P4KX310D - Basic Radio Principles

Mason Communications Training: WCDMA Radio Planning Course Module 3: Design Elements Section 3.
1: Basic Radio Principles
WCDMA Radio Planning Course

3 3.1 Design Elements Basic Radio Principles
www.masoncom.com
Mason Communications Ltd 2001
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Mason Communications Training: WCDMA Radio Planning Course Module 3: Design Elements Section 3.1: Basic Radio Principles
Basic Radio Principles
Where are We Now?

Introduction Mobile Radio Channel Design Elements Network Design
Link Budgets Course Overview UMTS Overview UMTS Standards Access Technologies WCDMA Introduction Model Architecture Basic Radio Principles Matched Filters and Rake Receivers Antennas and Feeders Interference WCDMA Physical Layer The Planning Process Polygons Site Placement Antenna Placement Frequency Planning Forward Capacity Planning Operators Design Guides
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Optimisation
Path Loss Local Mean Signal Narrowband Channel Wideband Channel Diversity
Radio Resource Management Conventional Optimisation 3G Optimisation Course Wash Up
3.1.2
Where are We Now? The Course Map shows which section we are now on.
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What is in This Section?

Design Elements
Modulation
Basic Radio Principles Matched Filters and Rake Receivers Antennas and Feeders Interference WCDMA Physical Layer
Radio Building Blocks Transmitter Design Receiver Design Transceiver System Design Summary
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3.1.3
What is in This Section? This will be a high level treatment.
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Why is this Section Important to You?

This section will provide you with
an understanding of the concepts and principles associated with radio design the effect that these have on system performance
This will assist you as a network planner to

understand the reasons for rules and regulations associated with your work have a better realisation of why there are differences between theoretical and practical network coverage predictions
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3.1.4
Why is this Section Important to You?
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How Will You Learn?

This section uses a number of examples and an exercise
Discussion Intermediate Frequency
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3.1.5
How Will You Learn?
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Basic Communications Receiver

4th frequency changer Upper sideband 100-106kHz Product detector
Switched bandpass filter
030dB
Wideband amplifier
0 or 10dB
1st frequency changer
1st I.F. 2nd 34.3 or frequency 38.3 MHz changer
2nd I.F. 10.7 MHz
3rd frequency changer
3rd I.F. 2.6 MHz
0-4kHz
42.3 46.3 MHz Overload Protection 1st oscillator 2nd oscillator Logic unit Memor y unit Frequency translator Frequency synthesizer
45 - 49 MHz
Lower sideband 94-100kHz Carrier 100 kHz
A. F. C. units
3rd oscillator 13.3 MHz
4th oscillator 2.7 MHz
A. G. C. detector
Activating Signal
100 kHz reference
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3.1.6
Basic Communications Receiver The slide shows the elements of a basic Superhet (Superhetrodyne) communications receiver.
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Where are We Now?

Design Elements
Modulation
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3.1.7
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What is Modulation?
Definition
Process that causes a low frequency range signal to be shifted to a higher frequency range Process to impress information content onto a carrier
Modulation of a signal onto a higher frequency carrier has

the following advantages:
Higher frequency signals are easier to radiate Simultaneous transmission of several signals Optimum use of available frequency spectrum Less prone to interference effects
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3.1.8
HF equipment tended to be large an bulky. Cellular makes use of smaller equipment, smaller cells and hence frequency re-use. Over time there was a demand for higher and higher frequencies, 100+MHz, 450MHz, 900MHz, 1800MHz and now 2GHz. Tendency now is to re-use some older bands etc. e.g. TV
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Common Modulation Techniques

