MACHINE DESIGN I LEARNING MODULE I: STRESS ANALYSIS OBJECTIVE: 1 To enable the students to recognize the various stresses acting

on a member. 2 To enable the students to formulate the correct stress equations in every design problem. 3 To strengthen the students' foundation regarding stresses acting on a member. Stress is the result of an applied force on a member. Stress may be of two general type, namely normal stress and shear stress. Normal Stress is a type of stress wherein the applied force is perpendicular to the resisting area of the member. It is also called axial stress . F^A where : F = applied force or load A= resisting area

Shear Stress is a type of stress wherein the load applied to a member is parallel to the resisting area. F A NORMAL STRESS Types of normal stress a. Tensile Stress b. Compressive Stress c. Bearing Stress or Contact Stress d. Bending Stress or Flexural Stress a. Tensile Stress, St d F d F A St L E where : d F

St =

F = force applied, N (lbf) A= cross sectional area of the member, m2 (in2) St= tensile stress, Pa (psi) d = deformation of the member, m (in) L = length of the member, m (in) E = Modulus of Elasticity of the member, Pa (psi)

d=

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b. Compressive Stress, Sc F d d F A Sc L E where : d F

Sc =

F = force applied, N (lbf) A= cross sectional area of the member, m2 (in2) Sc= tensile stress, Pa (psi) d = deformation of the member, m (in) L = length of the member, m (in) E = Modulus of Elasticity of the member, PA (psi)

d=

c. Bearing Stress, Sb

F F

F t d

Sb =

F A

where :

F = force applied at the ends of the plate A= bearing area = d x t d = rivet or bolt diameter t = plate thickness

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c. Bending Stress, Sf, the type of stress experienced by beams where both tension and compression occurs at the same time. It is normally referred to as flexural stress. F contracting upper fibres R1 F separation of lower fibres R2 N.A. cc ct

R1 Mc I

R2 where :

Sf =

M = Bending Moment. For stress to be maximum, this should be a maximum bending moment. For complicated loads, M is computed using the shear and moment diagrams. c = distance of the stressed fibre from the neutral axis (N.A.). For stress to be maximum, c, should be the distance of the outermost fibre. cc = outermost fibre on the compressive side ct = outermost fibre on the tensile side. Note: cc = ct = c I = centroidal moment of inertia with respect to the neutral axis I/c = section modulus, Z, commonly used for members with symmetric sections

SHEAR STRESS consider the single lap joint shown which is either rivet or bolt connected, F F if the rivet is imagined to fail when the force, F, is applied

Shear Area, As

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...the rivet/bolt is said to be in single shear when it is displaced at a single place Ss = F As where : F = force applied to the member, i.e., the rivet or bolt As= shear area that is parallel to the application of the force Ss = shearing stress induced by the application of the force a. Torsional or Twisting Stress, Ss is another type of shearing stress that is induced on a member that are circular in cross sectional area. T b L T b T imagine a fibre a-b along the length L of the member;--- when the member is twisted as shown, the fibres would be moved as shown in the second figure. Producing an angular displacement of q, sometimes referred to as twist angle. Ss = where : Tr J and q= TL JG a a T b q a

T = Torque applied or twisting moment J = Polar Moment of Inertia of the member's cross section with respect to the centroid r = the distance of the stressed fibre from the neutral axis L = length of the member G = Modulus of Rigidity

STRESS - STRAIN DIAGRAM S d b c a : proportional limit b : elastic limit c : yield point d : ultimate point Sc = F A and = d L

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HOOKE'S LAW " the stress applied on a member is proportional to the resulting strain " S which leads to the equation, d= SL E or d= FL AE

Note :

where : E = Modulus of Elasticity of the member Universal Testing Machines (UTM's) provide the yield strength, sy, and the ultimate strength of tested materials. For Ductile Materials; the design is based on the yield strength, sy. For Brittle Materials; the design is based on ultimate strength, su.

DESIGN STRESS, Sd Design stress refer to the working stress that a member can safely handle. It is sometimes referred to as permissible stress, allowable stress, or maximum allowable working stress or safe working stress. Generally, Sd = S N Sdy = Sy Ny SU NU

For Ductile Materials :

For Brittle Materials :

SdU =

NOMINAL STRESS, SO, refer to the stress induced on a member. It can be tensile, compressive, shear or torsional stress. GENERAL DESIGN RULE : SO = S D

THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS Thin-walled pressure vessels refer to containers and conduits whose tickness is small compared to its' diameter.

