The Individuals Organisations are made up of people. As individuals they bring in special expertise and contributions to their work. Managers must recognise and value the contributions made by these individuals. The study of organisations begins by focussing on the people, on the study of the individual and his/her behaviour and reactions to different organisational policies, practices and procedures. Individual members are organised into work groups, which are the next level of study. The Group system) (sub-
The organisation's objectives cannot be achieved by individuals working alone. In most organisations individuals work with others. These individuals are organised into groupsteams, sections, task forces and departmentsin order that they can work together for the achievement of group goals and the organisational objectives. The (system) Organisation
The organisation is the whole system to which the individuals and groups belong. They perform tasks which contribute to the organisation's success. Organisational Development (OD) looks at the organisation as a whole through its sub-systems. An organisation cannot be healthy unless all of its sub-systems are. That is why OD practitioners encourage managers to study the individual, his/her relationships with the group, the group and its relationship with other groups and how individuals and groups constitute an effective organisation. Organisations are designed to enable people to work together. However, organisations should not be designed around individuals because when the individual is replaced, the new person may not be able to fit in. The organisation design should allow any member with appropriate skills, qualifications and experience to fit into the structure and perform effectively.
3.7 Individual Contributions to the Organisation

Individuals bring their own purposes to the work groups to which they belong. Group membership enhances career paths, personal ambitions, pay and rewards and personal development. People are drawn towards groups which they hold in positive and high esteem, and away from those perceived less positively. Individuals also contribute to the group culture. They influence and are influenced by the ways in which other group members think, believe, feel and act towards each other, and also contribute to the means by which the group regulates itself and its activities. These are called group norms. Norms consist of sets of expectations, pressures, controls and rules by which group members interact and share experiences with each other, and by which they are regulated. Some norms are established by the group's leadership, especially those concerning absolute standards of behaviour and integrity. Others are allowed to emerge (meeting patterns, work deadlines). Others again may be imposed by the group on itself (the lay-out of the work environment; use of first names, etc). The relationship between organisations and the groups performing specific tasks is that of interdependency. Organisations depend on groups for effective performance, and the groups depend on their organisations for resources and co-ordination with other groups whose work is essential for their success and that of the organisation as a whole. This
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support also includes the establishment of appropriate communication and decisionmaking processes and reporting relationships.
3.8 Organisation as a System

An organisation can be described as a system (open or closed). A system is an arrangement and relationships among component parts that operate together as a whole (Katz and Kahn, 1966). A system is also defined as the grouping of different component parts of a body that operate together as a whole. The human body is a system with many component parts. Each system is composed of sub-systems which have some system properties of their own. When a change occurs in a sub-system it affects the whole system. Organisations can also be multi-systems. "Organisations are multi-systems that is systems with many constituents that represent among themselves a variety of viewpoints. Different constituents ascribe different purposes to the organisations of which they are part and focus on different modes of action" (Espejo, p27). A closed organisation is one which does not respond to its environment. It is relatively uninfluenced by and isolated from its environment. It is not easy to find a completely closed system of organisation. Most organisations are described as open systems, which relate to their environments in order to gain the resources and information needed to function and prosper. These relationships define an organisation's strategy and are affected by the environment. In an open system, transactions with the environment exist in the form of inputs and outputs. The inputs must be transformed into outputs.
Inputs into the systems consist of the information, money, people, materials and equipment required by the organisation for the transformation process. Transformation is the process of converting input to output. Output can be in the form of finished products in a manufacturing organisation, educated youth in an education institution, healthy people in a hospital, etc.
The chart below elaborates in detail the input, transformation and output process.
3.9 The Organisation and its Environment

It is not possible for any organisation to exist in a vacuum. All organisations operate in some kind of environment, to which they must respond in order to survive and grow. Developments in the environment can affect an organisation negatively or positively. The environment consists of everything outside an organisation that can directly or indirectly influence its performance. This could be the community, region or country in which it operates, and could
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include external agents such as suppliers, customers, regulators, and competitors, as well as social, cultural, political, and economic forces. These are all major environmental influences on an organisation. The environment consists of all the forces mentioned above and any other external forces that can influence an organisation or its sub-systems. In addition to these, the environment also has legal and regulatory components. Each of these can affect the organisation directly and indirectly. A recession, for example, can have a direct impact on demands for a company's product. Likewise the environment can also influence organisations indirectly by virtue of the linkages between external agents. For example, an organisation may have trouble obtaining raw materials from a supplier because the supplier is embroiled in a labour dispute with a union, a lawsuit with a government regulator and a boycott by a consumer group. Such linkages comprise an organisation's general environment.
3.10 Open Systems - General Analysis of the Organizations as a System

