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HydrocarbonProcessing.com | OCTOBER 2012
PROCESS CONTROL AND

INFORMATION SYSTEMS
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Cover Image: Photo courtesy of Emerson Process Management
OCTOBER 2012|Volume 91 Number 10
HydrocarbonProcessing.com
SPECIAL REPORT: PROCESS CONTROL
AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS
35 Update hydrocracking reactor controls for improved reliability
A. G. Kern
41 Use a systematized approach of good practices
in pygas hydrogenation via APC
J.-M. Bader and G. Rolland
47 Why dont we properly train control engineers?
M. J. King
51 Consider automated fault detection systems
to improve facility reliability
A. J. Szladow
55 Optimize desulfurization of gasoline via advanced
process control techniques
V. Yadav, P. Dube, H. Shah and S. Debnath
REFINING DEVELOPMENTS
61 Maximize diesel production in an FCC-centered refinery, Part 2
P. K. Niccum
SULFURSUPPLEMENT
S-69 Optimize sulfur recovery from dilute H
2
S sources
M. P. Heisel and A. F. Slavens
HEAT TRANSFER
83 Identify and control excess air from process heaters
S. Ahamad and R. Vallavanatt
ROTATING EQUIPMENT
91 Apply new pump-drive software to test performance
K. Bihler, D. Dominiak, B. Keith and J. Johnson
DEPARTMENTS
6 Brief
9 Impact
15 Innovations
19 Construction
26 Construction Boxscore
Update
98 Marketplace
100 Advertiser index
COLUMNS
29 Reliability
Equipment life extension
involves upgrades
33 Integration Strategies
Recent trends shape
the future of DCS
102 Water Management
Consider software tools
for water reuse projects
67 6
34
4OCTOBER 2012|HydrocarbonProcessing.com
President/CEO John Royall
Vice President Ron Higgins
Vice President, Production Sheryl Stone
Business Finance Manager Pamela Harvey
Part of Euromoney Institutional Investor PLC. Other energy group titles include:
World Oil and Petroleum Economist
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Brief
New fuel standards in the US
The US government recently finalized standards that
will increase fuel economy to the equivalent of 54.5
mpg for cars and light-duty trucks by model year
2025. When combined with previous standards, this
move will nearly double the fuel efficiency of those
vehicles compared to new vehicles currently on the
road. In total, the program to improve fuel economy is
expected to reduce US oil consumption by 12 billion
barrels. The standards issued by the US Department
of Transportation (DOT) and the US Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) build on the previously
issued standards for cars and light trucks for model
years 20112016. Those standards raised average
fuel efficiency by 2016 to the equivalent of 35.5 mpg.
Hydrocarbon Processing|OCTOBER 20127
BILLY THINNES, TECHNICAL EDITOR / Billy.Thinnes@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Brief
Valero has decided to further reduce operations
and reorganize its 235,000-bpd Aruba refinery as a
refined products terminal, the company said. The terminal
will feature both deepwater berths and smaller berths, and
will have the flexibility to load the very largest crude ships.
Terminal activities will, however, require a considerably smaller
workforce, according to the company. The reorganization and
reduction in workforce is expected to be complete before the
end of 2012. Valero will continue to supply jet fuel, gasoline,
diesel and fuel oil to the island, as well as engage in third-party
terminal services. In the terminal operations mode, Valero will
continue to invest in Aruba with facility improvements and
dock and tankage upgrades, the company said. In the near-
term, the refinery will continue to be maintained in a state that
would allow a restart, should Valero be successful in the pursuit
of alternatives for the refinery prior to the terminal transition.
US investment group Carlyle has agreed to buy the
performance coatings business of DuPont for $4.9 billion
in cash. The transaction is expected to close in the first quarter
of 2013, subject to customary closing conditions and regulatory
approvals. DuPont Performance Coatings is a global supplier
of vehicle and industrial coating systems, with 2012 expected
sales of more than $4 billion and more than 11,000 employees.
As part of the transaction, Carlyle will assume $250 million
of DuPonts unfunded pension liabilities. Carlyles industrial
and automotive investments include Allison Transmission,
Hertz and PQ Corp., as well as recent commitments to invest
in Hamilton Sundstrand Industrial and regional rail freight
operator Genesee & Wyoming.
Enterpri se Products recentl y began an open
commitment period to determine additional shipper
demand for capacity on its Appalachia-to-Texas (ATEX
Express) ethane pipeline. The 1,230-mile system will deliver
growing ethane production from the Marcellus/Utica Shale
areas of Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Ohio to Mont
Belvieu, Texas. The open commitment period will be used
to determine market interest in executing additional 15-year
binding transportation agreements. The ATEX Express is
expected to begin operations in the first quarter of 2014.
Cosmo Oil will permanently close its 140,000-bpd
Sakaide refinery in western Japan by July 2013 to meet
a government regulation that encourages refining capacity cuts
amid falling local demand. The Japanese Ministry of Economy,
Trade and Industry set rules in July 2010 requiring refiners to
raise residual cracking capacity to a designated percentage of
crude refining capacity, as calculated by a formula, by March
2014. By closing the refinery, Cosmo expects to save Y10 billion
a year in costs.
Technip has completed the acquisition of the Stone &
Webster process technologies and associated oil and
gas engineering capabilities. Technip sees this acquisition
as a way to further diversify its onshore/offshore segment,
adding revenues based on technology supply. It will also use
the Stone & Webster brand to expand in promising growth
areas such as the US, where downstream markets will benefit
from the supply of unconventional gas. To make the most of
these strengths, a new business unit, Technip Stone & Webster
Process Technology, will be developed within the companys
onshore/offshore segment. Technip paid cash consideration of
around 225 million from existing cash resources, which will
be subject to customary price adjustments.
Air Liquide has officially opened its first public hydrogen
filling station for passenger cars in Dsseldorf, Germany.
This station will be followed by 10 new hydrogen filling
stations that will be designed, built and rolled out in the next
three years under the auspices of the German governments
major demonstration project. By 2015, Germany will have a
supply network of at least 50 public hydrogen filling stations.
Driven by the same dynamic, two other stations have been
installed recently by Air Liquide in Oslo, Norway, and in
Brugg, Switzerland. In Japan, the government sees hydrogen as
a promising major energy source for cars and expects to install
about 100 hydrogen distribution stations for fuel cell vehicles
by 2015. In response to this government policy, Air Liquide
Japan has recently set up a specialized team focused on the
hydrogen business. So far, they have installed three hydrogen
energy stations (in Tokyo, Kawasaki and Saga). One of these
stations demonstrated the feasibility of a complete blue
hydrogen chain, from wood chips to clean mobility.
Western Refining and Glencore International announced
that two of their subsidiary companies (York River
Fuels and Glencore Ltd.) have entered into a long-term
commercial supply and trading agreement. Glencore has agreed
to provide global sourcing, supply and trading and inventory
and risk management services to support York Rivers mid-
Atlantic wholesale business. In return, York River has agreed to
provide rack marketing and contract and credit management.
Glencore has entered into a long-term commitment with Epic
Terminals at its terminal in Savannah, Georgia. The Savannah
terminal includes over 450,000 bbl of storage capacity for
various grades of gasoline, distillates, ethanol, biofuels and fuel
blends. The terminal will enable the two companies to expand
their wholesale capabilities and provide fuel products to their
customers from southern Georgia to northern Maryland.
Western Refining operates refineries in El Paso, Texas,
and Gallup, New Mexico. The company also runs products
terminals in Albuquerque and Bloomfield, New Mexico.
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Impact
BILLY THINNES, TECHNICAL EDITOR / Billy.Thinnes@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Increased coal-to-olefins
processes in China
Chinas significant domestic supply of
coal, combined with a domestic short-
age of several key chemical feedstocks,
especially ethylene and propylene, are
driving increased Chinese demand for
more production of chemical feedstocks
from coal, according to a new IHS study
that assessed the key technologies and
economics of coal-to-olefins (CTO)
processes employed in China.
The study noted that, in 2011, China
had an ethylene capacity of 15.7 MMt
and production of 14.4 MMt. On the
demand side, Chinas total ethylene
equivalent consumption (including im-
ports of first-order derivatives such as
polyethylene) far exceeded its domestic
ethylene supply. China imported nearly
8 million tons of polyethylene alone in
2011, accounting for 42% of total Chi-
nese demand.
In a new five-year plan covering
20112015, the Chinese set a target that
20% of the countrys ethylene produc-
tion will come from other diversified
sources, which for Chinaa country
with abundant coal supplies that is a net-
importer of oilpractically means coal.
According to IHS, Chinas domestic
demand for oil was 9.4 million bpd in
2011, of which 57% was imported.
Likewise, Chinas propylene produc-
tion was 13.1 MMt in 2011. On the
demand side, Chinas total propylene
equivalent consumption, including im-
ports of first-order derivatives such as
polypropylene, also far exceeded its
domestic propylene supply. China im-
ported nearly 5 MMt of polypropylene
alone in 2011, accounting for 30% of
total demand. The propylene shortage
in China is projected to stay at about 5
MMtpy until 2020.
The processes studied included the
gasification of bituminous coal by GE
Texaco or Shell gasifiers to produce
synthetic gases (syngas), followed by
methanol synthesis and methanol-to-
olefins (MTO) production. The MTO
technologies studied included UOP/
Hydro MTO and Lurgi methanol-to-
propylene (MTP) technologies. Eco-
nomic evaluations were based on a US
Gulf Coast location. However, since
most coal-based olefin projects are oc-
curring in China, the economics in the
review were adjusted to reflect produc-
tion and capital costs for a Chinese lo-
cation. The adjustment was achieved by
examining the variations in technolo-
gies deployed in China and accounts for
capital investment, raw materials, utility
and labor costs relative to the design ba-
sis used in the report.
To address the countrys chemical
feedstock shortage, China has built
or is planning many high-capacity, in-
tegrated CTO and coal-to-propylene
(CTP) plants. Thirteen plants are in
the works, with four of those currently
operational.
According to the IHS review, all coal-
based processes analyzed in the review
showed lower direct costs, but higher
indirect costs (due to high capital in-
vestments) as compared to competing
(petroleum-based) processes for CTO
and CTP, respectively. To enable base-
line comparisons of chemical engineer-
ing processes for this review, return on
investment (ROI) was the primary fac-
tor considered, and the costs were not
weighted for environmental impact.
For olefins production, based on
the market price of olefins at the time
of analysis, the MTO process based on
outsourced methanol offers the highest
ROI, followed by the integrated GE/
MTO process, and finally, steam-crack-
ing of naphtha, which is a petroleum-
based process. In terms of propylene
production, based on the market price
of propylene at the time of analysis,
the MTP process based on outsourced
methanol offers the highest ROI, fol-
lowed by the integrated Shell/MTP pro-
cess using bituminous coal, the integrat-
ed Shell/MTP using lignite, and finally,
the integrated Siemens/MTP.
New nanoscale reference
material to be known
as P25
The National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST) has issued a new
nanoscale reference material for use in a
wide range of environmental, health and
safety studies of industrial nanomateri-
als. The new NIST reference material is
a sample of commercial titanium dioxide
powder commonly known as P25.
NIST standard reference materials
(SRMs) are typically samples of industri-
ally or clinically important materials that
have been carefully analyzed by NIST.
They are provided with certified values
for certain key properties so that they can
be used in experiments as a known refer-
ence point.
Nanoscale titanium dioxide powder
may well be the most widely manufac-
tured and used nanomaterial in the world,
and, not coincidentally, it is also one of
the most widely studied (FIG. 1). In the
form of larger particles, titanium dioxide
is a common white pigment. As nanoscale
particles, the material is widely used as a
photocatalyst, a sterilizing agent and an
ultraviolet blocker (in sunscreen lotions,
for example).
FIG. 1. The nanoscale crystalline structure
of titanium dioxide in NIST SRM 1898
(color added for clarity).
Impact
10
Titanium dioxide is not considered
highly toxic and, in fact, we dont certify
its toxicity, said NIST chemist Vincent
Hackley. But its a representative industrial
nanopowder that you could include in an
environmental or toxicity study. Its impor-
tant in such research to include measure-
ments that characterize the nanomaterial
youre studyingproperties like morphol-
ogy, surface area and elemental composi-
tion. Were providing a known benchmark.
The new titanium dioxide reference
material is a mixed phase, nanocrystalline
form of the chemical in a dry powder. To
assist in its proper use, NIST has devel-
oped protocols for properly preparing
samples for environmental or toxicologi-
cal studies.
The new SRM also is particularly well
suited for use in calibrating and testing
analytical instruments that measure spe-
cific surface area of nanomaterials by the
widely used Brunauer-Emmett-Teller gas
sorption method.
Marginal increase forecast
in North American
lubricant market
Although it is estimated that there will
be a 3% increase in tonnage carried by
private fleet operators in the US through
2016, this is expected to translate to a
marginal increase in commercial lubri-
cant consumption according to a new
lubricants study from Kline and Com-
pany. On-highway activity saw a surge
in the latter half of 2010 that continued
well into 2011. Similarly, the lackluster
performance of the construction indus-
try between 2008 and 2010 has begun
to show signs of a rebound. However,
increased service implementation of
longer drain interval oils due to a higher
penetration of synthetics, growth in oil
analysis practices, and an overall increase
in commercial vehicles mechanical effi-
ciency, mean that commercial lubricant
consumption is expected to fractionally
increase by a compound annual growth
rate of just 0.4% to 1.0% to 2016.