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authored by: engr. ronnie tavares

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MACHINE DESIGN I LEARNING MODULE II: ALLOWANCES & TOLERANCES OBJECTIVE: 1) To enable the students to discern the proper method of providing measurements. 2) To familiarize the students in the proper manner of providing specifications on machine members. TOLERANCE is the stated permissible variation of the size of a dimension. Types of Tolerance Bilateral , where the size of a part is permitted to be either larger or smaller than the given dimension. Unilateral , where the size of a part may be larger only, or smaller only, than the given dimension. Generally used on those dimensions involved in a fit such as a pin in a hole. Illustration: 1) Bilateral Tolerances (a) 9/16 1/32 (b) 1.062 0.010 (a) 1.062 +0.010 - 0.000 (b) 1.060 +0.000 - 0.010

2) Unilateral Tolerances

ALLOWANCE For fitting dimensions (fit of mating parts), the tolerance should be chosen with some knowledge of the natural spread of the processes that produce the mating dimensions. For interchangeable assembly, the difference in size is cared for by the allowance, which, for running fits, is the minimum specified difference between the dimensions of the pin (male part) and the hole (female part) . Not to be mistaken with the actual minimum difference. Interference of metal (i), when the pin is larger than the hole, the allowance is the difference in size for the tightest fit. FITS Refer to Table 3.1 pp. 82 - 83 (Running and Sliding Fits), Design of Machine Elements, Faires. Refer to Table 3.2 p. 85 (Interference Fits), Design of Machine Elements, Faires.

How to Size Fits ASA Standards (American Standards Association) have fits measurement based on the basic hole system . Nominal size refers to minimum hole diameter. The tolerance on the hole is always positive (with zero negative tolerance), measured from the basic size. The tolerance on the shaft is all negative for working fits.

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Illustration: For the pump shaft 7/16-in. in diameter, how much larger than the pin must the hole be? Solution: Since pumps operate at intervals depending in usage and temperature variations are not uniform, use an RC 7 fit, Using the Basic Hole System, for a 7/16-in (0.4375-in) nominal hole size: From Table 3.1, pp. 82 - 83: Design of Machine Elements by Faires Hole + 1.6 -0 Shaft - 2.0 - 3.0

Hole Tolerance : 0.0016-in. Shaft Tolerance : (3 -2) x 10 -3 = 0.0010 in. Allowance : 0.002 in. (a) Older Method Hole :
0.4375

0.4375

+ 0.0016 - 0.0000

Shaft :

0.4365

+ 0.0000 - 0.0010

(b) Preferred Method Hole : 0.4375 to 0.4391 - in. Shaft : 0.4355 to 0.4345 - in. where : 0.4375 = nominal size 0.4391 = 7/16-in + 0.0016 0.4355 = 0.4375 - 0.002 0.4345 = 0.4375 - 0.003

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MACHINE DESIGN I LEARNING MODULE III: VARIABLE LOADS & STRESS CONCENTRATIONS OBJECTIVE: 1.) To provide the students a working knowledge on how external forces affect a machine member. 2.) To teach the students in determining the dimension of a machine member that is undergoing varying forces. 3.) To show the effects of varying forces on machine members with stress concentrations. A. VARIABLE STRESS Sm = Smax + Smin 2 Sa = Smax - Smin 2

B. STRESS VARIATIONS a.) Reversed ST 0 SC Smax Sa Sa Time c.) Smaller Part Compression (or Tension) Smax Sa 0 Sa Smin (neg) R= -0.37 Sm= 0 R= -1 Amplitude

b.) Repeated Smax Sa Sa 0 Smin= 0 Sa = Amplitude d.) Tension (or Compression) Smax Sa Sa 0 Smin Sm R= +0.37 Smax Sm R= 0

