Chapter 14 The geometry of circles CLASSICAL GEOMETRIES

Math 4520, Spring 2010

R. Connelly

Math 452, Spring 2002

So 14. far we been studying Thehave geometry of circleslines and conics in the Euclidean plane. What about circles, one of the basic objects of study in Euclidean geometry? One approach is to use the complex So far we have been studying lines and conics in the Euclidean plane. What about numbers . Recall projectivities ofEuclidean the projective planeOne over C, which call CP2 , circles, C one of the that basicthe objects of study in geometry? approach is we to use arethe given by 3 numbers by 3 matrices, and these restricted to a plane complex complex C. Recall that the projectivities projectivities of the projective overprojective C, 1 line, which call a CP are the functions, themselves correspond toa2-by-2 v.rhich wewe call Cp2, are, given by Moebius 3 by 3 matrices, and which these projectivities restricted to matrices. Moebius functions cross ratio. This is where circles come in. complexThe projective line, which wepreserve call a Cpl the , are the Moebius functions, which themselves
correspond to a 2 by 2 matrix. The Moebius functions preserve the cross ratio. This is

14.1

where circles come in.

The cross ratio for the complex eld

cross ratio for the complex field We 14.1 look The for another geometric interpretation of the cross ratio for the complex eld, or better 1 i We for geometric interpretation of the cross ratio for number the complex field, yet for CPlook =C another {}. Recall the polar decomposition of a complex z = re , where or better yet for Cpl = C U { 00 } .Recall the polar decomposition of a complex number r = |z | is the magnitude of z , and is the angle that the line through 0 and z makes with -rei9, v.,here r = Izi is the magnitude of z, and 8 is the angle that the line through O the z real axis. See Figure 14.1. and z makes ,vith the real axis. See Figure 14.1.1.

Figure

14.1.1

Figure 14.1

%1 -%2 So if we have 3 complex numbers z1 , z2 , and z4 , the polar decomposition of the ratio
= 1~\ei81 \ %1

%1 -%4

-%4\

the angle 61 can be interpreted Figure 14.1.2.

= between the e 1 vectors %2-%1 and Z4 -%1 as in as the angle

z1 z2 z1 z4

z1 z2 z1 z4

CHAPTER 14. THE GEOMETRY OF CIRCLES

MATH 4520, SPRING 2010

for the angle 1 can be interpreted as the angle between the vectors z2 z1 and z4 z1 as in Figure 14.2. CLASSICAL GEOMETRIES

CLASSICAL

GEOMETRIES

Figure

14.1.2

Figure 14.2
So we can write the cross ratio r of the 4 points, Figure 14.1.2 Zl, Z2, Z3, Z4, as follows:
So we can write the crossratio ratio 44points, Zl, Z2, So we can write the cross r of of the the points, z , z Z3, , zZ4, , zas , follows: as follows: ~1 ZI -Z2 %3 -%4 = ~Zl -Z2 e i81 2 ~Z3 3 -Z4 4 ~ e i83

r=

ZI

-Z4

r r==

ZI 1 -Z2

z z2%3 z1 -Z4 z4 ZI

-%2

-Z4 Z3 -Z2 z z4 = Zl ~z Z3 z3 z4 ~Zl -Z2z1 i 2i81 ~ 1 -Z4 e ~ e i83 = z1 e ei3 z4Z3 -Z41 z3 z2 z3 z= -Z4 Z3 -Z2 ei(81+83) %3 -%2 2 I ZlZl -Z211
%3 3 -%4

Z3 z -z21 z1 z2 Z3 =I Zl I Zl -z411 -Z211 -Z41 i(1 +3 ) 3 z4 ei(81+83)

I Zl -z411

z1 z4

Z3 -z21

z3 z2

where 83 is the angle at Z3 in the quadrilateral determined by the 4 points Zl, Z2, Z3, Z4. where the angle at z inin the quadrilateral determined by the 4 points z1 , Z4. z2 , z3 , z4 . 3 is where 83 is the angle at Z3 3 the quadrilateral determined by the 4 points Zl, Z2, Z3, SeeSee Figure 14.1.3. Figure 14.3.
See Figure 14.1.3.

Figure

14.1.3

Figure

We conclude with a result that connects our complex geometry to circles.

