MOTORS AND DRIVES GENERAL

- The word drive can have many meanings. Here we need to limit our definition to any intelligent electronic equipment that provides adjustable speed control for a motor. The motor can be AC or DC. From the standpoint of the HSC, it doesnt matter. Drives provide many functions for the motor. Most often the drives have some form of rectification that takes place in addition to providing intelligent control for the motor. When working with the HSC you do not have to be concerned about the drives internal power conversion because the power requirements of the drive and the PLC are handled separately. The HSC only connects to the drives logic function. The following simplified diagram shows the basic sections of a common type of electronic motor drive.

Youre new to motion applications, you may think that when an output signal is received by the drive from the HSC, the signal has some inherent property that affects the speed or direction of the motor shaft. In reality, all four outputs of the HSC (CW, CCW, OUT1, and OUT2) look the same electrically. The signals are simply discrete ON/OFF signals. What makes them different is where they are connected to the drive. It is the intelligence of the drive (and not the HSC) that determines how the signals affect the motor operation. The PLC merely takes advantage of the I/O functionality that has been pre- programmed inside the drive itself. Some drives (or intelligent motor controllers) will have connecting terminals marked CW, CCW, or maybe even deceleration or brake. In these cases the terminals have been internally set up by the drive manufacturer to properly use the signals received. In most cases however there are no such markings. You will program the I/O points on the drive to perform whatever function you wish from those available on your drive. It could be to change motor direction, change speed, or any number of functions. You then, have the responsibility of matching up the drive I/O with the proper output signals from the HSC.

DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS

The dc motor is a mechanical workhorse that can be used in many different ways. Many large pieces of equipment depend on a dc motor for their power to move. The speed and direction of rotation of a dc

motor are easily controlled. This makes it especially useful for operating equipment, such as winches, cranes, and missile launchers, which must move in different directions and at varying speeds. OPERATIONS - A current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, perpendicular to the lines of flux, tends to move in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic lines of flux. There is a definite relationship between the direction of the magnetic field, the direction of current in the conductor, and the direction in which the conductor tends to move

SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
The construction of the synchronous motors is essentially the same as the construction of the salient-pole alternator. In fact, such an alternator may be run as an ac motor. It is similar to the drawing in figure4-6. Synchronous motors have the characteristic of constant speed between no load and full load. They are capable of correcting the low power factor of an inductive load when they are operated under certain conditions. They are often used to drive dc generators. Synchronous motors are designed in sizes up to thousands of horsepower. They may be designed as either single-phase or multiphase machines. The discussion that follows is based on a threephase design.

Figure 4-6.Revolving-field synchronous motor. To understand how the synchronous motor works, assume that the application of three-phase ac power to the stator causes a rotating magnetic field to be set up around the rotor. The rotor is energized with dc (it acts like a bar magnet). The strong rotating magnetic field attracts the strong rotor field activated by the dc. This results in a strong turning force on the rotor shaft. The rotor is therefore able to turn a load as it rotates in step with the rotating magnetic field. It works this way once its started. However, one of the disadvantages of a synchronous motor is that it cannot be started from a standstill by applying three-phase ac power to the stator. When ac is applied stator, a high-speed rotating magnetic field appears immediately. This rotating field rushes past the rotor poles so quickly that the rotor does not have a chance to get started. In effect, the rotor is repelled first in one direction and then the other. A synchronous motor in its purest form has no starting torque. It has torque only when it is running at synchronous speed. A squirrel-cage type of winding is added to the rotor of a synchronous motor to cause it to start. The squirrel cage is shown as the outer part of the rotor in figure 4-7. It is so named because it is shaped something like a turnable squirrel cage. Simply, the windings are heavy copper bars shorted together by copper rings. A low voltage is induced in these shorted windings by the rotating three-phase stator field. Because of the short circuit, a relatively large current flows in the squirrel cage. This causes a magnetic field that interacts with the rotating field of the stator.

Because of the interaction, the rotor begins to turn, following the stator field; the motor starts. We will run into squirrel cages again in other applications, where they will be covered in more detail.

Figure 4-7.Self-starting synchronous ac motor. To start a practical synchronous motor, the stator is energized, but the dc supply to the rotor field is not energized. The squirrel-cage windings bring the rotor to near synchronous speed. At that point, the dc field is energized. This locks the rotor in step with the rotating stator field. Full torque is developed, and the load is driven. A mechanical switching device that operates on centrifugal force is often used to apply dc to the rotor as synchronous speed is reached. The practical synchronous motor has the disadvantage of requiring a dc exciter voltage for the rotor. This voltage may be obtained either externally or internally, depending on the design of the motor.