Sm

R= 3 Note : In every case : Stress Ratio, R : Smax = Sm + Sa Smin Smax

Sm

R=

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C. SODERBERG LINE FOR DUCTILE MATERIALS Sa C G Sn V Sa/N P B E Sm Sy /N Sy Soderberg Equation for Indefinite Life For Varying Shear (Torsional Stress) 1/N = Sm / Su + Sa / Sn 1/N = Sms / Sys + Sas / Sns D T Soderberg Line Repeated Stress, R=0 NB = OP/OB Line of Safe Stress

Sm

where Sm and Sa are computed as nominal stress, So, corresponding to : F Mc Sf = S= A I Endurance Strength, S'n Note : S'n 0.5 Su, ksi (250) (BHN), psi

Ss =

Tc J

Wrought Steel, BHN < 400; Good Ductility

Sn = 0.5 x Su x Csf x Cs x Cl Correction factor for loading type Correction factor for surface finish Correction factor for size

D. STRESS RAISERS Stress raisers refer to any discontinuity or change of section such as scratches, bends, notches, grooves or holes. The presence of these result in the concentration of stress or the production of localized stress that is greater than the average or normal stress. The presence of a stress raiser in a member makes the section, where that stress raiser is located, the most critical section and the following modifications to the stress equations apply: a.] For Axial Loading (Tension or Compression) b.] For Torsion c.] For Bending or Flexure St = Kt (F/A) Ss = Kt (Tc/J) Sf = Kt (Mc/I) Kt = theoretical where : stress concentration factor or TSCF. Values are taken from Figs. AF8 to AF14 : Design of Machine Elements by V.M. Faires

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E. IMPACT LOADING Consider: G (Rigid Body)

An energy balance of the set -up will yield; Energy given up by Weight = Energy absorbed by the elastic body

L h

W (Weight) Elastic Body

M (Platform)

W (h + d) = Pd/2 where : P/2 = average force Re : k = P/d] Substitute this to the equation Wh + dW = kd/2 Multiply both side by 2/k 2Wh/k + 2Wd/k = d d - 2Wd/k = 2Wh/k re-arranging: completing the square will yield: d= (W/k)[1 + sqr.rt (2kh/W + 1)]

Impact Load of A Body Moving Horizontally L d Elastic Body Energy Balance of the Set - Up] or Fd/2 = Wv/2g + Pd Energy Absorbed by the Elastic Body = KE of W + Work of P v W P

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ed stress that

d, the most

= theoretical entration factor Values are taken AF8 to AF14 :

by V.M. Faires

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bed by the elastic

average force

W + Work of P

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MACHINE DESIGN I LEARNING MODULE IV: SCREWS, BOLTS & FASTENING IMPLEMENTS DESIGN OBJECTIVE: 1.) To introduce students to various fastening implements such as screws, bolts, nuts, etc. 2.) To teach the students the basic considerations that are required in designing fastening implements. 3.) To teach the students as to the materials from which fastening implements are made and the way these are specified. A. THREAD STANDARDS AND DEFINITIONS Crest Root pitch, p 45chamfer

Thread Angle, 2a Minor Diameter, dr Mean Diameter, dm Major Diameter, d 1.] pitch, p : the distance between adjacent thread forms measured parallel to the thread axis. It is the reciprocal of the number of thread forms per inch N. 2.] Major Diameter, d : the largest diameter of a screw thread. 3.] Minor Diameter, d r : the smallest diameter of a screw thread. 4.] Lead, L : the distance the nut moves parallel to the screw axis whenthe nut is given one turn. For a single thread, as in the above figure, the lead is the same as the pitch. A multiple-threaded product is one having two or more threads cut beside each other Standardized products such as screws, bolts, nuts, etc., all have single threads. A double-threaded screw has a lead equal to twice the pitch. A triple-threaded screw has a lead equal to three times the pitch. Note: All threads are made according to the right-hand rule. B. THREAD GEOMETRY
flat or rounded p/8 p 60 d
dm dr

p p/2 p/2 d
dr

p 29 p/2 d
dr

p/2

(a)

(b)

(c)

(a) American National or Unified Thread; width of root flat is p/4 (b) Square Thread