The Environment Organization of the
The organization is a productive system. It interacts with its environment, drawing certain inputs from the environment and transferring these to outputs that are offered to the environment. The attainment of its preferred state is dependent on the efficiency with which the firm carries out this production process. In order to analyze a system it is necessary to establish the relationships between the system and its environment. The organization's environment is itself a higher order system composed of its own subsystems. The four major subsystems in the environment are: the economic system; the technological system; the socio-cultural system; the politico-legal system.
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To analyze the organization as a system it is necessary to establish the relationships between the firm and these external systems, and establish the relationships between the firm and its environment it is necessary for us to study at least the major factors which influence these four environmental subsystems. The influence of these major factors must be taken into account when studying the firm and its interaction with the environment. The interrelated and interdependent parts of the firm We have stated in our definition of a system that a system contains interrelated and interdependent parts. Why is this necessary? The environment within which the system operates is so complex that the system as a whole may not be able to cope with these complexities in seeking to attain its preferred state. The system therefore subdivides itself into parts (subsystems) and these subsystems then specialize in coping with certain variables in the environment. If the specialized task is still too complex the subsystems may themselves be further divided many times until a whole hierarchy of subsystems develop under one major subsystem. The personnel department in a large organization could serve as an example, with its variety of divisions paying specialized attention to functions such as recruitment, training, industrial relations, housing, benefits, salaries, etc. Obviously if the system as a whole can cope with some aspect better than the part, then there is no need for that part.
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How does the environment?
firm, as
a system, subdivide
to
cope
with
its
As a productive system the firm depends on its environment to provide inputs which it transforms to produce outputs which in turn it depends on the environment to accept. The inputs from and outputs to the environment come from and go to different subsystems in the environment: In order to cope with the environment the firm must therefore subdivide into four major subsystems:

A commercial sector which interacts primarily with the economic system performing the purchasing and marketing function of the firm. A technical sector which concentrates primarily on the transformation processes within the firm. This sector will also interact with the technological system of the environment. A personnel sector which interacts primarily with the sociocultural system performing the personnel and public relations function of the firm. A controller sector which concentrates primarily on the flow of information within the firm. This sector also interacts with the politico-legal system.
The preferred state of the firm The firm, as a system, has a preferred state. We have seen that the firm organizes itself into sectors in order to attain this preferred state. These sectors are systems themselves, and left to their own resources will develop their own preferred states which may be in conflict with that of another sector and with the preferred state of the system itself. We therefore have two problems to solve:

What part of the firm determines the system's preferred state and determines how this preferred state is to be reached? What part of the firm ensures that the four sectors seek preferred states which are in accordance with the preferred state of the system as a whole, and are in congruence with the preferred states of the other sectors within the system?
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This function of the system is performed by a fifth and dominant sector of the firm - senior management. The senior management of the firm interacts with all sectors of the environment, concentrating on the most important influences, which the environment has, or may have, on the future of the firm. Management also considers, and deals with, the environment as a whole or as a total system.
On the basis of these interactions and interactions with the other four sectors of the firm, the senior management sector determines the preferred state of the firm. When this overall preferred state is determined it will be transmitted to the other sectors of the firm, who must then adjust their structure and preferred states to adapt to it. In brief the components of Organisation is presented in the figure below:
Strategie s
Internationa l Force s
Work Relationship s
Spac e
Structur e
Socio-Cultural Environment
Policies & Guideline s
Motivation & Incentives
Technological Environmen t
Culture & Values Manageme nt & Governance
Vision/Mission / Goal/Objective s
Systems & Processe s
Legal
Resource s Material,
Money; infrastructur e Technolog y
Environment
Staf f KS A Leadershi p
Economi c Environmen t
Politica l Environmen t
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Delegation |
4. Delegation
A key aspect of leadership is delegation. Unless you delegate tasks to your subordinates, your team will become inefficient and demoralised. "I not only use all the brains I have, but all I can borrow." - Woodrow Wilson
Derived from Latin, delegate means "to send from." When delegating you are sending the work "from" you "to" someone else. Effective delegation will not only give you more time to work on your important opportunities, but you will also help others on your team learn new skills. It is impractical for the supervisor to handle all of the work of the department directly. In order to meet the organization's goals, focus on objectives, and ensure that all work is accomplished, supervisors must delegate authority. Authority is the legitimate power of a supervisor to direct subordinates to take action within the scope of the supervisor's position. By extension, this power, or a part thereof, is delegated and used in the name of a supervisor. Delegation is the downward transfer of formal authority from superior to subordinate. The employee is empowered to act for the supervisor, while the supervisor remains accountable for the outcome. Delegation of authority is a person-to-person relationship requiring trust, commitment, and contracting between the supervisor and the employee. The supervisor assists in developing employees in order to strengthen the organization. He or she gives up the authority to make decisions that are best made by subordinates. This means that the supervisor allows subordinates the freedom to make mistakes and learn from them. He or she does not supervise subordinates' decision-making, but allows them the opportunity to develop their own skills. The supervisor lets subordinates know that he or she is willing to help, but not willing to do their jobs for them. The supervisor is not convinced that the best way for employees to learn is by telling them how to solve a problem. This results in those subordinates becoming dependent on the supervisor. The supervisor allows employees the opportunity to achieve and be credited for it. An organization's most valuable resource is its people. By empowering employees who perform delegated jobs with the authority to manage those jobs, supervisors free themselves to manage more effectively. Successfully training future supervisors means delegating authority. This gives employees the concrete skills, experience, and the resulting confidence to develop themselves for higher positions. Delegation provides better managers and a higher degree of efficiency. Thus, collective effort, resulting in the organization's growth, is dependent on delegation of authority.
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4.1 Responsibility and Accountability

