Multi-objective optimization for hydraulic hybrid vehicle based on

adaptive simulated annealing genetic algorithm

Sun Hui
Jiangsu Xuzhou Construction Machinery Research Institute, Jiangsu, China
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 24 April 2007
Received in revised form
18 July 2009
Accepted 11 September 2009
Available online 5 November 2009
Keywords:
Hydraulic hybrid vehicle
Hydrostatic transmission
Optimization matching
Simulated annealing
Genetic algorithm
a b s t r a c t
Along with the shortage of energy and the increasingly serious pollution of environment in cities,
automobile industries all over the world are exploring and developing energy saving and clean
automobile. Hydraulic hybrid vehicle has better potential in medium-size and large-size passenger
vehicles than its electric counterparts. The key components sizes have remarkable inuence on the
vehicle performance and fuel economy, and an optimization process is needed to nd the best design
parameters for maximum fuel economy while satisfying the vehicle performance constraints. Multi-
Objective optimization method based on adaptive simulated annealing genetic algorithm (ASAGA) is
proposed to optimize the key components in HHV. In the objective function of the optimization, all the
weighting factors can be set with different values according to different requirements. The optimal
results show that the proposed method effectively distinguishes the key components optimal
parameters position of HHV, enhances the performance and fuel consumption.
& 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
With the rising concern in a global scale environmental issue,
energy saving in automobiles is a very important subject. The
search for improving fuel economy, reducing emissions, and
affordable vehicles, without sacricing vehicle performance,
safety, reliability, and other conventional vehicle attributes, has
made the hybrid technology one of the challenges for the
automotive industry (Wei, 2006). As an important branch of
hybrid technology, hydraulic hybrid vehicles have increasingly
aroused the attention of the research institutions and automotive
manufacturers all over the world (Hewko and Weber, 1990; Paul
and Jacek, 2003). Hydraulic hybrid vehicles employ hydrostatic
transmission as against the traditional mechanical transmission,
hence eliminating some mechanical connection between the
engine and the driving wheels. After the introduction of hydraulic
accumulator, the engine is decoupled from automobile load and
operated in high efciency region. Hydraulic accumulator has the
advantage of higher power density and the ability to accept the
high rates and high frequencies of charging and discharging, both
of which are not favorable for batteries (Peng et al., 2006; Wang et
al., 2005; Lin et al., 2003), therefore hydraulic hybrid technology is
well suited for luxury passenger cars, sport utility vehicles, light-
duty trucks and heavy-duty trucks.
The initial estimates of the hydraulic accumulator and pump/
motor sizes are based on the critical vehicle performance
requirements. However, an optimization process is needed to
nd the design parameters for maximum fuel economy while
satisfying the vehicle performance constraints. An important
characteristic of the optimization is the highly non-linear and
non-continuous powertrain system, which may have a large
number of local optimums. Thus, the gradient-based optimization
methods may not converge to a global solution. Compared with
the other optimization methods, genetic algorithm (Sawaragi
et al., 1985; Richardson et al., 1989; Houck et al., 1995; Zhang et al.,
1997; Morteza et al., 2006;) has the advantages of robust character
and global character for the non-linear problem of components
optimization, but the primary problems of the GA are the slow
convergence in the later phase. Simulated annealing algorithm
(SA) in general is able to obtain improvements also into the late
phase of the process, it does not converge as fast as the GA in
the initial phase (Yuan et al., 2006; Myungryun and Mitsuo, 2007).
In this study, the unied algorithm, called adaptive simulated
annealing genetic algorithm (ASAGA), is designed to nd design
parameters for maximum fuel economy. The simulation results
show that the ASAGA method is valid and effective, which takes
advantage of the GA as well as the SA, and effectively distinguishes
the key components optimal parameters values, substantially
improving the performance and fuel economy of HHV.
2. Conguration of HHV
The new conguration of hydraulic hybrid vehicles proposed in
this paper is shown in Fig. 1, which is congured with the aim of
achieving better fuel economy and driving performance.
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Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence
0952-1976/$ - see front matter & 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.engappai.2009.09.005
E-mail address: sunhuinievana@163.com
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ARTICLE IN PRESS
In the conguration, the engine does not drive the vehicle