Shell remains the leading supplier
of lubricants in North America and ac-
counts for an estimated 12% of the mar-
ket share in 2011, followed by ExxonMo-
bil, Chevron and BP.
With the growing realization of the
benefits of synthetics and their con-
sequent steady uptake, value is rising,
while overall demand is being suppressed
through inherently longer service inter-
vals. Similarly, oil analysisthe labora-
tory analysis of a lubricants properties,
suspended contaminants and wear de-
brisis being increasingly performed
during routine preventive maintenance
to provide meaningful and accurate in-
formation on lubricant and machine
condition. By tracking oil analysis sample
results over the life of a vehicle, lubricant
consumption is optimized.
Re-refined engine oils are slowly mak-
ing their way into the commercial auto-
motive segment; however, a majority of
respondents participating in a survey for
the research cited concerns about OEM
approvals of such grades and the possible
non-availability on the highways, as major
deterrents. In particular, the US commer-
cial trucking industry generally appears
not yet prepared to accept re-refined oils;
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Impact
with a majority of equipment/mainte-
nance managers interviewed conceding
that reliability and logistics issues are
prime considerations and impediments.
A number of farmers and farm co-
operatives interviewed for this study
showed minimal interest in using re-re-
fined oils, believing that lubricants made
out of re-refined basestocks are of an
inferior quality. However, Tushar Raval,
director of Klines energy practice, notes
the opportunity by saying, An immedi-
ate connect can be made by the way of
marketing re-refined oils as sustainable
products and consequently more easily
find favor from the farming community.
Another way of successfully propa-
gating the acceptance of these grades is
by way of approvals and recommenda-
tions from OEMs, such as John Deere,
Mr. Raval said.
Natural gas vehicles
could be gaining traction
A new report from PIRA Energy
Group says that the sheer volume of US
recoverable gas resources relative to ex-
pected demand suggests that benchmark
Henry Hub gas prices will remain deeply
discounted relative to oil prices beyond
this decade. Furthermore, the lengthy
period of low-cost gas relative to oil has
tremendously broadened support for the
view that inexpensive North American
gas is here to stay. According to the re-
port, by employing off-the-shelf technol-
ogies, consumers could be able to accrue
substantial savings given the latent ex-
pected price advantages of natural gas vs.
diesel. Such savings can also be attained
in the transportation sector, particularly
with regard to the much discussed devel-
opment of natural gas vehicles (NGVs)
(FIG. 2). The report concludes that fu-
ture gas demand in such NGVs has enor-
mous upside potential, led by private
sector initiatives, with or without federal
government assistance.
Adoption of natural gas into both
US commercial trucking and all vari-
eties of fleets is approaching a critical
threshold, which ultimately could lead
to enormous gas demand growth at the
expense of diesel fuel. In an overall high
case scenario, NGV gas demand would
be capable of reaching 14 Bcfd by 2030,
suggesting that as much as 2.4 MMbpd
of diesel fuel demand could be at risk.
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) consumed
in Class 8 trucks would be responsible
for approximately 70% of that total, 10
Bcfd. Fleet vehicles typically consuming
compressed natural gas (CNG) would
account for the additional 4 Bcfd. PIRA
forecasts natural gas will capture a more
moderate, but also impressive, 7 Bcfd
share of the US on-highway transporta-
tion fuels market by 2030.
FIG. 2. Natural gas vehicles, like this Honda
Civic, are starting to gain traction in the US.
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Innovations
ADRIENNE BLUME, PROCESS EDITOR
Adrienne.Blume@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Invensys introduces new
technology offerings
Software and technology provider In-
vensys Operations Management recently
released a program to help clients mod-
ernize and improve the performance of
aging control systems and other plant
equipment. The program guides clients
in calculating modernization costs, re-
ducing risk, deploying advanced tech-
nology, and approaching plant upgrades
strategically and systematically.
Under the program, Invensys will de-
liver full-scope consulting, project man-
agement, engineering, installation and
maintenance services, and products and
solutions that minimize the risk of operat-
ing obsolete technologies. Invensys starts
with an assessment to understand the
companys business initiatives and issues.
The input received is used to develop a
strategic plan that meets the plants busi-
ness and technology needs. As part of the
assessment, Invensys also helps clients es-
tablish return-on-investment targets.
The companys hardware and software
offerings address all operational areas of
the plant, including instrumentation, in-
put/output (I/O) and human/machine
interface (HMI), safety and critical con-
trol systems, turbomachinery assets, pro-
cess safety lifecycle components, cyber
security systems and other assets.
In another development, Invensys has
extended its virtualization technology of-
ferings. Initially focused on the Microsoft
HyperV and VMware platforms within
its software product lines, the new In-
vensys offering now includes thin client
support and intelligent solutions for the
companys Foxboro I/A series distribut-
ed control system (FIG. 1).
Intended to lower total cost of own-
ership and promote successful project
delivery, the new offerings will help cus-
tomers cut implementation costs, reduce
risks, shorten project schedules, improve
scheduling integrity, strengthen the abil-
ity to respond to project changes, and im-
prove global collaboration.
The hardware offerings are formulat-
ed to maximize the advantages of virtual-
ization technology. Along with intelligent
marshalling and engineering services, the
offerings include a new range of servers
specifically selected and qualified as an
optimized virtual machine-hosting appli-
ance, a new range of solid-state operator
client terminals, thin client management
software, a USB modular alarm annun-
ciator keyboard, virtual machine-hosting
software, recommendations on cyber-
security best practices, guest operating
system licenses, and specialized support
for Invensys control and safety offerings.
Integrated chromatography
aids fuel producers
Brukers Chemical and Applied Mar-
kets (CAM) divisions CompassCDS
data handling system (FIG. 2) networks
gas chromatograph (GC) instruments
into closed-loop information systems
in industrial and applied environments.
The system is capable of interfacing with
multiple middleware systems, such as
supervisory control and data acquisition
(SCADA) systems and laboratory infor-
mation management systems (LIMS).
This ensures an unbroken flow of infor-
mation and rapid feedback of analytical
results to support optimum processing
and product validation. Additionally, by
removing the need for human interven-
tion, the risk for errors is reduced.
The CompassCDS product is built
around a central administrative core,
known as the configuration manager.
There are several customized modules
that are specific to the petrochemicals
industry, including simulated distilla-
tion, hydrocarbon analysis and PIONA+
(paraffins, isoparaffins, olefins, naph-
thenes and aromatics, plus oxygenates).
A simple graphical user interface allows
all operations to be carried out from only
two screens, which enables ease of use
and expedites training. Additionally, the
systems added IntelliUpdate feature au-
tomatically corrects both retention time
and timed events on chromatograms fol-
lowing instrumental variation over time.
Largest German cellulosic
ethanol plant starts up
Swiss specialty chemicals company
Clariant recently inaugurated Germanys
biggest pilot plant (FIG. 3) in Straubing,
Bavaria. The 28 million (MM) plant,
which is based on Clariants sunliquid
FIG. 1. Invensys virtualization system allows
the user to consolidate many PCs and servers
into a high-availability virtual host server.
FIG. 2. Bruker CAMs CompassCDS system
networks gas chromatograph instruments with
infosystems.
Innovations
technology, will produce up to 1,000
metric tons of cellulosic ethanol from
around 4,500 metric tons of wheat straw.
The pilot plant will confirm the techno-
logical feasibility of the sunliquid tech-
nique, and the process will later be used
in an industrial-scale plant.
According to studies, Germany po-
tentially has around 22 MM metric tons
of straw that could be used for energy
production, which would be sufficient
to cover around 25% of the countrys
current gasoline requirements. German
Federal Minister Annette Schavan com-
mented, This plant clearly demonstrates
that products traditionally based on pe-
troleum can be manufactured to the same
standard using biomass. This new plant
serves as an important contribution to a
sustainable bioeconomy.
Software protects
against cyber attacks
Honeywells Management of Change
(MOC) is an integrated, add-in module
that runs on top of DOC4000 assessment
software and leverages Web 2.0 technolo-
gies to facilitate information flow and
collaboration. MOC enables increased
safety and compliance, and it helps protect
against threats of cyber attacks and safety
hazards at plants, by effectively managing
changes and approvals. FIG. 4 illustrates the
workflow process for MOC.
MOC also enables improved handling
of critical issues, including undocument-
ed changes, enhanced regulatory compli-
ance, reductions in error-prone manual
MOC tasks, and unauthorized changes
that increase risk.
The module is specifically designed
to automatically detect all automation
changes, to reconcile MOC cases to
changes in the automation system, and
to automatically generate reports of un-
reconciled changes, all at a 45% lower cost
than manual methods. This enables rapid
root-cause analysis to ensure business
continuity, and it can reduce potentially
significant financial impact on production.
Technology enables ethanol
production breakthrough
As countries and companies evaluate
their supply options to meet growing trans-
portation fuels demand, they will need to
balance four priorities: safe and clean fuel
blendstocks, cost, energy security, and
global environmental impact. Celanese
believes that ethanol produced using Cela-
nese TCX Technology (FIG. 5) is the best
fuel choice to meet these considerations.
Ethanol has already gained acceptance
in most global markets as a high-octane,
nontoxic, biodegradable fuel. However,
traditional production processes are not
economically viable, as they compete for
arable land and typically require govern-
ment mandates or subsidies.
Celanese TCX Technology produces
ethanol in a commercially viable, low-
cost manner, from locally available hy-
drocarbon resources such as natural gas
and coal, rather than from corn or sugar
cane. For these reasons, no arable land
use or government support is required.
Yokogawas controller
certified as flow computer
Yokogawa Electric Corp.s STARDOM
FCN autonomous controller (FIG. 6) was
recently certified by Measurement Cana-
da for use as a flow computer. The certifi-
cation is based on the determination that
the controller has the same accuracy as a
conventional flow computer. Devices sub-
ject to its approval are used to measure gas,
electricity, mass and volume, and they are
tested on a broad range of criteria includ-
ing design, construction, marking, accu-
racy and sealing method.
While conventional flow computers
meet all metering requirements, there is
now a trend toward embedding this func-
tionality in programmable logic control-
lers (PLCs) and remote telemetry units
(RTUs), which are valued for their du-
rable construction and versatile control
capabilities.
In addition to conventional analog
transmitter signals, which can be affected
by noise and variations in the ambient
temperature, the STARDOM FCN con-
troller supports field digital communica-
tion protocols such as HART, Modbus,
and Foundation fieldbus for use with
a wide range of transmitters. Yokogawas
plant resource manager (PRM) asset
management system increases maintain-
ability while reducing both engineering
time and the cost of monitoring widely
distributed facilities.
SPECTRO wins ACHEMA
Innovation Award
At the ACHEMA chemical engineer-
ing and biotechnology trade show in
Frankfurt, Germany, in June, SPECTRO
Analytical Instruments received the In-
novation Award for its SPECTROBLUE
ICP-OES spectrometer (FIG. 7).
Introduced in 2011, the SPECTRO-
BLUE ICP-OES spectrometer is targeted
for environmental laboratories in need
of quick and accurate analyses of wa-
ter, wastewater, sewage sludge and soil
samples for toxic heavy metals. SPEC-
TROBLUEs air-cooled, optical plasma
interface diverts heat away with an air
stream, marking an advance in spectrom-
eter technology.
Another innovative feature of SPEC-
TROBLUE is its improved sample in-
troduction. SPECTRO has significantly
FIG. 3. Clariants cellulosic ethanol pilot plant
in Straubing is the largest in Germany.
FIG. 4. Honeywells MOC software helps
protect plants against safety threats.
FIG. 5. Celaneses TCX Technology produces
ethanol from hydrocarbons.
FIG. 6. Yokogawas STARDOM FCN controller
has been certified for use as a flow computer.
Innovations
17
shortened the path of the sample into the
plasma, which decreases the duration of
the analysis and reduces carryover effects.
SPECTROBLUEs operating software
also includes new, user-friendly functions,
such as a comprehensive Smart Analyzer
Vision software package and a Smart User
Interface that simplifies routine operation.
Mobile tool enables
portable pH reading
Sensorex has developed a mobile ac-
cessory for pH measurements that is com-
patible with Apple iPod, iPhone and iPad
devices. The patent-pending PH-1 pH
meter accessory (FIG. 8) measures and re-
cords pH values in the lab or field for use
in environmental, educational and indus-
trial applications.
The PH-1 accessory plugs into the
standard Apple dock connector and is
powered from the Apple device, requiring
no supplemental energy source. It uses a
Sensorex pH electrode to measure pH in
a range of 014, with accuracy to 0.01 pH.
It operates in ambient temperatures of
0C40C and in solutions of 0C100C.
The free Sensorex app displays pH,
millivolts, ambient temperature and so-
lution temperature in real time. The CE-
marked device supports one, two, three
or more calibration points, and it sends
readings by email for later analysis. Also,
when used with a GPS-enabled device,
the pH meter application will record
measurements with both timestamp and
geographic coordinates, eliminating tran-
scription errors and improving efficiency.
