GuidelineOnStructuralFireEngineering (Part2)

Structural Engineering Branch, ArchSD Page i of ii - 1 -Page 1 of 62 File code : SEBGL-OTH7
Guidelines on Structural Fire Engineering Part II

Edition No./Revision No. : 1/-
CTW/MKL/MFY/SCF
First Edition: August 2013

SEB GUIDELINES

SEBGL-OTH7

Guidelines on Structural Fire Engineering Part II:
Design of Structural Elements
and
Assessment of Fire-Damaged Structures

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING BRANCH
ARCHITECTURAL SERVICES DEPARTMENT
August 2013
Structural Engineering Branch, ArchSD Page ii of ii - 2 -Page 2 of 62 File code : SEBGL-OTH7
CTW/MKL/MFY/SCF

Contents

1. Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1
2. Partial safety factors for loads ............................................................................. 2
3. Thermal Response of Structural Members in a Fire ......................................... 5
4. Behaviour of Structural Members under Fire ................................................. 12
4.1 Models ....................................................................................................... 12
4.2 Fire Engineering Design of Steel Structure ........................................... 14
4.3 Fire Engineering Design of RC Structure .............................................. 21
4.4 Fire Engineering Design of Composite Structure ................................. 30
4.5 Fire Engineering Design of Timber Structure ...................................... 33
5. Assessment and Repair of Fire Damaged Structure ........................................ 37
5.1 Purpose of Post-fire Assessment ............................................................. 37
5.2 Procedures of Post-fire Assessment ........................................................ 37
5.3 Assessment of Residual Strength ............................................................ 51
5.4 Structural Appraisal ................................................................................ 55
5.5 Repair Options ......................................................................................... 55
6. List of References ................................................................................................ 57

Copyright and Disclaimer of Liability

This Guideline or any part of it shall not be reproduced, copied or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,
or any information storage and retrieval system, without the written permission from
the Architectural Services Department. Moreover, this Guideline is intended for the
internal use of the staff in the Architectural Services Department only, and should not
be relied on by any third party. No liability is therefore undertaken to any third party.
While every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy and completeness of the
information contained in this Guideline at the time of publication, no guarantee is
given nor responsibility taken by the Architectural Services Department for errors or
omissions in it. The information is provided solely on the basis that readers will be
responsible for making their own assessment or interpretation of the information.
Readers are advised to verify all relevant representation, statements and information
with their own professional knowledge. The Architectural Services Department
accepts no liability for any use of the said information and data or reliance placed on
it (including the formulae and data). Compliance with this Guideline does not itself
confer immunity from legal obligations.
Structural Engineering Branch, ArchSD Page 1 of 60 - 1 -Page 1 of 62 File code : SEBGL-OTH7
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1. Introduction

1.1 There are two approaches for complying with the statutory requirements for fire
safety, namely: Prescriptive Provisions and Alternative Approach. For
structural members, Prescriptive Provisions specify the material, shape and size,
thickness of fire protection materials and construction details to be used in order
to satisfy the statutory requirements. Compliance of these provisions is deemed
to satisfy the statutory requirements laid down for fire resisting construction for
buildings in Part XV of the Building (Construction) Regulations. Alternative
Approach (or fire engineering approach) is a performance based method, which
aims at achieving an equivalent level of safety of the building.

1.2 Part I of this set of guidelines describes the fire scenarios development in a fire,
the techniques in fire modelling and the procedures to calculate the maximum
gas temperature and duration of a fire in a typical fire engineering study. Part I
also mentions that in a small compartment with the usual design fire load, the
fire will likely to be fully developed. In such circumstance, it may be safely
assumed that the results from a structural fire engineering study will not
eliminate the fire protection to steelwork, and project officers are advised to
adopt Prescriptive Provisions for the structural members. A structural fire
engineering study is particularly applicable for large compartments with high
headroom and limited fire load or open-sided buildings (e.g. open-sided car park,
sports stadium, indoor swimming pool, public transport concourse in ArchSD
projects, and casino or cinemas in the private sector projects), external structural
steelwork located outside the facade of the building, and localised fire which is
unlikely to flash over. Should a structural fire engineering study be required,
Figure 1 shows the typical steps involved.

Fire Behaviour

Thermal Response of Structural
Members

Structural Behaviour
Figure 1 Steps in a typical structural fire engineering study
(Source: modified from IStructE 2007)

1.3 Part II of this set of guidelines (this Guideline) will describe:

a) the heat transfer mechanisms from the fire to the structural members, and
the procedures to obtain the temperature of the members during a fire;
b) the structural design of steel structure, reinforced concrete, composite
structure and timber exposed to fire; and
c) the assessment and repair of fire-damaged structure.

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As project involving structural fire engineering study will usually engage a
specialist fire consultant, this Guideline will only describe the principles and
will introduce those simplified methods that can be carried out by hand
calculation so as to enable PSE to vet the submission from the consultant. For
more detail computation, specialist literature should be consulted. In the end of
this Guideline, a list of reference is therefore provided.

2. Partial safety factors for loads

2.1 An accurate assessment of the performance of a structural member during a fire
requires knowledge of both the reduction in material properties at increasing
temperature and an accurate assessment of the realistic loads acting on the
structure at the time of the fire. BS 5950: Part 8: Structural use of steelwork in
building. Code of practice for fire resistant design (BSI 2003) was a pioneering
work specifying lower partial factors on loads at the fire limit state (Table 1(a))
than for ambient temperature design.

Table 1(a) Partial safety factors for loads
Load Type
Partial safety factor
at ambient state
Partial safety factor at
fire limit state
Permanent dead loads 1.4 1.0
Non-permanent
imposed loads
1.6 0.8
Permanent imposed
loads
1.6 1.0
(Source: BS 5950: Part 8)

2.2 Since then, other national codes have introduced partial safety factors at fire
limit state not only in relation to steel and composite structures but also for
concrete members. In the US, ASCE 7-05: Minimum Design Loads for
Buildings and Other Structures published by ASCE specifies the partial safety
factors for dead load and imposed load are 1.2 and 0.5 (for both permanent or
non-permanent) respectively, and in Australia and New Zealand, AS/NZS 1170-
2:2002: Structural design actions - Part 0: General principles specifies the
corresponding factors as 1.0 for dead load and 0.6 for non-permanent imposed
load (and 0.4 for permanent imposed load) (Buchanan 2001). In Europe, BS EN
1990: Basis of structural design (BSI 2002) now specifies the partial safety
factor for dead load to be 1.0 and the partial safety factor either
1
or
2
(Table
1(b)) depending on different use of the floors and frequency of the variable
imposed loads for the fire limit state. BS EN 1991-1-2: Actions on structures.
General actions. Actions on structures exposed to fire (BSI 2002a) recommends
the use of
2
; but the UK National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-2 recommends the
use of
1
(the larger of
1
and
2
).

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Table 1(b) Partial safety factors for loads for different use of floors
in BS EN 1990
Load Type
1

2

Imposed loads
Domestic, residential
Office
Congregation areas
Shopping areas
Storage areas
Traffic area s 30kN
Traffic area 30-160kN
Roofs
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.7
0.9
0.7
0.5
0
0.3
0.3
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.6
0.3
0
Wind loads 0.2 0
(Source: BS EN 1990)

2.3 In Hong Kong, Code of Practice for Structural Use of Concrete 2013
(Concrete Code 2013) (BD 2013) and Code of Practice for the Structural Use
of Steel 2011 (Steel Code 2011) (BD 2011) also specify the partial safety
factors for loads (Table 1(c)). Though the partial safety factor for non-
permanent imposed load is 0.8, both codes allow designers to reduce the partial
safety factor for non-permanent imposed loads to 0.5 when suitable justification
is available.

Table 1(c) Partial safety factors for different types of load
Load Type
Partial safety factor at fire
limit state
Dead loads 1.0
Permanent imposed loads 1.0
Non-permanent imposed loads
1) in escape stairs and lobbies
2) all other areas

1.0
0.8
*
Wind loads 0.33
Note:
*
The value may be reduced to 0.5 when suitable justification
is available.
(Source: Concrete Code 2013 and Steel Code 2011)

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2.4 Summary of partial safety factors for loads

Based on the above codes, this Guideline therefore recommends the partial
safety factors for loads in Table 2.

Table 2 Recommended partial safety factors for different types of load
Load Type
Partial safety factor at fire
limit state
Dead loads 1.0
Permanent imposed loads 1.0
Non-permanent imposed loads
1) in escape stairs and lobbies
2) all other areas

1.0
0.7
#
Wind loads 0.33
#
1. Concrete Code 2013 and Steel Code 2011 specifies a range from 0.5 to 0.8,
and a factor of 0.7 is therefore recommended as it covers domestic,
residential, office, congregation areas, shopping areas, car-parks for vehicles
less than 3t (i.e. most of the use of premises of ArchSD), as recommended in
the UK National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-2. This factor is also more
conservative than those recommended in ASCE 7-05 and AS/NZS 1170-
2:2002.
2. For storage areas, this Guideline recommends a factor of 1.0, as the imposed
load can be regarded as permanent one.

2.5 Example

The following is an example showing the loading to be applied to the slabs of a
hypothetical structure for residential use during a fire with:
Dead load g
k
= 5.9 kPa
Imposed load q
k
= 3.0 kPa

Ambient temperature design load n
k
= 1.45.9+1.63.0 = 13.06 kPa
Partial safety factors at fire limit state for:
dead load = 1.0
imposed load = 0.7

Fire limit state design load n
k
= 1.05.9+0.73.0 = 8.0 kPa. Therefore,
reduction factor
fi
for the design load level in fire limit state
= 8.0 / 13.06 = 0.61.

The design load at fire limit state is therefore about 61% of the design load at
ambient temperature, and this is a very significant reduction, especially in
adaptive reuse of historical buildings. For such adaptive reuse, Carbon Fiber
Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) or Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) has
now increasingly been employed as strengthening works. Although such
reinforcing polymer is not fire resisting and can only be included in strength
calculation during ambient temperature; the structural member without such
reinforcing polymer may still be adequate at fire limit state as the design load at
fire limit state is about 60% that at ambient limit state.

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3. Thermal Response of Structural Members in a Fire

3.1 Heat Transfer Mechanisms

3.1.1 To carry out a structural fire engineering calculation to investigate the structural
response of the building, it is first important to obtain an accurate estimate of
the temperature gradient through the structural members. The temperature
distribution through a structural member is dependent on:

a) the transfer of heat by convection and radiation from a fire to a member,
and
b) the transfer of heat by conduction within a member.

The following paragraphs will therefore explain the principles in calculating the
temperature gradient through a structural member with heat transferred by
convection, radiation and conduction during a fire.

3.1.2 Convective and radiative heat flux

Through convection and radiation, net heat flux
net
h
comes from the fire to the

member. BS EN 1991-1-2 gives the following equations to calculate
net
h
:

( )
( ) ( ) | |
r net, c net, net
4
m
4
r f m r net,
m g c c net,
h h h
273 273 h
h

+ =
+ + =
=

where
c net,
h
is the net heat flux due to convention (W/m

2
);

r net,
h
is the net heat flux due to radiation (W/m

2
);

c
is the coefficient of heat transfer by convection, which may be
taken as 25W/m
2
K and 35W/m
2
K for standard fire and
parametric fire respectively;

g
is the gas temperature in the vicinity of the steel member (C);

m
is the surface temperature of the member (C);
m
is the surface emissivity of the member and can be taken as the
following values:
Steel 0.7
Concrete 0.7
Others 0.8

f
is the emissivity of fire which may be taken as 1.0;
is the configuration factor (W/m
2
K); and
is the Boltzman constant = 5.6710
-8
W/m
2
K
4
.

The configuration factor depends on the position and shadow effects of the
fire exposed surface of the member, and can be calculated as follows;

|
|
.
|
\
|
(
+
+
(
+
=

2
1
2 2
1
2
Y 1
X
tan
Y 1
Y
X 1
Y
tan
X 1
X
2

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where X = A/2C and Y = B/2C with A, B and C defined in Figure 2(a). Yet,
rather than carrying out the calculation, may be taken conservatively as
1.0W/m
2
K (IStructE 2007).

Figure 2(a) Calculation of configuration factor
(Source: BS EN 1991-1-2)

3.1.3 Temperature distribution due to conduction

Heat transfer by conduction in a structural member is governed by the Fouriers
equation which states that the quantity of heat transferred per unit time across an
area A is proportional to the temperature gradient as follows:
x
T
-kA q
c
c
=
where A

is the area across which heat is transferred (m
2
);
k is the thermal conductivity of the material (W/mK);
q

is the heat transfer across the area A (W);
T

is the temperature (K); and
x is the distance normal to the area A (m).