INDUCTION MACHINES
The induction motor is the most commonly used type of ac motor. Its simple, rugged construction costs relatively little to manufacture. The induction motor has a rotor that is not connected to an external source of voltage. The induction motor derives its name from the fact that ac voltages are induced in the rotor circuit by the rotating magnetic field of the stator. In many ways, induction in this motor is similar to the induction between the primary and secondary windings of a transformer. Large motors and permanently mounted motors that drive loads at fairly constant speed are often induction motors. Examples are found in washing machines, refrigerator compressors, bench grinders, and table saws. The stator construction of the threephase induction motor and the three-phase synchronous motor are almost identical. However, their rotors are completely different (see fig. 4-8). The induction rotor is made of a laminated cylinder with slots in its surface. The windings in these slots are

one of two types (shown in fig. 4-9). The most common is the squirrel-cage winding. This entire winding is made up of heavy copper bars connected together at each end by a
metal ring made of copper or brass. No insulation s required between the core and the bars. This is because of the very low voltages generated in the rotor bars. The other type of winding contains actual coils placed in the rotor slots. The rotor is then called a wound rotor.

Figure 4-8.Induction motor.

Figure 4-9.Types of ac induction motor rotors. Regardless of the type of rotor used, the basic principle is the same. The rotating magnetic field generated in the stator induces a magnetic field in the rotor. The two fields interact and cause the rotor to 4-11 turn. To obtain maximum interaction between the fields, the air gap between the rotor and stator is very small. As you know from Lenzs law, any induced emf tries to oppose the

changing field that induces it. In the case of an induction motor, the changing field is the motion of the resultant stator field. A force on the rotor by the induced emf and the resultant magnetic field. This force tends to cancel the relative motion between the rotor and the stator field. The rotor, as a result, moves in the same direction as the rotating stator field. I t is impossible for the rotor of an induction motor to turn at the same speed as the rotating magnetic field. If the speeds were the same, there would be no relative motion between the stator and rotor fields; without relative motion there would be no induced voltage in the rotor. In order for relative motion to exist between the two, the rotor must rotate at a speed slower than that of the rotating magnetic field. The difference between the speed of the rotating stator field and the rotor speed is called slip. The smaller the slip, the closer the rotor speed approaches the stator field speed. The speed of the rotor depends upon the torque requirements of the load. The bigger the load, the stronger the turning force needed to rotate the rotor. The turning force can increase only if the rotorinduced emf increases. This emf can increase only if the magnetic field cuts through the rotor at a faster rate. To increase the relative speed between the field and rotor, the rotor must slow down. Therefore, for heavier loads the induction motor turns slower than for lighter loads. You can see from the previous statement that slip is directly proportional to the load on the motor. Actually only a slight change in speed is necessary to produce the usual current changes required for normal changes in load. This is because the rotor windings have such a low resistance. As a result, induction motors are called constant-speed motors.

THEORY OF POLY-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

The poly-phase induction motor is the most widely used ac motor due to its low cost, simple and extremely rugged construction, high reliability, high efficiency, reasonably good power factor, low maintenance cost and simple starting arrangement. It differs from other types of electric motors in that there is no electrical connection from the rotor winding to any source of supply. The necessary current and voltage in the rotor circuit are produced by induction from the stator winding. This is the reason that it is called the induction motor. CONSTRUCTION The induction motor essentially consists of two parts (i) Stationary part known as stator and (ii) The revolving part, known as the rotor. 1. Stator. Stator of a 3-phase induction motor is similar in construction to that of a 3-phase synchronous machine. The stator winding, also sometimes known as primary winding, is placed in slots on the inner periphery of the core. The core and windings are enclosed in cast iron frame. The stator winding is usually arranged for 3-phase power supply, the phases of which may be connected either in delta or star as per design of the machine. It is would for a definite number of poles as per requirement of speed-greater the number of poles lesser the speed and vice-versa for a supply of given frequency. 2. Rotor. The rotors employed in 3 phase induction motors are of three types namely (a) squirrel cage (b) Wound rotor (c) Double Cage. (a) Squirrel Cage Rotor. Almost 90 percent of induction motors are provided with squirrel cage rotor because of its very simple, robust and almost instrucible construction. Squirrel cage rotor is

constructed of a laminated core with the conductors 9copper or aluminum bars) placed parallel, or approximately parallel to the shaft and embedded in the core surface. At each end of the rotor, the rotor conductors are all short-circuited by continuous end rings of similar materials to that of conductors. The slots on the rotor are usually skewed in order to obtain a more uniform torque and reduce the magnetic humming noise while running and reduce the locking tendency of the rotor. (b) Wound Rotor. Such a rotor is wound with an insulated winding similar to that of stator winding and for the same number of poles as that of the stator. The rotor winding is always three phase winding even when the stator is wound for two phases. (c) Double Squirrel Cage Rotor. Such a rotor carries two squirrel cage windings embedded in two rows of slots. The outer slots contain a high resistance and low leakage reactance winding and the inner slots contain a low resistance and high leakage reactance winding. The outer winding bars are usually of manganese brass while the inner winding bars are of red copper.

TESTING OF POLY-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

1. Basic operation of the induction motor As previously shown, the phase displacement between the voltages applied to the stator windings produces a travelling MMF or rotating magnetic field in the uniform air gap. This field links the short-circuited rotor windings, and the relative motion induces short circuit currents in them, which move about the rotor in exact synchronism with the rotating magnetic field. It is well known that any induced current will react in opposition to the flux linkages producing it, resulting herein a torque on the rotor in the direction of the rotating field. This torque causes the rotor to revolve so as to reduce the rate of change of flux linkages reducing the magnitude of the induced current and the rotor frequency. If the rotor were to revolve at exactly synchronous speed, there would be no changing flux linkages about the rotor coils and no torque would be produced. However, the practical motor has friction losses requiring some electromagnetic torque, even at no load, and the system will stabilize with the rotor revolving at slightly less than synchronous speed. A mechanical shaft load will cause the rotor to decelerate, but this increases the rotor current, automatically increasing the torque produced, and stabilizing the system at a slightly reduced speed. This varies from a fraction of one per cent at no-load to a maximum value of three or four per cent under full load conditions for most properly designed machines. The speed change between no-load and full-load is so small that the squirrel-cage motor is often termed a constant-speed machine.
2. Equivalent circuit model Theoretical analyses of the induction machine consider it to be

a transformer with a rotating secondary. The stator windings constitute primary windings that induce flux in the rotor and stator iron. The rotor windings constitute a secondary winding that is shorted. Hence, an equivalent circuit similar to that representing the transformer is derived and appears as in Fig. 2. Since the rotor frequency in the actual machine is dependent upon the rotor speed, all rotor quantities must be modified to be referred to the frequency and voltage bases of the stator for inclusion in the equivalent circuit. Since the circuit represents just one phase of the actual poly-phase machine, all

values are given on a per-phase basis. Once the equivalent circuit constants have been determined, the operating characteristics may be determined directly from it. The variable load resistance RR (1 s)/s models the conversion of power from electrical to mechanical form. The losses may be evaluated by realizing that Rs and RR represent stator and rotor resistances per phase respectively, and that Rm models the core loss. constant speed pplication, the mechanical windage (i.e., the resistance of air to rotation of the shaft) and bearing friction losses are constant; then Rm can also model these losses, and the total of these losses is called the stray power loss. The inductance Lm models the magnetization characteristic of the complete flux path; this is dominated by the characteristic of the air gap between stator and rotor. A significant difference between the numerical values of the parameters of the induction machine vs. the transformer is the relatively low value of Lm (transformers typically do not contain air gaps and hence exhibit relatively large values of Lm). a substantial magnetizing current that is typically similar in magnitude to the current in the effective load resistance RR (1 s)/s at full load. In consequence, induction motors exhibit relatively low power factors, especially at light load. 3. Measurement of model parameters The equivalent circuit constants may be evaluated in much the same manner as those of the transformer. If the shaft coupling is disconnected, the power output will be zero and the load resistance RR(1 s)/s approaches infinity. If the rotor is blocked so as to prevent rotation and a balanced low-voltage threephase source connected to the stator terminals, the load resistance RR(1 s)/s will reduce to zero, and the shunt branch may be neglected. 4. Practical measurement considerations Examination of the equivalent circuit of Fig. 2 suggests at least two methods for evaluating the shaft power output of the induction motor from test data. Since the currents Is and IR differ but slightly under load conditions, Rs and RR can be combined to the left of the shunt branch without introducing appreciable inaccuracy.

CHARACTERISTICS OF POLYPHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

Evaluation of the torque for various values of slip and constant applied voltage yields a characteristic similar to that shown as a solid trace in Fig. 3. The maximum torque may be evaluated by maximizing the expression: T =3||IR||2RR/s, and will be found to be independent of rotor resistance. However, the slip at which maximum torque is produced does vary with rotor resistance as shown by the dotted characteristics in Fig. 3. Normally the rotor resistance is maintained at as low a value as possible in order to keep the losses low and the efficiency high. This further leads to good speed regulation, i.e., small change in speed between no load and full load. However, the starting torque of the low-resistance squirrel-cage induction motor is relatively low as seen in Fig. 3. This can be explained in a practical manner by referring to the equivalent circuit and realizing that since the slip is 1 at start, the rotor branch impedance is simply RR + jLR and the power factor is low. This low rotor power factor is responsible for the low starting torque. By adding the appropriate value of resistance to the rotor circuit, it is possible to improve the rotor power factor and to produce maximum torque under starting conditions as shown by the dotted characteristic. However, if the motor is allowed to run in this condition, both the efficiency and speed regulation will be poor. The wound rotor is used where high starting torque is necessary so that additional resistance may be placed in the rotor circuit for improvement of the starting performance, and then removed as the motor accelerates towards

normal operating speed. Unfortunately, the wound-rotor machine is more expensive than the squirrel-cage type, and is therefore not generally used where high starting performance is not required. Another advantage of the wound rotor machine is that of limiting the starting current. The squirrel-cage motor usually draws about seven times rated current for ani nstant if started at rated voltage. To reduce the effects of this on the system, a few such motors are equipped with starting compensators which allow the motors to start at about one-half rated voltage, and then, after they accelerate to normal speed, apply rated voltage. The disadvantage is that the torque varies as the square of the applied voltage, and the use of a starting compensator worsens the already low starting torque. The wound-rotor machine always starts at rated voltage, and has excellent starting characteristics. Although it is possible to vary the speed of the wound rotor machine at a given torque by varying the external rotor resistance, this method is rarely used because of the increased rotor losses and lowered efficiency. Sometimes induction motors are equipped with two or more stator windings by means of which the number of magnetic poles maybe changed. By this means, several normal operating speeds may be obtained without sacrificing other operating characteristics. In modern applications requiring variable speed control, a power electronics system is typically used to convert the fixed 50 Hz or 60 Hz utility ac to a variable frequency ac that is fed to the stator of a squirrel cage machine. This effective varies the synchronous speed of the machine, and hence it allows complete control of the rotor speed. The voltage magnitude must be scaled in proportion to the frequency, to maintain constant stator flux

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

A three phase motor may be run from a single phase power source. However, it will not selfstart. It may be hand started in either direction, coming up to speed in a few seconds. It will only develop 2/3 of the 3- power rating because one winding is not used.

3-motor runs from 1- power, but does not start. The single coil of a single phase induction motor does not produce a rotating magnetic field, but a pulsating field reaching maximum intensity at 0o and 180o electrical. (Figure below)

Single phase stator produces a nonrotating, pulsating magnetic field. Another view is that the single coil excited by a single phase current produces two counter rotating magnetic field phasors, coinciding twice per revolution at 0o (Figure above-a) and 180o (figure e). When the phasors rotate to 90 o and -90o they cancel in figure b. At 45 o and -45o (figure c) they are partially additive along the +x axis and cancel along the y axis. An analogous situation exists in figure d. The sum of these two phasors is a phasor stationary in space, but alternating polarity in time. Thus, no starting torque is developed. However, if the rotor is rotated forward at a bit less than the synchronous speed, It will develop maximum torque at 10% slip with respect to the forward rotating phasor. Less torque will be developed above or below 10% slip. The rotor will see 200% - 10% slip with respect to the counter rotating magnetic field phasor. Little torque (see torque vs slip curve) other than a double freqency ripple is developed from the counter rotating phasor. Thus, the single phase coil will develop torque, once the rotor is started. If the rotor is started in the reverse direction, it will develop a similar large torque as it nears the speed of the backward rotating phasor. Single phase induction motors have a copper or aluminum squirrel cage embedded in a cylinder of steel laminations, typical of poly-phase induction motors. Permanent-split capacitor motor One way to solve the single phase problem is to build a 2-phase motor, deriving 2-phase power from single phase. This requires a motor with two windings spaced apart 90o electrical, fed with two phases of current displaced 90o in time. This is called a permanent-split capacitor motor in Figure below.

Permanent-split capacitor induction motor. This type of motor suffers increased current magnitude and backward time shift as the motor comes up to speed, with torque pulsations at full speed. The solution is to keep the capacitor (impedance) small to minimize losses. The losses are less than for a shaded pole motor. This motor configuration works well up to 1/4 horsepower (200watt), though, usually applied to smaller motors. The direction of the motor is easily reversed by switching the capacitor in series with the other winding. This type of motor can be adapted for use as a servo motor, described elsewhere in this chapter.

Single phase induction motor with embedded stator coils. Single phase induction motors may have coils embedded into the stator as shown in Figure above for larger size motors. Though, the smaller sizes use less complex to build concentrated windings with salient poles. Capacitor-start induction motor In Figure below a larger capacitor may be used to start a single phase induction motor via the auxiliary winding if it is switched out by a centrifugal switch once the motor is up to speed. Moreover, the auxiliary winding may be many more turns of heavier wire than used in a resistance split-phase motor to mitigate excessive temperature rise. The result is that more starting torque is available for heavy loads like air conditioning compressors. This motor configuration works so well that it is available in multi-horsepower (multi-kilowatt) sizes.

Capacitor-start induction motor. Capacitor-run motor induction motor A variation of the capacitor-start motor (Figure below) is to start the motor with a relatively large capacitor for high starting torque, but leave a smaller value capacitor in place after starting to improve running characteristics while not drawing excessive current. The additional complexity of the capacitor-run motor is justified for larger size motors.

