R.K.

HEAT TRANSFER Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of thermal energy or heat between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and transfer of energy by phase changes. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing chemical species to achieve heat transfer. Mechanisms The fundamental modes of heat transfer are: Conduction or diffusion The transfer of energy between objects that are in physical contact. Convection The transfer of energy between an object and its environment, due to fluid motion. Radiation The transfer of energy to or from a body by means of the emission or absorption of electromagnetic radiation. Advection The transfer of energy from one location to another as a side effect of physically moving an object containing that energy. Advection By transferring matter, heat or energy is moved by the physical transfer of a hot or cold object from one place to another. This can be as simple as placing hot water in a bottle and heating a bed, or the movement of an iceberg in changing ocean currents. A practical example is thermal hydraulics. This can be described by the formula where Q is heat flux (W/m), is density (kg/m), cp is heat capacity at constant pressure (J/(kg*K)), T is the change in temperature (K), v is velocity (m/s).

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1. Conduction Heat conduction is occurred by two mechanisms are i) By molecular interaction whereby the energy exchanges takes place by the kinetic motion or direct impact of molecules. By the draft of free electrons as in the case of metallic solids. The metallic alloys have a different concentration of free electrons, and their ability to conduct heat is directly proportional to the concentration of free electrons in them. The free electron concentration of non-metals is very low. Hence materials that are good conductors (pour meal, viz., copper, silver etc.) are good conductors of heat. Pure conduction is found only in solids.

ii)

Fourier law of heat conduction: It states that the rate of heat conduction is proportional to the area measured normal to the direction of heat flow, and to the temperature gradient in that direction. Q= or q = is difference of length) (were, A is Area, is change of temperature and

K is the constant of proportionality also called coefficient of thermal conductivity General differential equation of heat conduction

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The energy balanced is obtained from the first law of thermodynamics asNet heat conducted into element dxdydz per unit time (Hc) + Internal heat generated per unit time(Hg) =Increase in internal energy per unit time.(I) Hc=[ (Kx + (Ky + (Kz ]dxdydz

This is obtained by using Fouriers law of heat conduction. Now, let q be the internal heat generation per unit time and per unit volume, the rate of energy generation in theer element then Hg=qdxdydz The change in internal energy for the element over a period of time dt is given as I= Cp dxdydz Putting the values of Hc, Hg and I in the balance equation we get[ (Kx + (Ky + (Kz ]+q= Cp Now, assuming Kx=Ky=Kz=K (if constant) Therefore, general three-dimensional heat conduction equation becomes + + + = Cp = ............................(B)

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The quantity

is known as Thermal Diffusivity, and is denoted by .

Thermal diffusivity gives the information that how fast heat will be propagated or it will be diffused through the material. It has got unit m2/s

DIFFERENT FORMS OF HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION Case I: Uniform thermal conductivity When the thermal conductivity of the material is independent of position and temperature, equation (B) takes the form + or, of T Case-II: Steady state conditions If the temperature at any point in the material does not change with time, i.e. Then the equation (B) reduce to + or,
2 2

+ = Cp

=
2

T+ =

where

T=

is called the laplacian (operator)

+ =0

T + =0

The above equation is also known as Poisson Equation Case-III: No heat sources In the absence of any heat generation or release of energy within the body, equation (B) become + + = ...........(i) The equation (i) is also known as Diffusion equation.

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[Where is called Thermal Diffusivity of material (m /sec): It is the ratio between the thermal conductivity and the heat capacity per unit volume of an object. Mathematically, , where k is thermal conductivity, is density and cp is specific heat

Note that the thermal conductivity (k) represented how well a material conducts heat, and the heat capacity ( represents how much energy a material stores per unit volume. The larger the diffusivity means faster the propagation of heat into the medium. A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly absorbed by the material and a small amount of heat will be conducted further.] If the process is in steady state, then the heat conduction equation becomes + or,
2

=0

T =0 ..........(i)

Equation (ii) is also known as Laplace equation. Case IV: One dimensional heat conduction If the temperature varies only in the x-direction, then the term
2

T reduces to

= in all above case. For a steady state case with no heat generation, heat conduction equation is

Heat conduction equation in cylindrical co-ordinates

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Consider a small cylindrical element having sides dr, dz and r d As shown in fig. The rate of heat flow in r direction is: Qr=-k rd dz The rate of heat flow out of the element in r direction at r+dr is: Qr+dr =Qr+ dr Then, the net heat entering the element in r direction is: Qr-Qr+dr= dr = =k =k dr=k ( )

Similarly,

rd ]

rd =

rd =

And,

d ]=

d
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d d =

Therefore, balancing the energy as equationk* =q Or, k* Or, * Or, + + d + ++ ( ++ ( + )+ = + + ( d )+ = + =q + )

Heat conduction equation takes the form + )+ + + =

For one dimension case (considering heat conduction in r direction only): + Or, ( = + )= +

