Preface ...................................................................................................................

v
1. The Earth: Surface, Structure and Age ....................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1
1.2 The Surface of the Earth .................................................................................. 2
1.2.1 Dimensions and Surface Relief ......................................................... 2
1.2.2 Ocean Floors .................................................................................... 2
1.3 The Interior of the Earth ................................................................................... 3
1.3.1 Temperature Gradient and Density ................................................... 3
1.3.2 Earthquakes ...................................................................................... 3
1.3.3 Isostasy ............................................................................................. 6
1.3.4 Continental Drift ................................................................................ 7
1.3.5 Oceanic Ridges ................................................................................ 8
1.3.6 Rock Magnetism ............................................................................... 9
1.3.7 Mechanism of Drift ............................................................................ 10
1.4 Plate Tectonics ................................................................................................ 10
1.5 Earth Age and Origin ....................................................................................... 12

2. Geological History ........................................................................................ 14

2.1 The Stratigraphical Column ............................................................................. 16
2.1.1 Breaks in the Sequence .................................................................... 16
2.1.2 Fold-mountain Belts .......................................................................... 16
2.2 Precambrian .................................................................................................... 17
2.3 Phanerozoic ..................................................................................................... 18
2.3.1 Older Palaeozoic ............................................................................... 19
2.3.2 Caledonides ...................................................................................... 20
2.3.3 Newer Palaeozoic ............................................................................. 20
2.3.4 The Hercynian Orogeny .................................................................... 23
2.3.5 Mesozoic ........................................................................................... 23

viii Contents
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2.3.6 Cenozoic ........................................................................................... 25

2.3.7 Alpine Orogeny ................................................................................. 26
2.3.8 Quaternary ........................................................................................ 28

3. Surface Processes ....................................................................................... 31

3.1 Weathering ...................................................................................................... 31
3.1.1 Chemical Weathering ........................................................................ 31
3.1.2 Mechanical Weathering .................................................................... 34
3.1.3 Biological Weathering ....................................................................... 36
3.1.4 Global Trends ................................................................................... 36
3.2 Erosion and Deposition .................................................................................... 38
3.2.1 The Work of Rivers ........................................................................... 38
3.2.2 The Work of the Sea ......................................................................... 44
3.2.3 The Work of Wind ............................................................................. 49
3.2.4 The Work of Ice ................................................................................. 54
3.2.5 Other Mass Transport ....................................................................... 59

4. Minerals ......................................................................................................... 61
4.1 Physical Characters ......................................................................................... 61
4.2 Crystalline Form ............................................................................................... 63
4.3 Optical Properties of Minerals .......................................................................... 65
4.4 Atomic Structures ............................................................................................ 70
4.5 The Rock-forming Minerals .............................................................................. 72

4.6 Silicate Minerals ............................................................................................... 72

4.6.1 The Olivine Group ............................................................................. 72
4.6.2 The Pyroxene Group ......................................................................... 73
4.6.3 The Amphibole Group ....................................................................... 73
4.6.4 The Mica Group ................................................................................ 74
4.6.5 The Feldspar Group .......................................................................... 75
4.6.6 The Feldspathoid Group ................................................................... 77
4.6.7 Forms of Silica .................................................................................. 77
4.6.8 Accessory Minerals ........................................................................... 79
4.6.9 Secondary Minerals .......................................................................... 79
4.7 Clay Minerals ................................................................................................... 80

Contents ix
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4.8 Non-silicate Minerals ....................................................................................... 82

4.8.1 Native Elements ................................................................................ 84
4.8.2 Sulphides .......................................................................................... 84
4.8.3 Halides .............................................................................................. 85
4.8.4 Oxides and Hydroxides ..................................................................... 85
4.8.5 Carbonates ....................................................................................... 86
4.8.6 Tungstates and Phosphates ............................................................. 87
4.8.7 Sulphates .......................................................................................... 87
4.9 Mineral Accumulations ..................................................................................... 87
4.9.1 The Concentration of Minerals .......................................................... 88
4.9.2 The Search for Minerals .................................................................... 88

