Chapter 2

Vector Functions
2.1
2.1.1

Vector-Valued Functions
Denitions

Until now, the functions we studied took a real number as input and gave another real number as output. Hence, when dening a function, it was usually enough to simply specify a formula for it. This is no longer the case. In the future, when we dene a function we will also need to specify the kind of objects it acts on (numbers, vectors, ...) and the kind of output it produces (numbers, vectors, ...). For example, to dene a function which takes as input a pair of numbers and produces a real number as output, dened by the formula f (x; y ) = x2 + y 2 , we would write: f : R2 ! R x2 + y 2

(x; y ) 7 !

We could also say: f : R2 ! R dened by f (x; y ) = x2 + y 2 . The part f : R2 ! R indicates that the inputs come from R2 (they are pairs) and the outputs are in R. With this in mind, we now dene vector valued functions. Denition 98 (vector-valued functions) A vector-valued function or simply a vector function is a function whose domain is a set of real numbers and range a set of vectors (2D or 3D). In other words, it is a function of the form ! r : R ! R2 or ! r : R ! R3 . You will note that we used vector notation because the function is actually a vector. 1. In the plane, such a function will be of the form ! r : R ! R2 dened by ! r (t) = hf (t) ; g (t)i. 2. In space, such a function will be of the form ! r : R ! R3 dened by ! r (t) = hf (t) ; g (t) ; h (t)i. 77

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CHAPTER 2. VECTOR FUNCTIONS 3. We usually use t to denote the independent variable because many applications of these functions come from physics and the variable is time. t is often called a parameter. 4. The functions f; g; h are called component functions. They are functions for which both the input and output values are real numbers. In other words, f : R ! R, g : R ! R, and h : R ! R. They are functions like the functions you used in di erential and integral calculus. 5. The domain of a vector function is the set of values of t for which ! r (t) is dened. That is, it is the set of values of t for which all the component functions are dened. One way to nd it is to nd the intersection of the domains of each component function.

Example 99 Consider the vector function ! r (t) = hsin t; cos ti. Its domain it the set of values of t for which both sin t and cos t are dened. Since both functions are always dened, the domain of ! r (t) is R. p Example 100 Consider the vector function ! r (t) = t2 ; ln (3 t) ; t . Its p domain it the set of values of t for which t2 , ln (3 t) and t are dened. t2 is always dened. ln (3 t) is dened when 3 t > 0 that is when t < 3 or p t 2 ( 1; 3). t is dened when t 2 [0; 1). The set of values of t in which all three functions are dened is [0; 3).

2.1.2

Limits and Continuity

Limit and continuity of vector functions are dened in terms of limits and continuity of their components. ! Denition 101 (limit of a vector function) D E If r (t) = hf (t) ; g (t) ; h (t)i ! then lim r (t) = lim f (t) ; lim g (t) ; lim h (t)
t!a t!a t!a t!a

Remark 102 1. Since the component functions are real-valued functions of one variable, we can use all the tools we learned in calculus I to nd their limits. 2. Because taking the limit of a vector function amounts to taking the limits of real-valued functions, it can be shown that the limit rules we learned in calculus I are also true for vector functions. Example 103 Find lim ! r (t) for ! r (t) = t2 ; ln (3 From the denition, we have
t!0 t!0

p t) ; t . pE t

lim ! r (t)

= h0; ln 3; 0i

t!0

lim t2 ; lim ln (3
t!0

t) ; lim

t!0

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Denition 104 (Continuity of a vector function) The vector function ! r (t) is continuous if and only if
t!a

r (t) = ! r (a) lim !

Remark 105 From the denition, we see that a vector function is continuous if and only if its component functions are continuous. Since the component functions are real-valued functions of one variable, we can use all the theorems studied in calculus I. p Example 106 Find where ! r (t) = t2 ; ln (3 t) ; t is continuous. We need to nd the set of values of x at which each component of ! r is continuous. t2 is continuous for all values of t . ln (3 t ) is continuous where it p is dened that is on ( 1; 3). t is continuous where it is dened that is on [0; 1). It follows that ! r (t) is continuous on [0; 3).

2.1.3

Plane and Space Curves

Denition 107 (plane and space curves) Let f; g; h be three continuous realvalued functions. 1. If ! r (t) = hf (t) ; g (t)i then the set on points (x; y ) where x = f (t) y = g (t) (2.1)

and t varies throughout some interval I is called a plane curve. ! r (t) is the position vector of the point (f (t) ; g (t)). 2. If ! r (t) = hf (t) ; g (t) ; h (t)i then the set on points (x; y; z ) where 8 < x = f (t) y = g (t) : z = h (t)

(2.2)

and t varies throughout some interval I is called a space curve. ! r (t) is the position vector of the point (f (t) ; g (t) ; h (t)).

