An Introduction to R/C structures Materials Properties Basic Theorems of Limit Analysis

Concrete Uniaxial compression

Approximately linear elastic up to = 0.300.40fc Gradual decrease of slope up to = 0.750.90fc Above = 0.90fc there is a sharp decrease of the slope, up to the peak stress fc (= compressive strength) Beyond the peak, there is a descending branch, until a crushing failure occurs (at the ultimate strain cu 0.003)

2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010

Cyclic behaviour

If unloaded below = 0.50fc strains are essentially recoverable In the range 0.500.75fc nonlinearities and plastic offsets begin to appear Nonlinearities become pronounced at the peak stress and in the descending branch

2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010

Uniaxial tension

Generally, the stress-strain response is nearly linear up to the peak stress fct (= tensile strength) After cracking, a quickly decaying response is observed: this phenomenon is known as TENSION SOFTENING The tensile behaviour of concrete can be measured by means of different tests: direct tensile test indirect tensile tests (by splitting or in bending)

2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010

Biaxial behaviour of concrete Strength

In biaxial stress conditions, the compressive strength of concrete increases (with respect to uniaxial conditions) by 25% for 2/1 = 0.50 by 16% for 2/1 = 1.00 Under biaxial compression/tension, the tensile strength decreases almost linearly as the compressive stress increases Under biaxial tension, strength is unaffected by 2/1

2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010

Biaxial behaviour of concrete Ductility

Load condition (i.e. 2/1 ratio) plays significant role in ductility and post-peak response Greater ductility under biaxial compression than under uniaxial compression: this fact is systematically exploited in confined columns In biaxial compression-tension, the failure strain (either by crushing or cracking) reduces as the tension stress increases No significant effect is observed in biaxial tension

2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010

Triaxial behaviour of concrete

Under triaxial compression, increases in strength and ductility can be very significant Depending on the confining stress level, concrete can act as: quasi-brittle plastic softening plastic-hardening

2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010

Uniaxial behaviour of steel

Initial linear elastic region, up to the yield point Yield plateau from the yield strain to the point (st), where strainhardening begins Strain-hardening region, from st to the ultimate strain (u) Decreasing branch from the ultimate strain to the fracture strain (f)

2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010

Introduction to Limit Analysis

Obtaining a progressive-failure solution to a problem involving reinforced concrete is usually a rather complex task... Simple example: simply-supported beam subjected to a concentrated load at mid-span

beam without stirrups

beam with stirrups

2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010

10

A rational analytical solution to this problem involves considering: cracking bond slip dowel action aggregate interlock A possible way to include all the aforementioned aspects is to resort to Finite Element Analysis; however, the computational effort required is not justified for everydays applications. Idealizations are necessary to obtain a reasonable approximate solution for cases of practical interest. It is often satisfactory to know the loads or load level at which the structure will collapse the structure will deform excessively This is the main objective of Limit Analysis.

2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010

Applicability of Limit Analysis

11

Limit Analysis techniques are based on the statements of the two limit theorems by Drucker et al. (1952). The theorems can be established directly for a structure satisfying the following properties: the material exhibits perfect or ideal plasticity (no work hardening or work softening); the yield surface of the material is convex, and the plastic strain rates can be derived from an associated flow rule; changes in geometry of the structure at the collapse load are insignificant; hence the equations of virtual work can be applied. The collapse load of an idealized structure having the ideal properties listed above is called the limit load; it can be shown that collapse occurs under constant load.

2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010

Is reinforced concrete plastic?

12

Typically, concrete sections with low reinforcement ratios (such as in slabs), exhibit a plastic (= ductile) behaviour. Another way to reduce the brittleness of concrete is to provide an adequate confinement (= closely-spaced stirrups).
2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010

Comparison between steel and R/C sections

13

rectangular steel section

rectangular R/C section

2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010

Theorems of Limit Analysis

14

The limit theorems are then as follows:

1. Lower-bound theorem: if an equilibrium distribution of stress

can be found, which balances the applied loads and is everywhere below yield or at yield, the structure will not collapse or will just be at the point of collapse.
2. Upper-bound theorem: the structure will collapse if there is

any compatible pattern of plastic deformation, for which the rate at which the external forces do work exceeds the rate of internal dissipation.

2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010

Consequences of the Limit Theorems

15

Theorem 1 reaffirms the important consideration that a plastic material can adjust itself to carry the applied load, if this is possible. It gives lower bounds of the collapse load, and hence it is on the safe side. Theorem 2 states that if a failure path exists, the structure will not be able to carry the loads. It gives upper bounds of the collapse load, and hence it is on the unsafe side. Since the two theorems give, respectively, a lower and an upper bound to the collapse load, it is possible to bracket the real value of the collapse load close enough for practical engineering purposes. These two theorems are implemented in current engineering practice through the two methods for evaluating the collapse load: Static Approach Kinematic Approach

2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010

The Static Approach

16

The static method is based on the satisfaction of two (out of three) basic requirements of structural mechanics: Equilibrium Resistance (= yield limit in a plastic material) Consider the example of a beam over 4 supports:
load q

elastic moments

The load q, corresponding to the moment distribution Md, is a lower bound of the collapse load. This is the typical application in the design of beams and other structures.

2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010

The Kinematic Approach

17

The kinematic approach is based on the satisfaction of two (out of three) basic requirements of structural mechanics: Equilibrium Compliance (= formation of a plastic mechanism) In plasticity, compliance is typically enforced through the subdivision of the structure into two zones: an elastic (= rigid) zone, where the deformations are negligible; a plastic zone, where energy dissipation takes place. The plastic zone can have different names (= plastic hinge, yield line...) depending on the structure under consideration. Equilibrium is enforced through application of the principle of virtual works.

2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010

Worked-out example Propped cantilever with point loads

18

Consider a beam with one end built-in and the other simplysupported.

The beam is subjected to two concentrated loads, characterized by the same intensity Q. The resisting moment Mp (= yield moment) of the beam is the same in hogging and sagging.
2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010

Application of the Static Approach

19

RA = RB = Q

Mp = QL/3

Qu 3Mp/L

Note that the moment distribution is not necessarily the elastic distribution.
2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010

Application of the Kinematic Approach

20

plastic hinges

Equilibrium is enforced via the Principle of Virtual Works: Q L/3 = Mp + Mp 2 Qu 9Mp/L

2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010

Alternative moment distribution Static Approach

21

RA = Q + Mp/L, RB = Q Mp/L Qu 4Mp/L

2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010

Mp = RBL/3

Alternative moment distribution Kinematic Approach

22

L/3 + Q

2L/3 = Mp

+ Mp 3

Qu 4Mp/L Note that the value of the collapse load using the two approaches is exactly the same; hence, this value is the exact value of the collapse load.
2D and 3D RC Structural Elements A.Y. 2009/2010