ACOUSTIC EMISSION IN PLASTIC DEFORMATION OF METALS (REVIEW). REPORT i UDC 534.16:539.

214

A. A. Yudin and V. I. Ivanov

Introduction The emission of stress waves (elastic deformation) accompanying certain processes of internal readjustment in materials such as plastic deformation, fracture (crack formation and development), phase transformations, etc. is called acoustic emission [i]. This review considers only acoustic emission caused by plastic deformation in metals. The study of acoustic emission in plastic deformation has important theoretical value since it makes it possible to obtain new information on the mechanism of deformation. It is also important in a practical sense for inspection of the failure of structures since the appearance and propagation of a crack in metals is always accompanied by plastic deformation at its tip. In addition, a number of models [2, 3] have been based on the assumption that all acoustic emission from a developing crack may originate from the plastic zone at the crack tip. At present much experimental material has been accumulated on this question. However, in existing monographs and reviews [i, 4-13] it is normally buried in a mass of information devoted to other aspects of acoustic emission. Data on the amplitude distribution and the spectra of acoustic emission signals is insufficiently reflected, and there is almost no analysis of data on acoustic emission in creep. One of the purposes of this review is to enlighten these questions in more detail. In our opinion, the theory of acoustic emission has been developed insufficiently and somewhat one-sidedly. Therefore, in this review more attention has been devoted to works in which attempts are made to establish quantitative relationships easing the search for means of construction of a theory of acoustic emission in plastic deformation. In addition, in this review there are almost no data on acoustic emission in deformation of production steels or on the role of plastic deformation at the ~rack tip. These questions deserve independent consideration. In experimental investiEation of acoustic emission the following parameters are most frequently determined: I) the rms value U of the acoustic emission signal E(t), ~/2U 2 = W serves as a measure of the strength of the signal; 2) the total count N(t, C) is the average number of positive signals ~(t) above the selected level of discrimination ~ = C during the time t, and the corresponding counting rate ~ = dN/dt; 3) the total "number of events" Na(t , C) is the average number of maxima of the envelope of the signal E(t) during the time t exceeding the threshold C, and the corresponding rate (acoustic emission activity) ~a = dNa/dt; 4) the histogram of the amplitude distribution of the heights of the maxima of the envelope; 5) the spectrum of power of signal E(t) is the Fourier transform of its correlation function. Basic Results of the Experimental Investigations Acoustic Emission and the Spasmodic Nature of Plastic Deformation. As a rule, acoustic emission in plastic deformation is studied under conditions of uniaxial tension with an approximately constant rate of deformation ~. Therefore, the elongation deformation E = s is proportional to the time of tension t, and the acoustic emission parameters may be expressed both as a function of e and as a function of t. Figure I presents the N(t) curve for 22NiMoCr37 low-alloy steel. The close relationship between the observed saw-tooth shape of the P(t) deformation curve (P is the tensile force Scientific-Production Association of the Central Scientific-Research Institute for Machine Building Technology, Moscow. Translated from Problemy Prochnosti, No. 6, pp. 92-99, June, 1985. Original article submitted June 6, 1984.

842

0039-2316/85/1706-0842509.50

9 1986 Plenum Publishing Corporation

~fO 4,

P.MN

rain-17

: ;

"

I0 l!

12 13 t rnin

Fig.

1.

The relationship

of

the

force

P and

the counting rate N to the time t in tension of 22NiMoCr3 steel [14, 31].