Equally important to authority is the idea that when an employee is given responsibility for a job, he or she must also be given the degree of authority necessary to carry it out. Thus, for effective delegation, the authority granted to an employee must equal the assigned responsibility. Upon accepting the delegated task, the employee has incurred an obligation to perform the assigned work and to properly utilize the granted authority. Responsibility is the obligation to do assigned tasks. The individual employee is responsible for being proficient at his or her job. The supervisor is responsible for what employees do or fail to do, as well as for the resources under their control. Thus, responsibility is an integral part of a supervisor's authority. Responsibilities fall into two categories: individual and organizational. Employees have individual responsibilities to be proficient in their job. They are responsible for their actions. Nobody gives or delegates individual responsibilities. Employees assume them when they accept a position in the organization. Organizational responsibilities refer to collective organizational accountability and include how well departments perform their work. For example, the supervisor is responsible for all the tasks assigned to his or her department, as directed by the manager. When someone is responsible for something, he or she is liable, or accountable to a superior, for the outcome. Thus, accountability flows upward in the organization. All are held accountable for their personal, individual conduct. Accountability is answering for the result of one's actions or omissions. It is the reckoning, wherein one answers for his or her actions and accepts the consequences, good or bad. Accountability establishes reasons, motives and importance for actions in the eyes of managers and employees alike. Accountability is the final act in the establishment of one's credibility. It is important to remember that accountability results in rewards for good performance, as well as discipline for poor performance.
4.2 The Delegation Process

The delegation process has five phases: (1) preparing, (2) planning, (3) discussing, (4) auditing, and (5) appreciating. The first step in delegating is to identify what should and should not be delegated. The supervisor should delegate any task that a subordinate performs better. Tasks least critical to the performance of the supervisor's job can be delegated. Any task that provides valuable experience for subordinates should be delegated. Also, the supervisor can delegate the tasks that he or she dislikes the most. But, the supervisor should not delegate any task that would violate a confidence. Preparing includes establishing the objectives of the delegation, specifying the task that needs to be accomplished, and deciding who should accomplish it. Planning is meeting with the chosen subordinate to describe the task and to ask the subordinate to devise a plan of action. As Andrew Carnegie once said, "The secret of success is not in doing your own work but in recognizing the right man to do it." Trust between the supervisor and employee - that both will fulfill the commitment - is most important. Discussing includes reviewing the objectives of the task as well as the subordinate's plan of action, any potential obstacles, and ways to avoid or deal with these obstacles. The supervisor should clarify and solicit feedback as to the employee's understanding. Clarifications needed for delegation include the desired results (what
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not how), guidelines, resources available, and consequences (good and bad). Delegation is similar to contracting between the supervisor and employee regarding how and when the work will be completed. The standards and time frames are discussed and agreed upon. The employee should know exactly what is expected and how the task will be evaluated. Auditing is monitoring the progress of the delegation and making adjustments in response to unforeseen problems. Appreciating is accepting the completed task and acknowledging the subordinate's efforts.
4.3 Poor Delegation