French consortium
eyes BioOil upgrading
Axens, IFP Energies nouvelles
(IFPEn) and Dynamotive recently an-
nounced completion of agreements for
the development, industrialization and
commercialization of a proprietary pro-
cess to produce transportation fuels from
Dynamotives BioOil pyrolysis oil. The
process is said to have competitive advan-
tages compared to existing processes and
competing technologies.
Dynamotive will provide pyrolysis oil
to IFPEn for the development program,
while Axens will lead the development,
industrialization and commercialization
of the upgrading technology. Laboratory-
scale units have been developed and oper-
ated in Canada and at IFPEn facilities in
Lyon, France, where Dynamotives BioOil
was upgraded to synthetic hydrocarbons.
Dynamotives BioOil technology is
based on the application of fast pyroly-
sis (burning without oxygen) to biomass
waste (agricultural and forestry) to pro-
duce a high-quality, versatile and eco-
nomic biofuel. BioOil can be further con-
verted into vehicle fuels and chemicals.
For a confidential C-level executive search or placement of management or sales
positions, please call Thomas Brinsko or Raul Hernandez in Houston at 281-538-9996 or
visit www.bicrecruiting.com.
Providing executive recruiting services to the energy markets.
Recruiting A-level candidates
for your C-level positions
(Management & Sales positions also)
For more information on strategic marketing through BIC Alliance,
investment banking services through IVS Investment Banking
or custom books, event planning or speaker services through
BIC Media Solutions, contact Earl Heard or Thomas Brinsko at
(800) 460-4242, or visit www.bicalliance.com.
BIC had efficient
processes and highly
qualified candidates, both
of which were instrumental
in making the investment
in a strategic position
an informed decision.
Bret Pardue,
CEO and President,
USA Environment
FIG. 7. SPECTRO Analytical Instruments was
awarded at ACHEMA for its SPECTROBLUE
spectrometer.
FIG. 8. Sensorexs mobile accessory for pH
measurements is compatible with a range
of Apple devices.
Select 55 jana.willis2@yahoo.com at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
Avantis Eurotherm Foxboro IMServ InFusion SimSci-Esscor Skelta Triconex Wonderware
Copyright 2012. All rights reserved. Invensys, the Invensys logo, Avantis, Eurotherm, Foxboro, IMServ, InFusion, Skelta, SimSci-Esscor, Triconex and Wonderware are trademarks of Invensys plc, its subsidiaries or affiliates. All other brands and product names may be trademarks of their respective owners.
Real Collaboration. Real-Time Results.
TM
Breaking through Heavy Oil Barriers
Facing a labyrinth of ever-changing feedstock and production demands?
Invensys Operations Management helps you break through the barriers with our unique
Heavy Oils models, just one part of the SimSci-Esscor suite of renery wide optimization
software solutions. For more information visit us at: iom.invensys.com/heavyoils
Construction
HELEN MECHE, ASSOCIATE EDITOR
Helen.Meche@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
North America
Jacobs Engineering Group Inc.
has a contract from Methanex Corp. to
provide engineering, procurement and
construction services for a methanol
production facility in Louisiana. Offi-
cials estimate the construction value to
be $550 million.
Jacobs is already executing site-specif-
ic engineering and construction manage-
ment for the 225-acre location in Geis-
mar, Louisiana, from its offices in Baton
Rouge, with support for the disassembly
from its Santiago, Chile, office. The plant
is expected to be operational in the sec-
ond half of 2014.
KBR has a general works contract
for phase-two construction at a raw gas-
processing and compression facility near
Dawson Creek, British Columbia, Can-
ada. KBRs Canadian subsidiary, KBR
Wabi, will execute construction and relat-
ed site support for the facilitys expansion,
increasing the existing capacity to 100
million scfd. The award follows KBRs re-
cent workdelivering pipe-rack fabrica-
tion and module assembly for phase one
of the Dawson Creek plant.
A joint-development agreement, fo-
cusing on bio-based butadiene, has been
signed by INVISTA and LanzaTech to de-
velop one-step and two-step technologies
for converting industrial waste-gas carbon-
monoxide (CO) into butadiene. Initial
commercialization is expected in 2016.
Initially, the focus will be on producing
butadiene in a two-step process from Lan-
zaTech CO-derived 2,3-butanediol (2,3
BDO). A direct single-step process will
also be developed to produce butadiene di-
rectly through a gas-fermentation process.
INVISTA and LanzaTech will also
jointly collaborate on developing tools
that will extend this technologyonce
developedto directly produce other
industrial chemicals. These include ny-
lon intermediates, from CO containing
waste gases, using LanzaTechs gas-fer-
mentation technology and proprietary
biochemical platform. INVISTA is build-
ing internal biotechnical capability to
develop biological routes to its products
and feedstocks.
Praxair, Inc., has broken ground on
its new air-separation unit in Memphis,
Tennessee. With a capacity of 600 tpd,
the new plant is scheduled to start up in
the second quarter of 2013.
INVISTA has selected its production
facility in Orange, Texas, as the initial
location to install its next-generation adi-
ponitrile (ADN) technology. ADN is a
critical intermediate chemical used in the
manufacture of nylon 6,6.
The project to convert the Orange site
to the new technology is well underway,
and INVISTA is expected to invest more
than $100 million at the facility in the
next 18 months.
The technology, a new butadiene-
based chemistry, is said to improve prod-
uct yields and ease of operations, while
requiring a lower annual-maintenance
investment compared to existing tech-
nology. Evidenced through operation of a
pilot-scale facility, also located in Orange,
the technology also delivers significant
air emission and waste reductions. The
company hopes to be in full production
by mid-2014.
Cheniere Energy Partners, L.P. has
completed all milestones and has issued
Bechtel Oil, Gas and Chemicals, Inc.,
with a full notice to proceed on construc-
tion of the Sabine Pass Liquefaction Proj-
ects first two liquefaction trains. The first
liquefaction train is expected to start op-
erations as early as 2015. The second liq-
uefaction train is expected to commence
operations six to nine months after the
first trains startup.
Flint Hills Resources is considering
spending more than $250 million to en-
able its West refinery in Corpus Christi,
Texas, to process more Eagle Ford crude
oil, while extending its ability to reduce
criteria air emissions. The company op-
erates two Corpus Christi refineries: the
West refinery, with a capacity of about
230,000 bpd, and the East refinery, with
a capacity of about 70,000 bpd.
Flint Hills Resources expects to sub-
mit the permit applications to the Texas
Commission on Environmental Quality
and the US Environmental Protection
Agency in the coming weeks.
South America
A subsidiary of Foster Wheeler AGs
Global Engineering and Construction
Group has a contract from Petrobras for
a world-scale grassroots gas-to-chemicals
complexComplexo Gs-Qumico
UFN-IVin Linhares, Espirito Santo
State, Brazil. Foster Wheeler will provide
basic engineering design (BED), front-end
engineering and design (FEED), as well as
technical assistance and training during
the engineering, procurement and con-
struction (EPC) phase through to success-
ful completion of plant performance tests.
The BED and FEED will be included
in the companys third-quarter 2012
bookings. The provision of technical as-
sistance and training will be booked at
a later date, after the FEED is complete,
when Petrobras advises that it is proceed-
ing with the projects EPC phase.
TREND ANALYSIS FORECASTING
Hydrocarbon Processing maintains an extensive
database of historical HPI project information.
The Construction Boxscore Database is a 45-year
compilation of projects by type, operating
company, licensor, engineering/constructor,
location, etc. Many companies use the historical
data for trending or sales forecasting. The
historical information is available in comma-
delimited or Excel
and can be custom sorted

to suit your needs. The cost depends on the size
and complexity of the sort requested. You can
focus on a narrow request, such as the history
of a particular type of project, or you can obtain
the entire 45-year Boxscore database or portions
thereof. Simply send a clear description of the
data needed and receive a prompt cost quotation.
Contact Lee Nichols at 713-525-4626
or Lee.Nichols@GulfPub.com
Construction
Foster Wheeler will act as integrator for
the entire complex, managing the overall
BED and FEED, including managing the
process licensors and Brazilian subcon-
tractors. The BED/FEED phase is sched-
uled for completion at the end of 2013.
The complex is expected to produce
in excess of 1 million tpy of ammonia and
urea fertilizers, methanol, acetic acid, plus
formic acid and melamine, helping to re-
duce Brazils imports of these products.
Europe
Clariant has inaugurated what is
said to be Germanys biggest pilot plant
for producing climate-friendly cellulose
ethanol from agricultural waste. Located
in Straubing, Bavaria, and supported by
the Bavarian government and the Feder-
al Ministry for Education and Research,
the futuristic project will produce up
to 1,000 tons of cellulose ethanol from
around 4,500 tons of wheat straw based
on Clariants sunliquid technology. It
represents an investment of around 28
million. The sunliquid process is an in-
novative biotechnological method that
turns plant waste products, such as grain
straw and corn straw, into second-gener-
ation cellulose ethanol.
Marquard & Bahls, through its sub-
sidiary Bomin, and The Linde Group,
will establish a joint-venture (JV) com-
pany to build infrastructure for liquefied
natural gas (LNG) in Europes maritime
sector. The transaction is subject to the ap-
proval of the relevant antitrust authorities.
The 50/50 JV is due to start its operations
in the latter part of 2012, with its head-
quarters based in Hamburg, Germany.
The JV will set out to establish an
LNG supply chain and to provide reli-
able, safe and environmentally friendly
fuel to ship owners and operators. Linde
will contribute its vast experience in
cryogenics and its best-in-class engineer-
ing know-how, while Bomin will support
the JV with its excellent track record in
maritime bunker-fuel trading and op-
erations. The new company will estab-
lish operations in a number of key ports
throughout the so-called emission con-
trol areas in Northwest Europe.
CB&I has an award from BASF for the
engineering, procurement and construc-
tion management of a new butadiene-
extraction plant in Antwerp, Belgium.
The contract, which is valued in excess of
$50 million, is an essential part of the to-
tal BASF investment amount, which will
be in the high double-digit million euro
range. The plant is scheduled to start up
during 2014.
Jacobs Engineering Group Inc. has
a five-year enterprise frame agreement
(EFA) from Shell Global Solutions
International B.V. to provide engineer-
ing and project management services to
Shells European downstream assets.
The contract has the options to be re-
newed for an additional five years and/or
to be extended to other Shell businesses
such as upstream, and beyond Europe to
the Middle East and Africa. Under the
EFA, Jacobs will provide services rang-
ing from feasibility studies and small
plant modifications to discrete projects
for Shells major refining and chemical
sites in Pernis, The Netherlands, and in
Rhineland, Germany.
UOP LLC, a Honeywell company,
has been selected by Lukoil to provide
technology to produce blending compo-
nents used to make high-octane gasoline
and petrochemicals at Lukoils facility in
Nizhny Novgorod, Russia.
Lukoil will license an integrated suite
of Honeywells UOP technologies to
produce high-quality gasoline-blending
components, propylene and other petro-
chemicals.
The new units, expected to start up in
2015, will produce more than 1 million
metric tpy of gasoline-blending compo-
nents and more than 170,000 metric tpy
of propylene. In addition to technology
licensing, Honeywells UOP and a num-
ber of its affiliates will provide engineer-
ing design, catalysts, adsorbents, equip-
ment, staff training and technical service
for the project.
Honeywells UOP technology to be
used in this project includes: Honeywells
UOP FCC process, to convert straight-
run atmospheric gasoils, vacuum gasoils,
certain atmospheric residues and heavy
stocks recovered from other refinery op-
erations into high-octane gasoline, pro-
pylene and light fuel oils; Honeywells
UOP HF Alkylation process to produce
a high-quality gasoline-blending com-
ponent, typically referred to as alkylate;
Honeywells UOP Caustic Merox process
to remove sulfur from liquefied petro-
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Construction
leum gas (LPG) streams; Honeywells
UOP Huels Selective Hydrogenation
Process (SHP) to minimize acid con-
sumption in the alkylation unit, produce
2-butene and maximize alkylate yields;
and Honeywells UOP Butamer process
to convert butane to isobutane, a primary
feedstock used to produce alkylate in the
HF Alkylation process.
LANXESS has chosen Burckhardt
Compression to deliver one process gas
compressor for its chemical production
site in Leverkusen, Germany. The com-
pressor will be used to compress ethylene
from 17 bara to 495 bara. In addition,
Burckhardt Compression (Deutschland)
GmbH has been awarded an order from
LANXESS to revamp two existing process
gas compressors.
A gas-to-liquids (GTL) project in Uz-
bekistan was named OLTIN YOL GTL
at a formal ceremony in Tashkent involv-
ing representatives from the three joint-
venture (JV) companies: Uzbekneft-
egaz, Sasol and PETRONAS.
The naming of the JV project fol-
lowed a ceremony to mark the start of
infrastructure development by the Gov-
ernment of Uzbekistan at the proposed
GTL plant site at Shurtan in the south
of Uzbekistan. It also aimed at support-
ing the project schedule to enable a final
investment decision, which is expected
during the second half of 2013.
When commissioned, the 38,000-bpd
plant will produce a combination of GTL
diesel and GTL naphtha and, in an im-
portant development in the application
of GTL fuels, GTL kerosine for the avia-
tion sector.