60
o" 2O

2 0
002 004 ~06 008 ~I0 012~

Fig. 2. The stress o and the counting rate N as a function of tensile deformation e for 7075-T6 aluminum alloy. Dashed line is the approximation by the equation = 1.44"107 m e - 7 ~ I kpsi = 0.703 kgf/mm 2 =6.89 MN/m 2 [15]. proportional to stress) and the ~(t) curve should be noted. Sharp surges in N correspond to the points of a drop in P, which are especially noticeable in the area corresponding to formation of the Luders bands. In the area of hardening, the saw-tooth shape of P(t) is expressed weakly, and accordingly the general level and also the degree of saw-tooth shape of the N(t) curve drop sharply. The sharp drop in P is related to the appearance of a new Luders band and the smaller drops to the spasmodic propagation of already existing bands. This relationship of the surges on the N(t) curve to the spasmodic shape of the P(t) deformation curve is also clearly revealed for materials revealing the Portevin--Le Chatelier effect beyond the yield strength. Figure 2 shows the N(c) curve for 7075-T6 aluminum alloy (AI--I.6 Cu--2.5 Mg) [15). Here the o(E) curve does not have an apparent saw-tooth shape, and the N(~) curve is also practically.smooth. The individual peaks on it are r~lated to fracture of inclusions. The maximum in N corresponds to the start of strain hardening. In this case the N(E) curve is described well by the known Johnston-Gilman equation Pm = (Po + Bc)exp(~e) expressing the relationship of the density of mobile dislocations Pm to the plastic deformation m (Po, 8, and are constants). Therefore, in this case [16, 17]

N,.,p~.

(i)

However, there are indications [15] that the Johnston--Gilman function is, at least, not always suitable for approximation of the N(E) curve. The form of the N(E) curves shown in Fig. 2 is characteristic of metals and alloys with a fcc lattice. A bell-shaped curve is obtained when the rmw signal is recorded instead of the counting rate. The qualitatively similar shape of the N(E) and U(E) curves is of itself significant and requires explanation. The data presented in Figs. i and 2 serve as examples of the continuous type of acoustic emission since the corresponding signal ~(t) has the form of a continuous rf signal similar to the interference signal. However, frequently ~(t) has the form of separate damping radio

843

"C'tO" !gf/cm z
7,8~ /

/ ~ T/

I~,sec-!
1,6
,2

5~ f 3,g~ [

o,8

0.8

1.6

o.lO ~

Fig. 3. The shear stress ~ and the counting rate N as a function of the shear deformation a in tension of a Zn single crystal [21]. signals not overlapping one another. Their number per unit of time Na may be very small (Fig. 3). In this case the acoustic emission is spoken of as discrete or of burst type. There exist materials (strongly work hardening metals, certain fine-grained steels) in which acoustic emission is not recorded in deformation, and only with the approach of final rupture of the specimen does some quantity of signals (normally discrete) related to the formation of cracks and a sharp increase in the local rate of tension appear. The examples presented do not exhaust the whole spectrum of emission response. The large amount of factual material presented in [18-20 et al.] makes it possible to now note two facts. The first is that data on acoustic emission very likely gives the most direct proof of the discontinuity (in space and time) of the plastic deformation process. According to the determinations of Fisher and Lally [18], for Mg and Cu single crystals the deformation occurring in a single acoustic emission event is equal to about 5"10 -7, which corresponds to the formation of a sllp packet ~30 nm thick intersecting the whole cross section of the specimen. Its volume is ~i0 -7 cm ~. A comparison with the data of electron microscopic investigations leads to the conclusion that to an acoustic emission event corresponds an avalanche of slip in which ~i0 s dislocations participate. James and Carpenter [21] a~rived at this conclusion by a different route. Therefore, to an acoustic emission event corresponds a jump in deformation of macroscopic size. The second fact, as must be noted, is the random character of the acoustic emission signal. This is a reflection of the random character of the plastic deformation process itself. It is necessary to take these conclusions into consideration in construction of a theory of acoustic emission accompanying plastic deformation. The direct relationship of acoustic emission to the jumps in plastic deformation is indicated by the irreversibility of acoustic emission established by Kaiser (the Kaiser effect) [22]. In unloading of a specimen and in the elastic stage of reloading, acoustic emission is absent until the level of stress at which unloading occurred is reached. It is obvious that the Kaiser effect is a reflection of the irreversibility of the plastic deformation itself. It is true that in [23, 24] acoustic emission signals were observed during unloading and in the elastic portion of subsequent loading, but the total count Nz was, roughly speaking, two orders of magnitude less than the count N reached before unloading. The unloading acoustic emission is reversible in the sense that it is observed in repeated cycles of unloading and loading, and it is sometimes interpreted as a breakdown in the Kaiser effect [23]. This statement is not completely accurate. In a polycrystalline material a certain number of acts of plastic deformation occur even in the process of elastic unloading. Therefore, it is more correct to understand the Kaiser effect not as the complete absence of acoustic emission in unloading and subsequent elastic loading but only as the smallness of NI in comparison with N. The data presented does not disprove the Kaiser effect but only clarifies its meaning. Influence of Structural Factors on Acoustic Emission~ Apparently, all of the factors influencing plastic deformation must to some degree influence acoustic emission. Appropriate data is very incomplete and primarily has a qualitative character.