directly. Instead, it converts the mechanical power into the
hydraulic energy using a pump to supply high pressure oil for
the hydraulic pump/motors. After the introduction of hydraulic
accumulator, the engine is decoupled from automobile load and
operated in high efciency region. The conventional driveline is
completely removed and two pump/motors are connected to the
front and rear wheel axles through the differentials. Because of
the multi-motors conguration, hydraulic hybrid vehicles have
the function of 4-wheel-drive (4wd). The front and rear units can
be used independently or together to provide energy to the
wheels efciently. The clutches are tted to front and rear
differentials, respectively, which complete the automatic switches
among front drive, rear drive and 4-wheel-drive modes. During
the start/acceleration period under small load condition, the front
hydraulic pump/motor independently propels the vehicle, which
makes the hydraulic pump/motor work in high load operating
region and enhances the overall efciency of the vehicle.
Full throttle/hard acceleration is achieved by using both the
front and rear hydraulic units together, the vehicle works in 4wd
mode. The operation involves three propulsion devices, an engine
and the front/rear hydraulic pump/motors that propel the bus
simultaneously. During normal driving, the front pump/motor
provides torque for the moderate acceleration and decelerations.
During deceleration, the front pump/motor decelerates the
vehicle while operating as a pump to capture the energy normally
lost to the friction brakes in a conventional vehicle. Also when the
vehicle brake is applied, the front hydraulic pump/motor uses the
kinetic energy of the braking actions to charge the hydraulic uid
from a low pressure accumulator into a high pressure accumu-
lator, increasing the pressure of the nitrogen gas in the high
pressure accumulator. The high pressure hydraulic uid is used by
hydraulic pump/motor unit to generate torque during the next
acceleration, which sends the uid back to the low pressure
accumulator. Hydraulic pump/motor is designed and sized to
capture energy from normal, moderate braking events, if braking
torques provided by hydraulics are not enough, it is supplemented
by the frictional brake (Paul and Jacek, 2003).
3. Design algorithm
Genetic algorithm has the advantages of robust character and
global character for the non-linear problem of components
optimization. But one of the problems of the genetic algorithm
(GA) is its convergence behavior. Initially, the cost of the solutions
improves rapidly. But then it becomes very difcult to obtain
further improvement. The majority of the runtime is spent in the
later phase of the process in which only small improvements are
obtained (Myungryun and Mitsuo, 2007; Kirkpatrick et al., 1983).
While SA in general is able to obtain improvements also into the
late phase of the process, it does not converge as fast as the GA in
the initial phase. The unied algorithm, called ASAGA, is designed
in such a way that the advantages of the GA as well as the SA are
utilized, which overcomes the overcoming of pre-maturity in GA.
3.1. The simulated annealing algorithm
The usual outline of a simulated annealing (SA) algorithm is as
follows:
1. Initialize the parameters of the annealing schedule;
2. Randomly generate an initial state as the current-state;
3. k:=1;
4. repeat
5. repeat
6. Call move generation strategy for generating the
next-state;
7. DC:=cost of the next-statecost of the current-state;
8. P
r
=min{1, exp (DC/T)};
9. If P
r
4random[0 1) then the current-state:=the next-
state;
10. until system equilibrium at T
k
11. T
k+l
:=T
k
n
a;
12. until system has been frozen.
3.2. Adaptive simulated annealing genetic algorithm
During the optimization of HHV using the ASAGA method, the
selection of tness function and the design of genetic operators
are the key factors for the successful optimization. The genetic
operators in genetic algorithms consist of selection, crossover and
mutation. If the genetic operators are unchanged with the
generations, the optimization method is called SAGA. In this
study, the adaptive selection mechanism is proposed to improve
the search performance of GA which is called adaptive SAGA.
3.2.1. Adaptive selection operator
The individual selection rate adopts combination of weighing
and selection mechanism of adaptive probability P
f
and concen-
tration probability P
d
(Yuan et al., 2006):
P
0
aP
f
1 aP
d
0oao1 1
Adaptive selection operator protects the individual with high
tness value and restrains the individual with large concentration
probability, which maintains the individual variety and improves
the pre-mature convergence.
3.2.2. Adaptive crossover and mutation operator
Large crossover probability has the effect of destroying the
optimal solution in the late phase of GA, and small crossover
probability also impacts the variety of individual in the initial
phase of GA. In order to overcome the above shortcomings,
adaptive annealing temperature crossover probability P
c
is
introduced as follows:
P
c
0:9
f
max
f
0
f
max
f
avg

