The Nucleus

It exists at the centre of an atom, containing entire positive charge and almost whole of mass. The electron revolve around the nucleus to form an atom. The nucleus consists of protons (+ve charge) and neutrons.

(i) A proton has positive charge equal in magnitude to that of an electron 19 (+1.6 x 10 C) and a mass equal to 1840 times that of an electron.

(ii)

A neutron has no charge and mass is approximately equal to that of proton.

(iii) The number of protons in a nucleus of an atom is called as the atomic number (Z) of that atom. The number of protons plus neutrons (called as Nucleons) in a nucleus of an atom is called as mass number (A) of that atom.

(iv) A particular set of nucleons forming an atom is called as nuclide. It is represented as ZX .

(v) The nuclides having same number of protons (Z), but different number of nucleons (A) are called as isotopes.

(vi) The nuclide having same number of nucleons (A), but different number of protons (Z) are called as isobars. (vii) The nuclide having same number of neutrons (A Z) are called as isotones.

MASS DEFECT & BINDING ENERGY

The nucleons are bound together in a nucleus and the energy has to be supplied in order to break apart the constituents into free nucleons. The energy with which nucleons are bounded together in a nucleus is called as Binding Energy (B.E.). In order to free nucleons from a bounded nucleus this much of energy (= B.E.) is to be supplied.

It is observed that the mass of a nucleus is always less than the mass of constituent (free) nucleons. This difference in mass is called as mass defect and is denoted as Dm.

If

mn: mass of a neutron;

mp: mass of a proton

M (Z, A): mass of bounded nucleus

Then, m = Z . mp + (A Z). mn M (Z, A)

This mass-defect is in form of energy and is responsible for binding the nucleons together. From Einstein's law of inter-conversion of mass into energy:

E = mc

(c: speed of light; m: mass)

binding energy = m . c

Generally, m is measured in amu units. So let us calculate the energy equivalent to 1 amu. It is 19 calculated in eV (electron volts; 1 eV =1.6 x10 J)

E (= 1 amu = 1.67 10

27

(310 ) / 1.6 10

8 2

19

) eV = 931 10 eV = 931 MeV

=> B.E. = m (931) MeV

There is another quantity which is very useful in predicting the stability of a nucleus called as Binding energy per nucleons.

B.E. per nucleons = m (931) / A MeV

From the plot of B.E./nucleons Vs mass number (A), we observe that:

(i) B.E./nucleons increases on an average and reaches a maximum of about 8.7 MeV for A 50 80.

(ii) For more heavy nuclei, B.E./nucleons decreases slowly as A increases. For the heaviest natural 238 element U it drops to about 7.5 MeV.

(iii) From above observation, it follows that nuclei in the region of atomic masses 50-80 are most stable.

Illustration 2:

If mass of proton = 1.008 amu and mass of neutron = 1.009 amu, then the binding energy per nucleon 9 for 4Be (mass = 9.012 amu) will be:

(A)

0.0672 MeV

(B)

0.672 MeV

(C)

6.72 MeV

(D)

67.2 MeV

Solution:

Mass defect

m = (4 1.008 + 5 1.009) 9.012

= 9.077 9.012 =0.065 amu

BE/A = 0.065 931 / 9 = 6.72 MeV

Illustration 4:

The energy released in the following b-decay process will be:

Given that

mn = 1.6747 1027 kg

mp = 1.6725 1027 kg

me = 0.00091 1027 kg

(A)

0.931 MeV

(B)

0.731 MeV

(C)

0.511 MeV

(D)

0.271 MeV

Solution:

Mass defect m = (1.6747 1.6725 0.0091) 10

27

= 0.0012 10

27

kg

E = 0.0012 10

27

(3 108) / 1.6 10

12

= 0.731 MeV

Illustration 5:

The binding energy per nucleon for 3Li will be, if the mass of 3Li is 7.01653 amu.

(A)

5.6 MeV

(B)

39.25 MeV

(C)

1 MeV

(D)

zero.

Solution:

E = E / A = m 931 / A MeV

m = (3mp + 4mn) mass of Li

= (3 1.00759 + 4 1.008898) 7.01653

= 0.04216

E = 0.04216 931 / 7 = 39.25 / 7 = 5 MeV

Illustration 6:

How much energy is released in the following reaction?

1H

+ 1H = 2He

If the B.E./Nucleon of 1H and 2He are 1.123 MeV and 7.2 MeV respectively.