Neste Oil has completed the first
phase of its project to build a pilot plant
for producing microbial oil. Plant con-
struction is on schedule and on budget.
The first phase will enable the growth of
oil-producing microorganisms, and the
following phases will concentrate on raw
material pretreatment and oil recovery.
The goal is to develop the technology
so that it is capable of yielding commer-
cial volumes of microbial oil for use as a
feedstock for NExBTL renewable diesel.
Commercial-scale production is expect-
ed by 2015 at the earliest.
The pilot plant is expected to be fully
complete in the second half of 2012, and
A MEASURABLE ADVANTAGE
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SERVOMEX DELIVERS COST
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Construction
it represents an investment of approxi-
mately 8 million by Neste Oil.
Microbial oil technology is attractive
because of its efficiency and sustainabil-
ity. Neste Oil has carried out pioneering
research in the field and has applied for
numerous patents covering its micro-
bial oil technology. A number of partners
have been involved in this work, includ-
ing Aalto University.
In May 2012, ThyssenKrupp Uhde
won a front-end-engineering and design
contract for a single-train polypropylene
(PP) plant based on LyondellBasells
Spheripol process technology for Zap-
SibNeftekhim L.L.C, a wholly owned
subsidiary of SIBUR.
The 500,000-tpy plant is planned to
be constructed in Tobolsk, Russian. The
plant will produce a wide range of high-
quality PP brands.
Evonik Industries has laid the foun-
dation stone for a new, large plant to
produce functionalized polybutadienes
in Marl, Germany. The plant, with a ca-
pacity of several thousand metric tpy, is
scheduled for completion in mid-2013.
The investment, in the companys largest
production site worldwide, is in the mid
double-digit million euro range.
The new plant can make optimum use
of the existing infrastructure and raw ma-
terial supplies, and utilize synergies with
the current polybutadiene plants in the
Marl Chemical Park.
Middle East
KAR Group has announced the third
expansion of its Kalak refinery to 185,000
bpd. Process units and utilities are being
provided by Ventech Engineers LLC of
Pasadena, Texas. Ventech has provided
modularized crude-distillation units,
naphtha hydrotreaters, catalytic reform-
ers, isomerization units and demercapta-
nization systems, as well as gas plants and
supporting utilities to the project.
This is the refinerys third expan-
sion, and is a continuation of Ventechs
modular construction methods. The first
phase utilized 26 process modules to add
20,000 bpd of refining capacity to KARs
existing 20,000-bpd plant. The subse-
quent second phase provided an addi-
tional 60,000 bpd of total refining capac-
ity and was completed in 2011.
The third expansion consists of two
30,000-bpd modular complexes at the
same site, as well as a 15,000-bpd con-
densate-processing facility. Once this
latest phase is complete and operational,
total capacity at the Kalak refinery will
be over 185,000 bpd, and it will report-
edly remain the countrys sole producer
of unleaded gasoline, as well as the largest
privately owned refinery in Iraq.
Construction has started in Abu Dha-
bi, of what is said to be the largest Claus
plant in the world. By the end of 2013,
once construction is complete, Haldor
Topse will supply the plant with 380
tons of the gas-treating catalyst TK-220.
TK-220 is a CoMo hydrotreating
catalyst specifically developed for treat-
ing tail gases derived from Claus or other
similar units. The delivery is part of an
agreement that Haldor Topse has made
with BASF.
Good thinking.
Feedback from our users is what inspires us to keep making
CHEMCAD better. Many features, like this one, were added to
the software as a direct response to user need. Thats why we
consider every CHEMCAD user part of our development team.
Get the whole story behind this user-inspired feature and
learn more about how CHEMCAD advances engineering
at chemstations.com/GoodThinking.
Simultaneous heat transfer and
mass transfer model in column.
C
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2012 Chemstations, Inc. All rights reserved. | CMS-1789 9/12
Construction
Asia-Pacific
Jilin Qianyuan Energy Development
has selected Chemtex, along with Black
& Veatchs patented PRICO LNG tech-
nology, to deliver a major liquefied natural
gas (LNG) facility. Expected to be com-
pleted in late 2013, the 500,000-Nm3/d
plant will reportedly be the largest of its
kind in Northeast China. It will be deliv-
ered by the Chemtex/Black & Veatch team
using a complete lump-sum engineering,
procurement and construction package.
The new facility will liquefy inlet pipe-
line natural gas. The LNG will be used
primarily by trucks and other vehicles as
an alternative fuel to diesel and petrol.
In addition to utilizing PRICO technol-
ogy, the plant integrates a nitrogen-strip-
ping process. This will contend with high
nitrogen levels in the pipeline feed gas. A
special boil-off gas reliquefaction system
will also be installed to prevent unneces-
sary fuel loss and increase plant efficiency.
GTC Technology US, LLC, is licens-
ing its GT-BTX extractive distillation
process to produce high-purity aromat-
ics at Reliance Industries Jamnagar
refining and petrochemical complex in
Gujarat, India. This license is part of a
consortium with CB&I Lummus Tech-
nology to supply technology for a multi-
unit complex for benzene and paraxy-
lene production.
Australia Pacific LNG has selected
technology developed by Honeywell
Process Solutions (HPS) Advanced
Solutions business to deliver a data con-
solidation and reporting technology
framework. The solution, built on Intu-
ition Executive, will support the produc-
tion, operations and asset-management
functions of its world-class coal-seam gas
(CSG) to liquefied natural gas (LNG)
project. Origin, the upstream operator
of the Australia Pacific LNG project, is
the largest producer of CSG in Australia,
supplying gas to power stations to pro-
duce electricity with lower greenhouse
gas emissions.
Australia Pacific LNGs operational
framework, built on Intuition Executive,
will support improved communication
and data management, cross functional
workflows and improved notification of
key operational events to better analyze,
prioritize, automate, and manage opera-
tional tasks and abnormal situations.
Air Liquide has laid the first stone
of a new hydrogen plant through a long-
term agreement with Zhejiang Huafon
Spandex Co., Ltd. (Huafon) to supply
hydrogen for its 120,000-tpy cyclohexa-
none project located in Liaoyang Aro-
matics and Fine Chemical Park, Liaoyang
city, China.
Under the agreement, Air Liquide will
invest in a new steam methane reformer
(SMR) unit that will supply 13,000 Nm
3
/
hr of hydrogen, as well as steam to Hua-
fon via pipelines. This new unit, which is
expected to be commissioned by the end
of 2013, uses Lurgis latest technologies
providing high reliability, world-class
safety and energy efficiency, and will be
designed and manufactured by the Air
Liquide engineering and construction
team based in Shanghai.
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Construction
SIBUR Petrochemical India, a sub-
sidiary of SIBUR, has started operations
in Mumbai, India. The companys pri-
mary focus is to construct a butyl-rubber
facility in Jamnagar. The plant, which
will operate at a capacity of 100,000 tpy,
is being built as a joint venture with Reli-
ance Industries. The new subsidiary will
work alongside Indian partners, as well
as provide support to SIBUR employees
coming to India to carry out installation
and startup work at the new plant.
Synthesis Energy Systems, Inc.s
syngas production facility for its Yima
joint-venture (JV) coal-to-methanol
project in Henan Province, China, com-
pleted a test run of the first of three gas-
ifiers currently under commissioning.
During the commissioning phase,
each of the three gasifiers will be oper-
ated under various test conditions to
vet the gasifier and support systems to
prepare the facility for commercial op-
eration. This test was the first for this
gasifier system operating on oxygen
from the projects air-separation unit.
Coal supplied by Yima was introduced
into the gasifier, which operated for sev-
eral hours while the Yima JV team suc-
cessfully gathered data that will help in
preparation for plant startup. The proj-
ect will continue in the commissioning
phase for several more weeks and is ex-
pected to move into commercial opera-
tion later in 2012.
Intergraph has a contract with San-
tos for the use of SmartPlant Enterprise
for Owner Operators (SPO), along with
other SmartPlant Enterprise solutions.
Santos will use Intergraph technol-
ogy to manage its existing facilities and
those in its Gladstone liquefied natural
gas (GLNG) project in Queensland,
Australia.
Santos GLNG will use world-lead-
ing technology to process coal-seam
gas (CSG) into LNG. The project is a
partnership between Santos (operator),
PETRONAS, Total and KOGAS.
SPO enables Santos to address in-
teroperability issues, while enhancing
plant safety and reliability, quality and
productivity. In addition to SPO, San-
tos has implemented SmartPlant 3D,
SmartPlant Foundation, SmartPlant In-
strumentation, SmartPlant Electrical,
SmartPlant P&ID and Leica Geosys-
tems laser-scanning solutions, and also
used the Intergraph Data Conversion
Center for converting P&ID drawings
into intelligent data. Besides the GLNG
project, Santos will also use these design
and engineering solutions for the entire
life cycle of its facilities for both green-
field and brownfield projects, with plans
to extend these solutions to its existing
facilities within the Asia-Pacific region.
CB&I has a contract with the Hebei
Haiwei Group for the license and basic-
engineering design of a grassroots pro-
pane dehydrogenation unit to be located
in Jingxian, Hebei Province, China. The
unit will use the CATOFIN propane de-
hydrogenation process from Lummus
Technology, which uses Sd-Chemies
latest CATOFIN catalyst to produce
500,000 metric tpy of propylene. The
unit is expected to start up in 2015.
www.fourquest.com
FourQuest Energy focuses on servicing the
needs of our clients and making a positive impact
to their business. Motivated people are the most
important resource of our company.

We take pride in providing safe, quality services to
the energy industry.

A thorough understanding of our customers, their
processes and issues, is the key to our accurate
and thoughtful approach. Having exceptional
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expertise allows us to consistently meet or
surpass client expectations.
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Need a Mist Eliminator...NOW!
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CONSTRUCTION BOXSCORE UPDATE / ConstructionBoxscore.com
The above projects represent only a fraction of data updated monthly in the Construction Boxscore Database. For more information please go to www.ConstructionBoxscore.com or contact Lee Nichols at 713-525-4626 or Lee.Nichols@GulfPub.com.
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COMPANY CITY PROJECT EX CAPACITY UNIT COST STATUS YR CMPL LICENSOR ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTOR
ASIA/PACIFIC
China Jilin Qianyuan Jilin LNG 500 Nm3/d U 2013 Chemtex Intl | Black & Veatch
Energy Development
Kyrgyzstan Socar Chuy Province Refinery 2 MMtpy 250 P 2013
Thailand PTT Public Co Ltd Map Ta Phut Waste heat recovery unit None E 2013 FW Samsung Eng
India Reliance Industries Ltd Jamnagar Refinery (1) EX None 1000 P 2014 GTC, Inc Fluor
India GAIL (India) Ltd Pata Ethylene Dimerization 20 Mtpy U 2014 Axens
Indonesia BP Papua LNG (3) BY 3.8 MMtpy 7000 U 2017
Kyrgyzstan Undisclosed Chuy Province, Kara-Balta Refinery None P
CANADA
Alberta OPTI Canada Inc Fort McMurray, Long Lake Sulfur Recovery (2) 620 LTPD U 2012 Shell | Fluor Fluor
Saskatchewan Consumers Coop Refineries Regina Cracker, FCC (2) EX 22 Mbpd C 2012 UOP Mustang | IAG
Saskatchewan Consumers Coop Refineries Regina Crude Unit EX 30 Mbpd 1500 C 2012 UOP Mustang | IAG
EUROPE
Germany Evonik Industries AG Marl Polybutadiene Mt U 2013
Russian Federation NKNK Tatarstan Ethylene 1 MMtpd 40 F 2013 CB&I
Russian Federation Sibur Tobolsk Ethylene 1.5 MMtpy F 2013 Linde
Russian Federation Sibur Tobolsk Polyethylene (4) 1.5 MMtpy F 2013 INEOS Technip
Russian Federation Sibur Khimprom Tobolsk Polypropylene 550 Mtpy E 2013 INEOS Linde | Vnipineft
Russian Federation Tobolsk-Polimer Tobolsk Polypropylene 500 MMtpy F 2013 LyondellBasell | INEOS ThyssenKrupp | Linde-KCA Fluor | Linde-KCA
Russian Federation Haldor Topse Tyumen Hydrogen Purifier EX 7 MMtpy U 2013 UOP
Russian Federation Lukoil Nizhny Novgorod FCC Gasoline Desulfurization 1.1 MMtpy U 2015 Axens | UOP
Germany Lanxess Leverkusen Compressor RE None U Burckhardt Compression
LATIN AMERICA
Surinam Staatsolie Paramaribo Refinery EX 15 Mbpd 575 U 2013 CB&I Lummus Aker Solutions Saipem | Honeywell
Mexico Alpek Cosoleacaque Cogeneration 85 MW U 2014 Sener Sener
Colombia Ecopetrol Barrancabermeja Hydrocracker RE 80 Mbpd E 2016 Axens FW Axens
Mexico Pemex Tula Refinery 250 Mbpd 9000 E 2016 ICA Fluor
MIDDLE EAST
Saudi Arabia Sadara Chemical Co. Jubail 2 Ind Zone Complex None 360 E 2014 Tecnimont
Saudi Arabia Sadara Chemical Co. Jubail Ind City Complex 3 MMtpy 20000 U 2016 Tecnimont ABB | Linde
Oman OOC/IPIC Duqm Petrochemical Complex 230 bpd 1500 P 2017 Shaw
Iran NIORDC Shiraz Refinery 120 bpd 1300 P
Qatar RasGas Ras Laffan Gas Processing None E JGC
UNITED STATES
Texas Mexichem/Oxychem Ingleside Ethylene Cracker 500 tpy F 2016
The above projects represent only a fraction of data updated monthly in the Construction Boxscore Database. For more information please go to www.ConstructionBoxscore.com or contact Lee Nichols at 713-525-4626 or Lee.Nichols@GulfPub.com.