bN
Tt
f
0
Zf
avg
2
P
c
0:9
bN
Tt
f
0
of
avg
3
where f
max
, f
min
are the highest tness value and the average
tness value, respectively. b the proportion coefcient, 0obo1
Fig. 1. New conguration of hydraulic hybrid vehicles.
S. Hui / Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence 23 (2010) 2733 28
ARTICLE IN PRESS
the crossover individual with highest tness value; N the
population size.
Similarly, adaptive annealing temperature mutation probabil-
ity is as follows:
P
m
0:3
f
max
f
f
max
f
avg

gN
Tt
f Zf
avg
4
P
m
0:3
gN
Tt
f of
avg
5
3.2.3. Adaptive selection optimal solution to simulate annealing
Array current solutions according to the tness values,
conserve the best individual and select {NP} individuals with
large tness values into the process of simulated annealing.
P Kf
avg
=f
max
0rKr0:2 6
If f
max
is large and f
avg
is small, then P is small; if f
max
is not
larger then f
avg
, then P is large.
3.2.4. Fitness dynamic stretch operate
The criterion of tness dynamic stretch is as follows:
f
i
e
f
i
=Tt

N
i 1
e
f
i
=Tt
_
7
When temperature is high (in the initial phase of GA), the
individuals with similar tness values almost have the same
probability of offspring, so the temperature drop scope is obvious
to avoid the majority of the runtime spent in this phase. Along
with the drop of temperature, stretch effect is strengthened,
which increases the difference between the individuals with
similar tness values. Therefore, the advantage of good indivi-
duals is more obvious, which conduces to the search of the
optimum solution.
3.3. The ow of adaptive simulated annealing genetic algorithm
The ow of ASAGA is as follows:
1. Initial parameters. i.e., population size, T
0
, a (0oao1),
randomly generate P
0
;
2. Put each chromosome into the mathematical model of HHV
powertrain and perform the vehicle performance tests such
as: maximum velocity test, gradeability test and acceleration
test, etc. If the individuals meet the performance require-
ments of the vehicle, then calculate the fuel consumption and
individual tness value. Or else, reject the unsatised
individuals and copy the best individual;
3. Calculate the average cost of P
0
;
4. Solution_vector:=current_point:=the lowest cost point in P
0
;
5. k:=0;
6. while system is not frozen do
7. no_of_point:=0;
8. while no_of_pointrpopulation size do
9. Generate next_point from current_point by the move
generation strategy;
10. DC:=cost of the next-statecost of the current-state;
11. P
r
=min{1, exp (DC/T)};
12. If P
r
4random[0 1) then put next_point into P
k+1
;
13. current_point:=next_point;
14. no_of_point:=no_of_point+1;
15. else pick another point from P
k
as current_point;
16. endwhile
17. Apply the genetic operators to create P
k+1
;
18. if the lowest cost point in P
k+1
osolution_vector then update
solution_vector;
19. if it is the initial stage then determining the initial
temperature T
1
;
20. T
1
=(the highest costthe lowest cost)/(population_size/2);
21. else T
k+l
:=T
k
n
a;
22. current_point:=the lowest cost in P
k+1
;
23. k:=k+1;
24. if frozen condition is signing then set system is frozen;
25. endwhile
26. Perform the local search procedure.
27. If the termination criterion is fullled, then stop. Or else, set
the best individual as initial individual and return to the
process 1.
3.4. Objective function
To apply adaptive simulated annealing genetic algorithm to the
optimization of HHV, a tness function is required to evaluate
the status of each solution. In this study, the tness function is
composed of four parts.
(1) Braking energy regenerative ability of HHV is described as
Z
E
acc_max
E
avg