Figure 14.3

14.1.3

We conclude with a result connects our complex circles. Theorem 14.1.1: The 4 that distinct points %1, %2, %3, %4 in geometry the complex to projective
a real cross ratio if and only if they all lie on a single circle or Euclidean line.

line have

with a distinct result that connects our complex geometry circles. TheoremWe conclude 14.1.1: The 4 points %1, %2, %3, %4 in the complex to projective line have Proof. From aboveall Zl, lie Z2,on Z3,a Z4 have a circle real cross ratio if and only a real cross ratio if the and discussion only if they single or Euclidean line. if 81 + 83 Theorem 14.1.1. The 4ofdistinct points , z3 , z4 in the complex projective line 1 , z2Euclidean is an integral multiple n. But a result z from geometry says that 81 + 83 is an have a real cross ratio if and only if they all lie on a single circle or Euclidean line. integral multiple of n ifabove and only zl, Z3, z2, Z4 Z3,have Z4 all a liereal on across single ratio circle if or and Euclidean line. Proof. From the discussion Zl, ifZ2, only if 81 + 83
is an integral multiple of The n. But a ofa result Euclidean geometry saysifthat 81 + f 83 is + an Corollary 14.1.2: image line under a Moebius function of Proof. From the discussion above z1 ,circle z2from , zor z real cross ratio and only if 3 , Euclidean 4 have a 1 3 integral multiple of n if and only if zl, z2, Z3, Z4 all lie on a single circle or Euclidean line. the complex projective line is a circle or Euclidean line. is an integral multiple of . But a result from Euclidean geometry says that + is an
1 3

integral multiple of if and only ifcircle z1or , z2 , z3Euclidean , z4 all lie and on a single or points Euclidean line. Proof. Choose your favorite circle Euclidean line fix three circle distinct Zl, z2, Corollary 14.1.2: The image ofa or line under a Moebius function f of
Z3, onprojective it. A fourthline point Z4 lies on that circle or line. Euclidean line if and only if the cross the Corollary complex is a circle Euclidean 14.1.2. The image of a or circle or Euclidean line under a Moebius function f of ratio of Zl , Z2, Z3, z4 is real. Similarly, the cross ratio of f(Zl)' f(Z2), f(Z3), f(Z4) is real if

the complex line is a circle or Euclidean Proof. Choose projective your favorite circle or Euclidean lineline. and fix three distinct points Zl, z2, Z3, on it. A fourth point Z4 lies on that circle or Euclidean line if and only if the cross

14.2.

INVERSION

Proof. Choose your favorite circle or Euclidean line and x three distinct points z1 , z2 , z3 , on it. A fourth point z4 lies on that circle or Euclidean line if and only if the cross ratio of z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 is real. Similarly, the cross ratio of f (z1 ), f (z2 ), f (z3 ), f (z4 ) is real if and only if f (z4 ) lies on the circle or Euclidean line determined by f (z1 ), f (z2 ), f (z3 ). By Lemma 13.6.1 (the invariance of the cross ratio), the cross ratio of z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 and f (z1 ), f (z2 ), f (z3 ), f (z4 ) are the same. So z4 lies on the circle or Euclidean line through z1 , z2 , z3 if and only if f (z4 ) lies on the circle or Euclidean line through f (z1 ), f (z2 ), f (z3 ).
THE GEOMETRY OF CIRCLES
3

14.2

Recall from Chapter 13 that any Moebius function can be regarded as the composition of translations, multiplications by a constant, and taking the multiplicative inverse. Consider the Moebius function 14.2 Inversionf (z ) = 1/z . For the sake of tradition and for the sake of understanding the function more simply, we13dene slightly dierent We call inversion the Recall from Chapter that anyaMoebius function can be function. regarded as the composition of by translations, multiplications by a constant, and taking the multiplicative inverse. function dened Consider the Moebius function j(z) = l/z. For the sake of tradition and for the sake of (z ) = 1/z . understanding the function more simply, we define a slightly different function. We call Since complex conjugation is just a rigid.8(z) reection about the real axis, takes circles and = l/z. Euclidean lines to circles and Euclidean lines as well. Since complex conjugation is just a rigid reflection about the real axis, .8 takes circles and Note that |z |2 (x) = zz /z = z . So z and (z ) are on a ray from the origin. When |z | = 1, Euclidean lines to circles and Euclidean lines as well. then (z ) = zNote . Inversion is like a reection about a on circle. that IzI2.8(x) = zz/z = z. So z and .8(z) are a ray Figure from the 14.4 origin. shows When the inversion rzl = 1, then .8(z) = z. Inversion is like a "reflection" about a circle. Figure 14.2.1 shows of some lines and circles.
the inversion of some lines and circles. inver.sion the function defined by

and only if f(%4) lies on the circle or Euclidean line determined by f(%l), f(%2), f(%3). By Lemma 13.5.1 (the invariance of the cross ratio), the cross ratio of %1,%2,%3,%4and f(%l), f(%2), f(%3), f(%4) are the same. So %4lies on the circle or Euclidean line through %1,%2, %3if and only if f(%4) lies on the circle or Euclidean line through f(%l), f(%2), f(%3).