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(c) ACME Thread Two major Unified thread series are in common use, UN and UNR. In the latter, the root radius is used. UNR series have improved fatigue strengths due to reduced thread stress-concentration factors. Unified threads are specified by stating the nominal diameter, the number of threads per inch, and the thread series. Example : 5/8-18 UNRF or 0.625-18 UNRF Metric threads are specified by writing the diameter and pitch in millimeters, in that order. Example : M12 x 1.75 (This is a thread having a major diameter of 12 mm and a pitch of 1.75 mm. The M ) signifies the Metric designation.) Square and ACME threads are used on screws when power is to be transmitted. Since each application is a special one, there is really no need for a standard relating the diameter to the number of threads per inch. C. THE MECHANICS OF POWER SCREWS A power screw is a device used in machinery to change angular motion into linear motion and, usually, to transmit power. Common applications include the lead screw of lathe machines and the screws for vises, presses, and jacks. Consider a single thread of the square-threaded screw unrolled or developed for exactly make one-turn, F Nut p F P pdm mN l N mN pdm N F P l

F/2 Fig (1)

F/2

(a) (b) Fig (2) Force diagrams: (a) for lifting the load ; (b) for lowering the load

(a) For lifting the load SFh = P - N sin l - m N cos l = 0 SFv = F + mN sin l - N cos l = 0

(b) For lowering the load SFh = -P - N sin l + m N cos l = 0 SFv = F - mN sin l - N cos l = 0

Solving for the torque necessary to lift/lower the load F with a moment arm of dm/2: For Lifting the Load For Lowering the Load

T = (Fd m /2)[(l + pm d m )/( p d m - m l)]

where : F = load to be lifted or lowered dm = mean diameter of the screw l = thread lead angle

T = (Fd m /2)[( pm d m - l)/( p d m + m l)]

m = coefficient of friction l = lead

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Condition for a screw to be self-locking :

pm d m > l

or

m > tan l

Efficiency, e, of Square-threaded Power Screws:

e = Fl/2 p T
D. THREADED FASTENERS [a] Screws are products whose primary purpose is assembly into a tapped hole. It is tightened by exerting torque on the head. [b] Bolts are products that are intended to be used with a nut. It is tightened by exerting torque on the nut. [c] Studs resemble threaded rods; one end assembles into a tapped hole, the other end receives a nut. NOTE : The name of a product depends on the intent rather than the actual use. E. THREAD STRESS, t Based on the assumption that the load is uniformly distributed over the nut height, h, and that failure of the screw thread is by shearing on the minor diameter. where : ts = average screw thread shear stress ts = 2F Considering that the nut thread would fail by shearing off on pdh the major diameter. where : tn = average nut-thread shear stress tn = s= - 4F ph(d -dr)p pdmLe 2 where : s = average bearing stress of the thread 2F pdrh

As =

where : Le = engaged length of the thread As = shear area

F. BOLTED JOINTS IN TENSION P P

Ps

A bolted connection is desired if disassembly is desired without destructive methods and strong resistance to both external tensile loads and shear loads or a combination is desired. This type of connection requires the use of washers. Re: Deflection Equation of bar in simple tension or compression d= where : Fl AE and k = F/d = AE l

Fi
Ps

Fig. 3 Bolted Connection

k = stiffness constant A = area based on the nominal or major bolt diameter l = the total thickness of the parts which have been

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fastened together called the grip > The resultant load on the bolt, F b : Fb = Pb + Fi = kb P kb + k m k mP kb + k m + Fi

> The resultant load in the connected member, Fm :

Fm =

- Fi

The above equations hold only as long as some of the initial compression remains in the members. The members will separate when the external force becomes large enough to remove this compression completely. where : P = total external load on the bolted assembly] Fi = preload on bolt due to tightening before applying P Pb = portion of P taken by bolt

G. TORQUE REQUIREMENTS For bolted connections, it is desirable to ensure that the preload is actually developed when the parts are assembled. Several methods can be used to make sure of this and these are: the torque wrenching, the pneumatic-impact wrenching, and the turn-of-the-nut. Torque wrenching requires the use of a torque wrench that has a built-in dial that indicates the proper torque while the impact wrench uses air pressure which can be installed making the wrench stall when the proper torque is achieved. The turn-of-the-nut requires that the connection is snug tight . Snug tight is the tightness condition attained by a few impacts of an impact wrench or the full effort of a person using an ordinary wrench. It requires one to compute the fractional number of turns necessary to develop the needed preload to follow the snug tight condition. Eqn. (a) but Eqn (b) T = KFid where : K = 0.40 - 0.80, metal-to-metal surfaces = 0.005 - 0.20, lubricated surfaces = torque coefficient T = 0.20Fid