(A)

12 MeV

(B)

24.3 MeV

(C)

36 MeV

(D)

zero

Solution:

B. E. of 1H

E = 1.125 E = A E E = 2 1.125 = 2.25 MeV

B.E. of two 1H = 2.25 Ed = 4.5 MeV

B.E. of an -particle = 4 7.2 Ea = 28.8

Energy released ER = Ea Ed ER = 28.8 4.5 = 24.3 MeV

NUCLEAR FORCES
The protons and neutrons are held together by the strong attractive forces inside the nucleus. These forces are called as nuclear forces. (i) Nuclear forces are short-ranged. They exist in small region (of diameter 10 m = 1 fm). The nuclear force between two nucleons decrease rapidly as the separation between them increases and becomes negligible at separation more than 10 fm. (ii) Nuclear force are much stronger than electromagnetic force or gravitational attractive forces.
15

(iii) Nuclear force are independent of charge. The nuclear force between two proton is same as that between two neutrons or between a neutron and proton. This is known as charge independent character of nuclear forces.

In a typical nuclear reaction

(i) In nuclear reactions, sum of masses before reaction is greater than the sum of masses after the reaction. The difference in masses appears in form of energy following the Law of inter-conversion of mass & energy. The energy released in a nuclear reaction is called as Q Value of a reaction and is given as follows. If difference in mass before and after the reaction is m amu (m = mass of reactants minus mass of products) then Q value = m (931) MeV (ii) Law of conservation of momentum is also followed.

(iii) Total number of protons and neutrons should also remain same on both sides of a nuclear reaction.

Illustration 7:
Calculate the Q-value of the nuclear reaction:
0C 12 20 10Ne

+ 2He

The following data are given: m(6C ) = 12.000000 u m(10Ne ) = 12.000000 u m(2Ne ) = 4.002603 u Solution: The Q-value of this reaction may be easily calculated may be easily calculated from the masses of the individual nuclei. Q = [2m (6C ) {m (10Ne ) + m (2He )}]e
12 20 4 2 4 20 12

= 24.000000 (19.992439 + 4.002603)} u c = 4.618 MeV

Illustration 8:
Binding energy of the calculate the mass defect and the binding energy of an -particle given the following date: mn = 1.0086665 u mp = 1.007825 u m = 4.0026 u (1u = 931.5 MeV/c ) Solution: The mass defect of an -particle is given by m = (2 1.008665 + 2 1.007825) 4.0026)u = 0.03038u The Binding energy is related to the mass defect by the reaction. B.E. = m.c
2 2

= 0.03038 931.5 MeV = 28.3 MeV (approximately)

NUCLEAR FORCES
The protons and neutrons are held together by the strong attractive forces inside the nucleus. These forces are called as nuclear forces. (i) Nuclear forces are short-ranged. They exist in small region (of diameter 10 m = 1 fm). The nuclear force between two nucleons decrease rapidly as the separation between them increases and becomes negligible at separation more than 10 fm. (ii) Nuclear force are much stronger than electromagnetic force or gravitational attractive forces.
15

(iii) Nuclear force are independent of charge. The nuclear force between two proton is same as that between two neutrons or between a neutron and proton. This is known as charge independent character of nuclear forces.

In a typical nuclear reaction

(i) In nuclear reactions, sum of masses before reaction is greater than the sum of masses after the reaction. The difference in masses appears in form of energy following the Law of inter-conversion of mass & energy. The energy released in a nuclear reaction is called as Q Value of a reaction and is given as follows. If difference in mass before and after the reaction is m amu (m = mass of reactants minus mass of products) then Q value = m (931) MeV (ii) Law of conservation of momentum is also followed.

(iii) Total number of protons and neutrons should also remain same on both sides of a nuclear reaction.

Illustration 7:
Calculate the Q-value of the nuclear reaction:
0C 12 20 10Ne

+ 2He

The following data are given: m(6C ) = 12.000000 u m(10Ne ) = 12.000000 u m(2Ne ) = 4.002603 u
4 20 12

Solution: The Q-value of this reaction may be easily calculated may be easily calculated from the masses of the individual nuclei. Q = [2m (6C ) {m (10Ne ) + m (2He )}]e
12 20 4 2

= 24.000000 (19.992439 + 4.002603)} u c = 4.618 MeV

Illustration 8:
Binding energy of the calculate the mass defect and the binding energy of an -particle given the following date: mn = 1.0086665 u mp = 1.007825 u m = 4.0026 u (1u = 931.5 MeV/c ) Solution: The mass defect of an -particle is given by m = (2 1.008665 + 2 1.007825) 4.0026)u = 0.03038u The Binding energy is related to the mass defect by the reaction. B.E. = m.c
2 2

= 0.03038 931.5 MeV = 28.3 MeV (approximately)