Inversion

Figure

14.2.1

Figure 14.4 Euclidean lines are thought of as The following are some easy properties of inversion. circles through the single point at infinity. The circles through the single point at innity.
For all z in the complex projective line, .8(.8(z ) ) = z, and {3(z ) = z if and only if z is on the unit circle. following are and some easy lines properties of inversion. Euclidean lines are thought 2. Rays Euclidean though the origin are inverted into themselves. 1-

of as

1. For all z in the complex projective line, ( (z )) = z , and (z ) = z if and only if z is on the unit circle. 2. Rays and Euclidean lines though the origin are inverted into themselves.

CHAPTER 14. THE GEOMETRY OF CIRCLES

MATH 4520, SPRING 2010

3. Circles through the origin are inverted into Euclidean lines not through the origin, and vise-versa. For example, the circles 3 and 4 are inverted to the Euclidean lines 3 and 4 , respectively, in Figure 14.4. 4. If two circles are tangent, or a circle and a Euclidean line are tangent, so are their inverted images. For example, in the Figure, Circle 1 is tangent to the unit circle and two rays through the origin. CLASSICAL So its image, Circle 1 , is also tangent to the same two 4 GEOMETRIES rays and the unit circle since they are inverted to themselves. 5.
Circles through the origin are inverted into Euclidean lines not through the origin, vise-versa. Foritself example, circles 3 and 4 are the unit Euclidean linesor orthogonal A circle is and inverted into if the and only if it is inverted either to the circle 3' and 4', respectively, in Figure 14.2.1. to the unit (Two circlesorare orthogonal if the tangent lines to their one circle at the 4. Ifcircle. two circles are tangent, a circle and a Euclidean line are tangent, so are inverted images. example,the in the Figure, of Circle 1 is tangent to the unit circle points of intersection goFor through center the other circle.) For example, in the and two rays through the origin. So its image, Circle 1', is also tangent to the same Figure, Circle 2 is orthogonal to the unit circle and is inverted into itself. The points of two rays and the unit circle since they are inverted to themselves. intersection the unit circle go if into themselves asthe well the tangent rays, and circle is inverted into itself and only if it is either unit as circle or two orthogonal 5. A on to the unit circle. (Two circles are orthogonal if the tangent lines to one circle at this determines the circle uniquely. the points of intersection go through the center of the other circle.) For example, in the Figure, Circle 2 is orthogonal to the unit circle and is inverted into itself. The points of intersection on the unit circle go into themselvesas well as the two tangent rays, and this determines the circle uniquely.
3.

14.3

Linkages

The rst steam engines were used in England from 1712, and although they were inecient, 14.3 Linkages they rapidly came to be used widely. In 1765, James Watt, a mathematical instrument maker The first steam engines were used in England from 1712, and although they were inat the University of Glascow, invented a separate condenser improving the eciency of the efficient, they rapidly came to be used widely. In 1765, James Watt, a mathematical steam engine. But he needed a way of converting thea back-and-forth reciprocal motion of instrument maker at the University of Glascow, invented separate condenser improving the the efficienc)' of convenient the steam engine. But he needed a way of a converting the back-and-forth the piston to more rotational motion of ywheel.
reciprocal motion of the piston to the more convenient rotational motion of a flywheel.

He did not find an exact solution, but he did 14.5 find the following mechanism that was a Figure solution good enough for the problem at hand.

He did not nd an exact solution, but he did nd the mechanism of Figure 14.6 that was a solution good enough for the problem at hand. The point that was to be attached to the piston described a attened gure eight path that was almost a straight line. Mathematically the problem was to nd a conguration of points in the plane, with some of the points xed and some pairs of the points constrained to say a constant distance apart (they have rigid bars between them), such that some point follows a straight line path. Some well-known mathematicians, for example P. Tschebysche, worked on the problem for some time with no success. It was even suggested that the problem had no solution! In 1864 a young Captain in the French Corps of Engineers by the name of Peaucellier announced that he had found a solution to the problem. A few years later a young Lithuanian,

14.4. solution STEREOGRAPHIC good enough for PROJECTION the problem at hand.