E
acc_max
1
2
mv
2
avg
8
where E
acc_max
is the largest recoverable energy of hydraulic
accumulator,
E
acc_max

p
1
V
1
n 1
p
1
p
_ _1n
n
1
_ _
9
where p
1
is the lowest work pressure of accumulator, V
1
the gas
volume at the lowest pressure, n the poly-index of the gas, m the
vehicle mass and v
avg
the cruising velocity of HHV.
(2) Driving performance of HHV is described as
t
hhv

n
j 1
_
u
j2
u
j1
d
j
m
F
hj
F
f
F
w

du 10
where t
hhv
is the acceleration time, F
hj
the largest driving force at
one gear ratio, F
f
and F
w
are the frictional and aerodynamic
resistance, respectively.
(3) Fuel consumption of HHV is described as
Q
add
2f V
0
f V
P=M
m
_

Q
a
Q
s
Q
d
Q
id

m
11
where f V
0
0:0003V
2
0
0:5099V
0
11:6537,
f V
p=m
0:0008V
3
p=m
0:0853V
2
p=m
0:5656V
p=m
34:7283
f(V
0
) and f(V
P/M
) are the mass tting functions of accumulator and
hydraulic pump/motor, respectively. V
0
the volume of hydraulic
accumulator. V
P/M
the displacement of hydraulic pump/motor.
Q
a
, Q
s
, Q
d
, Q
id
are the fuel consumption of HHV during the course
of acceleration, constant speed, deceleration and ideal.
(4) The added price of HHV is described as
price
hhv
2f
p
V
0
f
p
V
P=M
12
where f
p
(V
0
), f
p
(V
P/M
) are the price tting functions of hydraulic
accumulator and pump/motor, respectively.
Some aspects of HHV are often in conict with each other.
For instance, the best braking energy regenerative ability does not
necessarily result in the minimization of vehicle mass and
maximization of drive performance, implying the need for a
tradeoff solution. In this study, a multi-objective optimization
method is implemented to achieve the optimization target.
Multi-objective optimization, which is also called multi-criteria
optimization or vector optimization, has been dened as nding a
S. Hui / Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence 23 (2010) 2733 29
ARTICLE IN PRESS
vector of decision variables satisfying constraints to give
acceptable values to all objective functions. In this approach,
all the targets are aggregated into a single objective function to
be optimized. The objective function can be mathematically
dened as
FV
1
; V
2
; V
acc
; p
const
; p
max
; p
min

c
f
t
a
1
E
max
E
acc
E
max
E
min
a
2
t
hhv
t
min
t
max
t
min
a
3
Q
hhv
Q
min
Q
max
Q
min
a
4
P
hhv
P
min
P
max
P
min
13
where a
1
to a
4
are dened as the weighting factors in order to be
able to investigate the effect of different objectives on the
optimization results, such as performance, energy regenerative
ability, fuel economy, etc. E
max
and E
min
are the max and min
regenerative energy, respectively. t
max
and t
min
are the largest and
smallest acceleration times. Q
max
and Q
min
are the max and the
min fuel consumptions of HHV. P
max
and P
min
are the max and the
min added prices of HHV.
3.5. Gene limitation
In order to apply ASAGA to design the powertrain, the
maximum and minimum limit values of the genes must be
calculated. As described in the previous section, the hydraulic
pump/motor is assigned to play a primary role in driving the
vehicle. Accordingly, the min displacement of hydraulic pump/
motor is determined by
minV
p=m