3.2 Temperature of Structural Members in a Fire

3.2.1 In Part I of this set of guidelines, two main types of fire have been
distinguished, namely standard fire and parametric fire. Part I of this set of
guidelines then gives the details in finding the temperature-time graphs for both
standard fire and parametric fire. With the temperature-time graph of a fire and
the heat transfer equations in Section 3.1, the temperature distribution of each
structural element under fire can be found.

3.2.2 To ease the tedious calculation, simple design charts derived from standard fire
tests are given in literature defining the temperature distribution through
members during standard fire. For parametric fires, either computer analysis or
empirical calculations can be used. For computer analysis, commercial
computer software usually employs finite element or finite difference
techniques, and requires the setting of the boundary conditions (including the
heat sources by a temperature-time function), material thermal properties of
conductivity, specific heat and emissivity. As this will inevitably require the
knowledge, skill and judgment of the specialist fire consultant, it will not be
described further in this Guideline. The following paragraphs will, instead,
describe the simplified empirical calculations that can be used to get the
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maximum temperature of the structural members during the fire, which
therefore serves as a quick way to check the validity of the computer analysis.

3.2.3 Steel members

3.2.3.1 As steel has a high thermal conductivity, it may be sufficiently accurate to
ignore thermal gradients within members and assume an average uniform steel
temperature
a
. A lumped mass model is therefore adopted. According to BS
EN 1993-1-2: Design of steel structures. General rules. Structural fire design
(BSI 2005a), the rise in temperature
a,t
of unprotected steel members at time
t in an interval of t is given by the following equation:
t h
c
/V A
k
net
a a
m
sh t a,

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
where
net
h

is the net heat flux (W/m
2
);
A
m
is the surface area of the member exposed to fire per unit length
(m
2
/m);
V is the volume of the member per unit length (m
3
/m);
c
a
is the specific heat of steel at elevated temperature (J/kg/K);

a
is the density of steel at elevated temperature (kg/m
3
);
t is the time interval (s);
A
m
/V is the section factor for unprotected steel per unit length (m
-1
/m);
and k
sh
is the correction factor for the shadow effect.

3.2.3.2 The specific heat capacity of steel c
a
varies with temperature, and BS EN
1993-1-2 gives the following equation for c
a
at temperature below 600
o
C:

c
a
= 425 + 0.773
a
0.00169
a
2
+ 2.2210
-6

a
3
(J/kg/K)

Again, rather than calculating their values as temperature rises, BS EN 1993-1-
2 recommends that the specific heat c
a
may be considered to be independent of
the steel temperature, and an average value of 600 J/kg/K may be used.

The correction factor k
sh
for shadow effect is to account for the reduced
effectiveness to raise the temperature of steel member. In BS EN 1993-1-2, the
correction factor for shadow effect is given by:

for I-section: k
sh
= 0.9 |
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
V
A
/
V
A
m
b
m

for other sections: k
sh
= 1.0 |
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
V
A
/
V
A
m
b
m

where
b
m
V
A
|
.
|
\
|
is the box value of the section factor. The box value for A
m
is
the perimeter that covers the periphery of an imaginary box that surrounds the
section completely. Table 3 shows the section factor for some unprotected
steel members. An example will be followed to demonstrate the steps
involved in the calculation.
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Table 3 Values of
b
m
V
A
|
.
|
\
|
for different types of structural steel members


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3.2.3.3 Example

Consider a simply supported Grade S275 35617167kg/m UB of span 6m
supporting rc slabs of 150mm thick. Calculate the temperature of the beam
subjected to a standard fire BS EN 1991-1-2 at time 600s.

The ambient temperature is assumed to be 20
o
C, and the gas temperature u
g
at
time t (s) is given by:

g
= 20 + 345 log (8t + 1)

The heat flux to the steel beam by:
convection
c net,
h
=
c
(
g

m
) = 25 (
g

m
)
radiation
r net,
h
=
m

f
[(
r
+ 273)
4
(
m
+ 273)
4
]

Change in steel temperature,
a,t
is given by:
t h
c
/V A
k
net
a a
m
sh t a,

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Here, Am/V(/m) = 163.9/m (for three sides exposure), = 7850 kg/m
3
, k
sh
= 1.
Using Excel spreadsheet, the temperature-time of the steel member till t=600s
is shown in Table 4. Therefore, the steel temperature at 600s = 514.4 C.

Table 4 Temperature of steel members subjected to standard fire
Time
t (s)
u
g
(C)
h
net,c
(W/m
2
)
h
net,r
(W/m
2
)
h
net

(W/m
2
)
c
a
(J/kg/K)
a,t
(C) u
o
(C)
0 20.0

20
5 96.5 1913.4 447.6 2361 439.8 0.6 20.6
10 147.0 3159.8 939.7 4099 440.2 1.0 21.5
15 184.6 4076.9 1441.7 5519 440.9 1.3 22.8
20 214.7 4795.9 1940.9 6737 441.8 1.6 24.4
25 239.7 5381.8 2431.9 7814 442.9 1.8 26.3
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570 670.8 4518.3 18038.1 22556 659.3 3.6 493.7
575 672.1 4461.3 17957.1 22418 661.8 3.5 497.2
580 673.4 4405.0 17874.3 22279 664.4 3.5 500.7
585 674.7 4349.2 17789.9 22139 667.0 3.5 504.2
590 675.9 4294.0 17703.9 21998 669.7 3.4 507.6
595 677.2 4239.5 17616.3 21856 672.3 3.4 511.0
600 678.4 4185.6 17527.3 21713 674.9 3.4 514.4

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3.2.3.4 Similar to unprotected steel, an empirical calculation method is presented in
BS EN 1993-1-2 to calculate the incremental increase in temperature for a steel
element protected with a spray or board material, which is related to the
specific heat, thermal conductivity, density and moisture content of the
protection material. Fire protection materials insulate steel structures from the
effects of the high temperatures that may be generated in fire. There are three
common types of fire protection materials to steel, namely, fire protection
boards, sprays, and intumescent coatings. Clauses 15.66 to 15.72 of the
General Specification for Building (2012 edition) issued by ArchSD detail the
requirements and application procedures of these three types of fire protection
materials. Among the three, sprayed protection systems (Figure 2(b)) are the
cheapest, and should therefore be the first choice whenever possible. Its
principal disadvantage is that the sprayed surfaces are not visually appealing.
Fire protection boards offer a clean, boxed appearance which may be pre-
finished or suitable for further decoration; but are highest cost among the three.
Unlike sprays and boards (which are non-reactive systems), intumescent
coatings are a reactive system providing insulation by swelling using a charred
layer of low conductivity materials such that the steel will not be affected
during a fire. For fire-protected steel using any one of the three systems,
Prescriptive Provisions will usually be followed, and the specialist contractors
will then carry out the calculation to find the thickness of protection that can
satisfy the required fire resistance rating. A structural fire engineering study
will therefore seldom be used.

Figure 2(b) Sprayed fire protection system

3.2.4 Concrete members

Due to the low thermal conductivity, high thermal gradients will occur through
concrete members, which together with the effects of the mass transport of
water or water vapour, make estimating the temperature distribution through the
members very difficult. Usually, it is difficult to calculate the temperature
distribution within a rc member using hand calculation. In 1978, IStructE
published Design and Detailing of Concrete Structures for Fire Resistance
(IStructE 1978), and this publication was a pioneering work giving temperature
profiles for both flat soffit slabs and beams exposed to the standard fire. Annex
A of BS EN 1992-1-2: Design of concrete structures. General rules. Structural
fire design (BSI 2004a) now gives the temperature profiles (extracts shown in
Figure 3) during a standard fire for slabs, beams and columns. One of the main
limitations of such temperature profiles is that they are only applicable to a
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standard fire. As such, time-equivalence mentioned in Part I of this set of
guidelines may be useful, and this will be elaborated in latter paragraph in this
Guideline.

(a) 200mm thick slabs at time 30,
60, 90, 120, 180 and 240 mins
(b) 600300 beam at time 90 mins

(c) 300300 column at time 60 mins
Figure 3 Temperature profiles in rc members during a standard fire

3.2.5 Composite and timber members

Similar to rc members, the thermal gradients through composite members and
timber members are difficult to be estimated. Simplified methods have
therefore been developed for defining the temperature within such members.
These simplified methods will be elaborated in latter paragraph in this Guideline.

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4. Behaviour of Structural Members under Fire

4.1 Models

4.1.1 Figure 4 shows the possible models available for a structural fire engineering
design. The following three models that can be used to predict the behaviour of
structural elements in a fire:

a) member analysis;
b) frame analysis (i.e. analysis of part of the structure); and
c) whole building analysis (i.e. analysis of entire structure).

Figure 4 Models for structural fire engineering design
(Source: modified from BS EN 1994-1-2)

4.1.2 Member analysis and frame analysis

Member analysis and frame analysis are the simplest methods for predicting the
structural behaviour of buildings, which analyse individual members at the fire
limit state using partial load and material factors. Hand calculation is possible
with these methods. However, in these methods the overall stability of the
building in a fire should be considered. For braced frames no additional checks
are normally required provided a sufficient number of cores or bracing, that
provide the lateral resistance, have adequate fire resistance, shielding or
containment within fire resisting cores. For sway frames, a frame analysis at
elevated temperatures is required to ensure sufficient overall stability during a
fire.

4.1.3 Whole building analysis

4.1.3.1 Traditionally, the behaviour of structural members has been investigated by
standard fire test. However, the difference between the behaviour of isolated
members and the behaviour of the entire building can have a beneficial or
detrimental effect on the overall fire resistance of the building. In the last two
decades, large-scale fire tests have been carried out in at the BRE test facility
(Figure 5) in Cardington in the Borough of Bedford of the UK to investigate
whole building behaviour during fire. Compartment fire tests were conducted
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on the full-scale steel-composite, timber and concrete buildings, which aimed
at identifying modes of structural behaviour that cannot be identified from the
standard fire tests.

Figure 5 Full-scale test model of a timber building
at the BRE Cardington Laboratory during fire
(Source: Lenon 2003)

4.1.3.2 One of the most important observations for composite framed structures from
the full-scaled fire tests is that such structures possess great reserves of
strength by adopting large deflection configurations due to the mechanism of
membrane action (Figure 6). This mechanism is able to transfer the applied
loads on the floor to the supporting columns when the supporting steel beams
to the floor are damaged and have lost their load carrying capacities. The
understanding of tensile membrane action has a significant implication for the
fire protection of steel-framed buildings with rc floors. This is because the
supporting steel beams may be allowed to fail without endangering the safety
of the whole building. Consequently, fire protection to these steel beams can
be reduced or eliminated (Wang 2002).

Figure 6 Membrane action during fire
(Source: Newman et al 2000)

4.1.3.3 Whole building analysis is now one of the models that can be used in a
structural fire engineering design. The model takes into account the membrane
action of floor slabs, and allows the beneficial effect of the grillage of beams
and floor slab, acting as a unit, to be included within the structural design.
Commercial softwares are usually required to carry out whole building
analysis. Based on the results the BRE Cardington tests, SCI published Fire
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Safe Design: a New Approach to Multi-storey Framed Buildings (Newman
2000) giving as a series of tables which are applicable to structures of similar
construction (i.e. non-sway frames with composite steel decks).

4.2 Fire Engineering Design of Steel Structure

4.2.1 This section will describe the member analysis, which can calculate the
performance of steel structures exposed to fires by hand calculation. The design
based on individual simple members using member analysis (without
considering quantitatively the effects or restraints provided by adjacent
members) is generally more conservative, and can therefore serve as a quick
check on the results generated from computer software. The design code will
be referenced from BS EN 1993-1-2, as Steel Code 2011 only provides broad
guidelines on the detail design.

4.2.2 Mechanical properties of steel at elevated temperatures

The mechanical properties of steel, including the proportional limit, yield
strength and elastic modulus, at elevated temperature must be known prior to
the design. Figure 6 shows the stress strain curve for steel at elevated
temperature.

Figure 6 Stress-strain curve for steel at elevated temperature

Two critical parameters are to determined for structural design:
a) effective yield strength f
y,
;
b) modulus of elasticity at linear elastic range E
a,
.

BS EN 1993-1-1 relates to the values of these two parameters to their respective
values at the ambient temperature of 20 by applying a corresponding reduction
factor to account for the effect of elevated temperature as follows:
f
y,
= k
y,
f
y

E
a,
= k
E,
E
a

where f
y
is the yield strength at 20C
E
a
is the slope of the linear elastic range at 20C
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k
y,
is the reduction factor for yield strength
k
E,
is the reduction factor for the linear elastic slope

Table 5 shows the reduction factors to be applied to the characteristic yield
strength and elastic modulus of structural steel at elevated temperatures, and
Figure 7 plots the reduction of these two properties with temperatures.