Analogue Digital
Amplitude Modulation (AM) Frequency Modulation (FM) Phase (or Angle) Modulation
(PM)
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Phase Shift Keying
(PSK)
and other derivatives
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3.1.9
All radio communication uses a modulation scheme which is derived from one of the following: Amplitude Modulation (AM) Frequency Modulation (FM) Phase/Angle Modulation (PM) Each scheme has its own set of advantages and disadvantages, and are generally best suited for use in a set range of frequencies and for particular traffic types. These will be detailed later. There are now numerous digital modulation techniques available for the efficient transfer of 1s and 0s over-air. Each modulation technique will have been tailored for a particular data rate requirement, to operate over a given frequency range, and for a given channel bandwidth. Digital modulation schemes are generally derived from the following: Amplitude Shift Keying(ASK) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
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AM
Amplitude of the RF carrier wave varies in sympathy with the
signal to be transmitted
Time
Source Signal fv Carrier Signal fc Modulated Signal fc fc+fv f
Frequency
RF Power Output proportional to input signal level

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3.1.10
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FM
Frequency of the RF Carrier signal varies in relation to the
signal to be transmitted
Source Signal fv Carrier Signal fc Modulated Signal fc f f f
FM derived modulation techniques provide a constant

RF power output
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3.1.11
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PM
Used in Digital Systems Phase of an RF carrier is continually inverted to
indicate binary 1s and 0s
v Source Signal v Carrier Signal v Modulated Signal t
Source
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
Constant RF power output

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3.1.12
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Modulation Summary
AM Signals
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highly efficient best suited for audio BW signals low BW requirements constant power output audio or low rate data input high BW requirement constant power output high data rate signals only plethora of PM related modulation techniques available
FM Signals
PM Signals
3.1.13
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Where are We Now?

Design Elements
Modulation
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3.1.14
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Radio Building Blocks
Common components of radio design

RF Amplifiers Filtering Mixing Local Oscillators Intermediate Frequency (IF)
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3.1.15
Radio Building Blocks This subsection discusses the common components of radio design. Care has to be taken with IF choice e.g. choosing LO of 1800MHz for microwave radios within 1800 GSMM band!!
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RF Amplifiers
RF in
User definable gain
x ndB
RF out
Element of filtering associated with RF amplifier design Design should not distort RF signals single stage design generates 180o phase change
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3.1.16
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Filters
Devices which attenuate a pre-selected band of frequencies Constructed using Capacitors, Resistors and Inductors 4 Common Types:
Low Pass Filter (LPF) High Pass Filter (HPF) Band Pass Filter (BPF) Band Reject Filter
gain (dB) f
gain (dB) f
gain (dB) f
gain (dB) f
A combination of the above can be combined to produce more

complex filter designs
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3.1.17
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Filter Specifications
Filter designs are characterised by the following
parameters:
3dB points Roll-off Insertion Loss Stop Band Attenuation
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3.1.18
3dB plots define the bandwidth of the filter.
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Filters 3dB Points

Frequency at which amplitude of RF signal passing through
filter is halved (or is attenuated by 3dB)
Gain (dB)
Gain (dB)
-1 -4
f3dB
f
Signal after passing through filter
-1 -4
f3dB
f3dB
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3.1.19
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Filters Roll-Off
Defines the rate of change of attenuation between a filter
pass band and stop band. said to have a high Q
Gain
0 -20 -40 -60
A filter design with a high rate of change of attenuation is

10 100 100010000 f(Hz)
Roll off = 20dB/decade
High Q devices are several filters serially connected higher unit cost
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3.1.20
Q, Quality factor is related to the resonance of the filter and, for a lumped constant filter, I.e. one using resistors (R), Capacitor (C) and Inductors(L), is given by: Q = 0 CR = R/(0 L) where: 0 is the resonant frequency in radians per second i.e. ( 0 =2 f) R is in Ohms C is in Farads L is in Henrys A good Filter Book: Donald R.J. White A Handbook on Electrical Filters, Synthesis, Design and Applications
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Filters Insertion Loss & Stop Band Attenuation

Insertion Loss - loss experienced by a pass band signal
propagating through the filter
Typically 0.5 -2dB

Gain (dB) 0 -20 -40 -60
Stop Band Attenuation
Insertion Loss f(Hz)
Stop-Band Attenuation - loss experienced by a stop band

signal propagating through the filter
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Typically 50-80dB
3.1.21
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Filter Example 7-stage Butterworth Low-pass Filter