0:377r
60Z
P=M
p
const
i
0
i
g
Gf
C
d
Av
2
avg
21:15
_ _
14
where Z
P/M
is the transmission efciency from the hydraulic
pump/motor to the wheels, i
0
the nal ratio of the vehicle, and
i
g
the transmission gear.
The max displacement of hydraulic pump/motor must reach
the requirement of driving the vehicle at max velocity or climbing
at one velocity, as expressed in below equations:
maxV
P=M
maxV
P=M1
; V
P=M2
15
V
P=M1

0:377r
60Z
P=M
p
const
i
0
i
g
Gf
C
d
Av
2
max
21:15
_ _
16
V
P=M2

0:377r
60Z
P=M
p
const
i
0
i
g
GsinaGcosaf
C
d
Av
2
slop
21:15
_ _
17
The maximum and minimum pressures of the constant
pressure system are determined by
minp
const

2pGcosaf C
d
Av
2
=21:15
V
P=M;max
i
0
i
2
18
maxp
const

2pGsinaGcosaf C
d
Av
2
slop
=21:15
V
P=M;max
i
0
i
1
19
In order to provide auxiliary energy and absorb the excess
energy in high rates and high frequencies, the minimum working
pressure of hydraulic accumulator is slightly lower than the value
of constant pressure network system. The maximum working
pressure of hydraulic accumulator cannot exceed the maximum
pressure that the hydraulic pump/motor allowed.
3.6. Model of important components
Due to the complexity of the hydraulic pump/motor and
hydraulic accumulator, it is difcult and inaccurate to model the
components model with analytic mathematic equations and that
will slow the calculation speed and reduce the precision of a
simplied model. In this study, the combination of theoretic
model and numerical model method is introduced to build the
components model.
3.6.1. Model of hydraulic pump/motor
In order to save the calculation time, the combination of
theoretic model and numerical model method is introduced to
build the hydraulic pump/motor model. The efciency linear
interpolation is used to calculate the output torque of hydraulic
pump/motor. The hydraulic pump/motor efciency curve is
shown in Fig. 2 (Kim and Filipi, 2007).
3.6.2. Model of hydraulic accumulator
In order to more closely represent the pvT characteristics of
the nitrogen gas, the BenedictWebbRubin equation is used
(Paul and Jacek, 2003)
p
RT
v
B
0
RT A
0

C
0
T
2
_ _
1
v
2

bRT a
v
3

aa
v
6
c 1
g
v
2
_ _
e
g=v
2
_ _
1
v
3
T
2
20
where p, v, and T are the gas pressure, specic volume and
temperature, respectively. All other values in this equation are
empirical constants specic for nitrogen gas. By differentiating
Eq. (21) with respect to temperature, and following the procedure
outlined in the Otis Time Constant theory, we arrive at (Paul and
Jacek, 2003)
dT
dt

T
0
T
t

1
c
v
RT
v
1
b
v
2
_ _

1
v
2
B
0
RT
2C
0
T
2
_ _ _

2C
0
v
3
T
2
1
g
v
2
_ _
e
g=v
2
_
dv
dt
21
This temperature is then put back into Eq. (22) to give the
accumulator pressure history for a process cycle.
The maximum energy that can be recovered by the hydraulic
accumulator is
E
_
pdv RT lnv B
0
RT A
0