5. Igneous Rocks .............................................................................................. 91

5.1 Volcanoes and Extrusive Rocks ...................................................................... 91
5.2 Extrusive Rock Associations ............................................................................ 94
5.3 Intrusive Rocks and Rock Forms ..................................................................... 95
5.4 Texture and Composition ................................................................................. 99
5.4.1 Texture .............................................................................................. 99
5.4.1 Composition ...................................................................................... 100
5.5 Ultrabasic Rocks .............................................................................................. 101
5.5.1 Picrite and Peridotite ......................................................................... 101
5.6 Basic Rocks ..................................................................................................... 101
5.6.1 Gabbro .............................................................................................. 102
5.6.2 Dolerite ............................................................................................. 103
5.6.3 Basalt ................................................................................................ 103
5.7 Intermediate Rocks .......................................................................................... 104
5.7.1 Diorite ................................................................................................ 104
5.7.2 Andesite ............................................................................................ 104
5.8 Acid Rocks ....................................................................................................... 105
5.8.1 Granite .............................................................................................. 105
5.8.2 Granodiorite ...................................................................................... 106
5.9 Quartz-porphyry and Acid Vein Rocks ............................................................. 106
5.9.1 Quartz-porphyry ................................................................................ 106
5.9.2 Acid Lavas ........................................................................................ 107

x Contents
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5.10 Alkaline Rocks ................................................................................................. 107

5.10.1 Syenite .............................................................................................. 107
5.10.2 Trachyte ............................................................................................ 107

5.11 Origin of Igneous Rocks .................................................................................. 108

5.12 Ores of Igneous Origin ..................................................................................... 109

6. Sedimentary Rocks ...................................................................................... 111

6.1 Composition ..................................................................................................... 111
6.2 Development .................................................................................................... 111
6.3 Texture ............................................................................................................. 112
6.4 Facies .............................................................................................................. 113
6.5 Environment of Deposition ............................................................................... 113
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks ....................................................................................... 115
6.6 Rudaceous Deposits ........................................................................................ 118
6.6.1 Conglomerate ................................................................................... 118
6.6.2 Grit .................................................................................................... 119
6.7 Arenaceous Deposits ....................................................................................... 119
6.7.1 Sands ................................................................................................ 119
6.7.2 Sandstones ....................................................................................... 119
6.8 Argillaceous Deposits ...................................................................................... 122
6.8.1 Silt ..................................................................................................... 122
6.8.2 Clays ................................................................................................. 122
6.8.3 Shales ............................................................................................... 123
6.9 Detrital (Pyroclastic) Sediments ....................................................................... 124
6.10 Detrital (Calcareous) Sediments ...................................................................... 124
6.10.1 The Limestones ................................................................................ 124
Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentary
RocksPreface ................................................................................................................... v

1. The Earth: Surface, Structure and Age ....................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1
1.2 The Surface of the Earth .................................................................................. 2
1.2.1 Dimensions and Surface Relief ......................................................... 2
1.2.2 Ocean Floors .................................................................................... 2
1.3 The Interior of the Earth ................................................................................... 3
1.3.1 Temperature Gradient and Density ................................................... 3
1.3.2 Earthquakes ...................................................................................... 3
1.3.3 Isostasy ............................................................................................. 6
1.3.4 Continental Drift ................................................................................ 7
1.3.5 Oceanic Ridges ................................................................................ 8
1.3.6 Rock Magnetism ............................................................................... 9
1.3.7 Mechanism of Drift ............................................................................ 10
1.4 Plate Tectonics ................................................................................................ 10
1.5 Earth Age and Origin ....................................................................................... 12

2. Geological History ........................................................................................ 14

2.1 The Stratigraphical Column ............................................................................. 16
2.1.1 Breaks in the Sequence .................................................................... 16
2.1.2 Fold-mountain Belts .......................................................................... 16
2.2 Precambrian .................................................................................................... 17
2.3 Phanerozoic ..................................................................................................... 18
2.3.1 Older Palaeozoic ............................................................................... 19
2.3.2 Caledonides ...................................................................................... 20
2.3.3 Newer Palaeozoic ............................................................................. 20
2.3.4 The Hercynian Orogeny .................................................................... 23
2.3.5 Mesozoic ........................................................................................... 23

viii Contents
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

2.3.6 Cenozoic ........................................................................................... 25

2.3.7 Alpine Orogeny ................................................................................. 26
2.3.8 Quaternary ........................................................................................ 28

3. Surface Processes ....................................................................................... 31

3.1 Weathering ...................................................................................................... 31
3.1.1 Chemical Weathering ........................................................................ 31
3.1.2 Mechanical Weathering .................................................................... 34
3.1.3 Biological Weathering ....................................................................... 36
3.1.4 Global Trends ................................................................................... 36
3.2 Erosion and Deposition .................................................................................... 38
3.2.1 The Work of Rivers ........................................................................... 38
3.2.2 The Work of the Sea ......................................................................... 44
3.2.3 The Work of Wind ............................................................................. 49
3.2.4 The Work of Ice ................................................................................. 54
3.2.5 Other Mass Transport ....................................................................... 59