5.96mH 9.55mH 5.96mH
Input Signal
0.024uF 0.096uF 0.096uF 0.024uF
300ohm Load
Number of stages equal to
number of frequency sensitive filter components following initial spec.
Transmission Loss in dB
0 3 10 20 30 40 50 60 2.5
Design established from

3dB point
3dB cut off at 10kHz >40dB attenuation at 20kHz source and load impedances = 300ohm
= ff l -o rol ave oct per dB 42
10
20
40
Frequency in kHz
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3.1.22
Note a lot of filtering can be implemented in software using DSPs (Digital Signalling Processors)
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Mixing
We require a process which is capable of shifting a low
frequency range signal to a higher range or vice -versa range
Advantages of over-air transmission using higher frequency Requirements of such a process are:
Minimal distortion of original signal Capability of working over a range of frequencies Majority of circuit tuning alterations to be automatic
WE NEED MIXERS!
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3.1.23
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Mixing
Why?
Up-convert or down-convert sinusoidally based signals
How?
literally mixing, or multiplying two sinusoidally based signals together
When?
Between stages in a radio requiring different working carrier frequencies
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3.1.24
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Mixing - Inputs
Take two signal inputs to a mixer

Signal to be modulated onto carrier (e.g. voice)
Asin 1t Bsin 2t RF Carrier signal (e.g. 900MHz)
What is the output?
Where 1 = Angular frequency of input signal A = Amplitude of input signal 2 = Angular frequency of RF carrier ( =2 f) B = Amplitude of RF carrier signal
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3.1.25
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Mixing - Mathematical Derivation

Using trigonometric equation:
cos A.cos B
1 (cos( A + B ) + cos( A B )) 2
A.sin(1t ). B sin(1t ) A.cos(1t ). B.cos(2 t ) AB AB cos( 1 + 2 ) t + cos(1 2 ) t 2 2

Upper Product i.e. higher freq Lower Product i.e. lower freq
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3.1.26
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Mixing - Graphical Representation
Amplitude
B AB/2
1
Frequency (Hz)
1-2
1+2
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3.1.27
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Local Oscillator (LO)

Generates pure sinusoidal reference signal for use in mixing
processes
Variable Frequency Output In a radio system, all LO devices referenced from one master
oscillator
Quartz Crystal derived clock reference, accuracy prone to:

temperature fluctuations pressure variation vibration & shock
LO accuracy specified as x ppm (parts per million)
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3.1.28
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Intermediate Frequency (IF)

What ?
A fixed frequency stage in the radio design All devices in the stage operate on one frequency only
Why ?
Standardisation (set of frequencies) Common IF modules and devices Improved device performance
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3.1.29
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Intermediate Frequency Question

IF = 10.7MHz
LO frequency selection dependent on desired output signal from mixing process
RF
Signal Amplitude
LO
What is LO? What if RF changes?

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IF
(RF-LO)
LO
RF
unwanted product
f (Hz)
3.1.30
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Where are We Now?

Design Elements
Modulation
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3.1.31
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Aim of a Transmitter?
To superimpose an input signal onto an RF carrier, such that
the modulated output signal can be successfully transmitted and subsequently received at a remote station
A transmitter requires:
an appropriate modulation technique suppression of locally generated interference signals linear RF power output user frequency selection
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3.1.32
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Basic Transmitter Design
Input Signal
Mixer 1
Mixer 2
IF Stage LO1
BPF
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3.1.33
Low pass filter
Bandpass filter
Mixer
Local oscillator
Amplifier
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Input Signal
Mixer 1
Mixer 2
IF Stage LO1
BPF
BPF permits only the wanted signal to enter the first mixing stage Unwanted signals filtered off
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3.1.34
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Input Signal
Mixer 1
Mixer 2
IF Stage LO1
BPF
Input signal and 1st LO frequency mixed to produce 1st IF