C
0
g
2
_ _
v
bRT a
2v
2
_

aa
5v
5

c
T
2
1
g

1
2v
2
_ _
e
g=v
2
22
Fig. 2. . Efciency curve of hydraulic pump/motor.
S. Hui / Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence 23 (2010) 2733 30
ARTICLE IN PRESS
4. Optimization and analysis
The ASAGA described in the previous sections is used to
optimize the sizes of key components in HHV. As shown in
the ow of adaptive simulated annealing genetic algorithm, the
hybrid powertrain conguration is employed to simulate. The
basic parameters of HHV are as follows:
Vehicle mass: 9700 kg.
Rolling resistance coefcient: 0.009.
Body aerodynamic drag coefcient: 0.335.
Vehicle front area: 4 m
2
.
Wheel radius: 0.48 m.
Gearbox: three speed manual gearbox with following gear
ratios: 4.2, 2.2, 1.3. Efciency of gearbox is assumed to be 95%.
Final drive ratio: 5.286.
Maximum speed: Z90 km/h.
Gradeability: Z30%.
The six variables are coded in a chromosome using a binary
coding scheme consisting of the following genes:
x fV
acc
; V
p=m1
; V
p=m2
; p
const
; p
max
; p
min
g
The genes limitations are listed in Table 1.
In the objective function of ASAGA, all the weighting factors
can be set with different values according to different require-
ments. For instance, when the main objective is the minimization
of the vehicle fuel consumption (FC), the weighting factor of FC
will be set to increase, other weighting factors will be set to
decrease correspondingly. This case is called FC targeted optimi-
zation problem. More versions of weights are also dened as
Tradeoff and driving targeted. The denition of weights for
different versions is illustrated in Table 2.
The optimal parameters obtained for the different weight
coefcients and population sizes are summarized in Table 3.
Under the tradeoff optimization condition, the optimization
process of objective function is illustrated in Fig. 3.
As it can be seen from rows 13 in Table 3, the optimal values
of important parameters are almost identical, which indicates the
chromosome population size (Morteza et al., 2006) has little effect
on the optimal results of important parameters. So in the latter
optimization course, the chromosome population is adopted as
50. As shown in the results among 46th rows, when the driving
performance weight coefcient a
2
increases, the optimized results
of system work pressure value p
const
and the hydraulic pump/
motor displacement V
p/m
increase, while the hydraulic accumu-
lator volume V
acc
reduces, which is in accord with the target
function setting up. Similarly, when the main objective is the
minimization of the fuel consumption, the weight coefcient a
1
is
set to 0.4 and the weight of driving performance weight is set to
0.2. The optimized value V
acc
increases, p
const
and V
p/m
reduce
correspondingly. Based on the characteristics of city driving cycle,
the city vehicle should have better FC and braking energy
regenerative rate, so the results of ASAGA are satised and
effective.
As it can be seen in Fig. 3, individuals appear to evolve with
time for the HHV, and whenever the evolutions take place over 80
generations, the tness value is almost the biggest, that is the
objective value approaches to the minimum 1.
The optimal parameters obtained for tradeoff target based on
three different average speeds are summarized in Table 4.
The optimal values V
acc
and V
p/m
under higher average speed
driving cycle are greater than the counterparts in lower speed
driving cycle, which is in accord with the target function setting
up. Based on the characteristics of city driving cycle, under the
same optimization objective, the higher city driving cycle requires
the vehicle has bigger displacement hydraulic pump/motor and
Table 1
Genes limitation parameters.
Lower bound Upper bound
V
acc
(L) 20 60
V
p/m1
(ml/r) 30 200
V
p/m2
(ml/r) 30 150
P
const
(MPa) 15 30
P
max
(MPa) 30 34
P
min
(MPa) 15 26
Table 2
Denition of weights for optimization.
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
4
Tradeoff 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Drive-targeted 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.2
FC-targeted 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2