4. Minerals ......................................................................................................... 61
4.1 Physical Characters ......................................................................................... 61
4.2 Crystalline Form ............................................................................................... 63
4.3 Optical Properties of Minerals .......................................................................... 65
4.4 Atomic Structures ............................................................................................ 70
4.5 The Rock-forming Minerals .............................................................................. 72
4.6 Silicate Minerals ............................................................................................... 72
4.6.1 The Olivine Group ............................................................................. 72
4.6.2 The Pyroxene Group ......................................................................... 73
4.6.3 The Amphibole Group ....................................................................... 73
4.6.4 The Mica Group ................................................................................ 74
4.6.5 The Feldspar Group .......................................................................... 75
4.6.6 The Feldspathoid Group ................................................................... 77
4.6.7 Forms of Silica .................................................................................. 77
4.6.8 Accessory Minerals ........................................................................... 79
4.6.9 Secondary Minerals .......................................................................... 79
4.7 Clay Minerals ................................................................................................... 80

Contents ix
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4.8 Non-silicate Minerals ....................................................................................... 82

4.8.1 Native Elements ................................................................................ 84
4.8.2 Sulphides .......................................................................................... 84
4.8.3 Halides .............................................................................................. 85
4.8.4 Oxides and Hydroxides ..................................................................... 85
4.8.5 Carbonates ....................................................................................... 86
4.8.6 Tungstates and Phosphates ............................................................. 87
4.8.7 Sulphates .......................................................................................... 87
4.9 Mineral Accumulations ..................................................................................... 87
4.9.1 The Concentration of Minerals .......................................................... 88
4.9.2 The Search for Minerals .................................................................... 88

5. Igneous Rocks .............................................................................................. 91

5.1 Volcanoes and Extrusive Rocks ...................................................................... 91
5.2 Extrusive Rock Associations ............................................................................ 94
5.3 Intrusive Rocks and Rock Forms ..................................................................... 95

5.4 Texture and Composition ................................................................................. 99

5.4.1 Texture .............................................................................................. 99
5.4.1 Composition ...................................................................................... 100
5.5 Ultrabasic Rocks .............................................................................................. 101
5.5.1 Picrite and Peridotite ......................................................................... 101
5.6 Basic Rocks ..................................................................................................... 101
5.6.1 Gabbro .............................................................................................. 102
5.6.2 Dolerite ............................................................................................. 103
5.6.3 Basalt ................................................................................................ 103
5.7 Intermediate Rocks .......................................................................................... 104
5.7.1 Diorite ................................................................................................ 104
5.7.2 Andesite ............................................................................................ 104
5.8 Acid Rocks ....................................................................................................... 105
5.8.1 Granite .............................................................................................. 105
5.8.2 Granodiorite ...................................................................................... 106
5.9 Quartz-porphyry and Acid Vein Rocks ............................................................. 106
5.9.1 Quartz-porphyry ................................................................................ 106
5.9.2 Acid Lavas ........................................................................................ 107

x Contents
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5.10 Alkaline Rocks ................................................................................................. 107

5.10.1 Syenite .............................................................................................. 107
5.10.2 Trachyte ............................................................................................ 107
5.11 Origin of Igneous Rocks .................................................................................. 108
5.12 Ores of Igneous Origin ..................................................................................... 109

6. Sedimentary Rocks ...................................................................................... 111

6.1 Composition ..................................................................................................... 111
6.2 Development .................................................................................................... 111
6.3 Texture ............................................................................................................. 112
6.4 Facies .............................................................................................................. 113
6.5 Environment of Deposition ............................................................................... 113
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks ....................................................................................... 115
6.6 Rudaceous Deposits ........................................................................................ 118
6.6.1 Conglomerate ................................................................................... 118
6.6.2 Grit .................................................................................................... 119
6.7 Arenaceous Deposits ....................................................................................... 119
6.7.1 Sands ................................................................................................ 119
6.7.2 Sandstones ....................................................................................... 119
6.8 Argillaceous Deposits ...................................................................................... 122
6.8.1 Silt ..................................................................................................... 122
6.8.2 Clays ................................................................................................. 122
6.8.3 Shales ............................................................................................... 123
6.9 Detrital (Pyroclastic) Sediments ....................................................................... 124
6.10 Detrital (Calcareous) Sediments ...................................................................... 124
6.10.1 The Limestones ................................................................................ 124
Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks