8.

3 BLUEPRINT OF LIFE
1.Evidence of evolution suggests that the mechanisms of inheritance accompanied by selection, allow change over many generations. Outline the impact on the evolution of plants and animals of: - changes in physical conditions in the environment - changes in chemical conditions in the environment - competition for resources Physical Conditions: Change in physical conditions such as rainfall or temperature will act as a selection pressure for evolution. Australia's climate has become mroe arid in the last 25my. Rainforests have diminished & woodland increased. Plants have been restricted to small pockets. Eucalypts, bottle-brushes & tea trees have become prolific with specialised forms evolving in fire prone or very dry areas. Chemical Conditions: change in chemical conditions impacts organisms. Variations in pH, salinity levels, presence of heavy metals or increased oxygen may be detrimental to plants & animals. Competition for resources: Includes food, shelter, breeding partners etc. E.g. Introduction of dingolead to extinction of thylacine. E.g. Plants competeing for light developing under canopies. E.g. Allelopathy to reduce competition in some plants. Describe, using specific examples, how the theory of evolution is supported by the following areas of study: palaeontology, including fossils that have been considered as transitional forms biogeography comparative embryology comparative anatomy biochemistry palaentology: the study of fossils provides evidence that organisms have changed over time. Transitional forms indicate the development of one group of organisms from another or from a common ancestor. Example: Archaeopteryx flying dinasour with feathers (bird) and a wishbone (reptile). biogeography the study of distribution of living things. Particular types of animals and plants are found in some continents & not others. Australia because of it's isolation has many unique organisms. Wallace Line: line that seperates plants & animals of Asia & Australia.

comparative embryology comparison of embryos of organisms suggest common ancestory for all chordates. Common features are gill arches, spinal cords & primitice kidneys. Skin structure & pattern of development are similar. comparative anatomy structures that are similar in organisms. Homoloogous structures have common origin regardless of function. Pentadactyl limb of most land vertebrate shows a similar pattern. Is believed to be inherited from aquatic ancestors, the lobe-finned fish. Plants show structural similarities. Ferns, conifers & flowering plants have vascular tissue including xylem. biochemistry similar molecules in variety of animals. Examination of the compatability of different blood when mixed can help determine relatedness. Examination of the nucleotide sequence making up genes & chromosomes indicates closeness. Explain how Darwin/Wallace's theory of evolution by natural selection and isolation accounts for divergent evolution and convergent evolution. Adaptive radiation refers to the variety of different species that evolve from an ancestral line as a result of migration and isolation. Divergent evolution occurs when closely related species experience quite different environments and as a result vastly different characteristics will be selected. The species will evolve differently and will eventually appear quite different. For example, elephants are large plains-dwelling animals that are closely related to a small guinea pig-like animal called a hyrax. Comparison of skeletons indicates the close relationship between the two groups. Convergent evolution occurs when two relatively unrelated species develop similar structures, physiology or behaviours in response to similar selective pressures from similar environments. For example, dolphins (mammals) and sharks (cartilaginous fish) have evolved a streamlined body shape and fins that enable them to move efficiently through their aquatic environment, yet they are only remotely related as vertebrates.

1.GREGOR MENDELS EXPERIMENTS HELPED ADVANCE OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE INHERITANCE OF CHARACTERISTICS. Outline the experiments carried out by Gregor Mendel Gregor Mendel formulated the principles of genetics by experimentation with garden peas. Mendel chose garden peas because they were easy to grow, produced new generations quickly, had easily distinguishable characteristics and easy control of breeding patterns. Mendel examined seven characteristics found in peas:

1. Flower colour, purple or white 2. Flower position, axial or terminal 3. Seed colour, yellow or green 4. Seed shape, round or wrinkled 5. Pod shape, inflated or constricted 6. Pod colour, green or yellow 7. Stem height, tall or short. Self-fertilisation was ensured by placing a bag over the flowers to make sure pollen from the stamens lands on the carpel of the same flower. Crossfertilisation was ensured by cutting off stamens from a flower before pollen was produced, then dusting the carpel of the flower with pollen from another plant. Mendel worked with true-breeding plants (homozygous): self-fertilised plants which produced all offspring identical to the parents.