Table 5 Reduction factors for mechanical properties of hot rolled steel at
elevated temperatures
Steel
temperature
a

Reduction factors relative to the values at 20C
Effective yield strength
k
y,
= f
y,
/ f
y

Modulus of elasticity
k
E,
= E
a,
/ E
a

20C 1.000 1.000
100C 1.000 1.000
200C 1.000 0.900
300C 1.000 0.800
400C 1.000 0.700
500C 0.780 0.600
600C 0.470 0.310
700C 0.230 0.130
800C 0.110 0.090
900C 0.060 0.0675
1,000C 0.040 0.0450
1,100C 0.020 0.0225
1,200C 0.000 0.0000

Figure 7 Variation of yield strength and modulus of elasticity
of hot rolled steel with temperature
(Source: modified from Lennon et al 2007)

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4.2.3 Design of Steel Members Exposed to Fire

4.2.3.1 The design can now be carried out by ensuring that a structural member under
fire will have design effect of actions in fire condition E
d,fi
less than that at
ambient temperature E
d
, given by the following equation:

E
d,fi
=
fi

E
d

where
fi
is the reduction factor for the design load level in fire condition.

The reduction factor
fi
can be estimated according to the respective ratio of
dead load and live load. The following simplified formula can be used for
estimating
fi
:

fi
=
k,1 Q,1 k G
k,1 i k
Q G
Q G
+
+

where Q
k,1
is the characteristic imposed load;
G
k
is the characteristic dead load;

G
is the partial safety factor for dead load at ambient temperature;

Q,1
is the partial safety factor for imposed load at ambient
temperature; and

i
is the partial safety factor (Section 2) for imposed load under fire.

The following three methods are available in checking whether the design
resistance R
fi,d,0
for a member under tension, compression and bending is
adequate to resist the design effect of actions in fire condition E
d,fi
:
1. limiting temperature method;
2. critical temperature method; and
3. moment capacity method;

4.2.3.2 Limiting temperature method

BS 5950: Part 8 includes the limiting temperature method providing a very
simple but effective procedure using the concept of load ratio that is, the
ratio of the load carried during the fire to the ambient temperature load
capacity to derive a limiting temperature, which is then compared with the
design temperature to assess the need for passive protection. Figure 8 shows
the flow chart in carrying out the calculation.

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Figure 8 Flow chart showing the steps in limiting temperature method
(Source: Wang 2002)

For a steel beam under bending, the load ratio R is defined as:
c
f
M
M
R =
where M
f
is the maximum bending moment in the beam under fire condition
and M
c
is the bending moment capacity of the beam at ambient temperature. If
a steel beam is uniformly heated and can undergo large strains before failure,
BS 5950: Part 8 gives the limiting temperature of a beam with the limiting
temperature-load ratio relationships (Table 6). The example in Section 2
shows that the design load at fire limit state is about 60% of the design load at
ambient temperature, and hence the limiting temperature is therefore about
550
o
C, which serves as the usual rule of thumb for steel beams in bending
during a fire.

Table 6 Limiting temperatures of steel beams in bending
Load ratio 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
Limiting
temperature (C)
520 555 585 620 660 715 N/A

Similar tables are available for columns in compression and members in
tension. The limiting temperature method can also be used for beam-columns
and cold-formed sections (Wang 2005).

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4.2.3.3 Critical temperature method

The critical temperature method is given as BS EN 1993-1-2, and is in fact the
same method as the limiting temperature method in BS 5950: Part 8. The
critical temperature is the maximum temperature that the beam can sustain and
the critical temperature method. In the critical temperature method, it is
necessary to calculate the degree of utilization
o
of the beam, which the ratio
of the applied maximum bending moment in the beam at the fire limit state to
the beams bending moment capacity at ambient temperature, given in the
following equation:
d,0 fi,
d fi,
0
R
E
= .
Indeed, the degree of utilization
o
is the same as the load ratio R in BS 5950:
Part 8. Then, the critical temperature
a,cr
of a steel member is calculated
using the following equation:
482 1
0.9674
1
ln 39.19
3.833
0
cr a,
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Provided that the temperature of the steel member during fire to be less than
the critical temperature
a,cr
of the steel member, the steel beam can survive
the fire.

4.2.3.4 Moment capacity method

The moment capacity method is based on the known temperature of the critical
element with the relevant strength reduction factor used. If the moment
capacity does not exceed that applied at the fire limit state then the beam does
not require protection. BS EN 1993-1-2 contains formulae in finding the
moment capacity of structural members under tension, compression and
bending. This method is, however, not widely used, as knowledge of the
temperature profile of the beam is required. Indeed, a usual assumption in the
design of steel under fire is that the steel member is of uniform temperature,
and as such either the limiting temperature or the critical temperature method
can achieve the purpose.

4.2.4 Example

Consider a simply supported Grade S275 35617167kg/m UB of span 6m
carrying a design uniformly distributed load of dead load of 20kN/m and non-
permanent imposed load of 18kN/m at ambient temperature. Calculate the
critical temperature of the beam under a fire.

Loadings under fire
dead load G
k
= 20kN/m
imposed load Q
k
= 18kN/m
Ambient temperature design load N
k
= 1.420+1.618 = 56.8kN/m
Partial safety factors for:
dead load = 1.0
imposed load = 0.7
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Therefore, fire limit state design load N
k
= 1.020+0.718 = 32.6 kN/m
Under fire, the reduction factor
fi
is

fi
= 57 . 0
8 . 56
6 . 32
Q G
Q G
k,1 Q,1 k G
k,1 i k
= =
+
+

Assuming that E
d,fi
=
d,0 fi,
R at ambient temperature, i.e.
o
or R = 1.0 at ambient
temperature, the adequacy of the structural members due to bending is checked
by:

Limiting temperature method:
The load ratio R under fire = 0.57, and the limiting temperature = 564
o
C.

Critical temperature method:
The degree of utilization
0
under fire = 0.57, and the critical temperature
= 482 1
57 . 0 9674 0
1
ln 19 . 39
833 . 3
+ |
.
|
\
|

.
= 529C
4.2.5 Connections

4.2.5.1 Traditionally, it was commonly assumed that there was no need to take special
provisions for the connections as long as they are protected at least in the same
manner as the adjacent members that they connect (Franssen et al 2009). This
implies that, if none of the connected members is protected, then there is no
need to protect the joint. This concept was based on the idea that the thermal
massivity of the joint should be higher than the massivity of the members
because of the presence of additional mass in the connection zone, either from
end plates, fin plates, web cleats or stiffeners. Therefore, the joints are usually
at a temperature lower than the temperature of the connected elements at fire
(Figure 9). It was also based on the observation of numerous unprotected
steel structures that completely collapsed in severe fire, and where the steel
beams were severely distorted, but rarely detached from the columns
(Franssen et al 2009).

Figure 9 Temperature distribution of steel structure at fire
(Source: modified from European Erasmus Mundus Master Course, Education,
Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency)

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4.2.5.2 However, the behaviour of connections in a fire or post-fire condition may be
critical in maintaining overall structural stability. The importance of
connections has been observed and documented in the damaged WTC
buildings around Ground Zero as a result of fires initiated after the collapse of
twin-towers. BS EN 1993-1-2 now provides the following two methods to
calculate bolted or welded joints during fire:

a) The first is based on ensuring that the fire resistance of the joint is greater
than or equal to that of the connected members. In general, this is a
conservative method as the temperature of the connection is generally less
than that of the beams (Lennon et al 2007). However, it is also necessary
to consider the utilization of the connection compared to the utilization of
the member. As a simplification, the utilization of the joint and the
connected members may be related to the loading and resistance at
ambient temperature.

b) The second method is to find the resistance of the joint according to
Annex D of BS EN 1993-1-2 whereby the temperature of the components
are calculated and reduction factors used to determine the resistance of the
joint. Annex D of EN 1993-1-2 provides the following equation for
calculating the temperature distribution through the joint for beam depths
less than 400 mm:
] )
D
h
0.3( [1 0.88
0 h
=
where u
h
is the temperature at height h (mm) of the steel beam (
o
C);
u
0
is the bottom flange temperature of the steel beam remote from
the connection (
o
C);
h is the height of the component being considered above the
bottom of the beam (mm); and
D is the depth of the beam (mm).

Once the temperature distribution has been derived then the capacity in
shear, bearing and tension is calculated using appropriate reduction factors
to allow for the effects of elevated temperature.

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4.3 Fire Engineering Design of RC Structure

4.3.1 Mechanical properties at elevated temperature

4.3.1.1 Strength of concrete

Figure 10(a)(i) plots the reduction of the strength of different types of
concrete with temperatures. Concrete Code 2013, following BS EN 1992-1-2,
specifies the reduction factors to be applied to the characteristic strength of
concrete at elevated temperatures (Table 7).

Figure 10(a)(i) Strength reduction of different types of concrete
at elevated temperatures
(Source: modified from Lennon et al 2007)

Table 7 Reduction factors for strength of normal weight concrete with siliceous
aggregate at elevated temperatures
Concrete
temperature
Strength reduction
factors
20C 1.00
100C 1.00
200C 0.95
300C 0.85
400C 0.75
500C 0.60
600C 0.45
700C 0.30
800C 0.15
900C 0.08
1,000C 0.04
1,100C 0.01
1,200C 0.00
(Source: Concrete Code 2013 and BS EN 1992-1-2)

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4.3.1.2 Strength of steel reinforcement

Table 8 shows the reduction factors for steel reinforcement in Concrete Code
2013, while BS EN 1992-1-2 specifies to follow the reduction factors for
structural steel in BS EN 1993-1-2. Table 8 also shows the corresponding
values in BS EN 1993-1-2. PSE may note that the values given in Concrete
Code 2013 are more conservative than those in BS EN 1993-1-2. There is no
distinction made in the reduction factors for mild steel bars and high yield bars
(Grade 460 or Grade 500) in Concrete Code 2013 and BS EN 1993-1-2,
though BS EN 1993-1-2 gives another set of reduction factors for cold-worked
bars.

Table 8 Reduction factors for steel reinforcement at elevated temperatures
Steel temperature
Reduction factors relative to the values at 20C
Concrete Code 2013 BS EN 1992-1-2
20C 1.00 1.00
100C 1.00 1.00
200C 1.00 1.00
300C 1.00 1.00
400C 0.87 1.00
500C 0.60 0.78
600C 0.36 0.47
700C 0.11 0.23
800C 0.08 0.11
900C 0.06 0.06
1,000C 0.04 0.04
1,100C 0.02 0.02
1,200C 0.00 0.00
(Source: Concrete Code 2013 and BS EN 1993-1-2)

4.3.1.3 Strength of prestressing steel wires

Figure 10(a)(ii) plots the reduction of the strength of different types of
prestressing steel wires in prestressed concrete with temperatures specified in
BS EN 1992-1-2. The reduction factors of prestressing steel wires are higher
value than those of hot rolled reinforcements. Moreover, upon cooling the
strength of prestressing steel wires will only partially be recovered.

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Notes: 1a cold worked prestressing steel wires (Class A)
1b cold worked prestressing steel wires (Class B)
2 quenched and tempered prestressing steel bars
Figure 10(a)(ii) Reduction factors for strength of prestressing steel

4.3.2 Load carrying capacity

4.3.2.1 To determine the load carrying capacity of a concrete member, the temperature
profile of the member should be known in order to evaluate the reduction in
the cross section area and the steel temperature. However, as stated in the
earlier paragraphs, high thermal gradients will occur through concrete
members due to their low thermal conductivity. Thus, if Prescriptive
Provisions are not followed, the temperature distribution through the members
usually requires the use of finite elements or finite difference programs in
commercial softwares. Instead of using computer analysis to find the thermal
gradient through concrete members, the earlier paragraphs have mentioned
that Annex A of BS EN 1992-1-2 gives the temperature profiles (Figure 3) for
standard fire for slabs, beams and columns.