Signs that you are not borrowing enough brains or that your delegation is failing include: Team Motivation / Morale is down You are always working late Your team is confused / conflicting / tense You get questions about delegated tasks too often
Not delegating a task because you think that you would do it better than anyone else is a poor excuse. Doing this will just make life difficult for yourself.
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4.4 Advantages of Delegation

Positive aspects of delegation include: Higher efficiency Increased motivation Develops the skills of your team Better distribution of work through the group
4.5 How to Delegate

1. Identify a suitable person for the task. 2. Prepare the person. Explain the task clearly. Make sure that you are understood. Leave room in the task description for ingenuity / initiative. 3. Make sure the person has the necessary authority to do the job properly. 4. Keep in touch with the person for support and monitoring progress. Do not get too close. Accept alternative approaches. 5. Praise / Acknowledge a job well done. Responsibilit y Even though you have delegated a task to someone else, you are still responsible for making sure the task is done on time and correctly. If the task fails, you can not point the finger. You delegated. It is your fault. You may have picked the wrong person for the job. Authority The amount of authority you delegate is up to you, although it should be enough to complete the task. It is no good giving Madan the task of opening the safe every morning at 10am if you do not give him the authority required to do it. Madan needs the key to open the safe with. Tasks you should not delegate Obviously some aspects of leadership are sensitive and should not be delegated. For example: Hiring Firing Pay issues Policy Your Task after Delegating After delegating: Plan - goals, meeting, tasks Direct - your team, keep them on track Encourage - boost morale
Bibliography "Six Steps to Effective Delegation" - G. Culp and A. Smith from The Journal of Management in Engineering, January 1997, Page30 "Don't Do, Delegate!" - J. M. Jenks & J. M. Kelly, Published by Bridles Ltd. 1986
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4.6 Delegation Authority Skills, Tasks and the Process of Effective Delegation
Delegation will always be one of the most important management skills - and one of the easiest to get wrong. Good delegation saves you time, develops you people, grooms a successor, and motivates. Bad delegation will cause you frustration, demotivates and confuses the other person, and fails to achieve the task itself. Here are the simple steps to follow if you want to get delegation right, and the seven levels of delegation freedom you can offer. A simple delegation rule is the acronym SMART. It's a quick checklist for proper delegation. Delegated tasks must be Specific, Measurable, Agreed, Realistic, and Timebound. If you can't check these points don't delegate it. An elaborated description of the steps mentioned above is presented below:
Define task the
Confirm in your own mind that the task is suitable to be delegated. Does it meet the criteria for delegating?
Select individual the
What are your reasons for delegating to this person? What are they going to get out of it? What are you going to get out of it?
Assess needs ability and training
Is the other person capable of doing the task? Do they understand what needs to be done. If not, you can't delegate.
Explain reasons the
You must explain why the job or responsibility is being delegated. And why to that person? What is its importance and relevance? Where does it fit in the overall scheme of things?
State results required
What must be achieved? Clarify understanding by getting feedback from the other person. How will the task be measured? Make sure they know how you intend to decide that the job is being successfully done.
Consider required resources
Discuss and agree what is required to get the job done. Consider people, location, premises, equipment, money, materials, other related activities and services.
Agree deadlines
When must the job be finished? Or if an ongoing duty, when are the review dates? When are the reports due? And if the task is complex and has parts or stages, what are the priorities? At this point you may need to confirm understanding with the other person of the previous points, getting ideas and interpretation. As well as showing you that the job can be done, this helps to reinforce commitment. Methods of checking and controlling must be agreed with the other person. Failing to agree this in advance will cause this monitoring to seem like interference or lack of trust.
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Support communicate
and
Think about who else needs to know what's going on, and inform them. Involve the other person in considering this so they can see beyond the issue at hand. Do not leave the person to inform your own peers of their new responsibility. Warn the person about any awkward matters of politics or protocol. Inform your own boss if the task is important, and of sufficient profile.
Feedback results on
It is essential to let the person know how they are doing, and whether they have achieved their aims. If not, you must review with them why things did not go to plan, and deal with the problems. You must absorb the consequences of failure, and pass on the credit for success. The seven delegation levels of
Delegation isn't just a matter of telling someone else what to do. There is a wide range of varying freedom that you can confer on the other person. The more experienced and reliable they are then the more freedom you can give. The more critical the task then the more cautious you need to be about extending a lot of freedom, especially if your job or reputation depends on getting a good result. Take care to choose the most appropriate style for each situation.
1. "Wait to be told." or "Do exactly what I say."
No delegation at all.
2. "Look into this and tell me what you come up with. I'll decide."
This is asking for investigation and analysis but no recommendation.