2012 Air Products and Chemicals, Inc.
The worlds largest hydrogen
pipeline network delivers...
The worlds most reliable
hydrogen supply.
Its the kind of massive project only a global leader would undertake.
Anticipating that hydrogen needs along the Gulf Coast of North America
will increase in the years ahead, Air Products expanded its hydrogen supply
network. By building a 180-mile (290-km)-long pipeline that connects our
existing Texas and Louisiana systems, weve united 22 hydrogen plants and
600 miles (965 km) of pipeline, with a total system capacity of over one billion
SCFD (1.3 million Nm
3
/hr). So if an event disrupts operations on one side of
the Gulf, hydrogen can keep owing from the other, giving our renery and
petrochemical customers the reliable, uninterrupted supply they need. With
this record-breaking network, Air Products continues to break new ground in
hydrogen supply. For videos and detailed information, visit our website.
tell me more
airproducts.com/H2pipeline
Hydro, Inc. l HydroAire, Inc. l Hydro East, Inc. l Evans Hydro, Inc. l Hydro South, Inc. l HydroTex Golden Triangle l HydroTex Dynamics, Inc.
HydroTex Deer Park, Inc. l CW Hydro, Inc. l Hydro Australia, Pty. Ltd. l Hydro Vietnam, Co. Ltd. l Safe-T Hydro, Inc.
Hydro Scotford, Inc. l Hydro Middle East, Inc.
Reliability
HEINZ P. BLOCH, RELIABILITY/EQUIPMENT EDITOR
Heinz.Bloch@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Equipment life extension involves upgrades
Every plant wants to get more service life from site machin-
ery. Since about 1990, quite a number of start-up consulting
companies have formed to advise clients on equipment life
extension. These companies use different approaches: some
apply large-scale, computer-based statistical methods, while
others blend traditional estimates with risk-based analysis. All
of these approaches have merit, but none of them can provide
all of the answers with high precision. The key ingredients of
any useful endeavor include reviewing the assets past failure
history, examining nondestructive testing (NDT) data, and
upgrading the weakest link.
Failure history counts. Wherever failure history exists and
the failures root causes were analyzed, authoritative answers
on remaining service life are possible. The same can be said
for thoroughly evaluating NDT data, which can provide focus
to determine remaining life.
On stationary equipment and piping, wall thickness is of
great importance. Loss of material decreases the allowable pres-
sure rating. Corrosion and erosion can lower the safety of the
equipment; thus, continued operation becomes risky. Thick-
ness changes often occur at locations, such as elbows, where flu-
id flow changes direction. Changes in velocity such as at valves
or near restrictions are of high interest. Some can be investigat-
ed with NDT methods, which certainly include X-ray imaging,
among others. The extent of fluid-dependent corrosion can be
estimated from coupons placed in piping and vessels.
Pumps. For pumps, failure history and past repair data
must be matched with a thorough understanding of upgrade
measures that have been taken by successful best-of-class or-
ganizations. Advanced lube application will probably be part
of it, as will the extension of oil replacement intervals now pos-
sible by synthetic lubricants and advanced bearing housing
protection measures.
To what extent superior bearings (ceramic hybrids) are of
value must be determined on a pump-by-pump basis. Perhaps
a set of angular bearings with unequal contact angles should
be installed in your problem pumps. The symmetrical sets
of angular contact bearings mentioned in the most widely
used pump standard may not perform adequately. The ex-
tent that superior sealing technology (dual seals, as shown in
FIG. 1) provides more value must be determined on a service-
by-service basis. As a general rule, the industrys view about
dual seals deserves to be reassessed. Sealing technology has
made considerable progress in the past two decades. Virtu-
ally all present-day seals are cartridge-style configurations,
and braided packing is being displaced by mechanical seals in
the hydrocarbon processing industry (HPI), as well as in the
power generation and mining industries.
However, not all manufacturers of mechanical seals use
the same acceptance test procedure for their products. A
widely applied industry standard stipulates using air as a test
gas for mechanical seal tightness. Of course, these seals are
ultimately intended for safe containment of flammable, toxic
or otherwise hazardous liquids. While the standards expec-
tation is that leakage from these seals does not exceed 5.6
gm/hr, recent tests showed that merely following this easy
testing routine can actually allow orders of magnitude more
liquid to escape. It is, therefore, advisable to question seal
vendors on the matter and to purchase only products that
meet the purchasers safety and reliability requirements. We
all want seals to leak no more than 6.5 gm/gr when first in-
stalled on pumps.
FIG. 1. Dual mechanical seal in a slurry pump. The space between
the sleeve and the inside diameter of the two sets of seal faces
is filled with a pressurized barrier fluidusually clean water.
Source: AESSEAL Inc., Rockford, Tennessee, and Rotherham, UK.
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2012 KBR
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09/12
hydr opr ocessi ng. kbr. com
Hydrocarbon Processing|MONTH 201231
Reliability
Lubrication systems. Lubricant application and standby
bearing preservation are especially important in humid coast-
al climates and in dust-laden desert climates. Oil mist is the
answer. The settling of foundations and pipe supports should
be addressed. For steam turbines, the blade stresses and water
quality must be compared with those units in successful long-
running installations elsewhere.
In gearboxes, the remaining service life is largely examined
by tooth loading (stresses on tooth face) and temperature
measurements. In all instances, synthetic oils from the most
experienced oil formulators will greatly extend gear life. Oil
additives are everything. They drive both cost and service life.
Oil cleanliness is equally important.
Certain warehouse spares (gears, electric motors, etc.)
should be upgraded, if important. If doing so, it is likely to speed
up re-commissioning after an unanticipated future shutdown.
Compressors. For compressors, engineers should consider
the mentioned points. Valve technology and piston velocity
are important comparison-worthy parameters on reciprocat-
ing compressors. Onstream performance tracking and prior
sealing technology are important for centrifugal compressors,
etc. They determine seal system upgrade potential. Never
overlook couplings and the work procedures used to attach
couplings to shafts. They tell a lot about remaining run length.
Consultants. Whether one ultimately receives life extension
guidance from individual consultants or from billion-dollar
consulting giants with applicable experience is of no conse-
quence, as long as there is the one common thread: Deter-
mining where upgrades are possible. Upgrades are critical to
imparting longer life to existing equipment, and they can of-
ten be accomplished at relatively low cost. Assessments of re-
maining life should include detailed advice on how to upgrade
weak links, which implies:
The expert authoritatively spells out recommended up-
grade components
Recommended upgrade procedures are explained
Facilities recommended to do the upgrading are defined.
In short, the entity involved in advising you on equipment
life extension must understand the feasibility of component up-
grades. Component upgrading is one of the keys to life exten-
sion and deliverables that should be contractually agreed upon
with the upgrade provider. Be sure that the consulting company
youve asked to give advice on equipment life extension in-
cludes these deliverables.
HEINZ P. BLOCH resides in Westminster, Colorado. His
professional career commenced in 1962 and included
long-term assignments as Exxon Chemicals regional
machinery specialist for the US. He has authored over 520
publications, among them 18 comprehensive books on
practical machinery management, failure analysis, failure
avoidance, compressors, steam turbines, pumps, oil-mist
lubrication and practical lubrication for industry. Mr. Bloch
holds BS and MS degrees in mechanical engineering.
He is an ASME Life Fellow and maintains registration
as a Professional Engineer in New Jersey and Texas.
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FASTER SHOP THROUGHPUT
Integration
Strategies
BARRY YOUNG, CONTRIBUTING EDITOR
Byoung@ARCweb.com
Recent trends shape the future of DCS
Several trends have already impacted the distributed con-
trol system (DCS) market and are likely to continue over the
next few years. These include both product- and technology-
related trends and general industry trends.
More intelligent I/O. The DCS input/output (I/O) subsys-
tem is responsible for inputting hundreds or often thousands
of different process measurements and other inputs into the
system, and outputting control signals to a large number of
valves, actuators, motors and other plant final-control ele-
ments. I/O represents one of the most significant parts of the
DCS. Traditionally, I/O is a significant cost element. How-
ever, DCS suppliers are working to reduce both the cost and
complexity of their I/O systems by incorporating more intel-
ligence and programmability into the devices.
Shift in I/O type. Fifteen years ago, the traditional process
analog input came from a sensor producing a 4-mA to 20-mA
analog signal, and the typical analog output was a 4-mA to
20-mA signal. Discrete signals involved various combinations
of voltages and currents. Each signal type had a dedicated type
of circuit board for the individual signals.
Today, in a greenfield plant, most of the I/O supplied is on
some type of bus network. Brownfield plants are also installing
more bus I/O. However, with the large installed base of tra-
ditional 4-mA to 20-mA I/O, the transition is very slow. Major
expansions or revamps in brownfield plants consider bus I/O
when the sensors and final control elements are also part of the
project. There is also a growing trend to adding more wireless
I/O and associated field devices, particularly for process and
equipment monitoring applications.
Need for network consulting services. As the lines be-
tween automation and IT are blurring with increasing usage of
commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) technology, the network in-
frastructure of the DCS and the network architecture for plant
information are becoming increasingly more intertwined. End
users now often rely on the expertise of suppliers for consulting
to set up these networks in a safe and secure manner.
Virtualization. DCS suppliers started incorporated server vir-
tualization a few years ago. Common uses of this technology
include engineering development and simulation for training.
Virtualization is not appropriate for all parts of the DCS. Some-
times, the dedicated hardware will perform a given task better
than a virtual server. A good example is the real-time process
controller in a DCS, where speed, determinism and high reli-
ability are major design considerations for the operation and
safety of the plant. Conversely, a virtual server performing many
applications on one box can be a good choice for offline appli-
cations such as control configuration, simulation and training.
Cyber security. With more open and interoperable, largely
COTS-based automation systems, cyber security is becoming
more important as end users struggle with potential risks, both
internal and external to the DCS. Most suppliers now address
this threat with active programs, either inhouse or through
partnerships. As part of a defense-in-depth cyber-security
strategy, network fire walls and strategically placed switches are
required to help prevent the propagation of external viruses and
intrusions. Internal threats from disgruntled employees or oth-
er internal access points must be addressed with such things as
USB locks and software to monitor internal automation system
network activity. Furthermore, network maintenance practices
that are common in the IT worldsuch as automatic software
updates, anti-virus updates and bug fixesmust be modified
for the mission-critical, 24/7 industrial environments in which
DCSs typically operate.
Mobility. Just as people today find it hard to live without their
smartphones in their daily lives, increasingly, process operators
and production supervisors are relying on the ability to access
data anywhere, anytime to do their job functions. DCS suppli-
ers address this trend by supplying tablet technology for roving
operators and smartphones for alerts and condition monitor-
ing. This trend toward increasing mobility will grow in impor-
tance in the future.
Cloud computing. There has been much talk in the industry
about developments underway to move selected DCS applica-
tions to the cloud, a reference to moving applications to re-
mote, Internet (public) or intranet (private) servers. However,
the control-automation industry is very conservative by nature,
and, presently, this trend is just talk. ARC believes that, ulti-
mately, selected DCS applications will migrate to private and, in
some cases, even public clouds. For now, end users are wary.
BARRY YOUNG has over 25 years of professional
experience in the process control and industrial
automation industry. Prior to joining ARC, he served as
a project manager for New England Controls, where he
helped design and implement automation solutions for
a variety of high-profile clients in the life sciences,
utility, pulp and paper and other industries. Prior to
New England Controls, he handled a variety of
responsibilities within the global Invensys/Foxboro
Company organization. Mr. Young has a BS degree
in management engineering from Worcester
Polytechnic Institute, and has completed MBA courses
at Bryant University. He is a member of the Project Management Institute.

|
Special Report
PROCESS CONTROL AND
INFORMATION SYSTEMS
For as long as hydrocarbon processing industry (HPI)
facilities have been processing crude oil, natural gas
and intermediates, there have been instruments in place
to assist plant operators in measuring, recording and
controlling pressures, flows, levels, temperatures and other
process variables. Much has changed since the early days
of the HPI. With the application of digital control and
computer-integrated manufacturing, facilities have been
able to automate control of processing units, directly
analyze product streams and initiate action from a central
control room. Since the 1980s, technology developments in
field instrumentation design, software, simulation models
and more have provided even greater opportunities to
further implement process monitoring and control and,
ultimately, optimize plant operations. The goal for any
process control project is to increase profitability; to
this end, plant optimization and process automation are
discussed in this months Special Report.
Photo courtesy of ABB Process Automation.