He did not find an exact solution, but he did find the following mechanism that was a
THE GEOMETRY OF CIRCLES
5

The point that was to be attached to the piston described a flattened figure eight path that \\'as "almost" a straight line. Mathematically the problem was to find a configuration of points in the plane, \\,ith some of the points fixed and somepairs of the points constrained to say a constant distance apart (they have rigid bars between them), such that some point follows a straight line path. Some well-known mathematicians, for example P. Tschebyscheff,worked on the problem for some time with no success.It was even suggestedthat the problem had no solution! In 1864 a young Captain in the French Corps of Engineers by the name of Peaucellier announced that he had found a solution to the problem. A fe\v years later a young Figure 14.6 Lithuanian, L. Lipkin, found essentially the samesolution, which we describe below.

Figure 14.3.3

Figure 14.7
The idea is to find a mechanism that does inversion. In Figure 14.3.3 the black point is regarded as the center of the inversion, the origin in our description above. The indicated sides are equal. The points PI, P2, P3 are collinear because of the symmetry in teh lengths of the bars a and b. By the Theorem of Pythagoras applied to two right triangles,

L. Lipkin, found essentially the same solution, which we show in Figure 14.7. The idea is + x )2 + y2 = In Ip2Figure -PI f + 2x Ip2 the = (lp2does to nd a mechanisma2that inversion. 14.7 point is regarded as the P1I black + X2 + y2 P1I center of the inversion, the origin in our=description above. The indicated sides are equal. Ip2 -PII2 + 2xlp2 P1I + b2 The points p1 , p2 , p3 are collinear because of the symmetry in the lengths of the bars a and Hence b. By Pythagorass Theorem applied toIp2 two a2 -b2 = -Pl right f + 2xtriangles, Ip2 Pli.
2 We a calculate the product = (|p p1 | + x)2 2
Ip2

PIllp3

+ y 2 = |p2 p1 |2 + 2x|p2 p1 | + x2 + y 2 = Ip2 2x) =-PliClp2 |p2 -Pli p1 |2++ 2x|p2 p1 | + b2 -PI
= Ip2 -Pll2 + 2x Ip2 -Pli = a2 + b2

Hence We

2 Thus if we arrange our units that I,| then P2 P3p will a2 so b2 = a2 |p-b2 p1 +2 x|and p2 2 = 1 |. be inverted into each other with PI 85 the center of inversion. (This is O in our description above.) calculateTo the product finish the mechanism, we fix PI and force P2 to lie on a circle that goes through PI. Thus P3 will lie on the inversion of the circle, which is a straight line. This is what W85 p2 p = |mechanism. p2 p1 |(|p2 p1 | + 2x) 1 ||pshows 3 pthe 1 | whole desired. | Figure 14.3.4 = |p2 p1 |2 + 2x|p2 p1 | = a2 + b2 .

Thus if we arrange our units so that a2 b2 = 1, then p2 and p3 will be inverted into each other with p1 as the center of inversion. (This is 0 in our description above.) To nish the mechanism, we x p1 and force p2 to lie on a circle that goes through p1 . Thus p3 will lie on the inversion of the circle, which is a straight line. This is what was desired. Figure 14.8 shows the whole mechanism.

14.4

Stereographic projection

So far we have been working in the Euclidean plane, even though we have thought of it as a projective line. The principles of inversion still work in three-space, however, and we can

CHAPTER 14. THE GEOMETRY OF CIRCLES CLASSICAL GEOMETRIES 6

MATH 4520, SPRING 2010

Figure 14.3.4

Figure 14.8
14.4 Stereographic projection So far \\'e have been working in the Euclidean plane, even though we have thought of it as a projective line. The principles of inversion still work in three-space, however, and we can take advantage of this to understand more of the geometry of both dimensions two and three. Without regard to the complex structure inversion, in the Euclidean plane is just