4.3.2.2 500C isotherm method

As an alternative, BS EN 1992-1-2 provides the simplified method of 500C
isotherm method for rc beams and columns. This simplified method uses a
general reduction of cross-section with respect to a heat damaged zone at the
concrete surface. At the earlier paragraphs, it was mentioned that typically
500C 600C steel and concrete has reduced in strength to the point where
their residual strength, which provides the factor of safety assumed for design
at ambient state, has been lost (Lennon et al 2007). That is, the load carrying
capacity at around 500C 600C is unable to carry the ultimate load of 1.4G
k

and 1.6Q
k
, and is only able to sustain a load of load of 1.0G
k
and 0.7Q
k
at fire
limit state. The concrete with temperature higher than 500C is therefore
assumed to have no contribution to the strength of section during fire. Annex
A of BS EN 1992-1-2 gives the 500C isotherms (extracted shown in Figure
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10(b)) for different types and sizes of members under standard fire. The
remaining concrete with temperature less than 500C is assumed to have full
strength and stiffness as in ambient temperature. The temperature of the
reinforcement is then assessed using the temperature profiles given in Annex
A of BS EN 1992-1-2 (extracted shown in Figure 3). The reinforcement
located beyond the reduced section can still be used in calculating the strength
of the member, as the damaged concrete in excess of the 500
o
C value is
assumed to retain its insulation properties in terms of providing the required
cover to the reinforcement. The strength of steel reinforcement should be
reduced according to the temperature at the centroid of the steel bar. An
example will be given at the end of this section to illustrate the 500C
isotherm method.

(a) 300300 column at time 30,
60, 90, 120, 180 and 240 mins
(b) |300 column at time 30, 60, 90,
120, 180 and 240 mins

(c) 300160 beam at time 30, 60 and 90mins
Figure 10(b) 500C isotherms of rc members during a standard fire

4.3.3 Time equivalent

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The curves in Figure 3 and Figure 10(b) are obtained in a standard fire, and in
Part 1 of this set of guidelines, the concept of time-equivalence (t-
equivalence) has been introduced. The t-equivalent is the exposure time in
the standard fire resistance test which gives the same heating effect on a
structure as a given compartment fire (Law 1997). T-equivalent is to relate the
exposure of a structural element in a real fire to an equivalent period of heating
in the standard fire resistance test (Figure 11). Thus, t-equivalence can be used
for relating a real fire to the standard fire.

Figure 11 Graphical representation of t-equivalence

BS EN 1991-1-2 gives the following expression to calculate the time equivalent:

t
e,d
= (q
f,d
k
b
w
f
)k
c

where q
f,d
= design fire load density (MJ/m
2
);
w
f
= ventilation factor to take into account vertical and horizontal
openings=(6/H)
0.3
[0.62+90(0.4-
v
)
4
] in the absence of horizontal
openings;
k
c
= factor dependent on material=1.0 for protected steel and reinforced
concrete;
H = the height of the compartment (m);

v
= A
v
/A
f ;
A
v
= the total area of the opening;
A
f
= the total floor area;
and k
b
= factor to take into account the thermal properties of the enclosure
= 0.7 when there are no horizontal openings and bounding surfaces
are unknown, or when the bounding surfaces (and hence the thermal
inertia b (= c )) are known:
Thermal inertia b (= c ) (J/ms
K)
k
b
(min. m/MJ)
2500 0.04 (0.055)
720 to 2500 0.055 (0.07)
<720 0.07 (0.09)
Note: Values in brackets are those given in the UK National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-2.

CTW/MKL/MFY/SCF

4.3.4 Example

Consider a compartment fire with a parametric fire curve as shown in Figure 12,
and a rc simply supported floor beam of 600 300 with span 8 m carrying a
dead load of 6 kN/m (including its self weight) and an imposed load of 10 kN/m.
Determine the beams flexural capacity at maximum gas temperature and justify
whether the beam is stable or not if only 3T25 is provided at a parametric fire as
with the temperature-time graph shown in Figure 12 and with the following
parameters:
q
f,d
= design fire load density = 753MJ/m
2

w
f
= 2.364
k
c
= 1.0
and k
b
= 0.5.

The characteristic concrete cube strength f
cu
is 30 MPa, the characteristic yield
strength of reinforcement f
y
is 460 MPa and the concrete cover is 40 mm.

Figure 12 Parametric fire curve of the compartment

The equivalent fire severity t
e,d
using the T-equivalent model is given by:

t
e,d
= q
f,d
k
b
w
f
k
c
= 753 0.055 2.364 1.0
= 97.9 min (say 90 min)

From Figure 3, the 500
o
C isotherm will be at 30mm from the concrete surface,
and hence the width b of the beam at 90 mins = 300 - 230 = 240mm.

Distance from concrete surface to the centroid of the steel bars = 40+25/2 =
52.5mm. The maximum temperature of the steel bars will occur at the corner of
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the section, and using Figure 3, the temperature of such bar will be about 500
o
C
while the temperature of middle bar will be about 340
o
C.

From Table 8 and using the values given in Concrete Code 2013, the
characteristic yield strength of the corner bars at 500
o
C = 0.60460 = 276 MPa
and that of the middle bars at 340
o
C = 0.95460 = 437 MPa.

Therefore, the weighted average strength of bars at this fire condition
= (2762+437)/3 =330MPa.

The design of the moment capacity of the beam at 500
o
C is the same as that at
ambient temperature with the following parameters:
b=240, d=600-52.5=547.5, f
y
=330MPa, f
cu
=30MPa, A
s
=3491=1472

Therefore, z = d k/0.9) 0.25 (0.5 + where d=M/bd
2
fcu, giving
z=482mm
The moment capacity of the beam at 500
o
C
= 0.87330147248210
-6
= 204kNm

Fire limit state bending moment in elevated temperature
kNm 104 8 ) 10 7 . 10 6 0 . 1 (
8
1
M
2
ult
= + =
Since the fire limit state bending moment 104kNm, which is less than 204kNm,
the beam can survive the parametric fire with maximum gas temperature around
800
o
C.

4.3.5 High strength concrete

Since the 1980s, many fire tests have been conducted to investigate the material
properties of high strength concrete (HSC) at elevated temperatures. The
following two observations were noted (Lennon et al 2007):

a) the strength loss of HSC at elevated temperatures is more pronounced;
and
b) the susceptibility of HSC to explosive spalling at temperatures below
400
o
C.

For the first observation, BS EN 1992-1-2 divides HSC into three classes,
namely: Class 1 for concrete C55/67 and C60/75, Class 2 for concrete C70/85
and C80/95, and Class 3 for concrete C90/105, and Table 9 gives the strength
reduction factors for these three classes of HSC at elevated temperatures. For
the second observation, HSC is susceptible to spalling since it has smaller free
pore volume, so that the pores become filled with high-pressure water vapour
easily in fire. Clause 4.3 of Concrete Code 2013 therefore specifies that the
content of silica fume if used in HSC should not exceed 6% by weight of the
total cementitious content in order to prevent spalling of HSC at elevated
temperature.

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Table 9 Reduction factors for HSC at elevated temperatures
Concrete temperature
Strength reduction factors
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
20C 1.00 1.00 1.00
100C 0.90 0.75 0.75
200C 0.90 0.75 0.70
300C 0.85 0.75 0.65
400C 0.75 0.75 0.45
500C 0.60 0.60 0.30
600C 0.45 0.45 0.25
700C 0.30 0.30 0.20
800C 0.15 0.15 0.15
900C 0.08 0.113 0.08
1,000C 0.04 0.075 0.04
1,100C 0.01 0.038 0.01
1,200C 0.00 0.00 0.00

4.3.6 Hollow block floor

4.3.6.1 Hollow block floor was commonly used in the 1960s due to its good thermal
and sound insulation properties. For hollow-block floors, there is no provision
in Code of Practice for Fire Safety in Buildings 2011 (FS Code) (BD 2011a)
issued by Buildings Department on this specific type of floor construction.
The topping can hardly achieve a fire resistance rating (FRR) of 60 mins for
the minimum thickness (100mm) for solid floor construction, and the width of
the ribs can again hardly achieve a FRR of 60 mins for the minimum width
(200mm) for beam in FS Code. Hence, PSE may consider a structural fire
engineering study is required to justify its fire resistance rating for insulation.
However, ignoring the contribution of the concrete hollow blocks in fire
resistance is not a correct assumption, as one of the advantages of hollow-
block floors is its good thermal insulation of the blocks.

4.3.6.2 This Guideline recommends PSE to follow the provision of minimum
dimension for hollow-block floors for insulation in BS 8110: Part 2, which
specifies that such type of floor construction can be treated as solid
construction in calculating its fire resistance by including the contribution of
the cement sand or clay tiles using the effective thickness t
e
given by the
following equation:
f e
t h t + =
where h is the overall actual thickness of slab;
is the proportion of solid material per unit width of slab;
and t
f
is the thickness of non-combustible finish.

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In most cases, without carrying out detailed measurement of the hollow blocks
to calculate , the topping plus the non-combustible finish may already be able
to achieve the required FRR for insulation. In addition to non-combustible
plaster, tiles and floor screed may also be included as the cover to the
reinforcement (Koon 2010). As such, hollow block floor can usually satisfy
the prescriptive requirements of FS Code, and no structural fire engineering
study is required. The example in the following paragraph will show the
calculation of the effective thickness.

4.3.6.3For structural integrity, the cover to steel reinforcement in hollow block floor
follows that for solid rc slabs, and hence if the cover cannot satisfy the
prescriptive requirements, PSE may consider a structural fire engineering
study similar to that for rc solid slab construction with the effective thickness
t
e
calculated using the above expression.

4.3.6.4 Example

Consider a hollow-block floor with a topping of 75mm, and ribs of width
80mm and depth of 350mm at 500mm c/c as shown in the following figure.
The thickness of the concrete blocks is 20mm. There is also cement sand floor
screed of 25mm.

Here, = the proportion of solid material per unit width of slab
=
350 500
235 360
1
= 0.517
t
f
= the thickness of non-combustible finish = 25mm
h = the overall actual thickness of slab = 350mm

Hence, the effective thickness t
e f
t h + =
25 517 . 0 350 + = =277mm

For a FRR of 60 mins, the minimum thickness as specified in FS Code is
100mm, and hence the effective thickness of the hollow-block floor slab far
exceeds the minimum requirements. Indeed, even ignoring the contribution of
the floor screed, the effective thickness of the hollow-block slab is 241mm,
which already exceeds the specified 100mm. Alternatively, ignoring the
contribution of the blocks, the effective thickness of the hollow-block slab
including the floor screed is 100mm, which also meets the specified 100mm.

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4.4 Fire Engineering Design of Composite Structure

4.4.1 Composite slab

4.4.1.2 Composite slabs are constructed from reinforced concrete slabs in composite
action with steel decking underneath (Figure 13). The steel decking acts as
support to the concrete during construction and is generally profiled to
maximize structural efficiency. No fire protection is usually provided to the
soffit of a composite slab. This means that the profile sheet steel decking is
exposed directly to the fire. Observations during actual fires also showed that
the steel deck had debonded from the concrete slab owing to the release of
steam from the concrete (Bailey and Moore 2000). A simplified method is
therefore to assume that in a fire the reduced design loads are assumed to be
mainly resisted by the steel reinforcement, placed in the concrete slab, with the
exposed steel deck being largely sacrificial. Hence, the structural fire
engineering design of a composite slab is similar to the fire engineering design
of rc slab.

Figure 13 Typical composite slab with profiled steel decking
(Source: IStructE 2003)

4.4.1.3 Instead of calculating the fire resistance rating of a composite slab,
manufacturers of the proprietary steel decking have specified the fire
resistance rating and the design imposed load. Such proprietary system adopts
the simplified method in its design, and is based on test results with the steel
reinforcement carrying the load during the fire. PSE thus usually does not
need to carry out structural fire engineering calculation for composite slabs.
However, it should be noted that the values given by manufacturers are only
applicable for the standard time-temperature fire scenario.

4.4.1.4 Should a calculation be required, the usual assumption is that the strength of
the slab at elevated temperatures is calculated by contributions of the concrete
slab and any flexural reinforcement. Any contribution from the steel decking is
ignored in the design, due to its high temperature and observed behaviour in
fire where the deck debonds from the concrete. Annex D of BS EN 1994-1-2:
Design of composite steel and concrete structures. General rules. Structural
fire design (BSI 2005b) gives the following formula to calculate the effective
thickness of the composite slab:
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> >
+
+
+
> s
+
+
+
=
mm 40 h and 1.5
h
h
for , )
l l
l l
( 0.75h h
mm 40 h and 1.5
h
h
for ),
l l
l l
( 0.5h h
h
1
1
2
3 1
2 1
1 1
1
1
2
3 1
2 1
2 1
eff

where h
1
, h
2
, l
1
, l
2
and l
3
are shown in the following figure:


After computation of the effective thickness of the slab, Table 10 shows the
temperature distribution across the slab of an equivalent thickness of 100mm
in a standard fire given in Annex D of BS EN 1994-1-2. Though this table
only shows the temperature distribution for a slab of an equivalent thickness of
100mm, it is a conservative assumption to be used for slab with thicker
thickness. Thereafter, the computation steps are very similar to that for rc
slabs. That is, the method then calculates the capacity of the slab by using the
reduced strength of the reinforcing bars and concrete due to elevated
temperatures (Chung and Wang 2006). One assumption of the method is that
the steel deck remains bonded to the concrete; but fire tests have observed that
this is not a valid assumption (Lennon et al 2007). PSE should therefore note
that the UK National Annex to BS EN 1994-1-2 states that Annex D of BS EN
1994-1-2 should not be used, and advises designers to refer to references at
www.steel-ncci.co.uk (which is in preparation).