Special Report
Process Control and Information Systems
A. G. KERN, Consultant, Houston, Texas
Update hydrocracking reactor controls
for improved reliability
At present, hydrocarbon pricing pays strong dividends for
hydrocracking (HC), which leverages low-cost hydrogen (H
2
),
sourced from todays abundant natural gas supply, into high-val-
ue liquid fuels. Among hydroprocessing (HP) units, HC units
have the greatest H
2
uptake, with a typical liquid volume swell of
10%. This earns in the range of $100 million (MM) per year for
a 30,000-barrel-per-day (bpd) HC unit based on volume swell
alone, in addition to the usual value upgrade of HC conversion.
As a result, hydrocrackerswhich are already one of the
hydrocarbon processing industrys most demanding process
control challengesare being pushed to greater limits. HC
reactors operate at elevated temperatures and pressures, mak-
ing safety a constant concern. Recovering from temperature
upsets can take hours, and recovering from a complete depres-
surization takes days. Reactions are exothermic, meaning that
even minor disturbances in feed, heater or quench controls can
rapidly escalate to an urgent situation. For these reasons, HC
controls have always demanded vigilant attention to design
detail, management of change, and operability. Any oversights
can result in, or fail to prevent, depressurization events. Key
improvements, on the other hand, can bring large gains in re-
finery profitability and reliability.
For the past two decades, hydrocracker process control strat-
egy has focused on installing automatic depressurization sys-
tems and multivariable predictive control (MPC). While this
equipment has brought important gains, experience shows that
it leaves many gaps in excursion control and depressure pre-
vention. This article presents an updated hydrocracker control
model that robustly addresses traditional hydrocracker control
challenges, overcomes outdated hydrocracker control para-
digms, and allows hydrocrackers to operate safely, reliably and
profitably under todays demanding conditions.
HC process and economics. FIG. 1 shows a common hydro-
cracker configuration. Heated oil and excess H
2
enter a vertical
downflow reactor with multiple fixed catalyst beds. The cata-
lyst promotes cracking and hydrogenation of larger hydrocar-
bon molecules, such as gasoils, cycle oils and coker oils, into
lighter, more valuable molecules, such as diesel, jet fuel and
naphtha. The overall reaction is exothermic, so temperature
increases as flow passes through the bed.
Between beds, cold H
2
quench gas is introduced to cool the
reaction mix. In this way, the reactor is a succession of crack-
ing beds followed by quenching (FIG. 1 depicts three beds, but
often there are more). The overall objective is to achieve the
desired amount of cracking (or conversion), which is borne
out in the downstream fractionation section product spreads.
Maximizing conversion means operating at one or more
of the quench constraints. These include a maximum quench
valve position, chosen to ensure ample reserve quench should
an exothermic excursion occur, and a maximum bed tempera-
ture rise, which indicates high cracking severity and increased
risk of a rapid onset excursion.
Recent price trends in crude oil and natural gas have shifted
HP economics. The price of natural gas has declined, while the
price of crude oil and liquid fuels has greatly increased. H
2
con-
sumed through a hydroprocessing complex swells the liquid
yield, effectively converting a low-cost feedstock into a high-
value product.
Among HP units, HC has the greatest H
2
uptake, typically
around 1,700 standard cubic feet (scf ) of H
2
per barrel (bbl),
with a resulting liquid volume swell of 10%. Therefore, the
gross profit margin from volume swell alone is in the range of
$100 million (MM) per year for a 30,000-bpd HC unit. This is
based on H
2
sourced from natural gas at $4/thousand scf, and
valuing product fuels at $120/bbl.
Past strategies and present gaps. Over the past 20 years,
hydrocracker process control strategy has focused on installing
Quench H
2
Catalyst
Bed 1
Catalyst
Bed n
Catalyst
Bed 2
Heater control
Combined feed (H
2
and oil) from heaters
Bed 1
quench
Distribution
Separator
Fractionation
Recycle H
2
Flare
Manual
depressure
Feed/efuent
exchangers
Support
Contact and
distribution
Contact and
distribution
PC
SEP
HC
DEPR
TC
IN-2
TC
IN-n
LC
SEP
TC
IN-1
RO
TC
IN-1A
FIG. 1. Simplified HC reactor piping and instrumentation diagram
with as-purchased controls.
automatic depressurization systems and MPC. While these are
important, experience now shows that they leave many gaps in
excursion control and depressure prevention.
Auto-depressure controls serve to vent reactor systems to
flare in the event of an uncontrolled exothermic excursion,
to halt the reaction and prevent vessel temperatures from ex-
ceeding metallurgical limits. Temperatures during an exother-
mic excursion sometimes increase tens of degrees in as many
seconds. Industry history shows that manual depressure sys-
tems are often not used according to written procedures and
that personnel at all levelsmanagerial, supervisory and op-
erationalcan have difficulty balancing production goals with
safe use of manual depressure systems.
1
This illustrates why
auto-depressuremade possible by more reliable thermocou-
ple-based temperature-measurement systems and improved
algorithms for excursion detection and temperature-measure-
ment quality handlinghas become essential.
The difficulty with auto-depressure controls is that they tend
to act much sooner than traditional, manually initiated systems,
and depressuring is to be avoided whenever possible, except as
a final layer of safety. Depressuring a reactor brings the unwel-
come prospects of prolonged restart, impact on other refinery
units, large economic losses, thermal and mechanical stresses
to the reactor and associated equipment, environmental flar-
ing violations, and potential harm to the company image in the
community and in the industry. The necessary message that
often fails to accompany auto-depressure projects is the need
for better excursion control to avoid reaching auto-depressure
conditions in the first place.
MPC technology has brought improvements in reactor
bed temperature balancing, weighted average bed temperature
(WABT) control, and coordination between reactor and frac-
tionator sections (conversion control). However, MPC lacks
the speed, reliability and control features necessary to adequate-
ly respond to most hydrocracker disturbances before they result
in an excursion, or to contain an excursion before it leads to de-
pressure, or to do so in a manner that minimizes overall impact
on reactor temperatures and resulting lost production.
Excursion scenarios. Hydrocracker operators are always
aware of the many potential excursion initiators. On the other
hand, when designing controls (and even during hazard analy-
sis), there is a common tendency to downplay the likelihood,
severity and actual history of many excursion scenarios.
1
For a
hydrocracker (or for any critical process control), an effective
approach is for a multidisciplinary team to consider each sce-
nario and the most appropriate control system response. Com-
mon excursion scenarios include:
Loss of oil feed. A feed pump trip normally results in a
strong excursion unless quickly quenched, because the
oil stops moving through the bed and instead cracks
in place, never reaching the quench zone.
Heater operations. Adding burners, fuel gas
upsets, draft or oxygen upsets, etc., can cause feed
temperature spikes, triggering an excursion.
Maldistribution. Bed inlet maldistribution can
cause erratic quench controller behavior, especially if
a single measurement point is used for control or if
inter-bed redistribution internals are not functioning
properly. Maldistribution of flow through the catalyst bed cre-
ates localized low flow conditions and hot spots where excur-
sions can take hold.
Production changes. Although operating procedures
are designed to implement changes conservatively and safely,
excursions commonly occur during changes to feed rates, feed
type or temperature (i.e., conversion).
Additional potential excursion triggers are listed in Refer-
ence 1. Complex refineries with a variety of feed and product
types can be subject to these hazards on an essentially continu-
ous basis. Understanding these causes helps build better con-
trols; however, the control design must also provide effective
excursion control, regardless of the cause.
Layers of control. FIG. 2 is a hydrocracker reactor control
model that addresses safety, depressure prevention, and excur-
sion control, along with normal operating objectives and op-
timization. The overlapping of layers indicates robust reliabil-
ity. For example, excursions may be contained and controlled
by Layer 4, 3 or 2 before ever reaching Layer 1 (depressure).
In addition, Layers 4 and below are implemented in the base-
layer control system, thereby maximizing responsiveness, reli-
ability and operability.
Auto-depressure on high temperature is becoming estab-
lished as an industry best practice. Key design decisions include
whether to implement auto-depressure in the safety instru-
mented system (SIS) or the distributed control system (DCS);
whether to depressure on high temperature rate-of-change (in
addition to high absolute temperature); and how to robustly
handle low-quality temperature singularities among the bed
outlet thermocouple arrays to avoid unnecessary or nuisance
depressurization events.
Auto-quench causes the quench valves to open on high
excursion temperature to avoid reaching the depressure limit.
It may also trigger preemptively on feed pump trip and initiate
heater minimum fire logic. Auto-quench design is a balancing
act: it should be robust, like a safety function, but without be-
ing so heavy-handed as to result in an extended recovery time;
it must trigger early enough to avoid reaching depressure, but
1. Auto-depressure
2. Auto-quench
3. Excursion control
4. Bed outlet control
5. WABT and rate control
6. Conversion control
S
a
f
e
t
y
E
x
c
u
r
s
io
n
c
o
n
t
a
in
m
e
n
t
N
o
r
m
a
l o
p
e
r
a
t
io
n
O
p
t
im
iz
a
t
io
n
FIG. 2. HC reactor control model showing layers of control.
Auto-quench is a DCS control, but it can
be one of the most important functions
in a refinery, since it is the final layer
of depressure prevention.
without triggering unnecessarily; and it should not interfere
with, or be defeated by, quench controls in manual mode. Al-
though auto-quench is a DCS control, conceptually it can be
one of the most important functions in a refinery, since it is the
final layer of depressure prevention.
The excursion control layer is designed to handle excur-
sions as routine control disturbances, when possible, to mini-
mize their impacts. This renders most excursions as non-events,
such that they go largely unnoticed, except perhaps by the DCS
operators. In the past, operators remained alert to take manual
control in the event of an excursion, but with excursion con-
trols, operators learn to keep them in the correct mode to en-
sure reliable automatic response. As one operator noted, These
are controllers that work for us, and not the other way around.
The excursion control layer comprises a number of tradi-
tional advanced regulatory control (ARC) techniques applied
to the bed inlet, bed outlet and heater controllers. An important
aspect is converting the Bed 1 quench valve (TC-IN-1A in
FIG. 1) to a bed outlet temperature controller (TC-OUT-1A
in FIG. 3) and coordinating its action with heater control. This
critical valve is often configured problematically (as in FIG. 1),
so that it does not respond to an excursion and, when used, can
cause the heater(s) to counter with increased firing.
In retrospect, operating an exothermic reactor without
bed outlet control defies common sense, although it is a com-
mon practice, especially when MPC is switched off, detuned,
clamped or over-constrained. Even if the excursion control
features are absent, outlet control at least helps prevent many
gradual process variations from reaching excursion thresholds.
It also brings increased stability to bed outlet temperatures,
WABT and conversion. However, simple outlet controlsans
the excursion control features, including MPCusually will
not contain an excursion once it begins.
MPC-based WABT control, when implemented in the
new model (FIG. 3), would write to the bed outlet controller set-
points rather than to the bed inlets, as is traditional. The bed
outlet controllers provide base-layer stability and excursion
control, while MPC provides traditional WABT control and
constraint management. As an alternative, WABT control can
be implemented as a custom algorithm, providing greater flex-
ibility in how the constraints are managed. This also facilitates a
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Quench H
2
Auto-
quench
Custom
or model-
based
Model-
based
Conversion
control
WABT and
rate
control
Catalyst
Bed 1
Catalyst
Bed n
Catalyst
Bed 2
Heater control
Bed 1 quench
Combined feed (H
2
and oil) from heaters
Distribution
Separator
Fractionation
Recycle H
2
Flare
Auto/manual
depressure
Feed/efuent
exchangers
Support
Contact and
distribution
Contact and
distribution
PC
SEP
HC
DEPR
TC
IN-2
TC
out-1A
TC
out-1
TC
WABT
TC
AQ
AC
CONV
TC
out-1
TC
IN-n
TC
out-n
LC
SEP
TC
IN-1
RO
FIG. 3. HC reactor piping and instrumentation diagram
with upgraded controls.
variable WABT ramp rate that can be both faster and safer dur-
ing startup and recovery operations, capturing extra hours of
on-target production. Since the base-layer controls handle sta-
bility, this custom WABT algorithm is similar to, and no more
complex than, a traditional heater pass balancing control.
Conversion control involves moving the WABT set-
points based on fractionation section product spreads. MPC is
a good choice for handling the long response times involved,
although a rudimentary custom algorithm can also be used. A
limitation is that feed quality changes are the primary distur-
bance, and they are often much bigger than the handles, since
WABTs can only be moved gradually and within limits. Another
key consideration is a smart-conversion calculation and sched-
uler, so that fractionator disturbances are not back-propagated
to the reactor section.
Metrics. Excursions are commonly quantified as the difference
between real-time reactor bed temperatures and recent (heav-
ily filtered) values. The excursion value reflects any short-term
temperature rise; i.e., the severity of an excursion. At steady-
state, this value will be zero, and at operating conditions (if
procedures are carefully followed and no excursions occur), it
will always be less than the prescribed maximum hourly rate of
change; e.g., less than around 5F.
Since modern hydrocracker reactors may have a dozen or
more thermocouples per bed, a common practice is to calculate
the highest temperature of each bed for monitoring and alarm-
ing, for ease of operation, and to avoid alarm floods when ex-
cursions occur. FIG. 4 is an example of the long-term trend of
the highest excursion temperatures for each bed of a two-stage
reactor. The vertical axis shows excursion severity (for example,
increments of 5F).