stage frequency
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3.1.35
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High Q filters and precision amplifiers produce a clean IF signal
Signal Amplitude
unwanted signal, filtered off in IF stage
IN
LO
IF
Frequency (Hz)
What is IF?
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3.1.36
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Input Signal
Mixer 1
Mixer 2
IF Stage LO1
BPF
Finely tuned filters and amplifiers clean the signal in preparation

for the next stage
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3.1.37
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Input Signal
Mixer 1
Mixer 2
IF Stage LO1
BPF
Up-convert to the required RF carrier frequency User selectable Tx frequency has impact on LO frequency and final stage filter performance
3.1.38
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Signal Amplitude
unwanted signal, filtered off in final RF stage
IF
LO
RF
Frequency (Hz)
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3.1.39
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Input Signal
Mixer 1
Mixer 2
IF Stage LO1
BPF
ganged
Amplify to user selectable RF power output level Minimisation of harmonics and spurious RF signals Good RF loading to external device (e.g. external PA, antenna,
external filtering, combiners)
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3.1.40
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Harmonic Suppression
Multiples of the wanted signal
Amplitude (dB)
fc
2fc
3fc
4fc
5fc
Frequency (Hz)
Interference signals affect other radio systems in the local vicinity
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3.1.41
Note odd harmonics have the highest power.
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Harmonics Derivation
Amplifier has non-linearities in its amplitude transfer characteristic Consider input signal with single frequency present:
Non-linearities result in output signal: Looking at the first 3 components:
v o u t = A V cos t + B + a 2
Linear output
v in = V c o s t
vout = a 1v in + a 2 v in 2 + a 3 vin 3 + ...
V2 V3 cos 2 t + a 3 cos 3 t + .. . 2 4
3rd Harmonic Distortion
DC Shift 2nd Harmonic Distortion
Non-linear distortion introduces harmonic components whose frequencies are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency ()
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3.1.42
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Spurious Signals
Generated by inadvertent mixing between two or more
of the following sources:
LO outputs Inadequate filtering outputs Internal clocks Digital Signals (data rates)
Minimised by:
Good screening practices Careful circuit layout Decoupling & Choking
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3.1.43
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Final Stage BPF

Band-pass, or notch, varies with selected RF output frequency Attenuates unwanted spurious and harmonic signals
Filter Characteristics:
gain (dB)
Frequency (Hz)
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3.1.44
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Transmitter Design Summary

You have seen modulation of an RF carrier with an input
signal by:
2 mixing stages an IF stage filtering amplification
Modern day transmitter designs implement some of the

analogue elements digitally - discrete Integrated Circuits(Ics) or Digital Signal Processors (DSPs)
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3.1.45
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Where are We Now?

Design Elements
Modulation
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3.1.46
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Aims of a Receiver?
To extract the wanted signal from a received modulated RF
carrier without distortion
A receiver shall:
provide Rx frequency selectivity filter off interfering signals minimise distortion of the wanted signal
Note that we are trying to receive signals around 100dBm,
which can be a factor of 10 15 less than that coming from the transmitter antenna
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3.1.47
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Superheterodyne Receiver
Antenna
I
Mixer
S
Rf Pre-Amp Front End BPF Amplifier Filter IF Stage 90O
Q
LPF Quadrature Detector
Basis for all modern day receivers Superheterodyne - advanced mixing

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3.1.48
hetrodyne means mixing Super refers to that fact that there a number of mixer stages.
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Antenna
I
Mixer
S
Q
Basic Front End (FE) Stage - Why ? What ?
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3.1.49
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FE Stage
Why ?
To maximise the receive sensitivity of the radio, by:
coupling the antenna signal to the receiver

efficiently
attenuating interfering signals amplifying selected RF signal What ?