1. Mendel first cross-fertilised two true-breeding plants for one characteristic, for example tall plants were crossed with short plants (Mendel called these plants a P1 parent generation). 2. The offspring produced are called F1 (1st filial) generation. 3. The F1 generation were then self-fertilised or cross-fertilised to produce a second generation, F2. Each of the seven traits had a dominant and a recessive factor. When two truebreeding plants were crossed, only the dominant factor appeared in the first generation. The recessive factor appeared in the second generation in a 3:1 (dominant : recessive) relationship.

Describe the aspects of the experimental teqchniques used by Mendel that led to his success. Mendel was successfull because he:

Used peas Selected easily observable characteristics Strictly controlled the fertilisation process Used mathematics to analyse results Used large number of plants Studied traits that had two easily identifiable characteristics

Describe outcomes of monohybrid crosses involving simple dominance, using Mendel's explanations. Monohybrid crosses involve one factor only. For example, a cross might involve a true breeding (homozygous) tall plant crossed with a true breeding (homozygous) short plant. This produces a first generation where all of the plants are tall. Mendel explained the first generation trait as the dominant factor. Thus, Mendel was able to explain his observed ratios, i.e.: F1 - all tall F2 - 3 tall : 1 short

Distinguish between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes in monohybrid crosses.

Factors that are the same are termed homozygous, e.g. TT and tt. Factors that are different are termed heterozygous, e.g. Tt.

Distinguish between the terms allele and gene, using examples. An allele is an alternative for a particular inheritable characteristic, e.g. tall (T) and short (t) are two alleles for the characteristic of height in some plants. In humans, straight (S) and widow's peak (s) are two alleles for hairline. A gene is a section of DNA coding for proteins that expresses itself as the phenotype of an organism. Alleles are alternative forms of a gene.

Explain the relationship between dominant and recessive alleles and phenotype using examples. Phenotype is the outward appearance of an organism. The genotype is the actual alleles that are present on the chromosomes of the organism. A homozygous tall plant would have two identical alleles for height (TT) and would appear tall. A heterozygous tall plant would have the phenotype of a tall plant but would have non-identical alleles (Tt). In this case, tall is dominant and short is recessive and is not expressed.

Outline the reasons why the importance of Mendels work was not recognized until sometime after it was published. Mendel was not a recognized, high profile member of the scientific community he presented his paper to only a few people at an insignificant, local, scientific meeting other scientists did not understand the work or its significance.

1.CHROMOSOMAL STRUCTURE PROVIDES THE KEY TO INHERITANCE

Outline the roles of Sutton and Boveri in identifying the importance of chromosomes Theodor Boveri and Walter Sutton are credited with the discovery of the role of chromosomes in 1902. Boveri worked on sea urchins and showed that their chromosomes were not all the same and that a full complement was required for the normal development of an organism. Sutton worked on grasshoppers and showed that their chromosomes were distinct entities with a distinct structure. He associated the behaviour of chromosomes with Mendel's work on the inheritance of factors and concluded that chromosomes were the carriers of hereditary units. Their work became known as the Sutton-Boveri chromosome hypothesis.

Describe the chemical nature of chromosomes and genes. Chromosomes consist of 40% DNA and 60% protein (histone). Short lengths of DNA make up genes so genes have the same chemical composition as DNA.

Identify that DNA is a double-stranded molecule twisted into a helix with each strand comprised of a sugar-phosphate backbone and attached bases adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and guanine (G) connected to a complementary strand by pairing the bases, A-T and G-C.

DNA is a nucleic acid in the shape of a double helix. Each strand of the helix consists of four different nucleotides made up of deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate molecule and a nitrogen base. The backbones of the structure, consist of the deoxyribose sugar and phosphate molecules. The bases form the rungs between the sides of deoxyribose sugar and phosphate molecules and are complementary (only pair with their matching base). Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine.

Explain the relationship between the structure and behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis and the inheritance of genes. Chromosomes are made of DNA. Genes are coded within the DNA on the chromosomes. During division each chromosome (which therefore includes the genes) makes a complete copy of itself. The new chromosome is attached to the original chromosome by a centromere. In the initial division of meiosis the homologous chromosomes line up in matching pairs and one of each pair of homologous chromosomes moves into a new cell. Next the duplicated chromosomes separate to single strands resulting in four sex cells that are haploid, (i.e. contain half the chromosome number of the original cell). The genes are located on the chromosomes. They are duplicated during the first stage of meiosis and are then randomly assorted depending on which chromosomes from each pair enters which new haploid cell during the first and second division.