take advantage of this to understand more of the geometry of both dimensions two and three. Without regard to the complex structure inversion, in the Euclidean plane is just !3(p) (p) = =p/lpf p/|p|2 . In other wordsto inversion simply takes point along the from ofthe center of inversion to a point whose distance from the a center is the reciprocal of ray the distance the original point from the center. We extend this definition to any Euclidean space. a point whose distance from the center is the reciprocal of the distance of the original point One useful technique is to intersect the objects in three-space we are studying with from the center. We extend this denition Euclidean space. appropriately chosen planes. This allowsto us any to extend results from the plane to threespace. For example, what do we get when invert a sphere S through the origin, tangent One useful technique is to intersect the objects in three-space we are studying with apto the unit sphere in three-space? See Figure 14.4.1. propriately chosen planes. This allows us to extend results from the plane Intersect S with a plane n through and the point of tangency with the unit sphere, which to three-space. we have called South Pole invert in the figure. The South Pole is fixed the WIder the inversion For example, what do wethe get when a sphere S through origin, tangent to the unit .8, and n n s is a circle through the origin 0. By the properties of inversion in a plane this THE GEOMETRY OF CIRCLES sphere in three-space? See into Figure 14.9. to Intersect S So with a plane to through the point circle is inverted a line tangent n n s in n. the line is tangent S as well. 0 and 7
These lines fill out a plane tangent to S at the South Pole. Thus /3(S) is the plane tangent to S at the South Pole. In fact, this idea works for any sphere S in three-space. The line through the center of S intersects S st the endpoints p and q of a diameter of S. Any plane n through this line intersects S in a circle, and all such circles have the same diameters p and q. Again since .8 restricted to n has the properties we listed in Section 14.2, .8(n n S) is a circle with .8(p ) and .8(q) as diameter, or a line perpendicular to the line through p and q if S contains 0. By rotating the plane n around the line through p and q we see that /3(S) is a sphere, or a plane if S contains 0. See Figure 14.4.2. In other v.'ords inversion simply takes a point along the ray from the center of inversion

Figure 14.9

of tangency with the unit sphere, which we have called the South Pole in the gure. The South Pole is xed under the inversion , and S is a circle through the origin 0. By the properties of inversion in a plane this circle is inverted into a line tangent to S in . So the line is tangent to S as well. These lines ll out a plane tangent to S at the South Pole. Thus (S ) is the plane tangent to S at the South Pole.

THE GEOMETRY OF CIRCLES

14.4. STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

In fact, this idea works for any sphere S in three-space. The line through the center of S intersects S st the endpoints p and q of a diameter of S . Any plane through this line intersects S in a circle, and all such circles have the same diameters p and q. Again since restricted to has the properties we listed in Section 14.2, ( S ) is a circle with (p) and (q) as diameter, or a line perpendicular to the line through p and q if S contains 0. By rotating the plane around the line through p and q we see that (S ) is a sphere, or a plane if S contains 0. See Figure 14.10. Now it is easy to see that the image under inversion

~(1:)

Figure

14.4.2

Figure 14.10
Now it is easy to seethat the image under inversion of any circle, not just the one whose planes contain the center of inversion, is a circle or a line. This becausethe intersection of two spheresis a circle, and the the inversion of the intersection is the intersection of the inversion of each sphere, which is a sphere or plane. So the inversion of a circle is a circle

of any circle, not just the one whose planes contain the center of inversion, is a circle or a line. This is because the intersection of two spheres is a circle, and the the inversion of the intersection is the intersection of the inversion of each sphere, which is a sphere or plane. So the inversion of a circle is a circle or line as it is in the plane. This is especially useful when the inversion is restricted to a sphere that contains the center of inversion. Suppose that a sphere S is tangent to a plane at a point we call the South Pole. Call the point antipodal to the South Pole, the North Pole. Inversion about the North Pole, with the unit length equal to the diameter of S , takes S into the tangent plane. This is called stereographic projection. Note that each point on S is projected onto a point in the tangent plane along a line through the North Pole. This is our usual notion of projection, but the domain is not a plane but a sphere. See Figure 14.9. We record the basic property of stereographic projection. Theorem 14.4.1. The image of a circle on the sphere under stereographic projection is either a circle in the plane or a line in the plane if the circle goes through the North Pole. This will be used as a further manifestation of our philosophy that three space helps greatly in understanding the plane.