The above is performed using a series of:
RF Pre-amplifiers Tunable Filters Remember - If sensitivity is maximised, the greater the

effective range of the radio system
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3.1.50
A good example of improving sensitivity is at GSM1800 when LNAs were used.
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Antenna
I
Mixer
S
Q
LPF
Mixing
Quadrature Detector
To down-convert received RF signal to the 1st IF frequency Variable output LO to track selected Rx frequency
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3.1.51
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1ST Mixer Stage
Signal Level
lower product
higher product
RF
LO
Frequency (Hz)
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3.1.52
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Antenna
I
Mixer
S
Q
IF Stage
High Q filters and precision amplifiers produce a clean IF signal

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3.1.53
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Antenna
I
Mixer
S
Q
LPF
Quadrature Detector signals from a single RF carrier
Quadrature Detector
Commonly used demodulator to extract two wanted
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3.1.54
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Quadrature Detector
Two signals modulated onto a single RF carrier Each signal modulated onto carrier in different 90o phases Signals demodulated using LO inputs which are phase related to
wanted signal (phase difference between LOs is 90o)
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3.1.55
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QAM contd...
m1 (t) cos c t
o -90
x1(t) 2 cos wct
m1 (t)
s(t)
o -90
sin c t m2 (t)
2 sin wct x2 (t) m2 (t)
s(t) = m 1 (t)cos c t + m 2 (t)sin c t x 1 (t) = s(t).2.cos c t = m 1 (t) + m 1 (t)cos 2 c t + m 2 (t)sin 2 c t x 2 (t) = s(t).2.sin c t = m 2 (t) + m 1 (t)cos 2 c t + m 2 (t)sin 2 c t
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3.1.56
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Double Superheterodyne Receiver

Antenna
Mixer
Mixer
To quad. detector
Rf Pre-Amp Front End
BPF
Amplifier
Filter 1st IF Stage
Amplifier
Filter 2nd IF Stage
Extra IF stage to improve adjacent channel selectivity

performance
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Receiver Design Summary

An RF signal has been inputted to the receiver design and
down-converted, in stages, to the wanted signal principles
All receiver designs are based on the superheterodyne Modern receivers provide more digital control (DSP)
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3.1.58
Note we have dealt largely with old world technology to introduce the concepts. Nowadays Direct conversion is often used together with receiver on a chip concept.
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Where are We Now?

Design Elements
Modulation
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3.1.59
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Transceiver?
Transmitter/Receiver
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3.1.60
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Aims of a Transceiver
To provide both receive and transmit capabilities in one unit,
with ancillary circuitry to control switching between the two states
Require
user definability of Tx and Rx frequencies suppression of interference between two stages cost and size reductions due to duplication (sharing of oscillators, mixers stages, etc.....)
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3.1.61
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Conceptual Transceiver Block Diagram

IF STAGE Quad. Mod RF STAGE
Frequency Synthesis
Quad. Demod IF STAGE FRONT END
Note: * = Tx / Rx switch or duplex filter

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RF Switching
Tx/Rx Switch
transceiver cannot transmit and receive simultaneously switch is usually controlled by user PTT (press-to-talk) or external Tx control signal maintain impedance loading
Duplex Filter
transceiver can transmit and receive simultaneously essentially two BPFs bolted together common antenna input used in Repeater systems
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System Filtering
At a site, several receivers and transmitters may co-exist Methods of ensuring RF signals (Rx and Tx) are routed to the
appropriate antenna/transceiver without interference from other RF signals
One antenna may be connected to several transceivers Require the use of:
Combiners Splitters Directional Couplers
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Combiners
Passive device which has an

RF in_1 RF in_2 RF in_3
Power Combiner
output equal to the vector sum of its multiple RF inputs number of inputs ports
RF out
Insertion loss increases with High isolation between input
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3.1.65
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Splitters
Passive device which accepts an
RF out_1 RF out_2 RF out_3
input signal and delivers multiple output signals amplitude and phase if terminated into identical loads number of output ports output signal
RF in
Power Splitter
Output signals are equal in
Insertion loss increases with High isolation between each
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Directional Couplers
RF Signal in
Device which couples an RF signal

onto a Transmission Line (TL)
Sometimes termed RF sniffer Coupled RF signal is attenuated

RF in
Directional Coupler
TL out
Extent of coupling dependent on

RF frequency
Range of devices available
dependent on attenuation requirements and signal to be coupled onto
RF Signal out (optional)

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Node B

Internal base station Capacity: 2+2+2 Note that it appears more card oriented than a GSM BTS
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3.1.68
Note in 3G the amplifier needs to be highly linear.
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Where are We Now?