Excursions below a severity of 1 reflect routine daily opera-
tion. Excursions with a severity between 1 and 2 may occur dai-
ly, weekly or monthly, depending on the quality of operation.
Excursion controls should take effect at this level. Excursions
greater than a severity of 2 are increasingly serious and, in many
cases, warrant near-miss investigations to prevent recurrence.
These investigations often lead to the types of control improve-
ments described here.
FIG. 4 provides a meaningful metric of progress and of on-
going quality of operation. As controls are upgraded, the fre-
quency and severity of excursions decreases. As with any safety
metric, frequent, minor excursions indicate the increased likeli-
hood of a full-blown excursion and potential depressure event.
A graph like that shown in FIG. 4 is a good candidate for vis-
ibility on a large control-room screen, as a means of sustaining
improvement and awareness.
Recommendations. A guiding tenet in the evolution of these
controls was to utilize quench, heater and other controls as ad-
vantageously as possible under all circumstances, to contain
excursions and avoid reaching auto-depressure conditions.
This led to many creative and sensible ideas. The main chal-
lenge was not in the difficulty of designing new controls re-
flecting these ideas, but in overcoming entrenched paradigms
about the old controls, even though they were outdated or not
sensibly configured in many cases, such as the conflict between
the Bed 1 quench and heater controls, and the lack of reliable
bed outlet control.
Control layers 2 through 4 were implemented with stan-
dard DCS functionality, bringing cost and engineering ad-
vantages. Another practical benefit is operability, since these
controls present to the DCS console operator and behave as
conventional cascaded controls, requiring minimal new con-
cepts and training.
MPC is often considered a comprehensive solution for the
types of control concerns raised here; however, none of the crit-
ical excursion control, depressure prevention or auto-quench
functions are of the type provided by MPC. For design or haz-
ard and operability study (HAZOP) purposes, it is usually bet-
ter to view MPC as a gradual constraint pusher, rather than as
a reliable disturbance handler. This distinction is important on
any process, but especially for hydrocrackers, where a robust re-
sponse can make the difference between an online reactor and a
depressured reactor, in a matter of minutes.
Process control could benefit by borrowing from safety sys-
tem practice and convening a multidisciplinary team to review
critical process upset scenarios and arrive at the most appropri-
ate and advantageous automatic control response. While many
processes do not have the rapid downside potential of HC reac-
tors, the general principles of maximizing on-target production
and avoiding safety function thresholds under upset conditions
make this approach a good practice for any refinery unit.
The traditional practice of operating high-pressure, high-
temperature, exothermic reactors without reliable, nonlinear
bed outlet temperature control is a paradigm that industry
should proactively remedy. The auto-quench, excursion con-
trol and bed outlet layers should join auto-depressure as indus-
try best practice for all hydrocrackers.
LITERATURE CITED

1
EPA Chemical Accident Investigation Report, Tosco Avon Refinery, Martinez,
California, November 1998.
ALLAN KERN has over 35 years of process control experience
and has authored dozens of papers on multivariable control,
inferential control, safety systems and distillation control,
with a focus on practical process control solutions and
effectiveness. He is a professional control systems and
chemical engineer, a senior member of ISA and a graduate
of the University of Wyoming. Mr. Kern is a consultant, and
he can be contacted at Allan.Kern@APCperformance.com.
FIG. 4. Improvement in excursion control.
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Special Report
J.-M. BADER and G. ROLLAND, Axens,
Rueil-Malmaison, France
Use a systematized approach of good practices
in pygas hydrogenation via APC
As illustrated in FIG. 1, steam crackers produce many ba-
sic building blocks for the polymer industry, along with ar-
omatic-rich gasoline (pygas). When naphtha is used as the
feed for cracking furnaces, pygas yields increase significantly.
TABLE 1 shows the typical pygas yield and composition for
naphtha cracking. Pygas is a large contributor to benzene
production capacities.
Before the pygas can be routed to downstream units (aro-
matics extraction, etc.), unstable compounds such as diolefins
and styrenics must be removed. Also, olefins and sulfur must be
eliminated to ensure that final products will meet their specifi-
cations. This pygas treatment is achieved through hydrogena-
tion steps. However, if the pygas treating is not optimized, then
other undesired processing operationsincluding hydrogen
flaring, reactor channeling, poor use of the second beds, and
other issueshave a greater possibility of occurring.
Optimizing control. Advanced process control (APC) offers
a solution to systematize implementing best practices, avoid
mis-operation, and generate substantial benefits. The follow-
ing case study describes the operational improvements and
steps necessary when applying APC. This case study will ap-
ply actual plant data to demonstrate and quantify the benefits
attainable from APC installations.
PROCESS
A case study will describe the industrial results obtained
with the two-stage pygas hydrogenation process (PGH), as
shown in FIG. 2. This PGH unit includes a first-stage process
(GHU-1) to improve the stability of the raw pyrolysis gaso-
line by selectively hydrogenating diolefins and alkenyl com-
pounds, thus making it suitable for further processing in the
second stage. The reaction is carried out mainly in the liquid
phase on a specific catalyst in a fixed-bed reactor.
The selected operating conditions maximize conversion of
the diolefins and alkenyl aromatics, while minimizing the for-
mation of heavy products by polymerization. These operating
conditions minimize aromatics loss.
In the second stage of PGH (GHU-2), the C
6
C
8
heart
cut is further processed to prepare a feedstock suitable for
H
2
+ CO
C
5
C
10
200 +
C
2
C
3
C
4
High-purity hydrogen
Methanation
C
2
hydrogenation
C
3
hydrogenation
C
4
hydrogenation
Pygas

hydrogenation
C
5
BTX C
9
+
Fuel
Ethylene
Propylene
Butene, butadiene
Feed Steam
cracker
FIG. 1. Pygas production and other products from a steam cracker.
H
2
Pygas
feed
C
5
C
9
+
C
6
C
8
A
Q
Q
D
Rx
2
Rx
1
FIG. 2. Pygas hydrogenation flow scheme.
TABLE 1. Typical naphtha cracker pygas (C
5
200C) yield
and composition
Composition, wt%
Paraf ns + naphthenes 11.8
Olens 5.5
Diolens 18.1
Benzene 28
Toluene 13.9
Xylenes 7.2
Styrene 3
C
9
+ aromatics 12.5
Total aromatics 64.6
aromatics recovery, by selectively hydrogenating the olefins
and removing sulfur via hydrodesulfurization (HDS). The re-
actions are conducted through a series of specific catalysts in
fixed-bed reactors. The operating conditions are selected to
prevent aromatics losses by hydrogenation and to minimize
heavy product generated by polymerization.
HYDROGEN NETWORK
For APC of the hydrogenation processes, the hydrogen
network plays a major role, and it needs to be studied care-
fully. Both pygas-treating stages consume hydrogen. Several
configurations are possible to supply hydrogen to the pygas
reactors, as shown in FIG. 3:
High-purity hydrogen option
Low-purity hydrogen option
First-stage purge in the second stage.
One concern that cannot be ignored is that other facility
processes are also hydrogen users, such as selective hydrogena-
tion of C
2
, C
3
and C
4
streams. In a situation of low-hydrogen
availability, these processes have priority. As a consequence,
pygas can reach a situation in which the first stage is tempo-
rarily operated with insufficient hydrogen, which has negative
consequences on process performance and catalyst life. When
excess hydrogen is available, it is important to reduce wasteful
hydrogen flaring and to improve pygas operation by utilizing
all available hydrogen. Efficient pygas operation can ensure
that the best use is made of available hydrogen.
POSSIBLE OPERATING IMPROVEMENTS
There are four key areas that have the potential to deliver op-
erational improvements. These areas are: improving first-stage
product quality, reducing the risk of channeling, maximizing
second-bed usage, and optimizing global hydrogen usage.
Improving first-stage product quality. The product enter-
ing the second stage must be hydrogenated to the correct level
to prevent polymerization of any remaining diolefins or alkenyl
aromatics in the second-stage reactor, which is operated at a
higher temperature and in the vapor phase. If the hydrogena-
tion process lacks sufficient hydrogen or has a low temperature
profile, there will be a high tendency to form gums at the inlet
of the second-stage reactor, thus generating unacceptable pres-
sure drop and performance reduction.
A good indicator of the hydrogenation of diolefins or alke-
nyl aromatics is the styrene content of the first-stage reactor
product. Normally, the styrene specification is set at 1,500
ppm to efficiently protect the second-stage catalyst. In addi-
tion, reasonable catalyst cycles are followed.
FIG. 4 presents a statistical distribution of the styrene con-
tent at the outlet of the first-stage reactor without APC. The
C
2
hydrogenation
H
2
purge
Pygas feed
H
2
network
High-priority
H
2
consumer
To are
C
3
hydrogenation
C
4
hydrogenation
To BTX extraction
1st
stage
2nd
stage
FIG. 3. Hydrogen network summary.
Styrene distribution, ppmwt
800 800 1,000 1,100 1,300 1,500 1,700 1,800 1,900 2,000 700 600 500
Large giveaway
Of specs
On specication
FIG. 4. Typical styrene statistical distribution in a first-stage reactor
outlet (ppmwt) from an online analyzer.
Rx
1
FC
FC
Product to 2nd stage
Pygas feed
Quench
H
2
Liquid load
FC = Manipulated variable
Liquid load = Controlled variable
Diluent
FIG. 5. Diluent flow adjustment in first-stage reactor.
Reducing the
channelling
No APC
APC on
75 80 85 90
First bed temperature of rst-stage reactor, C
Feed ow
95 100
Temperature prole in rst bed of rst-stage reactor
FIG. 6. Improving from bumpy to smooth temperature profile
with APC.
histogram is characterized by a small number of off-specifica-
tion values that could have damaged the second-stage catalyst.
Also, a large proportion of product was well below the required
specification. This over-quality is translated as a cost or give-
away due to the unnecessarily high reactor temperature in the
first stage that would reduce the catalyst cycle.
Reducing channeling by appropriate diluent flow. In
the first-stage reactor, the flow entering the reactor is mainly
in liquid phase, and it is constituted of fresh pygas feed, dilu-
ent cooled and recycled from the first-stage reactor outlet and
hydrogen makeup, as shown in FIG. 5. If the diluent flow is too
low, then the hydraulic loading of the catalytic bed may be-
come too small, and thus possibly cause channeling.
If the diluent flow is too high, then the velocity in the reac-
tor may be excessive. More importantly, it will lower the aver-
age bed temperature, thus a higher inlet temperature will be
required to maintain performance. The higher operating tem-
perature will negatively impact the stability of the catalyst.
The total flow to the first-stage reactor (fresh feed + dilu-
ent), also called liquid load, must be adjusted to an optimal
target value close to the design value to produce the most con-
tinuous temperature profile. This condition is illustrated in
FIG. 6. With an inappropriate liquid load, the irregular tempera-
ture profile reveals the occurrence of channeling.
Maximizing second-bed usage by quench flow. In both
pygas reactors (first and second stage), there is usually a quench
injection between the first and second beds, to control the reac-
tor temperature profile. The quench flow is often kept too high
by panel operators to prevent temperature runaways.
In the first-stage reactor, as illustrated in FIG. 7, the conse-
quences of excessive quench flow are a lower bed T, which
results in lower hydrogenation levels in the second bed. This
leads to increased styrene content in the product. To com-
pensate for this case, the first-bed temperature is frequently
increased, which is detrimental to catalyst life cycles. APC ob-
jectives for the first-stage reactor include the balance of the hy-
drogenation between the first and second reactor beds.
Optimizing hydrogen usage by minimizing flaring. This
principle is described in FIG. 8. The hydrogen-network purge to
the flare is piloted by a hydrogen-network pressure controller.
If the valve of this pressure controller is not fully closed, then
hydrogen is wasted and sent to flare. In this case, it is possible
to increase hydrogen flow to the pygas unit, until the pressure
controller valve is fully closed, thus optimizing usage of all
available hydrogen
In reality, the hydrogen-network pressure-control strategy
implemented in the distributed control system (DCS) can be
much more complex than presented in FIG. 8. Using in-depth
knowledge of DCS capabilities, a new method was developed
to minimize hydrogen loss and further increase the hydrogen
makeup for the pygas unit without affecting the network pres-
sure. This approach uses pressure controller parameters (set-
point, process value, valve opening, etc.) and dynamic models
derived from step-test data. The benefits from this approach
are to deliver more hydrogen to the pygas unit and thus im-
prove hydrogenation performance.
APC STRATEGY
This novel approach on APC strategy was successfully ap-
plied to optimize industrial pygas process operations. It incor-
porated several key control methods to improve the hydroge-
nation process:
1st stage reactor 2nd bed T
Styrene in product
Quench ow steps
FIG. 7. Effect of quench flow changes (during 14 hours) in the second
bed of first-stage reactor.
C
2
hydrogenation
H
2
purge
Pygas feed
H
2
network
To are
C
3
hydrogenation
C
4
hydrogenation
To BTX extraction
1st
stage
2nd
stage
FC = Manipulated variable
H
2
available = Infered controlled variable
PC
FC
Send all ared
H
2
to pygas
H
2
available
FIG. 8. Using hydrogen network information to maximize hydrogen
supply to pygas.