Explain the role of gamete formation and sexual reproduction in variability of offspring. Gamete formation results in the halving of the chromosome number (n) (diploid to haploid) and sexual reproduction results in combining gametes (haploid to diploid) to produce a new diploid organism (2n). The processes involved in forming this new organism result in variability of the offspring.

In sexual reproduction each female or male cell produces 4 gametes from the process of meiosis. Each of these gamete is haploid and has a random assortment of genes from the parent. The genes (Mendel's alleles) are separated and the gametes have a random assortment of dominant and recessive genes. More variability is introduced depending on which gametes are successful in fertilisation. The resulting embryo has a completely different set of genes from either of the parents. Describe the inheritance of sex-linked genes, and alleles that exhibit codominance and explain why these do not produce simple Mendelian ratios. Mendel was fortunate in his choice of factors as they all showed dominant/recessive characteristics. However, sex-linked genes and genes that are co-dominant do not display the phenotype ratios predicted by Mendel's laws.

Human blood types are an example of co-dominance. Human blood types give different results from Mendelian ratios. When a homozygous male with AA alleles crosses with a homozygous female with BB alleles then all of the offspring will be a different phenotype from the parents (group AB).

Describe the work of Morgan that led to the understanding of sex linkage. Thomas Morgan worked on the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. He looked at crosses between red- eyed and white-eyed flies and found that the results could not be accounted for by simple Mendelian crosses. He showed that some genes were sex-linked because they were located on the X chromosome.

Explain the relationship between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes and the resulting phenotypes in examples of co-dominance. If an individual has two different alleles (heterozygous) for a characteristic, then often one will be dominant while the other is not expressed and is said to be recessive. In some cases however, both alleles are expressed in the phenotype and the two alleles are said to be co-dominant. In this case both alleles are labeled with upper case letters.

Outline ways in which the environment may affect the expression of a gene in an individual. The appearance of an individual is not based solely on their genetic information. The environment of the organism also plays a part. Hydrangeas are plants that have different flower colour (pink or blue) depending on the pH of the soil they are grown in. In acid soils (less than pH 5) Hydrangeas are blue. In soils that have a pH greater than 7 Hydrangeas are pink. The pH has an effect on the availability of other ions in the soil and it is these ions that are responsible for the colour change.

1.THE STRUCTURE OF DNA CAN BE CHANGES AND SUCH CHANGES MAY BE REFLECTED IN THE PHENOTYPE OF THE AFFECTED ORGANISM. Describe the process of DNA replication and explain its significance The process: Step 1: The DNA double helix is unwound by an enzyme. Step 2: The DNA unzips forming two single strands. Step 3: Nucleotides are added to the single strands resulting in two identical strands of DNA. The significance:

The significance of this process is the genetic information is passed on from generation to generation. During sexual reproduction, the genetic code is copied and then half of the

genetic information passes into each of the sex cells (ovum or sperm). When fertilisation occurs the new organism has half the genetic material from each parent. The DNA in a cell contains the genetic information to make an entire organism. When a cell divides it takes with it an exact copy of the genetic code of that organism. Outline, using a simple model, the process by which DNA controls the production of polypeptides. There are two types of RNA that are involved in polypeptide synthesis, messenger RNA (mRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA). In the nucleus, the double stranded DNA molecules unzip and the DNA code is transcribed into the single stranded mRNA molecule. The mRNA moves out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm and attaches to a ribosome. In the cytoplasm, the mRNA is translated into amino acids. At the ribosome, the messenger RNA lines up forming a template. A group of three bases, called a codon, codes for a specific amino acid. There are codes that start and stop the chain formation. AUG is the starting point for translation. tRNA has an anticodon (a non-amino acid forming codon) on one end and an amino acid on the other. A polypeptide is formed as each amino acid is added from tRNA to a chain following the sequence on the mRNA.

Explain the relationship between proteins and polypeptides A protein is made up of one or more polypeptides. A polypeptide is made up of a chain of many amino acids.

Explain how mutations in DNA may lead to the generation of new alleles Any change in the base sequence in DNA results in changes to the polypeptides that are produced and is a source of new alleles.