Heat conduction equation in spherical coordinate in spherical co-ordinate system Consider a small spherical element having sides dr, rd and rsin d As shown in fig

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The rate of heat flow in r direction is: Qr=-k rd d The rate of heat flow out of the element in r direction at r+dr is: Qr+dr =Qr+ dr Then, the net heat entering the element in r direction is: Qr-Qr+dr= =k(r2 +2r d d d d dr=k r2 d d d

=k( + Similarly, Q- Q+d= = And, = * +

rsin d ] rd =

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= (

rsin d = ) d

Therefore, balancing the energy as equationk* ( =q + ) d + + * +

Or, k* Or, *

++ ++ *

++ (

)=q+ )= +

++ (

For one dimension case (considering heat conduction in r direction only): + = +

ONE DIMENTION STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION Temperature field in the system is described in terms of only one space coordinate. 1. Heat conduction through plane walls

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Considering a plane wall of a material of uniform thermal conductivity K as shown above. The wall is extended to infinite in y and z directions. The general heat conduction equation is + + + = =0( for steady state)

For above case =

=0 (for one dimensional)

And also =0 (since no heat generation) The conduction equation transform to =0 or =0 or, c1.........(1) or, T=xc1+c2....................(2) Solving above equation and taking boundary condition as T=T1 at x=0...............(a) And T=T2 at x=L......................(b) Putting the boundary condition of (a) into the equation (2) we get c2=T1 and also from equation (1) we get c1= = So the equation (2) become, T= ( From Fouriers law, Q=-KA )x +T1

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Therefore, Q=-KA(

)= KA(

)=

...........................(1)

Where Q= quantity of heat, which must be supplied to the left face of the wall to maintain a temperature difference (T1-T2) across it. Thermal resistance for plane wall is given as Rpln,Th = 2. Redial heat conduction through cylindrical system Consider a long cylinder of inside radius r1, outside r0 and length L as shown below

The inside and outside surfaces are kept at constant temperature Ti and To respectively. The general heat conduction equation in cylindrical co-ordinates is + )+ + + =

Assuming that heat flows only in a radial direction, the above equation under steady state (without heat generation) takes the form + Or, Or, =c1 )=0 =0 [as or, r =0 =0 or =0 ]

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Or,

=c1

or,T=C1lnr+C2.............................................(1)

Boundary conditions are T=Ti at r=ri......................................................(a) T=To at r=ro....................................................(b) Using condition (a) into the equation (1) we get, Ti=C1lnri+C2....................................(2) Also using condition (b) into the equation (1) we get, To=C1lnro+C2......................(3) Subtracting the equation (2) and (3) we get, Ti -To =C1lnri+ C1lnro= C1 (lnri+lnro) Or, C1= Putting the value of c1 in the equation (2) we get Ti= Or, C2=Ti lnri= lnri+C2

Substituting the value of C in the equation (1) , we get T= lnr+

Heat flow, Q=-k

Therefore, the thermal resistance for the hollow cylinder is Rcyl,th= Log mean area: It can be used to transfer a cylinder into an equivalent slab. It is assumed that the heat transfer through the cylinder and the slab are equal. Am = log mean area of cylinder= Where Ai and Ao are the inside and outside surface area of the cylinder. If <2 then Am is given as

Am= Thermal resistance is given as

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Rcyl,th=

The thermal resistance of a hollow cylinder is of exactly the same as that for a slab except that the logarithmic mean area is used for the cylinder. 3. Redial heat conduction through spherical system Let us consider a hollow sphere as shown in fig below whose inside and outside surfaces are held at a temperatures Ti and To respectively.

If the temperature variation is only in the radial direction, then for steady state condition with no heat generation, the heat conduction equation is

[ Or, Or, r2 =c1or, (r2 )=0 [ or, T=-r-2+1c1+c2=

= ] = (r2 ) ]

+c2...........................(1)

Boundary conditions are T=Ti at r=ri......................................................(a) T=To at r=ro....................................................(b) Using condition (a) into the equation (1) we get, Ti=-C1 +C2....................................(2) Also using condition (b) into the equation (1) we get, To=-C1 +C2......................(3) Subtracting the equation (2) and (3) we get, Ti -To = -C1 ( - ) Or, C1=
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Putting the value of c1 in the equation (2) we get C2=Ti Substituting the value of C in the equation (1), we get T= = +Ti = ( = = Therefore, the thermal resistance for the hollow sphere is Rsph,th= = Ti ) )=

Therefore, Heat flow, Q=-k

Geometric mean area: It can be used to transfer a sphere into an equivalent slab. It is assumed that the heat transfer through the sphere and the slab are equal. Ag = Geometric mean area of cylinder= =

Where Ai and Ao are the inside and outside surface area of the cylinder. Thermal resistance is given as Rsph,th= =

The thermal resistance of a hollow sphere is of exactly the same as that for a slab except that the logarithmic mean area is used for the sphere.

UP TO 01. 08.13

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