Table 10 Temperature distribution in a composite slab of 100mm thick
under a standard fire


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4.4.2 Composite beam

4.4.2.1 During a fire, the composite deck and the rc slab act as a heat sink to transfer
away from the steel beam. Also, a composite beam is usually designed as
simply supported, and in such case since the compression flange of the steel
section is restrained, LTB of the steel section does not occur. Therefore, the
design of a composite beam during fire is to ensure that the maximum applied
moment in the beam does not exceed the plastic moment capacity of the
composite cross-section under fire conditions. The concrete in compression
may be assumed to be cold and the steel temperature is calculated. Similar to
steel beams, there are three methods to calculate the moment capacity of a
composite beam under fire:

1. limiting temperature method;
2. critical temperature method; and
3. moment capacity method;

4.4.2.2 Limiting temperature method

The limiting temperature method was introduced by BS 5950: Part 8, and it
requires the calculation of the load ratio R given by:
c
f
M
M
R =
where M
f
is the maximum bending moment in the beam under fire condition
and M
c
is the bending moment capacity of the beam at ambient temperature.

BS 5950: Part 8 then gives the limiting temperature of a beam with the
limiting temperature-load ratio relationships with complete shear connection
and partial shear connection (Table 11). For unprotected steel beams, the
earlier paragraph has quoted the usual rule of thumb for their limiting
temperature as 550
o
C with a load ratio R of 0.6, and for composite beams,
their limiting temperature has been raised to about 600
o
C.

Table 11 Limiting temperatures of unprotected steel beams in bending
Limiting
temperature
(C)
Load ratio R
0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
100% degree of
shear connection
550 580 610 645 685 740 840
40% degree of
shear connection
575 600 635 665 700 760 860

4.4.2.3 Critical temperature and full moment capacity methods

Both methods are specified in BS EN 1994-1-2. The critical temperature
method may be used to estimate the critical temperature of the lower flange of
the composite beam under a given sagging bending moment. This method is
very simple and can be used to quickly estimate whether the composite beam
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is adequate in fire without going through the detailed calculations. However,
BS EN 1994-1-2 does not cover a composite beam with partial shear
connection at ambient temperature. Hence, for such beams, PSE may still
need to refer to BS 5950: Part 8.

The full moment capacity method in BS EN 1994-1-2 is the same as in BS EN
1994-1-1: Design of composite steel and concrete structures. General rules
and rules for buildings (BSI 2004b) for a composite beam at ambient
temperature; but the compressive capacity of the concrete slab and the tensile
capacity of the steel profile should account for non-uniform temperature
distributions in the concrete slab and the steel profile. As such, the full
moment capacity method involves quite tedious computation, and either the
limiting temperature method or the critical temperature method is preferred.

4.5 Fire Engineering Design of Timber Structure

4.5.1 As combustible material, timber can contribute rapidly to a fire within a
building. Timber may also have been treated with insecticides or anti-fungal
treatments or with polishes, waxes and painted finishes, which increase the
potential for fire development. During fire, timber browns at about 120-150C,
blackens around 200-250C and evolves combustible vapours at about 300C
(IStructE 2010). Above 400-450C (or 300C if a flame is present) the surface
of the timber will ignite and char at a steady rate (IStructE 2010). However,
timber does have a degree of fire resistance which increases with the thickness
of the component under attack. When the outer layer chars (Figure 14), it also
acts as an insulating layer to the inner uncharred core.

4.5.2 In the alteration works of historical buildings, such members may require
preservation. Two approaches can be adopted:

a) applying fire protection material to the timber members; or
b) using a structural fire engineering approach to substantiating the load
carrying capacity of the member under fire.

Figure 14 Charring of timber during fire
(Source: The Old House Web)

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A simplified design of timber members is given BS EN 1995-1-2: Design of
timber structures. General. Structural fire design (BSI 2004), which calculates
the effective cross-section, the reduced strength and stiffness of the members.
The method is based on charring depths and temperature profiles of the
member during the fire. During a fire, the outer layer of the timber member
chars losing all strength while retaining a role as an insulating layer which
prevents excessive temperature rise in the core. The central core is slightly
temperature affected with some small loss of strength. As such, the simplified
method is to perform the calculations using normal ambient design methods
for unchatted zone (Figure 15) (Purkiss 2007).

Figure 15 Simplified method for timber members
(Source: Wood Marketing Federation, Ireland)

4.5.3 The rate of charring is the key parameter in determining the effective cross-
section during a fire, which in terms depends on the timber type (or the density
of the timber) and the moisture content. For a standard fire, BS EN 1995-1-2:
Design of timber structures. General. Structural fire design (BSI 2004c) gives
two values (Table 12) of charring rates, namely:
0
for single face exposure and
n
for multi-face exposure.

Table 12 Charring rate of different types of timber
Timber type
Charring rate
(mm/min)
0

n

Softwood
Glued laminated timber (>290kgm
-3
) 0.65 0.7
Solid (>290kgm
-3
) 0.65 0.8
Hardwood
Solid or Glued laminated timber (=290kgm
-3
) 0.65 0.7
Solid or Glued laminated timber (>290kgm
-3
) 0.50 0.55
Plywood Panel (=450kgm
-3
and thickness 20mm) 0.9 -
(Source: modified from BS EN 1995-1-2)

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For single face exposure, the depth of charring d
char,0
is given by
d
char,0
=
0
t

For multi-face exposure, the depth of charring d
char,n
is given by
d
char,n
=
n
t

Once the depth of charring has been found, it is possible to calculate the total
depth of section reduction d
ef
by the following equation:
d
ef
= d
char,n
+ k
0
d
0

where d
0
is taken as 7mm; and
k
0
is given by:
k
0
= t/20 (for t < 20 min)
k
0
= 1 (for t > 20 min)

Similar formulae (e.g. by Hadvig 1981) have also been developed for
calculating the depth of charring in a parametric fire.

4.5.4 Other empirical methods

In addition to the method in BS EN 1995-1-2, a number of empirical approaches
to the assessment of the fire performance of timber elements are available,
including the method by Lie (1977). For Lie (1977), the fire resistance rating of
a beam heated on three sides is given by:
)
D
B
0.1fB(4 t
d fi,
=
where f is a factor allowing for effective over-design, and values of the
parameter f are given in the following table:

Load Factor () (%)
Member type
Beam
Column
L/D > 10 L/D s10
> 75 1.0 1.0 1.2
75 > > 50 1.1 1.1 1.3
s 50 1.3 1.3 1.5
(Source: Purkiss 2007).

4.5.5 Example

A timber softwood beam of 25075 is simply supported over a span of 4.5 m.
The bending strength of the softwood is 27.5MPa. The beam system is at
600mm c/c and carries a permanent dead load of 0.2kN/m and an imposed load
of 2.5kPa. It is required to determine whether the beam can survive a standard
fire with duration of 30 min.

With a partial safety factor of 0.7 for imposed load, the load in the fire limit
state is 0.2 + 0.7(0.62.5) = 1.25 kN/m.
Maximum bending moment M
Ed,fi
= 1.25 4.5
2
/8 = 3.16 kNm.

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BS EN 1995-1-2 method

The charring rate
n
for softwood is 0.80 mm/min.

The depth of charring d
char,n
= 30 0.80 = 24mm
As t > 20 min, k
0
= 1,0, k
0
d
0
= 7 mm.
So, d
ef
= 24 + 7 = 31mm
Reduced width b = B 2 d
ef
= 75 2 31 = 13mm
Reduced depth, d = D d
ef
= 250 31 = 219mm
Elastic section modulus = bd
3
/6 = 13 219
3
/6 = 104 10
3
mm
3
.
Strength of softwood = 27.5 MPa.
Therefore, M
Rd,fi
= 27.5 104 10
3
= 2,86 kNm.
As M
Ed,fi
= 3.16 kNm, the beam is not satisfactory.

Lie (1977) method

The design fire moment M
Ed,fi
= 3.16 kNm.
Stress at fire = 3.16 10
6
/(75 250
2
/6) = 4.04 MPa.
Design strength (assuming medium-term loading) is 0.8 22/1.3 = 13.54 MPa.
% of allowance = (4.04/13.54)100 = 0.30
Therefore, f = 1.3.
)
250
75
- 75(4 1.3 0.1 )
D
B
0.1fB(4 t
d fi,
= = = 36 min
The beam is marginally satisfactory.

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5. Assessment and Repair of Fire Damaged Structure

5.1 Purpose of Post-fire Assessment

Post-fire assessment differs from structural fire engineering design. It is aimed
at estimating the severity of a fire that may have damaged the structure and
adequacy of the existing building in respect of structural and fire safety after a
fire incident. After a fire, the first thing to do is to proceed with a preliminary
assessment of the structural integrity of the building to determine whether it is
possible to safely enter the building. Then, it is required to assess the extent of
the damage and see whether the building can still be repaired. The following
two publications are particular useful in carrying out assessment and repair of
fire damaged structure:

Concrete Society (2008), TR 68: Assessment, design and repair of fire-
damaged concrete structure (Camberley: Concrete Society); and
IStructE (2000), Appraisal of existing structures (London: IStructE, 3
rd
ed.).

5.2 Procedures of Post-fire Assessment

5.2.1 The general procedures adopted (Figure 16) in post-fire assessment of fire
damaged structures are as follows (IStructE 2010):
initial site visit
preliminary inspections
desk study
detailed structural assessment
damage assessment
specification of repairs.

An information paper illustrating the procedures and the salient features to
assess and repair Tai Shing Street Market in Wong Tai Sin due to a fire in April
2013 is being prepared.
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Initial site visit
Verify if structure is safe to enter
Take action to secure public safety

Preliminary inspections
Identify follow-up areas
Note area with maximum
temperature

Detailed evaluation
Computational modeling of fire
scenario using CFD method, e.g.
modeling using CFAST
Non-destructive tests
Destructive tests

Structural appraisal

Repairs
Identify extent of repair
Prepare details and specifications
of repair

Figure 16 Procedures of assessment of fire damaged structure
(Source: modified from Gosain and Choudhuri 2008)

5.2.2 Initial site visit and preliminary inspections

5.2.2.1 During an initial inspection, spalling, the flaking of the concrete, the formation
of major cracks and the distortion of the construction are to be identified so as
to assess the structural integrity. Should structural integrity be in doubt, PSE
should consider fencing off and/or install sufficient temporary propping to
these problematic areas. Excessive deflection, large extensive cracks in
structurally sensitive areas, misalignments, and distorted members are
indications that the load-carrying capacities may have been seriously impaired.
The PSE should consult his respective CSE via his SSE on critical decisions.

5.2.2.2 As the concrete surfaces of the structure are always blackened and visibility in
the absence of artificial lighting is poor, it is difficult to ascertain the extent of
damage. During the initial inspection, an overview examining the most
conspicuously damaged elements and identifying the extent of damaged
elements is a practical way to give an indication of the likely scale of the
damage and the areas to be under detailed investigation. It is also essential to
gather all possible clues regarding the history of the fire. Witness, fire reports
from Fire Services Department, talks with firemen, photographs and videos,
etc are important in establishing the fire history, e.g. when the fire started,
whether flashover occurred.

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5.2.2.3 An initial assessment of the gas temperature at the time of the fire is required
to determine whether structural damage has been resulted. A quick guide can
be referenced to the position, the condition, the melting and the charring of
materials (including non-structural materials) (Figure 17(a)). Table 13(a) and
Table 13(b) list the effect of elevated temperature on and the ignition
temperature of common construction materials. For example, if a brass lock or
handle is found to have melted, it is logical to deduce that the gas temperature
might have been over 900
o
C (a very high temperature indicating that structural
damage may have occurred). Consideration of the fire characteristics may also
prompt other specific issues, such as whether toxic or deleterious combustion
products have been given off. For example, the burning of extensive quantities
of PVC may give off enough hydrogen chloride to initiate corrosion of steel
elements or reinforcement (Concrete Society 2008). Hence, it is important to
visit the site as soon as the building can be entered safely and before the
removal of debris. A comprehensive set of photos taken to record the
environment and condition of the venue as earlier as possible after the fire can
help to assess the fire load and maximum attainable gas temperature at the fire
in the environment, which are essential to devise a cost-effective repair
proposals

Figure 17(a) Condition of fresh water pipes, drain pipes and air ducts after
fire at Tai Shing Street Market

5.2.2.4 Other useful visual observations include (Anderberg 2009):

a) sooty concrete surfaces which means that the temperature has been below
500C;
b) pieces of charred wood where the charred depth may give you information
about the duration of the fire (charring depth of about 20 mm is equivalent
to 30 mins. standard fire).

Useful information on the fire severity can also be obtained by the length of
time taken to fight the fire, the length of time between the fire being noted and
the arrival of the brigade, the operation of any automatic fire detection or fire-
fighting equipment and the degree of effort required to fight the fire.

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Table 13(a) Effect of elevated temperatures on
common construction materials
Approximate
temperature
(
o
C)
Substance Examples Condition
100
150
Paint Deteriorates Destroyed
120
120-140
150-180
Polystyrene Thin-wall food
containers, foam, light
shades, handles, curtain
hooks, radio casings
Collapse
Softens
Melts and flows
120
120-140
Polyethylene Bags, films, bottles,
buckets, pipes
Shrivels
Softens and melts
130-200
250
Polymethyl
methacrylate
Handles, covers,
skylights, glazing
Softens
Bubbles
100
150
200
400-500
PVC Cables, pipes, ducts,
linings, profiles, handles,
knobs, house ware, toys,
bottles
Degrades
Fumes
Browns
Charring
200-300
240
Cellulose
wood
Wood, paper, cotton Darkens
Ignites
250
300-350
350-400
Solder lead Plumber joints,
plumbing, sanitary
installations, toys
Melts
Melts, sharp edges rounded
Drop formation
400
420
Zinc Sanitary installations,
gutters, downpipes
Drop formations
Melt
400
600
650
Aluminium
and alloys
Fixtures, casings,
brackets, small
mechanical parts
Softens
Melts
Drop formation
500-600
800
Glass Glazing, bottles Softens, sharp edges rounded
Flowing easily,
Viscous
900
950
Silver Jewellery, spoons,
cutlery
Melts
Drop formation
900-1000
950-1050
Brass Locks, taps, door
handles, clasps
Melts
Drop formation
900
900-1000
Bronze Windows, fittings,
doorbells, ornamentation
Edges rounded
Drop formation
1000-1100 Copper Wiring, cables,
ornaments
Melts
1100-1200
1150-1250
Cast iron Radiators, pipes Melts
Drop formation
(Source: IStructE 2010 and Concrete Society 2008)
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Table 13(b) Ignition temperatures of common construction materials
Material
Ignition
temperature (
o
C)
1
Auto-ignition
temperature (
o
C)
2
Wood 280-310 525
Wool 240 -
Paper 230 230
Cotton fabrics 230-270 255
Polymethylacrytate (Perspex) 280-300 400-600
Rigid polyurethane foam 310 410
Polyethylene 310 415
Polystyrene 340 350
Polyester (glass-fibre filled) 350-400 480
PVC 390 455
Polyamide 420 425-450
Phenolic resins (glass-fibre filled) 520-540 570-580
Notes:
1
The temperature to which material has to be heated for sustained combustion to be initiated
from a pilot source.
2
The temperature at which the heat evolved by a material decomposing under the influence of
heat is sufficient to bring about combustion without application of an external source of
ignition.

5.2.2.5 Concrete delamination, spalling and cracks

Spalling of concrete in fire involves the breaking off of layers or pieces of
concrete from the surface of the structure, as it is heated (Figure 17(b)). The
low thermal diffusivity of concrete means that the thermal gradients will
induce high internal mechanical pressures in the concrete mass, which allows
the development of cracks both during heating and cooling. Besides, when the
temperature gradients are high, the pressures accumulated inside the pores
increase due to the water vapour evolution, and so the risk of spalling of
external concrete layers also increases (Alonso 2009; IStructE 2003). One
major effect of spalling is that it may significantly reduce or even eliminate the
layer of concrete cover on the reinforcement bars, thereby exposing the
reinforcement to high temperatures, leading to a reduction of strength of the
steel and hence a deterioration of the mechanical properties of the structure as
a whole.

Figure 17(b) Concrete spalling during fire at Tai Shing Street Market
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There are three common types of spalling, namely: explosive spalling,
aggregate spalling, and corner spalling (Concrete Society 2008)). Explosive
spalling occurs early in the fire (typically within the first 30 minutes) and
proceeds with a series of disruptions, each locally removing layers of shallow
depth. Aggregate spalling also occurring in the early stage, involves the
expansion and decomposition of the aggregate at the concrete surface causing
small pieces of the aggregate flying off the surface. Such type of spalling will
only result in superficial damage. Corner spalling occurs in the later stage of
the fire, and is due to tensile cracks developing at planes of weakness.
However, this type of spalling occurs in the later stage, when the concrete is
already significantly weakened, and will not usually affect structural
performance. In some damaged areas, delamination at the interface between
reinforcement bars and concrete instead of spalling may occur due to thermal
expansion of reinforcement bars. A quick way to identify the extent of
delamination is by using hammer tapping.

PSE should, however, note that large amounts of spalling do not necessarily
imply that the reinforcement, or the structure, is substantially weakened since
spalling may occur due to quenching effect by the cold water from firemens
hoses. A quick way to note that spalling occurs during the fire is that the
exposed surfaces are smoke blackened (Purkiss 2007). Local buckling of steel
reinforcement in a flexural member exposed by spalling usually indicates that
the reinforcement has been subjected to direct fire exposure. When steel is
exposed to a temperature of 600
o
C, the bars lose about 50% of their strength
and are then unable to resist the axial thermal restraining forces imposed.
Buckling will then occur. The absence of buckled steel reinforcement in
flexural members may therefore indicate that the steel is unlikely to have
reached 600
o
C, indicating the spalling has occurred after the fire. Thus, only
more severe with exposed buckled reinforcement and blackened concrete
surfaces suggests more severe damage. However, for main steel reinforcement
in columns which have been tied by binders, it is very possible that the steel
has reached a temperature above of 600
o
C without exhibiting signs of buckling.
Exposed steel reinforcement in columns after a fire requires further detailed
investigation.

Besides spalling, concrete may also crack at high temperatures. Cracking is a
useful sign in assessing the temperature of the fire, as cracks found in the
compression zones of beams or slabs or in columns indicate the existence of
severe problems.

5.2.3 Desk study

In parallel with the initial site visit, all drawings, calculations, specifications,
and information regarding the use of the building should be collected. Using the
observations during the initial site visit and the desk study, the duration of the
fire, the extent of damage and the desk study, a decision on whether detailed
structural assessment of the structure can be made. If a fire is not long or has
been suppressed by sprinkler system, the damage will usually be minor or
cosmetic. However, in more severe cases, structural damage (such as concrete
cracking, spalling, deformed flanges and webs of steel beams, deformations of
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structural members) may be evident. Detailed assessment should then be
considered.

5.2.4 Detailed assessment of temperature at fire

5.2.4.1 Fire Modelling

Since the residual strength of concrete and steel reinforcement depends on the
maximum temperature reached, it is important to estimate this temperature.
However, if the extent of damage by the fire is large, it may be impractical and
unnecessary to determine the maximum temperature of every structural
member unless to those members with obvious damage and distortions present.
To aid the damage appraisal and the development of a cost-effective repair
schedule, a fire model using CFD method may be used to estimate the fire
intensity (gas temperature) and the resultant approximate isothermal surfaces.
The report from Fire Services Department is vital to input the locations of the
fire, the duration and the spread of the fire. They can also provide guess of
temperature and whether flashover has occurred. Observation of burnt
elements (Table 13(a) and Table 13(b)) and the photos taken at the initial site
visit can help in estimating the intensity of fire load at the time of the fire.

Part I of this set of guidelines has already described the various models to
predict the temperature distribution in a fire during design, and these models
can also be employed to back analyse the variation of gas temperature with
time during an actual fire. Usually a zone model (e.g. by CFAST), the
compartment is divided using a system of differential equations that express
the conservation of mass and energy, assuming valid the ideal gas law and
defining the density and the internal energy. Such fire modelling can help to
establish the progression of the fire and provide information of the supposedly
major damaged zone. An example of such modeling technique can also be
found in the information paper on the assessment and repair of Tai Shing
Street Market in Wong Tai Sin after fire (being prepared as at 8 August 2013).

5.2.4.2 Colour of concrete at fire

In Hong Kong, most of the buildings have been constructed with concrete.
Concrete is made from aggregate, and its colour changes when subjected to
heat. The change of colour is due to the presence of ferrous components in the
cement paste, coarse and fine aggregate. At above 300
o
C, a red discolouration
is important as it coincides approximately with the onset of significant strength
loss. However, this change of colour is most pronounced for siliceous
aggregates but not so for granitic aggregates, since the red colour change is a
function of the ferrous content which varies with different types of aggregates.
This modification in colour is permanent: it is therefore possible, on the basis
of the colour of the concrete, to make an approximate assessment of the
maximum attainable temperature and temperature profile reached during the
fire. Figure 18(a) shows the colours of the concrete at different heating
temperatures, and Table 14 provides an overview of the colours of concrete at
different temperature ranges.

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Figure 18(a) Colours of concrete at different heating temperatures
(Source: Hager 2013)

Table 14 Summary of colours of concrete in different temperature ranges
Heating
Temperature
Colour Description

300 to 600C pink or red
600 to 900C whitish gray
over 900C buff
(Source: International Federation for Structural Concrete 2008, Felicetti 2004)

This means that it is possible to assess maximum attainable temperature of
concrete at the fire by observing the colours of the concrete. Figure 18(b)
shows that the colour changes gradually from heating face to inner of the
concrete. With reference to the above correlated temperature, the residual
resistance of the concrete after a fire can then be deduced. In practice, PSE
can confirm that any concrete that turns pink is suspicious. A temperature of
300C corresponds, more or less, to concrete that has lost a permanent part of
its resistance (Concrete Society 2008). A greywhite colour indicates concrete
that is fragile and porous. Furthermore, a permanent distortion of the
construction indicates an overheating of the reinforcement. However, colour
changes are most pronounced for siliceous aggregates and less so for
granitic aggregates, which are predominant in Hong Kong. Also, due
consideration should always given to the possibility that the pink/red colour
may be a natural feature of the aggregate rather than heat-induced (Concrete
Society 2008).

Figure 18(b) Change in colour of concrete heated from the left face
(Source: Short et al 2001)

To minimise the colour changes due to aggregate type, PSE may develop a
baseline colour chart from a set of control samples (Figure 18(c)) obtained
from in-situ concretes in non-fire damaged areas in different elevated
temperatures. This set of control samples should be similar to the in-situ
damaged concrete in respect of mixing proportion, concrete grade, age and
effects from external environment. A pair of concrete slices will be heated in
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different elevated temperatures, e.g. 200C, 300C, 450C, 600C and 800C.
A chart (Figure 18(d)) showing colours of the concrete samples in different
temperatures together with colours of the concrete sample at ambient
temperature can be established as reference to determine the depth of damage
of the in-situ concrete in fire.

Figure 18(c) Sliced concrete cores
(Source: Felicetti 2004)

Figure 18(d) Colours of sliced concrete cores taken at Tai Shing Street
Market at different temperatures

5.2.4.3 Petrographic examination

Another method is petrographic examination, which involves the examination
of concrete thin sections cut from the core to determine aggregate and paste
mineralogy, and micrcostructure. As heating concrete causes a progressive
series of mineralogical changes, the thin sections can be investigated by
petrographic examination to determine the maximum temperature attained and
deduce the depth to which the concrete has been damaged. Identification of
microscopically observed features can also allow the temperature profile to be
plotted through the depth of concrete members.

Petrographic examination can examine the colour change in aggregates to
estimate the maximum attained temperature, and the estimated temperature
can be cross-checked with changes in the cement paste and evidence of
physical distress such as cracking and microcraking (Ingham 2009). An
example is quoted by Concrete Society showing the use of petrographic
images (Figure 18(e)). In the example, some aggregate particles have become
red indicating that the concrete has reached at least 300C at that point.
Particles of flint have been calcined (brown mottled) and so have been heated
to 250450C. The cement matrix is bisected by numerous fine cracks (white)
within the cement matrix (dark), some of which radiate from quartz grains
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(white) in the fine aggregate fraction. This deep cracking and cracking
associated with quartz suggest that the concrete has reached 550575C. The
concrete is therefore identified to have been heated to approximately 600C in
the area represented by the sample. Further information on this topic can be
obtained from TR 71: Concrete petrography - an introductory guide for the
non-specialist (Concrete Society 2010) published by Concrete Society.