844

~'mvl I. I ~ 41~[

~,zvrN

1 uJ-.-'l I Jo.8
a

/.t
b ~C
8

0.8
0

Z0 1.8
,2

08

O/_F'i u 0 10 20 c30 ~O t. sec

Fig. 4. The force F and the rms signal U as a function of the time of tension t for AICuMg2 alloy. Heat treatment: water harden from 495eC for 2 h with subsequent aging at 180~ for: a) 0.5 h; b) 24 h; c) 336 h [31].

N;N: rain -I ;Na

/,,8~

I02 ~

~''ca.'m"

101
0 50

75

100

a,~m

Fig. 5. The total count N, the counting rate N, and the number of events N a as a function of grain size d for 99.99 Cu [34]. The influence of the type of lattice is observed in that in fcc metals, deformation of which occurs primarily by sllp, continuous acoustic emission is observed. In metals with a hop (Zn, Mg, and others) and more complex (Sn) lattices the acoustic emission is of the discrete type [5, 18, 20]. This is caused by their tendency toward twinning. For metals with a bcc lattice the discrete response is related to their high stacking fault energy (see, for example, the data for Mo single crystals in [12]). In [25] in polycrystalllne Zn a transition was observed from slip to twinning with a change in deformation rate. Accordingly there was a change in the emission response. The influence of the stacking fault energy was investigated in [20, 23, 24, 26], but their data is contradictory. According to [26], the acoustic emission energy increases with an increase in stacking fault energy, but according to the data of [23, 24] the total count during unloading decreases with an increase in stacking fault energy. In [20] it was observed that the rms signal in the series Ag, Cu, AI, Ni with an increasing stacking fault

845

E,m]'

'

300 ...... -.-- ~

9

,~ l ~
I '2 3 d,,mm

Fig. 6. The acoustic emission energy E as a function of grain size d for 99.999 A1 [35]. energy has a minimum for Cu. The ambiguity of the results is apparently caused by not taking into consideration the influence of other factors such as grain size. The addition of impurities to a pure metal with a fcc lattice reduces the general level of emission power and increases the number of discrete signals on the general background of continuous acoustic emission [27]. It is assumed that the impurities create additional centers of securing of dislocations, the breaking away from which requires higher stresses than breaking away from obstacles characteristic of pure metals such as a dislocation forest. Contamination of the discrete acoustic emission may be caused by the presence of intermetalllc inclusions, as was shown in [28] for 7075-T6 aluminum alloy. According to [29, 30], in low-alloy steels the presence of manganese sulfide MnS inclusions is the main source of acoustic emission. Alloying and the structure of the alloy naturally have a strong influence on acoustic emission. The N (E) counting rate curve for an alloy may have the same form as for pure metals (Fig. 2) or may be significantly different [17, 31]. Figure 4 gives an example for AlCuNg2 aluminum alloy from the data of Zeitler et al. [31]. Here, in addition to the peak in the area of the yield strength characteristic of pure fcc metals, there is a second peak which is related to the appearance of nonuniformity in plastic deformation caused by dispersion hardening, A good example of the influence of alloy structure on acoustic emission is given by Wadley and Scruby [9]. In pure AI-4 Cu alloy they observed a maximum in acoustic emission energy (which they obtained by integration of the power during the time of reaching an elongation of the specimen by 1 mm) as a function of the a~nealing time at 170@C after solid-solutlon hardening from 540"C. A model was proposed qualitatively explaining this behavior by interaction of the dislocations with the Guinier--Preston zones and noncoherent particles of 8'-phase. However, the sharp difference in the annealing times responsible for the maxima in acoustic emission (2 h) and hardness (2-4 days) remains unclear. The influence of structure was also studied in [23]. The influence of the grain size of a polycrystalline material has been investigated in many works, but sharply contradictory results have been obtained in them. According to the data of Bill [5, 23], the total count for A1 has a maximum with a grain size of d = 350 ~m. However, from the data of [27] it may be concluded that the acoustic emission power steadily increases with an increase in d, tending toward a value corresponding to a single crystal. For AI, Kisi et al. [9] observed a steady decrease in the rms signal as a function of d. Mintzer et al. [32] observed a steady increase in the total count with an increase in d for Cd, Cu, Ti, and Zn--0.4 A1 alloy. For AI, Kuribayasi [33] established the relationship of the energy to d with a maximum at d ~ 5 0 um with a piezotransducer frequency of 30 kHz and a steady decrease wibh a frequency of 140 kHz. Figures 5 and 6 compare the results of the two most recent works. According to the data of [34], for Cu the total count, its rate, and the activity change according to a curve with a maximum at d = 70 ~m (Fig. 5). In a very carefully done work specially set up for resolving these contradictory conclusions Scruby et al. [35] established (Fig. 6) for 99.999 AI a steady increase in the energy E (the integral of the power during the whole test time) in relation to grain size in the d = 0.46-3.96 mm range (specimen diameter 3 ~ ) . In Fig. 6 the dashed lines show the values of E = 290 and 360 mJ obtained for two single-crystal speci-