Table 3
Optimization results of different weight coefcients and population sizes.
Num. N Performance name p
const
(MPa) V
acc
(L) V
p/m1+
V
p/m2
(ml/r) p
max
(MPa) p
min
(MPa)
1 20 Tradeoff 20.140 40.000 150.120 34.000 20.140
2 50 Tradeoff 20.142 40.000 150.415 34.000 20.142
3 100 Tradeoff 20.140 40.000 150.417 34.000 20.260
4 50 Tradeoff 20.139 40.000 150.42 34.000 20.139
5 50 Drive-targeted 23.400 40.000 154.67 34.000 23.400
Fig. 3. Trace of objective minimization over generations.
S. Hui / Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence 23 (2010) 2733 31
ARTICLE IN PRESS
higher capacity accumulator, so the results of ASAGA are exact and
effective.
Furthermore, in order to study the behavior of the HHV fuel
economy, driving performance and added mass with respect to
the weights, the normalized values of HHV performance for the
different optimization objective are compared in Fig. 4. As it can
be seen in this gure, the behavior of fuel economy is not
consistent with added mass and gradeablity. The amount of fuel
economy obtained for the FC optimization is greater than all other
versions of weights. Other performances obtained for the FC
optimization are less than all other versions of weights, which is
in accord with the target function setting up.
In order to evaluate the optimized results based on ASAGA, the
multi-objective optimization for the same HHV based on
Sequential Quadratic Programming (SQP) (Zhu and Zhang, 2006)
method is performed. a
1
to a
4
are set 0.3, 0.2, 0.25 and 0.25,
respectively. The vehicle performances of optimized HHV are
summarized in Table 5.
As it can be seen in this table, the optimal parameters by
ASAGA are more in accord with the target function setting up,
which indicates that ASAGA strengthens the overall search ability
and improves the efciency of optimal solution.
After the optimization of important components, the driving
performance and fuel economy of HHV remarkably exceeds the
default HHV, and the vehicle mass, and price are reduced
obviously. The UDDS cycle is used to compare the performance
of tradeoff-targeted optimized HHV and default HHV, the results
are shown in Figs. 5 and 6.
It is shown that after the optimization, the engine works at
better fuel economy region, the fuel consumption is lower, and the
hydraulic pump/motor also works at large displacement and high
load working condition in UDDS, the overall efciency of the
hydraulic hybrid vehicle is high.
5. Conclusions
In this paper, application of ASAGA is described for the
optimization of key component sizes in HHV. The optimization
problem is formulated for meeting the minimum fuel consumption
Table 4
Optimization results of different driving cycles.
Num. Performance name Average speed (km/h) p
const
(MPa) V
acc
(L) V
p/m1
+V
p/m2
(ml/r) p
max
(MPa) p
min
(MPa)
1 FC-targeted 35 18.471 45.190 156.66 34.000 18.470
2 FC-targeted 30 18.992 40.000 153.64 34.000 18.990
3 FC-targeted 25 19.550 32.650 152.03 34.000 19.550
Fig. 4. HHV performance for the different optimization objectives.
Fig. 5. Energy utility of optimized HHV under UDDS cycle.
Table 5
Comparison of the optimized HHV performances by ASAGA and SQP method.
Parameters SQP ASAGA
Max gradient (1) 14.3 14.1
Add mass (kg) 331 328
Energy regen. rate (%) 66.89 67.15
Fuel economy (%) 28.96 29.23
Fig. 6. Work conditions of engine and hydraulic pump/motor.
S. Hui / Engineering Applications of Articial Intelligence 23 (2010) 2733 32
ARTICLE IN PRESS
while maintaining the vehicle performance requirements. In the
objective function of the optimization, all the weighting factors
can be set with different values according to different require-
ments. The combinations of theoretical model and numerical
model method are introduced to build the powertrain component
models. Finally, the optimization is performed under different
objective functions. The results show that the proposed method
effectively distinguishes the key components optimal parameters
position of HHV, enhances the performance and fuel consump-
tion, which provides the practical feasible method for hydraulic
hybrid vehicle.
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