3. Equations 2.1 and 2.2 are called the parametric equations of the curve. The curve is being traced by the tip of the position vector as t varies through the interval I as illustrated in gure 2.1. t is called the parameter. We will not focus on plotting plane or space curves by hand. However, students should have a basic knowledge of some basic curves. They are illustrated in the examples below. Students should also know how to plot plane and space curves using their favorite computer program.

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CHAPTER 2. VECTOR FUNCTIONS

Figure 2.1: A space curve and its position vector at dierent values of the parameter Example 108 Recall the parametric equation of the line through (x1 ; y1 z1 ) with direction vector ha; b; ci is 8 < x = x1 + at y = y1 + bt : z = z1 + ct where t 2 R. Example 109 The parametric equations of the line through two points (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) and (x1 ; y1 z1 ) are 8 < x = (1 t) x0 + tx1 y = (1 t) y0 + ty1 (2.3) : z = (1 t) z0 + tz1 for t 2 R This is easy to see. A direction vector will be hx1 x0 ; y1 the equation of the line using the previous example will be 8 < x = x0 + t (x1 x0 ) y = y0 + t (y1 y0 ) : z = z0 + t (z1 z0 ) Rearranging gives the desired equation. y0 ; z1 z0 i. Thus,

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Example 110 From the above example, one can see that the equation of the line segment between two points (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) and (x1 ; y1 z1 ) are 8 < x = x0 + t (x1 y = y0 + t (y1 : z = z0 + t (z1 x0 ) y0 ) z0 )

for t 2 [0; 1].

Example 111 The plane curve given by the parametric equations

x = cos (t) y = sin (t) for t 2 [0; 2 ] is a circle of radius 1 centered at the origin. This can be seen by noticing that x2 + y 2 = 1 which is the equation of a circle of radius 1 centered at the origin. Example 112 The plane curve given by the parametric equations for t 2 [0; 1] is also circle of radius 1 centered at the origin. x = cos (2 t) y = sin (2 t)

Remark 113 The last two examples illustrate the fact that di erent parametric equations can trace the same curve. If we think of t as time, then in the second case, the circle is being traced faster than in the rst. Remark 114 When looking at a curve, its shape is important. The direction in which it is being traced is also important. Example 115 If y = f (x), then the corresponding parametric equations are x=t . This shows that it is easy to write the parametric equations of y = f (t) a curve given a function representing the curve. For example, the parametric x=t equations of a parabola y = x2 are . y = t2 Example 116 Another curve we will use often is the helix. Its parametric equations are of the form 8 < x = cos t y = sin t : z=t for t 2 R. Its trace in the xy -plane is a unit circle of radius 1 centered at the origin. As t increases, the z coordinate of the point corresponding to the position vector will increase. The position vector will actually trace an upward spiral. Make sure you have read, studied and understood what was done above before attempting the problems.

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2.1.4

Problems
(a) ! r (t) = t; t2 ; sin t D E t) t (b) ! r (t) = ln(3 ; sin t; e t 1 p ! (c) r (t) = ln (3 t) ; t 4

1. Find the domain of each vector function below.

2. Compute the limits below. (a) lim

t!0 sin t t t ; cos t; e

(b) lim hln t; et i

t!1

(c) lim

t!1

t t 1 et ; e ; t

3. Find where the vector functions below are continuous. (a) ! r (t) = t; t2 ; sin t D E t) t (b) ! r (t) = ln(3 ; sin t; e t 1 p ! (c) r (t) = ln (3 t) ; t 4 4. Using your favorite computer program, sketch the graph of the vector functions below and also plot the position vector for various values of the parameter. (a) ! r (t) = t; t2 ; e t (b) ! r (t) = (cos t; sin t; e t ) (c) ! r (t) = hcos 4t; t; sin 4ti (d) ! r (t) = ht sin t; 1

cos ti

5. Suppose that two objects are travelling along the curves given by ! r1 (t) = t2 ; 7t 12; t2 and ! r2 (t) = 4t 3; t2 ; 5t 6 . Answer the questions below. (a) Do the curves intersect? If yes, nd at which point. (b) Verify the answer you obtained in part a by graphing both curves. (c) Would the two objects travelling on these curves collide? (d) Are parts a and c the same question? Explain.