846

mens with correction for the volume of the working portion [35]. As may be seen, the value of E steadily increases with an increase in d, tending toward the value characteristic of a single crystal, which agrees with the data of [27]. The authors explain this result by the fact that with an increase in d there is an increase in the number of above-threshold (observable) events. However, in this work for high-purlty AI--I.3 Mo alloy under similar experimental conditions a relationship with a sharp maximum was obtained. The explanation of this fact presented is not convincing. Therefore, the question of the influence of grain size actually remains open. In all probability this difference is related to differences in the objects and methods of investigation. For metals with other lattices there is very little information. In [36] for Fe--3 Si with d = 35-1400 um an increase in total count as a function of d in the area of mlcroyleld (for a stress of ~90% of the stress corresponding to the yield peak) and a reduction in the count corresponding to a deformation of 2.5% was established. For iron of high (0.005 C) and commercial (0.05 C) purity a reduction in the count rate with an increase in d according to a Hall--Petch type rule was observed [37], but this relationship was verified only on the basis of three values of d. An unusual effect of grain s i z e - disappearance of acoustic e m i s s i o n - was observed in [38, 39] with the transition of Zn-O.4 A1 alloy from the normal condition (d = 50 Bm) to superplastlc (d < 2 ~m). Further systematic investigations under similar experimental conditions to reveal the influence of grain size and other physical metallurlgcal factors on the acoustic emission characteristics in plastic deformation are necessary. Influence of External Factors. The acoustic emission depends upon such external factors as the strain rate ~, the length L and volume V@ of the specimen gage length, the temperature, and the character of the stressed condition. The data of [i, 19, 40] makes it possible to assume the existence of the relationship

/~=

~v0,
(2) acquires the form

(2)

in which the coefficient ~ depends in the general case upon deformation. With a constant specimen cross section Eq.

= a~C,

(3)

proposed by Fisher and Lally [18]. These authors established the validity of Eq. (3) even with different specimen cross sections (investigating Mg single crystals), which, at first glance, contradicts Eq. (2). However, it is not difficult to imagine a situation (most probable for single crystals) in which the acoustic emission is caused by the formation of slip packets (or plates of twins) rapidly intersecting the whole specimen cross section. Then the acoustic emission must not depend upon the specimen cross section, and condition (3) and not (2) will be fulfilled. If the number of acoustic emission sources is proportional to the volume, then condition (2) will be fulfilled. In [14, 16, 20, 27, 35, 41, 42] the validity of similar relationships been shown: U' = ~'sV0; U 2 = ~,sL, and in [14] it was found, in addition, that with a given value of ~ the rms signal U depends upon the plastic deformation e according to the relationship for power U 2 has (4) (4a)

UNs-,, 0,5 ~ n ~
From Eqs. (4) and (5) we obtain U = K'sI/28-"V~/~,

1,5.