CHAPTER 14. THE GEOMETRY OF CIRCLES

MATH 4520, SPRING 2010

14.5

Exercises

1. Is there any circle C in the (Euclidean) plane such that the center of C is inverted into the center of the image of C ? Why? Hint: If the center of the circle C lies on the real axis and intersects the real axis at points x and y , you can calculate the center of C and the center of the inversion of C . 2. Which circles have their orientation reversed by inversion in the (Euclidean) plane? For example, has its orientation reversed as it is mapped into Circle 8 circle 1 in Figure 14.2.1 CLASSICAL GEOMETRIES 1 . Think of the orientation of a circle as the direction a bug goes, either clockwise or or line as it is in the plane. counterclockwise, as it useful goeswhen around the circle. This is especially the inversion is restricted to a sphere that contains the 3.
center of inversion. Supposethat a sphere S is tangent to a plane at a point we call the South Pole. Call the point antipodal to the South Pole, the North Pole. Inversion about Let r : S S denote reection about the equator on the sphere S used for stereographic the North Pole, with the unit length equal to the diameter of S, takes S into the tangent plane.Show This is called Note that each point on S isof projected onto projection. that stereographic r 1 is projection. inversion about the image the equator, where is a point in the tangent plane along a line through the North Pole. This is our usual notion stereographic projection. Find a similar description for the function that takes the of projection, but the domain is not a plane but a sphere. SeeFigure 14.4.1. We record multiplicative of a complex number. the basic inverse property of stereographic projection. Theorem 14.4.1: The image of a circle on the sphere under stereographic projection is either a circle in the plane or four a line in the plane points if the circle through that the cross ratio of distinct is goes never 1. the North Pole. This will be used as a further manifestation of our attitude that three dimensions helps greatly in understanding two dimensions.
Exercises:

4. Show

5. As in Chapter 13, for four distinct points in C let z1 z2

1.

6.

r(zC z2the ; z3 , z4 ) = ) plane such that the center of C. is inverted 1 , in Is there any circle (Euclidean z z4 z3 z2 into the center of the image of C? Why? 1 2. Which circles have their orientation reversed by inversion in the (Euclidean) plane? For r example, 14 in has its orientation reversed as it is mapped (a) Show that (z1 , z2circle ; z3 , z ) Figure = r(z14.2.1 z1 , z2 ). 3 , z4 ; into Circle l' .Think of the orientation of a circle as the direction a bug goes, either or counterclockwise, as it goes around the circle. (b) If r(z1 , zclock\vise 2 ; z3 , z4 ) = r (z1 , z2 ; z3 , z4 ), show that z4 = z4 . 3. Let r : S-+ S denote reflection about the equator on the sphere S used for stereographic projection. Show that {3r{3-l is inversion about the image of the where {3 is of stereographic projection. Find for the projective line, Consider the equator, conguration four points z1 , z2 , z3a, similar z4 in description the complex function that takes the multiplicative inverse of a complex number . where the 4. white point is the center of the larger circle, and the lines through z1 and z2 Consider the following configuration of four points Zl, Z2, z3, z4 in the complex are tangent to the smaller circle as in Figure 14.11 projective line, where the white point is the center of the larger circle, and the lines through Zl and Z2 are tangent to the smaller circle.

z3 z4

Figure 14.11

(a) What is the cross ratio r(z1 , z2 ; z3 , z4 )? (Hint: Look at Section 13.7 on harmonic points. What happens to the cross ratio of the four points when one inverts about the circle on the left?)

THE GEOMETRY OF CIRCLES

14.5.

8.. What is the cross ratio of %1 , %2,%3,%4 ? b. Show that the Figure 8.bove can be extended in the following way where %1and %3are collinear with the lower white point, and the lines from the lower white EXERCISES point to %2and %4are tangent to the smaller circle.

Figure 14.12
5. Suppose that the point p is inverted into the point q :rf p with respect to the circle C.

(b) Show that if the roles z1 , z3 of inorthogonal. Figure 14.11 are interchanged with z2 , z4 , then Section 14.2 for aof definition b. Let p and q be two distinct points in the (Euclidean ) plane. Consider the family the three lines through z1 and z3 , the line tangent to the second circle at z2 , and of all circles and line through p and q. Show that there is another family of the line tangent to the second circle at z are coincident, as in Figure 4 the second family is orthogonal to 14.12. circles and line such that each element of
each element of the first family, and every point in the plane, except p and q, is inpoint one and one element of the second family. See This is the circle C . 7. Suppose that the po~y is inverted into the point q= pFigure with 14.E.3. respect to called a coaxal system in the old literature.

a. Show that any circle through p and q is orthogonal to C. See property 5 in

(a) Show that any circle through p and q is orthogonal to C . See property 5 in Section 14.2 for a denition of orthogonal. (b) Let p and q be two distinct points in the (Euclidean) plane. Consider the family of all circles and line through p and q. Show that there is another family of circles and line such that each element of the second family is orthogonal to each element of the rst family, and every point in the plane, except p and q, is in one and only one element of the second family. See Figure 14.13. This is called a coaxal system in the old literature.
10 CLASSICAL GEOMETRIES

Figure

14.E.3

Figure 14.13