Capacitor-run motor induction motor. A motor starting capacitor may be a double-anode non-polar electrolytic capacitor which could be two + to + (or - to -) series connected polarized electrolytic capacitors. Such AC rated electrolytic capacitors have such high losses that they can only be used for intermittent duty (1 second on, 60 seconds off) like motor starting. A capacitor for motor running must not be of electrolytic construction, but a lower loss polymer type. Resistance split-phase motor induction motor If an auxiliary winding of much fewer turns of smaller wire is placed at 90 o electrical to the main winding, it can start a single phase induction motor. (Figure below) With lower inductance and higher resistance, the current will experience less phase shift than the main winding. About 30o of phase difference may be obtained. This coil produces a moderate starting torque, which is disconnected by a centrifugal switch at 3/4 of synchronous speed. This simple (no capacitor) arrangement serves well for motors up to 1/3 horsepower (250 watts) driving easily started loads.

Resistance split-phase motor induction motor. This motor has more starting torque than a shaded pole motor (next section), but not as much as a two phase motor built from the same parts. The current density in the auxiliary winding is so high during starting that the consequent rapid temperature rise precludes frequent restarting or slow starting loads.

OTHER TYPES APPARATUS

OF

ELECTRIC

MOTORS

AND

RELATED

Electric motor, a machine that converts electricity into a mechanical motion AC motor, an electric motor that is driven by alternating current

Synchronous motor, an alternating current motor distinguished by a rotor spinning with coils passing magnets at the same rate as the alternating current and resulting magnetic field which drives it Induction motor, also called a squirrel-cage motor, a type of asynchronous alternating current motor where power is supplied to the rotating device by means of electromagnetic induction DC motor, an electric motor that runs on direct current electricity Brushed DC electric motor, an internally commutated electric motor designed to be run from a direct current power source Brushless DC motor, a synchronous electric motor which is powered by direct current electricity and has an electronically controlled commutation system, instead of a mechanical commutation system based on brushes Electrostatic motor, a type of electric motor based on the attraction and repulsion of electric charge Servo motor, an electric motor that operates a servo, commonly used in robotics Stepper motor, a type of electric motor capable of rotating its output shaft in equally spaced fractions of a full rotation, known as steps Internal fan-cooled electric motor, an electric motor that is self-cooled by a fan, typically used for motors with a high energy density Actuator, a mechanical device for moving or controlling a mechanism or system Hydraulic motor, a machine that converts the energy of pressurized liquid flow into mechanical motion Rocket motor, usually refers to solid rocket engines Molecular motor, the agents of movement in living organisms Synthetic molecular motor, molecular machines capable of rotation under energy input Nanomotor, a molecular device capable of converting energy into movement Pneumatic motor, a machine that converts the energy of compressed air into mechanical motion

AC MOTORS
Charles Proteus Steinmetz's first job after arriving in America was to investigate problems encountered in the design of the alternating current version of the brushed commentator motor. The situation was so bad that motors could not be designed ahead of the actual construction. The success or failure of a motor design was not known until after it was actually built at great expense and tested. He formulated the laws of magnetic hysteresis in finding a solution. Hysteresis is a lagging behind of the magnetic field strength as compared to the magnetizing force. This produces a loss not present in DC magnetic. Low hysteresis alloys and breaking the alloy into thin insulated laminations made it possible to accurately design AC commutator motors before building. AC commutator motors, like comparable DC motors, have higher starting torque and higher speed than AC induction motors. The series motor operates well above the synchronous speed of a conventional AC motor. AC commutator motors may be either single-phase or poly-phase. The single-phase AC version suffers a double line frequency torque pulsation, not present in polyphase motor. Since a commutator motor can operate at much higher speed than an induction motor, it can output more power than a similar size induction motor. However commutator motors are not as maintenance free as induction motors, due to brush and commutator wear.

Single phase series motor If a DC series motor equipped with a laminated field is connected to AC, the lagging reactance of the field coil will considerably reduce the field current. While such a motor will rotate, operation is marginal. While starting, armature windings connected to commutator segments shorted by the brushes look like shorted transformer turns to the field. This results in considerable arcing and sparking at the brushes as the armature begins to turn. This is less of a problem as speed increases, which shares the arcing and sparking between commutator segments The lagging reactance and arcing brushes are only tolerable in very small uncompensated series AC motors operated at high speed. Series AC motors smaller than hand drills and kitchen mixers may be uncompensated. (Figure below)

Uncompensated series AC motor. Compensated series motor The arcing and sparking is mitigated by placing a compensating winding the stator in series with the armature positioned so that its magnetomotive force (mmf) cancels out the armature AC mmf. (Figure below) A smaller motor air gap and fewer field turns reduces lagging reactance in series with the armature improving the power factor. All but very small AC commutator motors employ compensating windings. Motors as large as those employed in a kitchen mixer, or larger, use compensated stator windings.

Compensated series AC motor. Universal motor It is possible to design small (under 300 watts) universal motors which run from either DC or AC. Very small universal motors may be uncompensated. Larger higher speed universal motors use a compensating winding. A motor will run slower on AC than DC due to the reactance encountered with AC. However, the peaks of the sine waves saturate the magnetic path reducing total flux below the DC value, increasing the speed of the series motor. Thus, the offsetting effects result in a nearly constant speed from DC to 60 Hz. Small line operated appliances, such as drills, vacuum cleaners, and mixers, requiring 3000 to 10,000 rpm use universal motors.

Though, the development of solid state rectifiers and inexpensive permanent magnets is making the DC permanent magnet motor a viable alternative. Repulsion motor A repulsion motor consists of a field directly connected to the AC line voltage and a pair of shorted brushes offset by 15oto 25o from the field axis. The field induces a current flow into the shorted armature whose magnetic field opposes that of the field coils. Speed can be conrolled by rotating the brushes with respect to the field axis. This motor has superior commutation below synchronous speed, inferior commutation above synchronous speed. Low starting current produces high starting torque.

Repulsion AC motor. Repulsion start induction motor When an induction motor drives a hard starting load like a compressor, the high starting torque of the repulsion motor may be put to use. The induction motor rotor windings are brought out to commutator segments for starting by a pair of shorted brushes. At near running speed, a centrifugal switch shorts out all commutator segments, giving the effect of a squirrel cage rotor. The brushes may also be lifted to prolong bush life. Starting torque is 300% to 600% of the full speed value as compared to under 200% for a pure induction motor.

FRACTIONAL HORSE POWER MOTOR APPLICATIONS

A fractional horsepower motor (FHP) is an electric motor with a rated output power of 746 Watts or less. There is no defined minimum output, however, it is generally accepted that a motor with a frame size of less than 35mm square can be referred to as a 'micro-motor'. THEIR APPLICATIONS: Fractional horsepower motors are used across a wide range of industries and applications for a variety of motion and compression needs. The largest portion of sales can be attributed to the automotive sector however, accounting for some 35% of all FHP motor sales, driving auxiliary applications such as electric windows, wind shield wipers, powered seats and wing mirrors, central locking systems and roof and trunk openers. In Europe the majority of these applications are fulfilled by the industry's largest players: Siemens, Bosch and Valeo. The second largest area of consumption is the field of white goods and small domestic appliances (approximately 12% of the European market). With FHP motors being used to drive pumps and compressors in refrigerators, coffee machines, washing machines etc. provide suction in vacuum cleaners and a variety of other switching and motion tasks across the ever increasing

variety of domestic products. Until the recent divestment of its motors interests Electrolux was believed to be Europe's largest manufacturer of FHP motors for domestic appliance applications. Industrial applications consume a similar number of units to that of domestic products with FHP motors being used across a variety of conveyance and process applications. Other applications include: pumps & compressors; medical devices; portable tools; office machinery; HVAC

MOTOR CONTROLS MOTOR STARTING AC MOTOR STARTING

Three phase induction motors and some synchronous motors are not self starting but design modifications such as auxiliary or "damper" windings on the rotor are incorporated to overcome this problem. Usually an induction motor draws 5 to 7 times its rated current during starting before the speed builds up and the current is modified by the back EMF. In wound rotor motors the starting current can be limited by increasing the resistance in series with the rotor windings. In squirrel cage designs, electronic control systems are used to control the current to prevent damage to the motor or to its power supply. Even with current control the motor can still overheat because, although the current can be limited, the speed build up is slower and the inrush current, though reduced, is maintained for a longer period.

DC MOTOR STARTING
At the moment a DC motor is started the armature is stationary and there is no counter EMF being generated. The only component to limit starting current is the armature resistance, which, in most DC motors is a very low value (approximately one ohm or less), as shown in Equation (6-9).

In order to reduce this very high starting current, an external resistance must be placed in series with the armature during the starting period. To show why this is essential, let us

consider a 10-hp motor with an armature resistance of 0.4 ohms. If the motor were supplied by a 260 VDC source, the resulting current would be as shown in Equation (6-9). This large current is approximately twelve times greater than actual full-load current for this motor. This high current would, in all probability, cause severe damage to the brushes, commutator, or windings. Starting resistors are usually incorporated into the motor design to limit starting current to 125 to 200 percent of full load current.