Equation (b) is more convenient to use regardless of bolt size or thread type, i.e., whether the threads are coarse or fine. H. BOLT PRELOAD: STATIC LOADING > The resultant load on the bolt, F b : and let C be, For the joint to separate : C= kb kb + k m Fb = Pb + Fi = kb P kb + k m + Fi

or the bolt load equation can be written Fb = CP + Fi

CP + Fi = 0, stating that the preload must be greater than CP. 0.6Fp Fi 0.9Fp At = area of thread Fp = proof load

To maintain high preload : Range should be Fp = At Sp where :

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Sp = proof stress (to be taken from textbook)

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MACHINE DESIGN I LEARNING MODULE V: SPRINGS OBJECTIVE: 1.) To provide the students the basic concepts regarding springs. 2.) To present the requirements needed in the design and selection of springs. 3.) To teach the students the materials commonly used in the manufacture of springs. 4.) To provide instructions in analyzing problems involving springs. A. SPRINGS - DEFINITION, USES AND FUNCTIONS Springs are common machine elements which are normally made of thin wires wound into a helix in order to absorb shock as well as vibration, act as source of energy and to produce pressure or force. There are springs which are not made of wires but of long flat plates, e.g., leaf springs used in vehicles, in order to absorb shock loads. B. STRESS IN ROUND WIRE HELICAL SPRINGS

Plain End

Squared End, Not Grounded

T F F Dw Pitch
Fig. 1. Compression Spring, Coiled Right Handed Re: Torsional Stress in a Circular Member Ss = Tr J or

Dm/2 F
Fig. 1.Quadrant of a Coil Ss = 16T p Dw3

Note :

The peak stress in a coil spring is greater than that obtained from the above torsional stress equation due to the following reasons: 1) the member is curved and there is a curvature (stress-concentration) effect Kc on the inside of the coil; 2) there is a transverse shear stress on any section due to F; and 3) there is a compressive stress in the wire arising from the component of F in the direction of the sloping coil.

Wahl's Equation Ss = where : or K16T p Dw

3

or

Ss =

K8FDm p Dw3

K = Wahl's Factor; refer to Fig AF 15 Design of Machine Elements by Faires K = [(4C - 1)/(4C - 4)] + 0.615/C C = spring index = Dm/Dw and C 5 , for good design Dm = mean coil diameter Dw = wire size F = axial load on the spring

Note :

The factor K is made up of two factors, where :

K = Kc Ks

Kc = correction factor for curvature, see Fig AF 15 Ks = correction factor for the direct shear k = F/d

C. Spring Scale, k

D. Deflection of Round Wire Helical Springs, d Re : TL JG where : T = FDm/2 d = qDm/2 L ~ pDmNc J = pDw4/32

q=

hence,

d=

8FDm3Nc GDw4

or

d=

8FC3Nc GDw

where :

Nc = number of active coils G = Modulus of Rigidity of the Coil Material L = length of the wire

D. Design Stresses and Solid Stresses Ss = where : Q Dwx

Q and x = depends upon the material, see Table AT 17 Design of Machine Elements by Faires

Note: For good design, the spring pitch or lead angle, 12 Wahl's equation becomes inaccurate.

MACHINE DESIGN I LEARNING MODULE VI: COLUMNS OBJECTIVE: 1.) To present the considerations taken in the design of columns. 2.) To teach the students the necessary concepts applied in column design. 3.) To provide a basic understanding on how the concepts of columns are applied on the various members used in machine design. A. BASIC CONCEPTS A.1. Introduction Buckling - the type of failure due to an instability. Slenderness Ratio (L/k) - the measure used to describe the slenderness of a column. where: L = length of the column k = radius of gyration;--- nearly always the least radius of gyration 1/2 = (I/A) See Table AT1 : Design of MAchine Elements by V. M. Faires I = moment of inertia A = cross-sectional area of the member

B. EULER'S FORMULA applies to very slender columns and is for frictionless rounded ends (no bending moment at the ends)
Fc = p2 EA (L/k)2

where:

Fc = the axial concentric load or the critical load that causes the column to be on the point of buckling E = modulus of elasticity of the member

B.1. Factor of Safety, N

N= Fc F

Note: The load capacity, Fc, of a column depends solely on the modulus of elasticity for a particular cross section. Since the modulus of elasticity for various steel grades varies little, there is no use in using expensive high-strength alloy steel. Structural steel is sufficient with L/k 120.