(5)

K = const

(6)

It is characteristic that for the majority of metals (brass, polycrystalline Cu and AI) n 0.5 [14]. However, for Cu single crystals n ~ i and for AIMg3 aluminum alloy n ~ 1.5.

847

t=0

800

I0~' '

1000

F#
102
I

I
l I

2OOI

1. Io

~oo
I

1.'58 g75
I

s5

o2s
IJ.'2i
I

o.!o 36

."2 Fig. 7.

:5

2_n 24 O,kpsi

28 of

82 the

The relationship

counting

rate N to the stress o during creep of Be at 93 ~ [49]. t is test time in sec. Equation (4) apparently indicates that the acoustic emission power is proportional to the fluctuation in mechanical power a~V@ expended in deformation of the specimen during testing (o is tensile stress). It is more difficult to interpret Eq. (2). The proportionality of U 2 to the value of Vo is obviously related to the fact that the number of sources of acoustic emissions in the general case is proportional to volume. The proportionality of U 2 to the value of ~ must probably be considered as the invariability of the deformation mechanism in a certain range of conditions. With an increase in ~ the same sequence of acts of deformation is observed, but during a shorter time interval. It is true that in place of N it is necessary to use the activity Na. Therefore, indirectly the N ~ ~ .relationship makes it possible to assume the existence of proportionality between ~ and N a. From general considerations such a relationship is not observed. However, experimental data confirming its existence is presented in [43, 44] (Fig. i0 in Report 2). At least for discrete acoustic emission with an exponential amplitude distribution there may be a theoretical basis for it. In [45] the opinion is stated that the value of N must increase with an increase in ~ more intensely than linearly since there is an increase in the share of acoustic emission events with increased amplitudes giving a greater number of intersections with the threshold. Hamstad and others investigated the influence of blaxial loading on the acoustic emission of 7075-T651 aluminum alloy [46] and stainless steels [47]. It was shown that in such loading the acoustic emission signals have higher amplitudes than in uniaxial tension. In addition, in the first case the signals appeared earlier, even in the macroscopic elastic area, while in the second case before the start of plastic deformation the acoustic emission was insignificant. Quantitative data on the influence of temperature T on acoustic emission is almost completely lacking. Only in [48] for A508 steel (0.22 C, 0.67 Mn, 0.61 Mo, 0.69 Ni) has an attempt been made to show that the acoustic emission depends upon T according to the activation rule. However, the data given is insufficient to draw such a conclusion. It is true that the presence of Eqs. (4) favors this conclusion since for ~ fulfillment of the activation relationship does not cause doubts. In addition! from (2) and (3) it follows that this relationship may be valid for the counting rate N. Acoustic Emission in Creep. Only a few works have been devoted to this question, but they are important for construction of the theory of acoustic emission. Adams et al. [49]* were probably the first to investigate "delayed acoustic emission" in beryllium. This they called the pulses of emission emitted after loading of a specimen with *Cited in [4, 15, and 50].

848

a constant stress (and at constant temperature), i.e., under creep conditions. The tests were made in the temperature range from room temperature to 93~ with stresses close to the yield strength. Adams et al. [49] established that the value of N as a function of time t behaves similarly to the creep rate and may be described by the sum of the damping exponents:
n

= ~ Ciexp ( - - ~ t ) ,
i=l

(7) With t =
(8)

where C i and A i are.constants, and a good description is noted only with n > 3. const the value of N depended upon the stress o according to the relationship
= A exp Ba (A, B - - const),