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR STARTING

A synchronous motor may be started by a DC motor on a common shaft. When the motor is brought to synchronous speed, AC current is applied to the stator windings. The DC motor now acts as a DC generator and supplies DC field excitation to the rotor of the synchronous motor. The load may now be placed on the synchronous motor. Synchronous motors are more often started by means of a squirrel-cage winding embedded in the face of the rotor poles. The motor is then started as an induction motor and brought to ~95% of synchronous speed, at which time direct current is applied, and the motor begins to pull into synchronism. The torque required to pull the motor into synchronism is called the pull-in torque. As we already know, the synchronous motor rotor is locked into step with the rotating magnetic field and must continue to operate at synchronous speed for all loads. During no-load conditions, the center lines of a pole of the rotating magnetic field and the DC field pole coincide (Figure8a). As load is applied to the motor, there is a backward shift of the rotor pole, relative to the stator pole (Figure 8b). There is no change in speed. The angle between the rotor and stator poles is called the torque angle (a).If the mechanical load on the motor is increased to the point where the rotor is pulled out of Figure 8 Torque Angle synchronism (a@90o), the motor will stop. The maximum value of torque that a motor can develop without losing synchronism is called its pull-out torque.

AC DRIVERS
Exactly what is an AC drive? The word "drive" is used loosely in the industry. It seems that people involved primarily in the world of gear boxes and pulleys refer to any collection of mechanical and electro-mechanical components, which when connected together will move a load, as a "drive". When speaking to these people, an AC drive may be considered by them as the variable frequency inverter and motor combination. It may even include the motor's pulley - I am not sure. People in the electrical field and electrical suppliers usually refer to a variable frequency inverter unit alone, or an SCR power module alone (when discussing DC drives) as the "drive" and the motor as the "motor". Manufacturers of variable frequency drives (VFD) used to refer to the drive as just that, a "variable frequency drive". More manufacturers are referring to their drive as an "adjustable

speed AC drive". To make matters worse when a motor is included in the package it may be referred to as an "adjustable speed AC drive system". A variable frequency drive is an adjustable speed drive. Adjustable speed drives include all types; mechanical and electrical. Now is it clear? Don't worry about it. It's not clear to anyone. As you read on, when I refer to the "drive" I am referring to the variable frequency inverter alone. A little about AC drives The main power components of an AC drive, have to be able to supply the required level of current and voltage in a form the motor can use. The controls have to be able to provide the user with necessary adjustments such as minimum and maximum speed settings, so that the drive can be adapted to the user's process. Spare parts have to be available and the repair manual has to be readable. It's nice if the drive can shut itself down when detecting either an internal or an external problem. It's also nice if the drive components are all packaged in a single enclosure to aid in installation but that's about it.

The paradox facing drive manufacturers today is that as they make their drives easier to use, the amount of training with which they must provide their users increases. This is because as drives become easier to use they are purchased more and more by people of less and less technical capability. As less technical people get involved in drive purchases the number of misapplications goes way up. I call this phenomenon the "dumb trap". (When manufactures discover this phenomenon they simultaneously discover how dumb they've been. Some have not yet discovered it.) Ambiguous Motor Theory The real action in an AC variable frequency drive system is in the motor. This is really where it all happens. To be an AC drive application Wizard (which is several levels higher then Guru) one must understand how motors use electric power. It is essential. I cannot emphasize the importance of this. All loads moved by electric motors are really moved by magnetism. The purpose of every component in a motor is to help harness, control, and use magnetic force. When applying an AC

drive system it helps to remember you are actually applying magnets to move a load. To move a load fast does not require more magnets, you just move the magnets fast. To move a heavier load or to decrease acceleration time (accelerate faster) more magnets (more torque) are needed. This is the basis for all motor applications. Where does the real action happen in a AC drive system?

Above is a cross-sectional view a motor rotor and field magnetic core. Looking from the side would look something like a looking at a can:

We can add magnets (and torque) to our drive system by using a motor with a core that is either longer, larger in cross-sectional diameter, or some combination of both. A Side Note About Fishing, Electro-magnets, Current, and Magnetic Conductivity When we go fishing we put bait on a hook and throw it in water knowing that according to generally accepted theory, a hungry fish will sooner or later, bite. Well the truth is we don't know why the fish bite. No one to date, has talked to a fish (well maybe a few people talk to fish). The fact the we get hungry and therefore fish must too, seems like a safe assumption. But it doesn't really matter because we do know that putting bait on a hook will get fish into the boat. Magnetism and electricity are the same way. We have some well accepted theories that we can use to explain how magnets can move our load but no one really knows what magnetism and electricity are (regardless of what they say). When it comes to using magnetic force to move our load, how it works just doesn't matter. We do know that it works. We have even noticed a few peculiar things.

We have noticed that when you wrap a coil of wire around a piece of iron and apply electric current the piece of iron becomes magnetic. We call this an electro-magnet.

We have noticed a lot of things about electro-magnets that are very important to the drive application wizard: After we apply the electric current, the magnet field grows at a finite rate to a finite size. After voltage is applied and full current is reached, which always takes a little time, the field quits growing and becomes a constant size. If we increase the applied voltage the field grows and becomes stronger, decrease the voltage and the field weakens and shrinks. When we remove electric power to the coil the field does not just disappear. It just decreases in size until it does disappear. It collapses over time so to speak. The more current our coil draws (which we can force by increasing the applied voltage level ) the stronger and larger our magnetic field becomes. I know I said it twice. It's that important. When we increase voltage to our electro-magnet, current will increase directly proportional up to a point. After that point current increases exponentially. THIS IS IMPORTANT! Generally accepted theory says that the iron core or any material, can only conduct a limited amount of magnetic flux. Once that point is reached current can become very high with a very small increase in voltage. This is called magnetic saturation and is sometimes seen in motor applications. Motor life becomes very short when the core reaches saturation - about 15 seconds in some cases. We will look at this and some of the causes later. Some energy is consumed by simply magnetizing the iron core. Different materials consume different amounts of energy. This is usually considered an energy loss. Some energy is converted into heat within the iron core. Different materials convert different amounts of energy. This is also usually considered an energy loss. Once a core is magnetized, demagnetization and reverse polarity re-magnetization consumes more energy and takes quite a long time, relatively speaking. (Remember, an existing field has to collapse over time.) The amount of this loss is proportional to the frequency of polarization reversals. This happens 120 times per second when operating an AC motor at 60 hertz. We will touch on the importance of this later. (Are you beginning to see where all this is going?) The Magnets Within the Motor and Torque Motors are designed so that the electro-magnets are made as strong as possible with acceptable risk of core saturation. This will maximize the torque capability of the motor but also means that during normal operation every motor may at some point, operate close to saturation. How close a motor runs to saturation depends upon the amount and type of core material used. So naturally, this point varies from manufacturer to manufacturer. There really is a difference in motors and you get what you pay for.

When the voltage applied to a motor is increased current to the electro-magnets increases resulting in higher field strength and increased motor torque output. This is a commonly used technique, especially in AC drive applications. It is a very good way to gain torque capability when needed. This technique can cause higher than normal motor heating resulting in reduced motor life. Close monitoring of the motor is required. Avoid saturating the core.

The motor above is shown with two field coils, one for each magnetic pole. In the industry this would be called a "two pole motor". For simplicity, only one phase is shown. In reality, a 3phase, two pole motor requires six coils, evenly spaced around the core - a minimum of two coils is required, to generate two electro-magnetic poles, for each of the three phases. A coil-ectomy The most widely used AC motor in industry is the 5 horsepower, 1800 RPM, 60 Hz, 3-phase AC motor. (I can't prove this but it might be true.) In order for a motor to run 1800 RPM at 60 Hz it would have to be wound with four magnetic poles. IMPORTANT MOTOR FORMULA

"Synchronous RPM" is the RPM the motor would run if the rotor did not slip. All AC induction motors slip. ("Synchronous motors", a special kind of induction motor, do not slip- at least least they are not supposed to. Synchronous motors are beyond the scope of this article.)

An AC motor referred to, in the industry, as an 1800 RPM motor will be name-plated with a speed of something less, usually around 1735 RPM. This is a typical RPM rating but can be higher or lower. The difference between the synchronous and the actual RPM is called "slip". Adjusting slip is an important technique in AC drive applications. A lot more about slip will come later. Synchronous RPM = 60 HZ x 120 2 Poles = 3600

If you could remove the coils from the above motor without breaking a connection, and lay them sideby-side, this is what you would have. What is shown are three phases: A, B, and C phase connected together (see the arrow) at a "star" or "Y" point. There are other motor connection schemes but this is the most typical:

AC Generator If a magnet is passed along the coils, an electric current is generated in each of the three phases. In fact, there is little difference between AC generator and motor field windings. The faster you move the magnet the higher the AC output frequency. Variable frequency drives control the frequency electronically. We'll get to more on that later

AC Motor

When an iron core is placed so a moving magnetic field passes through it, a magnet field is generated within the iron core. It takes time to generate a field therefore, the new field reaches peak strength after the peak of the generating field has passed. The rotor is "pulled" by the magnetic field thus producing torque.

. The magnetic field has to pass through the rotor to generate a rotor field and pull. If the rotor travels at the same speed as the magnetic field, induction into the rotor will cease, the magnetic field will disappear and the rotor will loose its pull and slow down. Pull (torque) is obtained when fields are passed through the rotor in quick succession. Remember though, it takes a long time to generate a field. If the frequency of fields passing through the rotor is too high, effectiveness is lost. If the frequency of the generating field is held constant, and the torque is great enough to move the rotor, the rotor will reach an equilibrium speed where at any higher speed induction and torque are reduced and the rotor slows down.

A TYPICAL ROTOR

A TYPICAL STATOR