Notes: C denotes calcined flint aggregate
R denotes reddened flint aggregate
Figure 18(e) Example of petrographic image
(Source: Ingham 2008)

Petrographical examination, however, has the following limitations:

a) colour changes are most pronounced for siliceous aggregates and less so
for granitic aggregates which are commonly found in Hong Kong;
b) the preparation of sample slice is expensive and time-consuming;
c) lack of experts in petrographic examination in Hong Kong, and the Public
Works Central Laboratory can only provide interpretation on petrographic
images related to the alkali-aggregate reaction and alkali-silica reaction;
d) the examination is usually limited to particular micro-locations instead of
overall condition of structural elements. That means that plenty of sample
slices from different level from the exposed concrete surface and locations
of structural elements are required to represent the heating temperature
during the fire and the depth of damage after the fire.

In the UK, Applied Petrography Group of the Geological Society of London
keeps a list of petrographers (available: www.appliedpetrographygroup.com;
accessed: 8 July 2013), and in the US the Society of Concrete Petrographers
also keeps a list of petrographers (available:
www.societyofconcretepetrographers.org; accessed: 8 July 2013).

5.2.4.4 Colour image analysis

In earlier paragraphs, it has been mentioned that using the change of colour in
concrete is one of the most frequently used technique to assess the maximum
attained temperature and to determine the depth of damage in the concrete
from the fire incident. However, assessment on the colour by visual method
may not be reliable. To minimise the subjective judgment, an objective
approach is to use colour description systems such as RGB and HSI colour
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spaces (Figure 19(a)) to determine the colour change in the concrete for
assessing the depth of the damage.

(i) RGB colour space
(Source: Blue Lobster Art and Design)
(ii) HSI colour space
(Source: Black Ice Software)
Figure 19(a) Colour description systems

RGB colour space is a system most commonly used in most devices
displaying images. Every colour can be represented by three elements in terms
of amounts of Red (R), Green (G) and Blue (B). It is now also possible to
convert the temperature distribution in a concrete element by using colour
image analysis in HSI colour space. The colour image analysis aims at
determining the temperature of concrete by the change in hue (H) (
), saturation (S) () and intensity (I) ()
when concrete is heated. In order to convert the RGB colour space into HSI
colour space, the values of H, S and I can be calculated mathematically as
follows:
}
B) B)(G (R B) (R
B)] (R G) [(R 0.5
{ cos H
I
B} G, min{R,
- 1 S
B) G (R
3
1
I
2
1
+
+
=
=
+ + =

Short et al (2001) proposed to adopt optical microscopy combined with colour
image analysis to quantify changes in colour for concrete in elevated
temperatures in terms of H, S and I as per the above definition. A number of
concrete samples with different mixing components were heated to
equilibrium temperatures of 175, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500 and 700C and
then cooled to ambient temperature. The samples were impregnated with a
colourless resin, cut, ground and polished for examination in reflected light
(Figure19(c)). By using a polarizing microscope together with image analysis
workstation and associate software, the colour parameters including values of
H, S and I on the prepared samples can be determined.

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(i) ambient temperature (ii) at 350C (iii) heated from the left
Figure 19(c) Colour of polished sections of concrete

In the above measurement, Short et al (2001) observed that the major changes
occurred in values of H. Figure19(d) illustrates that values in levels 0-19 of a
sample heated to 350C is more than that of the control sample and further
shows that red colour (0-19 levels) started to develop significantly for samples
between 250-350C. This trend of the colour change can be used as a
reference to determine the thermal history of concrete and the depth of the heat
affected zone, particularly the 300C isotherm.

Figure 19(d) Distribution of H at different elevated temperatures

Felicetti (2004) followed the similar method conducted by Short et al (2001)
but adopted a common low-cost digital camera to take picture of the concrete
samples. Felicetii (2004) found that the digital camera proved to be quite a
sensitive device for the assessment of chromatic change of opaque materials
with the sizable effect of illuminant, white balance and hue combination on
colour measure accuracy. A single high resolution digital image allows to
separately analyse the cement mortar and the aggregate and to outline
statistical trend of its colour parameters.

Lin et al (2004) further carried out colour image analysis on a number of
mortar specimens by using an ordinary digital camera and his own developed
image colour intensity analyser, and obtained the variation of H, S and I of
three primary colours R, G and B (Figure 19(e)) at different elevated
temperatures. They observed that the numerical values of H decrease as
temperature increases, but the variation is not significant. Unlike the results of
Short et al (2001), they observed that S shows a marked increase with
increasingly temperature. I shows little changes in the range 0200C,
decreases with increasing temperatures in the range 200800C, and increases
with temperatures in the range 8001000C. The variation of these three
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properties with temperature therefore serves as a useful way to deduce the
temperature gradient across concrete cross section.

Figure 19(e) Variation of H, S and I with temperature
(Source: Lin et al 2004)

The above summarises the colour image analysis carried out by Short et al
(2001), Felicetti (2004) and Lin et al (2004). Advantages of colour image
analysis include (Felicetti 2004):

a) no special preparation of concrete sample is needed and a faster in-situ
analysis is feasible;
b) the whole colour profile can be reconstructed from one side picture of a
concrete core;
c) the cement paste and the aggregate can be recognised on the picture and
analysed separately;
d) the method can now be carried out by low-cost camera.

However, PSE should note that photos taken for both the control samples and
damaged concretes should be under the same external environments and
equipments in order to minimise the deviations from external lighting, quality
of digital camera and flash intensity. In addition, resolution of photos should
be set as high as possible for showing the colour properties of a particular
layer or element in the concrete sample. Moreover, as mentioned in earlier
paragraphs, the change of colour of granitic concrete may not be large, and
thus the method should be further development for concrete in Hong Kong.

ImageJ, a free Java-based image processing program (available:
rsbweb.nih.gov/ij) developed at the National Institutes of Health in the US,
can be used to carry out the colour image analysis. This program is capable to
analyse 3D live-cell imaging and radiological image by user-written plugins
originally in medical and health care industry. Since the user-written plugins
allow adding special features in this Java-based program, the program has then
been widely applied in other industries to analyse images. By using ImageJ, a
particular location, layer or element of concrete samples can be selected to
analyse the colour properties in respect of R, G, B, H, S and I (Figure 19(f)).

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Figure 19(f) Colour image analysis using ImageJ

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5.3 Assessment of Residual Strength

5.3.1 The maximum temperature and temperature are of use to determine the residual
strength of the structural materials after the fire. Earlier paragraphs describe the
effect on elevated temperatures on the strength of concrete, steel reinforcement,
prestressing wires, and structural steel during a fire. However, the properties
after heating (i.e. upon cooling) are of interest from the point of view of
reinstatement. The following paragraphs will describe the effect of elevated
temperature on the residual strength of concrete, steel reinforcement,
prestressing wires, and structural steel.

5.3.2 Concrete

Figure 20(a) shows the residual strength of Grade 20 and Grade 30 unstressed
concrete upon cooling with the corresponding changes of its colour. Concrete
temperatures up to 95C have little effect on the strength and other properties of
concrete. Above this threshold cement paste shrinks due to dehydration and
aggregates expand due to temperature rise. For normal weight concrete, the
aggregate expansion exceeds the paste shrinkage resulting in an overall
expansion of the concrete. In addition to the expansion, reductions in strength,
modulus of elasticity, and thermal conductivity occur, as well as increased rate
of creep as temperature rises. For temperatures up to 300C, the residual
compressive strength of structural quality concrete is not significantly reduced.
Strength loss at high temperatures is due to the dehydration of the cement paste
in the concrete matrix. As temperature rises further, the dehydration of the paste
will lead to a loss of essentially all of the concrete strength.

Upon cooling to ambient temperatures the strength of concrete may be further
reduced from its strength at high temperature because of continuing
disintegration of the microstructure (Hertz 2005). As such, for the sake of
assessment of fire damaged concrete structure Concrete Society (2008)
recommends a more conservative approach by discounting the residual strength
for concrete exposed to temperatures above 300C (Figure 20(b)).
.

Figure 20(a) Residual strength of
concrete
(Source: Concrete Society 1978)
Figure 20(b) Recommended residual
strength of concrete after a fire

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5.3.3 Steel reinforcement

Figure 21(a) shows the residual strength of steel reinforcement. The original
yield stress of hot rolled steel bars is almost completely recovered on cooling
from temperatures of 500C to 600C, and on cooling from 800C it is only
reduced by 5%. Concrete Society (2008) therefore recommends to assume
conservatively that there is no loss in residual strength for hot-rolled steel
reinforcement for a temperature up to 600
o
C (Figure 21(b)).

Figure 21(a) Residual strength of steel
reinforcement and prestressing wires
Figure 21(b) Recommended residual
strength of hot-rolled steel
reinforcement after a fire
5.3.4 Prestressing wires

Prestressed concrete slabs are now increasingly common in ArchSD projects,
especially in D&B contracts, with its advantage of larger span. However, the
behaviour of prestressing steel after a fire is much more critical than that of
reinforcing steel. First, the tensile properties of prestressing steel wires lose
more markedly at elevated temperatures (Figure 10(a)(ii)). Secondly, unlike hot
rolled steel reinforcement, the strength of prestressing steel wires will only
partially be recovered upon cooling. Figure 21(a) shows the residual strength
of prestressing wires. During the fire, the reduction in the tensile strength of
cold-worked prestressing steel starts at temperatures between 100C and 200C.
Its strength reduces to about 50% of room temperature strength at 400C and to
less than 10% at around 700C. After the fire, the residual strength of
prestressing steel cannot be completely recovered if its temperature during fire
is over 200C. The residual strength of the prestressing steel with its
temperature of 450C during fire is approximately 75% of the original tensile
strength. Moreover, the reduction of elastic modulus in the concrete, increased
relaxation due to creep and non-recoverable extension of tensioned steel occur
as a result of increased temperatures. All effects contribute to losses in tension.
Maximum temperatures reached in the tendons and their durations, together
with the temperature distribution, are therefore more important in the
assessment of fire-damaged prestressed concrete members than in the case of
reinforced concrete. Concrete Society (2008) recommends to the residual
strength for prestressed wires as shown in Figure 21(c).
CTW/MKL/MFY/SCF

Figure 21(c) Recommended residual strength of prestressing wires
after a fire
(Source: modified from Concrete Society 2008)

5.3.5 Structural steelwork

Figure 22(a) shows the residual strength upon cooling after fire exposure of
structural steel. Grade S275 hot rolled structural steel section, subjected to a
temperature above 600C, may suffer losses in residual properties on cooling,
and at 1000C it is 10% or less. Youngs modulus decreases with temperature
rise at a slightly higher rate than does yield strength. Grade S355 hot rolled
structural steel also suffers losses in residual yield and tensile strength when
subjected to temperature over 600C. Grade S355 usually vanadium and
niobium, and at high temperatures these elements tend to precipitate out of the
matrix creating a coarse distribution. Yet, when cooled back to the room
temperature its yield stress or the tensile strength will only fall not greater than
10% below their original values. Thus, it may be concluded that steel members
which is only utilised to less than 90% of their maximum load bearing capacity
will have sufficient strength when cooled back to room temperature.

Figure 22(b) shows the residual strength properties upon cooling of bolts. The
residual strength properties upon cooling show a substantial recovery for grade
4.6 if heated to only 600C and for grade 8.8 if heated to only 400C. However,
for high-strength friction grip bolts, as their strength behaviour is highly
dependent on the contact surface, their residual performance has to be assessed
by their distortion.
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(a) Structural steel (b) Bolts
Figure 22 Residual strength of steel

5.3.6 Timber

In the earlier paragraphs, it was noted that any charred part of a timber section
must be assumed to have lost all strength; but any timber beneath the charred
layer may be assumed to have no significant loss of strength because the
thermal conductivity of charred timber is low.

5.3.7 Structural masonry or brickwork

The physical properties and mechanisms of failure of brick walls exposed to fire
are not known in detail (IStructE 2010). As with concrete there may be a loss of
compressive strength. Brick give much better performance if plaster is present
because of its improved insulation and reduction of thermal shock. IStructE
(2010) advises that if brickwork does not show visible damage (e.g. appreciable
deformation, cracking or spalling), the strength of the bricks may be taken to be
similar to the original value, as bricks have been manufactured at high
temperatures. Mortar containing sand with a given mineral composition behaves
similarly to concrete with aggregate of comparable mineral composition, and
thus inspection of its colour can indicate the maximum temperature at the fire.
5.3.8 Testing

Table 15 summarises the types of tests that may be carried out in fire-damaged
rc structure and the information that may be obtained (Concrete Society 2008).
The primary test to determine residual strength of concrete is to carry out
compressive tests on concrete cores from the fire-damaged zone. Strength tests
on cores suffer a major limitation that they average the strength of concrete
throughout the core, which may contain both damaged and undamaged concrete.