which is illustrated by Fig. 7 [15]. Similar data was obtained for zinc at room temperature. In this case N(t) damps, tending not toward zero, as follows from Eq. (7), but toward a constant level, and this level is reached when the creep rate also acquires a constant value. Consequently, for Zn the character of the change in N with time is the same as of the creep rate. Siegel [51] studied acoustic emission during the creep of polycrystalline AI, Cd, and Pb at room temperature. His basic conclusion amounts to the fact that in all cases the total N(t) count curve is qualitatively similar to the c(t) creep curve and, consequently, the N(t) counting rate is similar in form to the ~(t) creep rate. Unfortunately, the author did not make a quantitative analysis of the acoustic emission characteristics. In a subsequent work [52] Siegel attempted to explain the similarity of the N(t) and e(t) curves by combining the Gilman "microdynamic theory of plasticity" [53] and the Sedgwick dislocation model of acoustic emission [54]. However, in our opinion, the author was not successful in synthesis of these theories. He does not refer to the above-mentioned relationship established by Adams et al. and does not cite the work of the latter. Apparently, it was not known to him. LITERATURE CITED I. 2. 3. V. A. Greshnikov and Yu. B. Drobot, Acoustic Emission [in Russian], Standartov, Moscow (1976). G. Green, "Sources of acoustic emission during crack growth in ferritic steels," Metal Sci., 15, No. 11/12, 505-513 (1981). P. Fleischmann, D. Rouby, G. Malaprade, and I. Lanchon, "Localization of acoustic emission sources in tensile and specimens using a broadband aquisitlon technique," Ultrasonics, 19, No. 6, 259-264 (1981). R. G. Liptai, D. O. Harris, R. B. Engle, and C. A. Tatro, "Acoustic emission techniques in materials research," Int. J. Nondestr. Test., ~, 215-275 (1971). J. C. Spanner, Acoustic Emission Techniques and Applications, Vol. 12, Intex Publ. Co., Evanston, Iii. (1974). A. E. Lord, Jr., "Acoustic emission," Phys. Acoust., ii, 289-353 (1975). V. S. Boiko and V. D. Natsik, "Elementary dislocation mechanisms of acoustic emission," in: Elementary Processes of Plastic Deformation of Metals [in Russian], Naukova Dumka, Kiev (1978), pp. 159-189. D. Jaffrey, "Sources of acoustic emission (AE) in metals -- a review," Nondestr. Test., Austral., 16, No. 4, 9-18; No. 5, 9-17; No. 6, 19-28 (1979). H. N. G. Wadley, C. B. Scruby, and J. H. Speake, "Acoustic emission for physical examination of metals," Int. Met. Rev., 25, No. 2, 41-64 (1980). E. G. Smirnov, "Acoustic emission," Itogi Nauki Tekh., Ser. Metalloved. Term. Obrab., i_~5,iii159 (1981). A. E. Lord, Jr., "Acoustic emission -- an update," Phys. Acoust., 15, 295-360 (1981). O . V . Gusev, Acoustic Emission in Deformation of Single Crystals of Refractory Metals [in Russian], Nauka, Moscow (1982). V. I. Ivanov and V. M. Belov, Acoustic Emission Inspection of Welding and Weld Joints [in Russian], Mashinostroenie, Moscow (1981). P. Jax, "Schallemission bei plastischer Verformung yon Metallen," in: Schallemission: Anwendung bei Untersuchung, Prufung und Uberwachung metallischer Werkstoffe, Frankfurt am Main: Dtsch. Ges. Metallk. (1974), pp. 59-117. R. B. Engle and H. L. Dunegan, "Acoustic emission: stress wave detection as a tool for nondestructive testing and material evaluation," Int. J. Nondestr. Test., ~, No. i, 109-125 (1969).

4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9. i0. ii. 12. 13. 14.

15.

849

16. 17.

18. 19. 20.

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31.

32. 33. 34. 35.

36. 37.

38. 39. 40.

41.