3. "Give me your recommendation, and the other options with the pros and cons of each. I'll let you know whether you can go ahead."
Asks for analysis and recommendation, but you will check the thinking before deciding.
4. "Decide and let me know your decision, but wait for my go ahead."
The other person needs approval but is trusted to judge the relative options.
5. "Decide and let me know your decision, then go ahead unless I say not to."
Now the other person begins to control the action. The subtle increase in responsibility saves time.
6. "Decide and take action, but let me know what you did."
Saves more time. Allows a quicker reaction to wrong decisions, not present in final level.
7. "Decide and take action. You need not check back with me."
The most freedom that we can give to the other person. A high level of confidence is necessary, and needs good controls to ensure mistakes are flagged.
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4.7 Delegation Tips

Delegation helps people grow underneath you in an organization and thus pushes you even higher in management. It provides you with more time, and you will be able to take on higher priority projects.
Delegate whole pieces or entire job pieces rather than simply tasks and activities. Clearly define what outcome is needed, then let individuals use some creative thinking of their own as to how to get to that outcome. Clearly define limits of authority that go with the delegated job. Can the person hire other people to work with them? Are there spending constraints? Clear standards of performance will help the person know when he or she is doing exactly what is expected. Assess routine activities in which you are involved. Can any of them be eliminated or delegated? Never underestimate a person's potential. Delegate slightly more than you think the person is capable of handling. Expect them to succeed, and you will be pleasantly surprised more frequently than not. Expect completed staff work from the individuals reporting to you. That is, they will come to you giving you alternatives and suggestions when a problem exists rather than just saying "Boss, what should we do?" Do not avoid delegating something because you cannot give someone the entire project. Let the person start with a bite size piece, then after learning and doing that, they can accept larger pieces and larger areas of responsibility. Agree on a monitoring or measurement procedure that will keep you informed as to progress on this project because you are ultimately still responsible for it and need to know that it is progressing as it should. In other words-If you can't measure it don't delegate it. Keep your mind open to new ideas and ways of doing things. There just might be a better way than the way something has previously been done. Delegation is not giving an assignment. You are asking the person to accept responsibility for a project. They have the right to say no. Encourage your people to ask for parts of your job. Never take back a delegated item because you can do it better or faster. Help the other person learn to do it better. Agree on the frequency of feedback meetings or reports between yourself and the person to whom you are delegating. Good communication will assure ongoing success. Delegation strengthens your position. It shows you are doing your job as a managergetting result with others. This makes you more promotable. Delegation is taking a risk that the other person might make a mistake, but people learn from mistakes and will be able to do it right the next time. Think back to a time a
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project was delegated to you and you messed it up. You also learned a valuable lesson. Find out what the talents and interests of your people are and you will be able to delegate more intelligently and effectively. A person will be more excited about doing a project when they came up with the idea of how to do it, than if the boss tells them how to do it. Be sensitive to upward delegation by your staff. When they ask you for a decision on their project, ask them to think about some alternatives which you will then discuss with them. This way responsibility for action stays with the staff member. Don't do an activity that someone else would be willing to do for you if you would just ask them. "Push" responsibility down in a caring helpful way. Remember, you are not the only one that can accomplish an end result. Trust others to be capable of achieving it. Break large jobs into manageable pieces and delegate pieces to those who can do them more readily. Keep following up and following through until the entire project is done. Resist the urge to solve someone else's problem. They need to learn for themselves. Give them suggestions and perhaps limits but let them take their own action.
4.8 The Art of Delegation (by Gerard M. Blair)