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Table 15 Tests for fire damaged rc structures
Test
location
Test
type
Test method
Information gained
Colour
changes
Extent of
damage
Depth of
damage
Compressive
strength of
concrete
Tensile
strength of
steel
reinforcement
I
n
-
s
i
t
u

N
o
n
-

d
e
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
v
e

Visual inspection \ \ \
Hammer tapping \ \ \
Rebound hammer \
Ultrasonic pulse
velocity
\
D
e
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
v
e

Open-up \ \
L
a
b
o
r
a
t
o
r
y
Petrographic
examination
\ \
Thermoluminescence \
Colour image
analysis
\ \
Core test \
Tensile test \
(Source: modified from Concrete Society 2008)

For structural steel and steel reinforcement, the primary one is carry out tensile
tests to determine its yield and ultimate tensile strength. Microscopic
examination of fracture surface is not commonly carried out.

5.4 Structural Appraisal

With the establishment of the temperature profile and distribution, and the
strength of the concrete, steel reinforcement and structural steel, calculation can
be carried out to assess structural capacity and the need for repairs. Usually,
member design (unless the stability of the structure is in doubt) is adequate.

5.5 Repair Options

5.5.1 After a fire, it is sometimes necessary to carry out major repair works. It is
practically impossible to provide standard solutions. Each situation must be
examined individually and the best solution chosen for each case. Two options,
namely, repair or demolition, are commonly adopted in post-fire repair. In this
respect, the following factors must nevertheless be taken into account:
the strength of the structure after the fire;
the permanent distortions;
the durability after the fire and repairs;
the aesthetic aspect.

5.5.2 Repair of timber structure

As those uncharred timber does not lose strength, the repair of timber structures
after fire depends on the degree of charring. If the depth of char is insignificant
the remaining section may still be able to resist the design loads, no special
structural repair is required, though the charred layer is to be removed by the
use of a scraping plane. For connections, repairs can be carried out by nailing,
bolting, screwing, steel plating or gluing. If the depth of char affects the
structural integrity of the building, such timber members will generally need
total replacement. Structural strengthening may also be used after the removal
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of the charred layer, and in some cases, demolition or replacement of the
damaged parts may be a more economical solution.

5.5.3 Repair of rc structure

After a fire, steel reinforcement will regain most of the original strength. Thus,
unlike timber or structural steel, damage to rc structures during fire will not
generally affect its structural integrity, and thus most rc structures can be
repaired and returned to service, though some structural members may require
demolition and replacement (Concrete Society 2008). Indeed, the Concrete
Society (2008) investigated a number of different concrete structures (including
residential houses, offices, warehouses, factories and car parks) damaged by fire
in the UK, and found that the majority of structures were repaired and that
among those that were not, very many could have been but they were
demolished for reasons other than the damage they suffered. Sooty concrete
surfaces need only cleaning because the maximum temperature has been below
about 500C. Demolition of part of the structure with extensive damaged
concrete is most economical repair option, especially for those structural
elements having been distorted in some way following a fire.

For repair, the following information is required:

the extent of breaking out of fire damaged concrete and removal of fire
damaged steel reinforcement;
requirements for preparation of concrete surfaces that are to receive
repair concrete, including special requirements to prevent feathered
edges;
details of new steel reinforcement including lap length and splicing with
original bars, mechanical anchorage, cover etc;
any fabric reinforcement or wire mesh that may be required to hold the
repair concrete in place in the temporary condition, including means of
supporting the fabric/wire mesh and the required concrete cover; and
the thickness and the properties of the repair materials.

Comprehensive repair methods and procedures of rc structures can be
referenced to TR 68: Assessment, Design and repair of fire-damaged concrete
structure published by Concrete Society. Recasting, spraying concrete and/or
patch repair with polymer modified cementitious mortar are commonly used
materials to repair the damaged concrete. SEBGL-MT2 Causes of Concrete
Deterioration, Investigation and Repair Methods (available:
http://asdiis/sebiis/2k/resource_centre/) details these repair options.

For prestressed concrete members, as described in earlier paragraphs there is a
significant loss of strength and modulus of elasticity of the prestressing wires
during fire and on cooling, and hence it is difficult to repair prestressed concrete
structure without replacing the tendons should the duration of the fire be long
enough to raise the temperature of the wires to over 200
o
C. As such, a practical
method is by providing cover generally provided to the tendons in prestressed
concrete (Concrete Society 2008), and General Notes to Drawings are now
being amended to specify such requirement.
CTW/MKL/MFY/SCF

5.5.4 Repair of steel structures

Steel remains straight after a fire and which had been carrying an appreciable
load was probably not heated beyond 600C, and would not have undergone any
metallurgical changes. The general rule is therefore that if the steel is straight
and there are no obvious distortions then the steel is steel fit for use (Corus
2006). Moreover, if the distortion of steel section is within acceptable limit
after being heated, it is not necessary to replace the existing steel structure. The
recommended deflection limit in the report is 1mm/m long steel section and the
maximum deflection limit of the steel section is 5mm (Kirby et al 1993).

Where deflections are visible, PSE should calculate the load carrying capacity
and then devise appropriate repair option. If steel exposed to a fire shows
roughened appearance due to excessive scaling and grain coarsening, then it
may suggest that the steel has been exposed to a temperature of around 900C.
Steel so modified is commonly called burnt steel (Hammond and DeCicco
2003), and their suitability for further use should be carefully studied.

Examples of reinstatement works of fire-damaged steel structures were reported
in The Reinstatement of Fire Damaged Steel and Iron Framed Structures (Kirby
et al 1993) published by BS Swinden Laboratories.

6. List of References

Codes and Standards

Buildings Department (2011), Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel
(Hong Kong: Buildings Department).

Buildings Department (2011a), Code of Practice for Fire Safety in Building
(Hong Kong: Buildings Department).

Buildings Department (2013), Code of Practice for the Structural Use of
Concrete (Hong Kong: Buildings Department).

BSI (1985), BS 8110: Part 2: Structural use of concrete. Code of practice for
special circumstances (London: BSI).

BSI (2002), BS EN 1990: Basis of structural design (London: BSI).

BSI (2002a), BS EN 1991-1-2: Actions on structures. General actions. Actions
on structures exposed to fire (London: BSI).

BSI (2003), BS 5950: Part 8: Structural use of steelwork in buildings. Code of
practice in fire resistant design (London: BSI).

BSI (2004), BS EN 1992-1-1: Design of concrete structures. General rules and
rules for buildings (London: BSI).

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BSI (2004a), BS EN 1992-1-2: Design of concrete structures. General rules.
Structural fire design (London: BSI).

BSI (2004b), BS EN 1994-1-1: Design of composite steel and concrete
structures. General rules and rules for buildings (London: BSI).

BSI (2004c), BS EN 1995-1-2: Design of timber structures. General rules.

BSI (2005), BS EN 1993-1-1: Design of steel structures. General rules and
rules for buildings (London: BSI).

BSI (2005a), BS EN 1993-1-2: Design of steel structures. General rules.

BSI (2005b), BS EN 1994-1-2: Design of composite steel and concrete
structures. General rules. Structural fire design (London: BSI).

Structural Design

Bailey, C G and Moore, D B (2000), The structural behaviour of steel frames
with composite floor slabs subject to fire: Part 1: theory, The Structural
Engineer, 78(11), pp. 19-27.

Buchanan, A H (2001), Structural design for fire safety (New York: Wiley).

Chung, K F and Wang, A J (2006), Fire resistance design of composite slabs in
building structures: from research to practice, The Structural Engineer, 84(20),
pp. 30-6.

Corus (2006), Fire resistance of steel-framed buildings (North Lincolnshire:
Corus).

Franssen, J M, Kodur, V and Zaharia, R (2009), Designing steel structures for
fire safety (Boca Raton: CRC Press/Balkema).

Hadvig, S (1981), Charring of wood in building fires practice, theory,
instrumentation, measurement (Lyngby: Technical University of Denmark).

IStructE (2003), Introduction to the fire safety engineering of structures
(London: IStructE).

IStructE (2007), Guide to the advanced fire safety engineering of structures
(London: IStructE).

Law, M (1997), Review of formula for T-equivalent, Fire Safety Science
Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium, 3-7 March, Melbourne,
Australia, p. 985-96.

CTW/MKL/MFY/SCF

Lennon, T, Moore, D B, Wang, Y C and Bailey G G (2007), Designers guide
to EN 1991-1-2, 1992-1-2, 1993-1-2 and EN 1994-1-2: handbook for the fire
design of steel, composite and concrete structures to the Eurocodes (London:
Thomas Telford).

Lennon, T (2011), Structural fire engineering (London: Thomas Telford).

Lie, T T (1977), A method of assessing the fire resistance of laminated timber
beams and columns, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 4, pp. 1619.

Purkiss, J A (2007), Fire safety engineering: design of structures (Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann, 2
nd
ed).

Wang, Y C (2002), Steel and composite structures: behaviour and design for
fire safety (London; New York: Spon Press).

Assessment and Repair of Fire-Damaged Structures

Alonso, C (2009), Assessment of post-fire reinforced concrete structures:
Determination of depth of temperature penetration and associated damage,
Alexander, MG et al (eds) (2009), Concrete Repair, Rehabilitation and
Retrofitting II (London: Taylor & Francis Group), pp. 471-4.

Anderberg, Y (2009), Assessment of fire-damaged concrete structures and the
corresponding repair measures, Alexander, MG et al (eds) (2009), Concrete
Repair, Rehabilitation and Retrofitting II (London: Taylor & Francis Group), pp.
631-6.

Concrete Society (1978), TR 15: Assessment of fire-damaged concrete
structures and repair by gunite (Camberley: Concrete Society).

Concrete Society (2008), TR 68: Assessment, design and repair of fire-damaged
concrete structure (Camberley: Concrete Society).

Concrete Society (2010), TR 71: Concrete petrography - an introductory guide
for the non-specialist (Camberley: Concrete Society).

Felicetti, R (2004), Digital-camera colorimetry for the assessment of fire-
damaged concrete, Proceedings of the Workshop: Fire Design of Concrete
Structures, Milan, 2-3 December 2004, pp. 21120.

Hager, I (2013), Colour Change in Heated Concrete, Fire Technology, 49, pp.
1-14.

Hammond, D J and DeCicco, P (2003), Evaluating structural damage, Cote,
AE et al (eds), Fire protection handbook (Quincy, Massachusetts: NFFPA, 19
th

ed.), 12p.

CTW/MKL/MFY/SCF

Ingham, J P (2008), Application of petrographic examination techniques to the
assessment of fire-damaged concrete and masonry structures, Materials
Characterization, 60, pp. 700-9.

International Federation for Structural Concrete (2008), Fire design of concrete
structures structural behaviour and assessment (Lausanne, Switzerland:
International Federation for Structural Concrete).

IStructE (2000), Appraisal of existing structures (London: IStructE, 3
rd
ed.).

Kirby, B R, Lapwood, D G and Thomson, G (1993), The reinstatement of fire
damaged steel and iron framed structures (London: BS Swinden Laboratories).

Gosain, N K, Drexler, R E and Choudhuri, D (2008), Evaluation and repair of
fire-damaged buildings, Structure Magazine, September, pp. 18-22.

Lin, D F, Wang, H Y and Luo, H L (2004), Assessment of fire-damaged
mortar using digital image process, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering,
16(4), pp. 383-6.

Short, N R, Purkiss, J A and Guise, S E (2001), Assessment of fire damaged
concrete using colour image analysis, Construction and Building Materials,
15(1), p p. 9-15.

Other References

Bond, A J, Harrison, T, Brooker, O, Moss, R, Narayanan, R, Webster, R and
Harris, A J (2011), How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2 (Surrey:
The Concrete Centre).

IStructE (1978), Design and detailing of concrete structures for fire resistance
(London: IStructE).

Hertz, K D (2005), Concrete strength for fire safety design, Magazine of
Concrete Research, 57(8), pp. 445-53.

Koon, C M (2010), Structural appraisal of reinforced concrete buildings with
historic values, Presented at Seminar on Concrete Damage Assessment,
Concrete Repair and Concrete Mix Technology, Hong Kong, China, 2 February
2010.

Lennon, T (2003), Whole building behaviour: results from a series of large
scale tests, Presented at the CIB-CTBUH International Conference on Tall
Buildings, 8-10 May 2003, Malaysia.

Newman, G M, Robinson, J T and Bailey, C G (2000), Fire safe design: a new
approach to multi-storey steel-framed buildings (Ascot, Berkshire: SCI).

Pang, P T C (2006), Fire engineering design and post fire assessment, The
Structural Engineer, 84(16), pp. 23-9.

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Guidelines on Structural Fire Engineering Part II

comes from the fire to the

is the net heat flux due to convention (W/m

is the net heat flux due to radiation (W/m

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