To produce changes in alleles, the mutation must occur in the sex cells of the organism which are then passed on to the next generation.

Discuss evidence for the mutagenic nature of radiation A mutagen is a natural or human-made agent (physical or chemical) which can alter the structure or sequence of DNA. Mutagens can be carcinogens (cancer causing) or teratogens (birth defects causing). Radiation was the first mutagenic agent known. Most of the first generation of scientists who worked with radiation died of cancer. Hans Muller received the Nobel Prize for showing that genes had the ability to mutate when exposed to X-rays. Beadle and Tatum used X-rays to produce mutations in bread mould in the formulation of their one gene one polypeptide hypothesis. The atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki also increased the evidence for mutations caused by radiation. There was a tenfold increase in cancer deaths directly after the bombs were dropped. Mutagens may cause death in the individual but unless they affect the sex cells the effect is not passed on to the next generation.

Explain how an understanding of the source of variation in organisms has provided support for Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection One of the foundation pillars for the theory of evolution is the variation that occurs among individual members of a species. The basis of this variation is the genetic makeup of the individuals in a species. It is this variation that selection acts upon. Mutation of DNA provides a source of new variations thus supporting Darwin's theory of evolution.

Describe the concept of punctuated equilibrium in evolution and how it differs from the gradual process proposed by Darwin Punctuated equilibrium differs from Darwin's gradual evolution in that evolution is seen as long periods where there is little change in organisms, followed by a shorter period where there are rapid changes. Evolution is a sudden process rather than slow gradual change. The evidence for this comes from the fossil record where there are mass extinctions of organisms followed by the appearance of new species.

1.Current reproductive technologies and genetic engineering have the potential to alter the path of evolution.

Identify how the following current reproductive techniques may alter the genetic composition of a population: artificial insemination artificial pollination cloning In the case of all the technologies mentioned, the donor gametes or body cells have been carefully selected for predetermined characteristics or artificially selected. In most cases, one exemplary donor contributes all the genetic material and this results in uniform offspring. Over generations, genetic variability within the species has been reduced.

Outline the processes used to produce transgenic species and include examples of this process and reasons for its use. Transgenic organisms contain a gene (transgene) from another species. This is acheived through recombinant DNA technology. Recombinant DNA technology manipulates DNA by the use of restriction enzymes, ligases and PCR (polymerase chain reaction). Restriction enzymes are used to cut DNA in specific places. These enzymes are also known as gene scissors or gene shears. Different restriction enzymes cut DNA in specific parts. The cut ends are known as 'sticky ends'. Ligases are used to repair and strengthen DNA especially after it has been cut by restriction enzymes. PCR is used to produce many copies of the recombinant DNA formed by the previous processes. Once the recombinant DNA is produced there are processes used to insert the DNA into the host species. These processes include microinjection, Ti plasmid insertion, gene gun and electroporation. In microinjection a fine glass needle is used to insert the recombinant DNA into the nucleus of the host cell. Ti (tumour inducing) plasmid insertion uses a bacterium called Agrobacterium tumefaciens. These bacteria produce crown gall in plants by inserting some of their own DNA into the host DNA causing the plant to produce a gall in which the bacteria live. The ability of the bacteria to insert DNA is used to transfer DNA into the host species. The gene gun blasts small metal pieces coated with DNA into the nucleus of the host cell. Electroporation uses electric pulses to create small pores in the nuclear membrane through which DNA is inserted. Examples of transgenic species are genetically engineered salmon which have the gene coding for the protein, GH (growth hormone), and potato plants which have a pea gene for lectin inserted.

Discuss the potential impact of the use of reproduction technologies on genetic diversity of species using a named plant and animal example that have been genetically altered.

Reproductive technologies, such as cloning, and the engineering of transgenic species have the potential to both increase and decrease genetic diversity. By moving genes from species to species, the genetic diversity is being increased. Crops, such as rice, have been genetically engineered to suit a particular climate and topography, making then resistant to herbicides and pesticides commonly used in a particular region. Transgenic animals present greater problems with lower success rates so far. One important use is seen to be the preservation of numbers of endangered species. The first cloned endangered mammal was a guar (an endangered wild ox from SE Asia), but unfortunately it did not survive. It is hoped that reproductive technologies such as cloning and sperm and embryo banks can be used to preserve stocks of threatened species.