Delegation is a skill of which we have all heard - but which few understand. It can be used either as an excuse for dumping failure onto the shoulders of subordinates, or as a dynamic tool for motivating and training your team to realize their full potential. "I delegate myne auctorite" (Palsgrave 1530)
Everyone knows about delegation. Most managers hear about it in the cradle as mother talks earnestly to the baby-sitter: "just enjoy the television ... this is what you do if ... if there is any trouble call me at ..."; people have been writing about it for nearly half a millennium; yet few actually understand it. Delegation underpins a style of management which allows your staff to use and develop their skills and knowledge to the full potential. Without delegation, you lose their full value. As the ancient quotation above suggests, delegation is primarily about entrusting your authority to others. This means that they can act and initiate independently; and that they assume responsibility with you for certain tasks. If something goes wrong, you remain responsible since you are the manager; the trick is to delegate in such a way that things get done but do not go (badly) wrong.
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Objectiv e
The objective of delegation is to get the job done by someone else. Not just the simple tasks of reading instructions and turning a lever, but also the decision making and changes which depend upon new information. With delegation, your staff have the authority to react to situations without referring back to you. If you tell the janitor to empty the bins on Tuesdays and Fridays, the bins will be emptied on Tuesdays and Fridays. If the bins overflow on Wednesday, they will be emptied on Friday. If instead you said to empty the bins as often as necessary, the janitor would decide how often and adapt to special circumstances. You might suggest a regular schedule (teach the janitor a little personal time management), but by leaving the decision up to the janitor you will apply his/her local knowledge to the problem. Consider this frankly: do you want to be an expert on bin emptying, can you construct an instruction to cover all possible contingencies? If not, delegate to someone who gets paid for it. To enable someone else to do the job for you, you must ensure that: they know what you want they have the authority to achieve it they know how to do it.
These all depend upon communicating clearly the nature of the task, the extent of their discretion, and the sources of relevant information and knowledge.
Information
Such a system can only operate successfully if the decision-makers (your staff) have full and rapid access to the relevant information. This means that you must establish a system to enable the flow of information. This must at least include regular exchanges between your staff so that each is aware of what the others are doing. It should also include briefings by you on the information which you have received in your role as manager; since if you need to know this information to do your job, your staff will need to know also if they are to do your (delegated) job for you. One of the main claims being made for computerized information distribution is that it facilitates the rapid dissemination of information. Some protagonists even suggest that such systems will instigate changes in managerial power sharing rather than merely support them: that the "enknowledged" workforce will rise up, assume control and innovate spontaneously. You may not believe this vision, but you should understand the premise. If a manager restricts access to information, then only he/she is able to make decisions which rely upon that information; once that access is opened to many others, they too can make decisions and challenge those of the manager according to additional criteria. The manager who fears this challenge will never delegate effectively; the manager who recognizes that the staff may have additional experience and knowledge (and so may enhance the decision-making process) will welcome their input; delegation ensures that the staff will practise decisionmaking and will feel that their views are welcome.
Effective control
One of the main phobias about delegation is that by giving others authority, a manager loses control. This need not be the case. If you train your staff to apply the same criteria as you would yourself (by example and full explanations) then they will be exercising your control on you behalf. And since they will witness many more situations over which control may be exercised (you can't be in several places at once) then that control is exercised more
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diversely and more rapidly than you could exercise it by yourself. In engineering terms: if maintaining control is truly your concern, then you should distribute the control mechanisms to enable parallel and autonomous processing.
Staggered Development
To understand delegation, you really have to think about people. Delegation cannot be viewed as an abstract technique, it depends upon individuals and individual needs. Let us take a lowly member of staff who has little or no knowledge about the job which needs to be done. Do you say: "Jimmy, I want a draft tender for contract of the new Hydro Powerstation on my desk by Friday"? No. Do you say: "Jimmy, Jennifer used to do the tenders for me. Spend about an hour with her going over how she did them and try compiling one for the new Hydro Powerstation. She will help you for this one, but do come to me if she is busy with a client. I want a draft by Friday so that I can look over it with you"? Possibly. The key is to delegate gradually. If you present someone with a task which is daunting, one with which he/she does not feel able to cope, then the task will not be done and your staff will be severely demotivated. Instead you should build-up gradually; first a small task leading to a little development, then another small task which builds upon the first; when that is achieved, add another stage; and so on. This is the difference between asking people to scale a sheer wall, and providing them with a staircase. Each task delegated should have enough complexity to stretch that member of staff - but only a little. Jimmy needs to feel confident. He needs to believe that he will actually be able to achieve the task which has been given to him. This means that either he must have the sufficient knowledge, or he must know where to get it or where to get help. So, you must enable access to the necessary knowledge. If you hold that knowledge, make sure that Jimmy feels able to come to you; if someone else holds the knowledge, make sure that they are prepared for Jimmy to come to them. Only if Jimmy is sure that support is available will he feel confident enough to undertake a new job. You need to feel confident in Jimmy: this means keeping an eye on him. It would be fatal to cast Jimmy adrift and expect him to make it to the shore: keep an eye on him, and a lifebelt handy. It is also a mistake to keep wandering up to Jimmy at odd moments and asking for progress reports: he will soon feel persecuted. Instead you must agree beforehand how often and when you actually need information and decide the reporting schedule at the onset. Jimmy will then expect these encounters and even feel encouraged by your continuing support; you will be able to check upon progress and even spur it on a little. When you do talk to Jimmy about the project, you should avoid making decisions of which Jimmy is capable himself. The whole idea is for Jimmy to learn to take over and so he must be encouraged to do so. Of course, with you there to check his decisions, Jimmy will feel freer to do so. If Jimmy is wrong - tell him, and explain very carefully why. If Jimmy is nearly right - congratulate him, and suggest possible modifications; but, of course, leave Jimmy to decide. Finally, unless your solution has significant merits over Jimmy's, take his: it costs you little, yet rewards him much.
Constrained Availability
There is a danger with "open access" that you become too involved with the task you had hoped to delegate. One successful strategy to avoid this is to formalize the manner in which these conversation take place. One formalism is to allow only fixed, regular encounters (except for emergencies) so that Jimmy has to think about issues and questions before
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raising them; you might even insist that he draw-up an agenda. A second formalism is to refuse to make a decision unless Jimmy has provided you with a clear statement of alternatives, pros and cons, and his recommendation. This is my favourite. It allows Jimmy to rehearse the full authority of decision making while secure in the knowledge that you will be there to check the outcome. Further, the insistence upon evaluation of alternatives promotes good decision making practices. If Jimmy is right, then Jimmy's confidence increases - if you disagree with Jimmy, he learns something new (provided you explain your criteria) and so his knowledge increases. Which ever way, he benefits; and the analysis is provided for you.
Outcomes Failure
and
Let us consider your undoubtedly high standards. When you delegate a job, it does not have to be done as well as you could do it (given time), but only as well as necessary: never judge the outcome by what you expect you would do (it is difficult to be objective about that), but rather by fitness for purpose. When you delegate a task, agree then upon the criteria and standards by which the outcome will be judged. You must enable failure. With appropriate monitoring, you should be able to catch mistakes before they are catastrophic; if not, then the failure is yours. You are the manager, you decided that Jimmy could cope, you gave him enough rope to hang himself, you are at fault. Now that that is cleared up, let us return to Jimmy. Suppose Jimmy gets something wrong; what do you want to happen? Firstly, you want it fixed. Since Jimmy made the mistake, it is likely that he will need some input to develop a solution: so Jimmy must feel safe in approaching you with the problem. Thus you must deal primarily with the solution rather than the cause (look forward, not backwards). The most desirable outcome is that Jimmy provides the solution. Once that is dealt with, you can analyse the cause. Do not fudge the issue; if Jimmy did something wrong say so, but only is very specific terms. Avoid general attacks on his parents: "were you born this stupid?", and look to the actual event or circumstance which led to the error: "you did not take account of X in your decision". Your objectives are to ensure that Jimmy: understands the problem feels confident enough to resume implements some procedure to prevent recurrence. The safest ethos to cultivate is one where Jimmy actually looks for and anticipates mistakes. If you wish to promote such behaviour, you should always praise Jimmy for his prompt and wise action in spotting and dealing with the errors rather that castigate him for causing them. Here the emphasis is placed upon checking/testing/monitoring of ideas. Thus you never criticise Jimmy for finding an error, only for not having safe-guards in place.
What delegate
to
There is always the question of what to delegate and what to do yourself, and you must take a long term view on this: you want to delegate as much as possible to develop you staff to be as good as you are now. The starting point is to consider the activities you used to do before you were promoted. You used to do them when you were more junior, so someone junior can do them now. Tasks in
50
Delegation |
which you have experience are the easiest for you to explain to others and so to train them to take over. You thus use your experience to ensure that the task is done well, rather than to actually perform the task yourself. In this way you gain time for your other duties and someone else becomes as good as your once were (increasing the strength of the group). Tasks in which your staff have more experience must be delegated to them. This does not mean that you relinquish responsibility because they are expert, but it does mean that the default decision should be theirs. To be a good manager though, you should ensure that they spend some time in explaining these decisions to you so that you learn their criteria. Decisions are a normal managerial function: these too should be delegated - especially if they are important to the staff. In practice, you will need to establish the boundaries of these decisions so that you can live with the outcome, but this will only take you a little time while the delegation of the remainder of the task will save you much more. In terms of motivation for your staff, you should distribute the more mundane tasks as evenly as possible; and sprinkle the more exciting onces as widely. In general, but especially with the boring tasks, you should be careful to delegate not only the performance of the task but also its ownership. Task delegation, rather than task assignment, enables innovation. The point you need to get across is that the task may be changed, developed, upgraded, if necessary or desirable. So someone who collates the monthly figures should not feel obliged to blindly type them in every first-Monday; but should feel empowered to introduce a more effective reporting format, to use Computer Software to enhance the data processing, to suggest and implement changes to the task itself.
Negotiation
Since delegation is about handing over authority, you cannot dictate what is delegated nor how that delegation is to be managed. To control the delegation, you need to establish at the beginning the task itself, the reporting schedule, the sources of information, your availability, and the criteria of success. These you must negotiate with your staff: only by obtaining both their input and their agreement can you hope to arrive at a workable procedure.
When all is done for you

Once you have delegated everything, what do you do then? You still need to monitor the tasks you have delegated and to continue the development of your staff to help them exercise their authority well. There are managerial functions which you should never delegate - these are the personal/personnel ones which are often the most obvious additions to your responsibilities as you assume a managerial role. Specifically, they include: motivation, training, teambuilding, organization, praising, reprimanding, performance reviews, promotion. As a manager, you have a responsibility to represent and to develop the effectiveness of your group within the company; these are tasks you can expand to fill your available time delegation is a mechanism for creating that opportunity.
Gerard M Blair is a Senior Lecturer in VLSI Design at the Department of Electrical Engineering, The University of Edinburgh. His book Starting to Manage: the essential skills is published by Chartwell-Bratt (UK) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (USA).
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LEARNING MANUAL

Reference Literature for Organisational Management Course Executive MBA

1. Management and Managers

Learning Manual | Table of Contents

1.1 Functions of Management

1.1.1 Theoretical scope

Learning Manual | Table of Contents

1.1.3 The importance of control

1.2 Managerial Levels/Hierarchy

Learning Manual | Table of Contents

1.3 Keystone in the Organization

1.3.1 Efficiency Effectiveness

EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY IN MANAGEMENT

Learning Manual | Table of Contents

Do these definitions make sense?

1.3.2 Four management

Learning Manual | Table of Contents

Learning Manual | Table of Contents

1.3.3 The managers

Mintzberg Managerial Roles INTERPERSONAL Liaison)

Learning Manual | Table of Contents

E.G. - ENCOURAGE WORKERS TO INCREASE PRODUCTIVITY.

E.G. - COORDINATE ACTIVITIES OF TWO COMMITTEES.

E.G. - SCAN BUSINESS WEEK FOR INFORMATION ABOUT

E.G. - SEND OUT MEMOS OUTLINING NEW POLICIES.

E.G. - HOLD PRESS CONFERENCE TO ANNOUNCE NEW PLANT.

DISTURBANC E - HANDLER RESOURCE ALLOCATOR NEGOTIATOR

E.G. - ALLOCATE BUDGET REQUESTS;

Important Managerial Roles

1.3.4 Whether generic.

1.3.5 General skills necessary for becoming manager

SKILLS NEEDED AT DIFFERENT MANAGEMENT LEVELS

Learning Manual | Table of Contents

MANAGEMENT SKILLS AND MANAGEMENT FUNCTION MATRIX

1.3.7 The management

UNIVERSAL NEED FOR MANAGEMENT

1.3.8 Relevance management practices.

1.3.9 The Characteristics Manager

Learning Manual | Table of Contents

REWARDS AND CHALLENGES OF BEING A MANAGER

2.2 Human Relations School

Management Function | Organisation & Organising

Management Func tion | Organisation & Organising

3. Organisation and Organising as a Management Function

3.2 The Concept of Organising

3.3 The Organisation

Management Function | Organisation & Organising

Management Function | Organisation & Organising

3.4 Purpose of Organisation

3.5 Organisation and Management

3.6 Individuals and Groups in Organisations

Management Function | Organisation & Organising

3.7 Individual Contributions to the Organisation

Management Function | Organisation & Organising

3.8 Organisation as a System

3.9 The Organisation and its Environment

Management Function | Organisation & Organising

3.10 Open Systems - General Analysis of the Organizations as a System

Management Function | Organisation & Organising

Management Function | Organisation & Organising

How does the environment?

Management Function | Organisation & Organising

Policies & Guideline s

Motivation & Incentives