M. A. Hamstad and A. K. Mukherjee, "The dependence of acoustic emission on strain rate in 7075-T6 aluminum," Exp. Mech., 14, No. i, 33-41 (1974). E. G. Smirnov, O. V. Bukatin, and B. M. Medvedev, "A study of the property of liberation of acoustic emission in static deformation of aluminum alloys," Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Met., No. 5, 127-131 (1980). R. M. Fisher and J. S. Lally, "Microplastlcity detected by an acoustic technique," Can. J. Phys., 42, No. 2, 1147-1159 (1967). I. I. Averbukh and V. E. Velnberg, "The relationship of acoustic emission to deformation in different materials," Defektoskopiya, No. 4, 25-32 (1973). H. Imaeda, H. Kusanagi, and H. Kimura, "Acoustic emission characteristics during tensile tests of various metals with several types of crystal structures," Central Research Institute of the Electric Power Industry, Energy and Environmental Laboratory, N E276003 (Oct. 1976), pp. 11-20. D. R. James and S. H. Carpenter, "Relation between acoustic emission and dislocation kinetics in crystalline solids," J. Appl. Phys., 42, No. 12, 4685-4697 (1971). J. Kaiser, "Erkenntnisse und Folgerungen aus der Messung yon Gerauschen bei Zugbeanspruchung yon Metallischen Werkstoffen," Arch. Eisenhuttenw., 24, No. 1/2, 43-45 (1953). J. R. Frederick and D. K. Felbeck, "Dislocation motion as a source of acoustic emission," ASTM STP No. 505 (1972), pp. 129-139. E. Siegel, "Burst acoustic emission during the Bauschinger effect in FCC and HCP metals and alloys," Acta Met., 25, 383-394 (1977). V. P. Melekhin, R. I. Mints, and A. M. Kugler, "The influence of the plastic deformation mechanisms of zinc on acoustic emission," Izv. Vyssh. Uchebn. Zaved., Tsvet. Met., No. 3, 128-131 (1971). H. Hatano, "Acoustic emission and stacking-fault energy," J. Appl. Phys., 48, No. i0. 4397-4399 (1977). N. Kiesewetter and P. Schiller, "The acoustic emission from moving dislocations in aluminum," Phys. Status Solidi (A), 38, 569-576 (1976). R. Bianchetti, M. A. Hamstad, and A. K. MukherJee,'"Origin of burst-type acoustic emission is unflawed 7075-T6 aluminum," J. Test. Eval., i, No. 5, 313-318 (1976). D. Jaffrey, "Inclusions as acoustic emissions sources," in: Ninth World Conference of Nondestructive Testing, Melbourne, 1979, 4J-l. K. Ono and M. Yamamoto, "Anisotropic mechanical and acoustic emission behavior of A533B steels," Mater. Sci. Eng., 47, No. 3, 247-263 (1981). J. Eisenblatter, P. Jax, and H. J. Schwalbe, A Survey of Acoustic Emission Research in Europe and Investigations Conducted at Battelle Frankfurt, Battelle -- Institut E. V., Frankfurt (1974) (Paper presented at the Second Acoustic Emission Symposium, Sept. 2-4, 1974, Tokyo, Japan). S. Mintzer, R. Pascual, and R. M. Volpi, "Acoustic emission and grain size in plastic deformation of metals," Scr. Met., 12, No. 6, 531-534 (1978). K. Kuribayasi et al., "A model of the source of acoustic emission emitted in relaxation of local stresses," Tok~ daigaku utyu koku k~nkyusM, 16, No. i, 781-788 (1980). J. Baran and M. Rosen, "Effect of grain size on the acoustic emission generated during plastic deformation in copper," Mater. Sci. Eng., 47, No. 3, 243-246 (1981). C. D. Scruby, H. N. G. Wadley, and J. E. Sinclair, "The origin of acoustic emission during deformation of aluminum and aluminum-magnesium alloy," Philos. Mag. A, 44, No. 2, 249-274 ( 1 9 8 1 ) . K. N. Tandon and K. Tangri, "Acoustic emissions during deformation of polycrystalline silicon--Iron," Mater. Sci. Eng., 20, No. i, 47-54 (1975). A. Ya. Krasovskii, N. V. Novikov, G. N. Nadezhdin, et al., "The correlation between acoustic emission, plastic flow, and fracture of iron in static loading in a broad range of temperatures and deformation rates. Report i," Probl. Prochn., No. 10, 3-7 (1976). R. Frydman, R. Pascual, and R. M. Volpi, "Acoustic emission due to dislocations and grain boundaries," Scr. Met., 9, No. ii, 1267-1270 (1975). I. I. Papirov, E. S. Karpov, M. I. Palatnik, and M. B. Mileshkin, "The disappearance of acoustic emission in superplasticity," Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 256, No. 2, 392-395 (1981). D. R. James and S. H. Carpenter, "The effect of sample size on the acoustic emission generated during tensile deformation of 7075 aluminum alloy," Scr. Met., iO, 779-781 (1976). H. Hatano, "Strain-rate dependence of acoustic-emission power and spectra in aluminum alloys," J. Appl. Phys., 47, No. 9, 3873-3876 (1976).

850

42.

43. 44.

45. 46. 47. 48. 49.

50. 51. 52. 53. 54.

P. Fleischmann, F. Lakestani, and J. C. Baboux, "Analise spectrale et energetique d'une source ultrasonore en mouvement. Application a l'emission acoustique de l'aluminium soumis a deformation plastique," Mater. Sci. Eng., 29, No. i, 205-212 (1977). D. Delipkumar, V. S. R. Gudimetla, and W. E. Wood, "Amplitude distribution analysis of acoustic emission," Exp. Mech.. 19, No. 12, 438-443 (1979). J. Holt and D. J. Goddard, "Acoustic emission during the elastic--plastic deformation of low-alloy reactor pressure vessel steels. I. Unlaxial tension," Mater. Sci. Eng., 44, No. 2, 251-265 (1980). G. G. Martin, "The effect of strain rate on acoustic emission from aluminum alloys," in: Ninth World Conference on Nondestructive Testing, Melbourne, 1979, 4J-4. M. A. Hamstad, R. G. Patterson, and A. K. Mukherjee, "Acoustic emission generated in unflawed 7075-T651 aluminum under uniform biaxial loading," ibid., 4J-10. M. A. Hamstad, E. M. Leon, and A. K. Mukherjee, "Acoustic emission under biaxlal stress in unflawed 21-6-9 and 304 stainless steel," Met. Sci., 15, No. 11/12, 541-548 (1981). G. Airoldi, "A533B and A508 steels: development of deformation processes with temperature as studied using acoustic emission," ibid., 16, No. 3, 153-158 (1982). K. H. Adams, B. R. Bass, J. E. Borhaug, et al., "An experimental investigation of delayed acoustic emission in beryllium," Lawrence Raidation Lab., Livermore (1969) (Report UCRL: N 13402). T. F. Brouillard (F. J. Laner (ed.)), Acoustic Emission: A Bibliography with Abstracts, IFl/Plenum Data Co., New York et al. (1979). E. J. Siegel, "Kilocycle acoustic emission during creep in lead, aluminum, and cadmium. I. Experimental," Phys. Status Solidi (A), 5, 601-606 (1971). E. J. Siegel, "Kilocycle acoustic emission during creep in lead, aluminum, and cadmium. II. Theoretical," ibid., 607-615. J. Gilman, "The mlcrodynamic theory of plasticity," in: Microplasticity [in Russian], Metallurgiya, Moscow (1972), pp. 18-37. R. T. Sedgwick, "Acoustic emission from single crystals of LiF and KCI," J. Appl. Phys., 39, No. 3, 1728-1740 (1968).

ACOUSTIC EMISSION IN PLASTIC DEFORMATION OF METALS (REVIEW). REPORT 2 A. A. Yudln and V. I. Ivanov UDC 534.16:539.214

Distribution of Signal Amplitudes. Oscillographic observations have shown that the acoustic emission signal from a single act of deformation may with satisfactory approximation be represented in the form of a damping rf pulse:

[([)

[Aexp(---!-~-)sin2~vo (t-- T), t > T;

1

(1)

[0, t < T ,
where A is amplitude, T is the time of appearance of the signal, ~ is the constant of time determined by the Q-factor of the equivalent circuit describing the response of the specimen, the piezotransducer, and the rf apparatus, and 9@ is the normal resonant frequency of the piezotransducer (A and T are random values). According to experimental data, the range of change in A reaches three orders of magnitude of the value. An analysis of the distribution of A may provide useful information on the deformation process. In addition, crack formation and development normally causes acoustic emission signals of higher amplitude than does deformation ([55], for example)*; therefore, the appearance of hlgh-amplltude signals may serve as a criterion of approaching failure. *For [1-54] see Report i. Scientific-Production Association of the Central Scientific-Research Institute for Machine Building Technology, Moscow. Translated from Problemy Prochnosti, No. 6, pp. 99107, June, 1985. Original article submitted June 6, 1984.

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9 1986 Plenum Publishing Corporation

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