B.2. Effective Length, Le Effective Length, Le, refers to the length between sections of zero bending moment. B.3. Theoretical Values of Effective Length, L e values inside the parentheses are values recommended by the AISC B.3.1. For fixed ends: Le = L/2 (0.65L) Le = 0.707L (0.8L)

B.3.2. For one end fixed, one end rounded (or guided): B.3.3. For one end fixed, one end free:
F F

Le = 2L (2.1L)
F F

Le = 0.707L

Le = L

Le = L/2

L
F (d)

F (a) (b)

F (c)

Fig. 1. Types of Columns. (a) Rounded ends; (b) fixed ends; ('c) one end fixed, the other rounded; (d) one end fixed, one end free. B.4. Modified Euler's Formula For structural steel when Le/k > about 120
Fc = NF = p2 EA (Le/k)2
N=

or

F=

p2 EA N(Le/k)2

p2 EI NLe2

where: Note(s):

N 3.5, typical design factor. This value tends to increase asEA L e/k increases. Fc
F p2 (L/k)2 Fc =

a.) Extreme limit: Le = L/1.41 one free end.

b.) In Machine Design: Le = L (rounded ends), always;--- except for a column with

Le = 2L

C. JOHNSON FORMULA (PARABOLIC FORMULA) FOR SHORT COLUMNS applied for structural steels falling within the range of 30 < L e/k < 120. In this range, the Euler formula for Fc gives a stress above the yield strength specifically for AISI 8742, 1137, and 1015, respectively; ---- below this failure may well be of elastic nature. For 30 < Le/k < 120, structural steels.
Fc = syA 1 sy(Le/k)2 4p2E or F A = se 1 sy(Le/k)2 4p2E

D. STRAIGHT-LINE FORMULAS used for shorter columns in structures and varies from state to state utilizing the straight-line formula, i.e., s = a - b(L/k), where a and b are constants. never to be used for free-ended columns D.1. For Structural Steel
F A = 16,000 - 70 L k = 16,000 1 - 0.0044 L k , 30 < Le < 120 k

D.2. For Cast-Iron Steel

F A = 9,000 40 L k = 9,000 1 - 0.0044 L k , 30 < Le k < 70

where:

F = safe or design load for the column

E. TRANSITION POINT BETWEEN LONG AND INTERMEDIATE Used to determine when to use the Euler or the Johnson formula when the effective length lies between the ranges specified in the aforementioned formulas.
Le = k 2p2E sy
1/2

The above formula is the equivalent of Le/k at the tangent point. Generally, when Le/k < the tangent point; use the Johnson formula Le/k > the tangent point; use the Euler equation

F. SECANT FORMULA used when the load F is applied with an eccentricity, e, and the material is elastic with a small deflection(see Fig. 2)
sy = NF A 1+ ec k2 sec Le 2 NF EI

where:

e = eccentricity c = distance from the centroidal axis to the external fibre eccentricity ratio = 0.25 for structural columns centrally loaded ec = as per ASCE recommendation k2 e = Le/400

B c

Fig. 2. Effective Eccentricity (exaggerated)

G. COLUMN DESIGN G.1. Points to Consider When the column is unknown to be either slender or in the intermediate range, the design is one of trial and error especially if the section is complicated. If the section is simple, e.g., circular, annular, square, or rectangular, k and A may be expressed in terms of a singular quantity which can be solved or determined. For standard rolled sections, handbooks providing properties (A, I and k min) of rolled sections may be used to advantage. First, compute A = F/se, where se = sy/N, the design stress for Johnson's formula, because any section of a particular shape that is subjected to column action must have a larger area than this. H. EQUIVALENT STRESS, Se The equivalent stress, se, is considered since the stress in an axially loaded column at buckling is less than sy. The equivalent stress indicates the degree of safety when compared to sy. H.1. Equivalent Stress for Euler's Equation
se = F A sy(Le/k)2 p2E = F A

where: H.2. Equivalent Stress for Johnson's Formula the bracket.