Design Elements
Modulation
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3.1.69
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Summary
In this section on Basic Radio Principles you have learnt about
Modulation Radio building blocks Transmitter and receiver design Transceiver system design
This section is important to you because you will

understand the reasons for rules and regulations associated with your work have a better realisation of why there are differences between theoretical and practical network coverage predictions
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3.1.70
Summary
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The End of Basic Radio Principles

Introduction Mobile Radio Channel Design Elements Network Design
Link Budgets Course Overview UMTS Overview UMTS Standards Access Technologies WCDMA Introduction Basic Radio Principles Matched Filters and Rake Receivers Antennas and Feeders Interference WCDMA Physical Layer The Planning Process Polygons Site Placement Antenna Placement Frequency Planning Forward Capacity Planning Operators Design Guides
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Optimisation
Path Loss Local Mean Signal Narrowband Channel Wideband Channel
Radio Resource Management Conventional Optimisation 3G Optimisation Course Wash Up
Any More Diversity Model Questions? Architecture
3.1.71
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Mason Communications Ltd 5 Exchange Quay Manchester M5 3EF England
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Tel: +44 (0)161 877 7808 Fax: +44 (0)161 877 7810
Presentation Title
Client
Date
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CLIENT
PRESENTATION TITLE
The information contained herein is the property of Mason Communications Ltd and is provided on condition that it will not be reproduced, copied, lent or disclosed, directly or indirectly, or used for any purpose other than that for which it was specifically furnished.
O
??? ORIGINATOR REVISION
??? PREPARED BY
PRESENTATION NUMBER
??? CHECKED BY APPROVED BY DATE
????????.PPT
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No. of Slides = ??
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P4KX310D - Basic Radio Principles

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P4KX310D - Basic Radio Principles

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Mason Communications Training: WCDMA Radio Planning Course Module 3: Design Elements Section 3.

1: Basic Radio Principles

WCDMA Radio Planning Course

Where are We Now?

Radio Resource Management Conventional Optimisation 3G Optimisation Course Wash Up

What is in This Section?

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What is in This Section? This will be a high level treatment.

Why is this Section Important to You?

This will assist you as a network planner to

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Why is this Section Important to You?

How Will You Learn?

Discussion Intermediate Frequency

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How Will You Learn?

Basic Communications Receiver

Switched bandpass filter

1st frequency changer

1st I.F. 2nd 34.3 or frequency 38.3 MHz changer

2nd I.F. 10.7 MHz

3rd frequency changer

3rd I.F. 2.6 MHz

Lower sideband 94-100kHz Carrier 100 kHz

3rd oscillator 13.3 MHz

4th oscillator 2.7 MHz

100 kHz reference

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Where are We Now?

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Modulation of a signal onto a higher frequency carrier has

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Common Modulation Techniques

and other derivatives

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RF Power Output proportional to input signal level

FM derived modulation techniques provide a constant

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Constant RF power output

Where are We Now?

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Radio Building Blocks

Common components of radio design

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A combination of the above can be combined to produce more

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3dB points Roll-off Insertion Loss Stop Band Attenuation

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3dB plots define the bandwidth of the filter.

Filters 3dB Points

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A filter design with a high rate of change of attenuation is

Roll off = 20dB/decade

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Filters Insertion Loss & Stop Band Attenuation

Typically 0.5 -2dB

Insertion Loss f(Hz)

Stop-Band Attenuation - loss experienced by a stop band

Filter Example 7-stage Butterworth Low-pass Filter

Number of stages equal to

number of frequency sensitive filter components following initial spec.

Design established from

= ff l -o rol ave oct per dB 42