se = F A 1 1 - 0.0044 L k = F A

se =

F A

1 1 - 0.0044 L k

F A

MACHINE DESIGN I LEARNING MODULE VII: SHAFT DESIGN OBJECTIVE: 1.) To present the considerations taken in shaft design. 2.) To teach the students the necessary concepts in shafting. 3.) To provide a basic understanding on the application of shafting. A. DEFINITIONS 1. Shafts are rotating members that transmit power. 2. Axles are stationary members carrying rotating wheels, pulleys, etc. 3. Line shafts or main shafts are those driven by a prime mover; power is taken from it by belts or chains, usually at several points along the shaft. 4. Countershafts, jackshafts, or headshafts are shafts installed intermediate between a line shaft and a driven machine. 5. Spindles are short shafts on machines. B. BASIC CONCEPTS B.1. Shaft Sizes and Materials B.1.1. Transmission Shafting Sizes, Stock Sizes, and Materials See page 269: Design of Machine Elements by V. M. Faires B.2. Hollow Round and Square Shafts B.2.1. Hollow Round Shafts usually used for large sizes more expensive than solid ones stronger and stiffer, weight for weight responds better to heat treatment because quenching can proceed outward as well as inward B.2.2. Square Shafts occassionally needed but edges needs to be beveled

B.3. Vertical Shear

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 the shear due to bending is a maximum at the neutral plane where the normal stress is zero maximum value for a solid round member
Ss = 16V 4V = 3D2 3A

where:

V = the vertical shear at the section under consideration. In a uniformly loaded cantilever beam, the vertical shear may govern when the length is less than about 1/2 the diameter. If the shaft is subjected to torsion as well as bending, the vertical shear combines with the torsion at the neutral plane is significant for longer hollow shafts. Deflection due to shear is significant in short beams.

B.4. Torsional Deflection,q B.4.1. Design Criteria limiting torsional deflection: 0.08 per foot length for machinery shafts to 1 per foot or 1 in a length of 20 diameters for transmission shafting.
= TL JG

where:

T = applied torque L = shaft length J = polar moment of inertia of the member (Table AT1: DOMEby Faires) G = modulus of rigidity of the member

B.5. Transverse Deflections refer to mechanics books for the methods on calculating beam deflection,e.g., double integration or method of superposition B.6. Vibration and Critical Speeds of Shafts Critical Speed, nc, refers to that speed where the centrifugal force of the displaced center of mass will equal the deflecting forces on the shaft.
y1 y3

y2

nc

30 p

go (Wy) Wy2
2 go = 386 ips

1/2

W1

W2

W3

where:

C. SHAFT DESIGN BY CODE

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C.1. Shear Design Stresses (cold-drawn shafting) Ssd = 0.30(tensile yield strength) Ssd = 0.18(tensile ultimate strength) whichever is smaller (maximum shear theory). C.2. Normal Design Stresses for Shafts in Bending Only Sd = 0.60(tensile yield strength) Sd = 0.36(tensile ultimate strength) whichever is smaller. C.3. Normal Design Stress for Shafts with Keyway Sd = 0.75(Sd as above without keyway) C.4. Design Equations for Bending or Torsion C.4.1. Design Stress for Bending
sd K M Mc = m = Km I Z

or

m sd= D 3

32K M

Solid Round

C.4.2. Design Stress for Torsion

ssd

KsTc J

KsT Z

or

s ssd= D 3

16K T

For Solid Round

where:

D = diameter of the solid shaft

C.4.3. Normal Stress for Combined Bending, Axial Load, F, and Torsion
s

KmM Z

F A

where:

1 1 0.0044L/k

= 1; when the axial load is tensile Km = numerical combined shock and fatigue factor to be applied in every case to the computed bending moment Ks = numerical combined shock and fatigue factor to be applied in every case to the computed torsional moment or horsepower

C.4.4. For a Hollow Shaft

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 In accordance to the maximum shear theory where B= Di/D = internal diameter divided by the outside diameter.
D3

16 ssd(1 B4)

(KsT)2

FD(1 + B2) 8

1/2

where:

F and or B may be zero ssd = Code Design Stress

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