Feed quality
estimation
Diluent Quench Diluent Quench
Reactor
model
1st stage 2nd stage
Periodical manual
catalyst activity update
Lab data
Reactor
model
BI index
aromatics
Lab data
\|{rere
|r4
|er:||{
\|{rere
diolens
|r4
FIG. 9. Inferential model to maximize hydrogen management while
minimizing styrene content.
Maximize feed. Common practice is to place an intermediate
product tank between the steam cracker and the pygas unit.
The volume of this tank can usually absorb one days produc-
tion of pygas. The inventory of this tank should be minimized
to reduce the risk of polymerization of unsaturated compo-
nents present in the raw pygas, until downstream constraints
have been saturated.
Use all available hydrogen. Optimize the global hydrogen
management.
First-stage reactor. The first target is to do ultra-deep hy-
drogenation of diolefins and alkenyl aromatics, by controlling
the styrene content, as measured by an online analyzer, in the
first-stage product. The next step is to stabilize reactor opera-
tion by controlling the reactor liquid load at an ultimate level
to avoid channeling.
Hydrogen partial pressure is maximized to promote hydro-
genation by increasing the reactor pressure while maximizing
the dissolved hydrogen fraction in the liquid phase. The pro-
cess is operated to ensure a minimal gas purge flow to prevent
concentration of inert species in the hydrogen recycle gas.
(This is applicable if the unit is equipped with a recycle-gas
compressor.) The temperature profile is optimized, using re-
actor inlet temperature, diluent and quench flow to prevent
temperature runaway, to balance reactor T between the two
beds, and to maximize catalyst cycle length.
Fractionation. APC needs to identify the right compromise
between the quality of the separation and energy savings.
Second-stage reactor. The first target is to perform com-
plete hydrogenation of olefins and sulfur removal by control-
ling the bromine index (BI) and sulfur content of the reac-
tor effluent. The next step is to minimize hydrogenation of
aromatics by avoiding unnecessarily high-temperature process
conditions. Finally, stable reactor operation will be achieved by
the control of reactor T and hydrogen-recycle gas density.
PYGAS INFERENCE AND OPTIMIZER
The pygas inferential model proposed for APC, as shown
in FIG. 9, is based on highly evolved kinetic models that enable
online styrene content and BI estimation, and, consequently,
reactor optimization. Laboratory analyses of the first-stage ef-
fluent are used to estimate the first-stage feed quality (styrene
content, bromine number and density). The first-stage reac-
tor model integrates the estimated feed quality and measured
reactor operating conditions, continuously inferring the first-
stage product quality: styrene, diolefins and bromine number.
FIG. 10 illustrates the prediction of the styrene compared with
online analyzer measurement.
The second-stage reactor model integrates estimated feed
quality and measured reactor operating conditions, continu-
ously inferring the second-stage product quality. FIG. 11 illus-
trates the estimation of the BI in the effluent of the second-
stage reactor. Using spot-detailed analyses and collection of
operating conditions, APC users can generate the best tuning
parameters to fit the current operation, thus allowing real-
time control moves to improve performance.
Styrene inferred
Styrene online
analyzer
FIG. 10. Styrene estimation in first-stage effluent by first-stage
reactor model.
Quench ow
BI inferred
Inlet temperature
FIG. 11. BI estimation in second-stage effluent by second-stage
reactor model.
1st stage
optimizer
MVAC multivariable controller
Pygas
inference
Reactor temperature optimal target
Reactor quench ow optimal target
Styrene
Bromine index
Temperatures Pressure Reboiler Flows
FIG. 12. APC architecture to optimize pygas hydrogenation.
FC
FC
TC
Product to 2nd stage
Pygas feed
Quench
H
2
T B2
TC = Manipulated variable
Styrene = Controlled variable
Diluent
FC
Styrene
Rx
1
FIG. 13. Simplified APC variables used for simulation example.
Recommended APC architecture. All
APC components are embedded in an
APC server connected to the DCS archi-
tecture, as depicted in FIG. 12. The control
and optimization application consists of
these modules:
MVAC module: State space multi-
variable predictive controller (MVPC)
Pygas inference
First-stage optimizer.
The application provides one-min-
ute cycles for MVAC (the MVPC) and
60-minute cycles for the optimizer. Con-
troller execution time was determined by
the process dynamics.
APC PERFORMANCE
Here is a simple example of APC po-
tential, illustrated by the application to a real pygas unit opti-
mization project. The control matrix components are present-
ed in FIG. 13. The inputs or manipulated variables (MVs) are:
Feed flow to be maximized when available to reduce tank
inventory
H
2
flow used as long as available to prevent flaring
Reactor inlet temperature to control styrene content,
but minimized when possible to lengthen catalyst cycles
Quench flow to control styrene content.
The outputs or controlled variables (CVs) are:
Styrene in product, which should stay below the maxi-
mum limit
Reactor second-bed T, which should stay below the
maximum limit.
When APC in turned ON, the styrene analyzer is at 1,300
ppm, below its 1,500-ppm maximum limit, and the reactor
second-bed T is at 65C, below its 73C maximum limit. As
far as the operation is concerned, quench flow is too high, re-
sulting in excessive cooling of the second bed. When the reac-
tor inlet temperature is too high, a styrene giveaway occurs.
More feed is available; the intermediate tank is not empty; and
additional hydrogen is available, but is flared.
APC actions on the process, as plotted in FIG. 14, can be
summarized as making use of all available hydrogen to re-
duce styrene at the first-stage reactor outlet and thus reduc-
ing quench flow as far as the second-bed T allows. These
conditions will also reduce styrene content. Simultaneously,
the reactor inlet temperature is reduced and feed flow is maxi-
mized within the constraints of the maximum styrene content
limits. By better operation of the second bed, and using the
10% additional hydrogen available, this APC system was able
to increase production by 10%, while decreasing reactor inlet
temperature by 4C.
APC with inferential modeling has been successfully ap-
plied to pygas hydrogenation units. The overall benefits are:
On-specification product without giveaway
Ability to treat more feed : +10%
Reduction of first-stage reactor inlet temp.: 4C
Catalyst run length maximization: +4 months/
current
Reduction of aromatics hydrogenation: 10%
Reduction of H
2
waste to flare: 10%
Energy savings: 5%
The lengthening of the catalyst run length limits downtime
for both the pygas unit and upstream units such as the steam
cracker. An additional benefit observed by the operating staff
was, with the ease of setting targets and the confidence that
the APC system would meet these targets, they were free to
concentrate on other plant activities.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bader, J.-M. and S. Guesneux, Advanced process control optimization increases
MTBE plant productivity, Hydrocarbon Processing, October 2005.
Bader, J.-M. and S. Guesneux, Use real-time optimization for low-sulfur gasoline
production, Hydrocarbon Processing, February 2007.
Tona P. and J.-M. Bader. Efficient System Identification for Model Predictive
Control with the ISIAC Software, (ICINCO), Stubal, Portugal, 2004.
Grosdidier P. and J.-M. Bader, Supervisory Control of an FCC unit through
Sequential Manipulation, Instrument Society of America, 1996.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors express their gratitude to Jol Chebassier, Orionde, for his con-
tribution to this article and also to the customers for making this article possible.
This article is a revised and updated version from an earlier presentation at the
American Fuels and Petrochemical Manufacturers (AFPM) Annual Meeting, March
1113, 2012, San Diego, California.
JEAN-MARC BADER is project manager at Axens Performance
Programs Business Unit. His background is in energy
engineering with over 23 years of experience in APC projects
(design, development, implementation and maintenance) for
refineries, petrochemicals and chemical plants (including ADU,
FCC, CCR, alkylation, hydrotreating, ethylene, ammonia,
blending), with several APC tools, on various DCS. He joined
Axens in 2001, after several years with Elf and Total. His responsibilities include
proposal and project management for APC projects. He graduated with honors
from I.N.S.A. engineering school.
GILDAS ROLLAND is a deputy product line manager
hydroprocessing and olefins for Axens. He started his career in
1998 at IFP Energies nouvelles as a process engineer in the
R&D department. In 1999, he joined the process design
department of the North American office in Princeton, New
Jersey. In 2001, he moved back to Axens head-office where he
served successively as start-up and tech service advisor,
specialist in olefins technologies including R&D activities related to technology
and catalyst improvement. Mr. Rolland was appointed to his current position in
2010. He is a graduate of the Ecole Centrale de Lille (E.C.Lille) and holds a
masters degree in refining and petrochemicals from the IFP School.
FIG. 14. Eight-hour closed-loop APC simulation example.
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Special Report
M. J. KING, Whitehouse Consulting, Isle of Wight, UK
Why dont we properly train control engineers?
While there are managers in the process industry that see
training control engineers as a no-brainer, these are very
much in the minority. They may send staff on courses cover-
ing configuration of the distributed control system (DCS) and
implementation of multivariable predictive control (MPC),
but some managers seem to miss the point that engineers also
need to develop expertise in basic control techniques. It ap-
pears to be a case of not knowing what they dont knowi.e.,
there is a lack of appreciation of what a fully trained engineer
can achieve. Without an injection of expertise, so-called ex-
perienced staff lack the knowledge to pass on to new recruits.
Of the engineering disciplines relevant to the process indus-
try, process control is probably the least well-taught at universi-
ties. Often handled by lecturers with backgrounds having little
to do with chemical engineering, the courses are laden with
complex mathematical techniques that have little relevance to
the industry. While all graduates need additional training to
advance their careers, this is particularly true for those destined
to work in the field of process control.
Process control engineers have an immediate impact on the
process. Todays systems permit the engineer to move from
idea to commissioning with little involvement of other staff.
Most other engineers develop recommendations that are re-
viewed with others, move on to designs that are also reviewed,
and work with others during commissioning. Control engi-
neers are more akin to process operators in the way they work.
Operators are well-trained, so why arent control engineers?
Questions to consider. The following 10 questions are de-
signed to expose common gaps in a readers knowledge. If you
are a control engineer, be honest in answering them:
1. Have all of the controllers been configured with the
best choice of a proportional/integral/derivative (PID) al-
gorithm? For example, am I aware that most systems support
the option to have proportional action based on the process
variable (PV), rather than on error? Do I believe that this al-
gorithm is inferior because it gives a slow response to setpoint
(SP) changes, or do I know that, for many controllers, apply-
ing this option with the correct choice of tuning can reduce,
by a factor of three, the time that it takes the process to recover
from a disturbance? (See FIG. 1.)
2. Am I using trial-and-error as the main tuning method?
Am I aware that this increases, by a factor of around 50, the time
taken to properly tune a controller? Do I know that, because
of the time required, the controller is unlikely to ever be prop-
erly tuned? Am I aware that there are over 200 tuning methods
published for PID control, and that mostif not allof them
have some major deficiency? Does my chosen method properly
compromise between a fast return to SP and the movement of
the manipulated variable (MV)? (See FIG. 2.) Is this method de-
signed to be used with the chosen version of the PID algorithm?
3. Do I know that applying derivative action can greatly im-
prove controller performance if the process deadtime is large
compared to the lagtime? (See FIG. 3.) Am I reluctant to use it
because it makes tuning more complicated? Do I abandon its
use if the measurement is noisy, or do I know how to solve this
problem? Do I know how to resolve the spiking problem that
derivative action causes with regard to discontinuous signals?
4. Is maximum use made of the surge capacity in the plant?
(See FIG. 4.) Are vessel levels maintained close to SP, or are
they allowed to approach alarm limits to minimize down-
stream flow disturbances? Are level gauges ranged to maxi-
mize vessel working volume? Do I know that nonlinear algo-
rithms such as error squared and gap control can be used
to more fully exploit surge capacity?
SP
PV (proportional-on-error)
PV (proportional-on-PV)
FIG. 1. Response to a load change.
PV (limiting MV overshoot)
PV (ignoring MV)
SP
MV (acceptable overshoot)
MV (unacceptable overshoot)
FIG. 2. Taking account of MV overshoot.
5. Are filters being used mainly to reduce the visual impact
of noise on trended variables? Filters can significantly reduce
the controllability of the process and may not be necessary in
all cases. Do I know that I should instead check what impact
the noise has on the final control element (usually a control
valve)? Do I know of other readily available filtering techniques
that cause less distortion to the base signal? Am I aware of the
importance of eliminating noise at the source, particularly with
level measurements, and how this can be achieved?
6. Am I aware of other algorithms that can outperform
even an optimally tuned PID algorithm? Do I know that these
can be easily implemented in most DCSs?
7. Do I know that most MPC packages provide bias rather
than ratio feedforward? In many cases, performance can be
substantially improved by implementing ratio feedforward at
the DCS level. Do I know how to properly tune the dynamic
compensation in such controllers? Do I know of the benefit
that ratio feedforward gives in automatically maintaining op-
timum PID tuning in all of the units controllers as the feed
rate is changed?
8. Do I apply density compensation to fuel gas flow control-
lers to display flowrates in standard volumetric units (e.g., Nm
3
/
hr or standard cubic feet per minute)? Do I know that this wors-
ens the disturbance caused by changes in gas heating value?
9. Are my inferential property calculations automatically
updated using laboratory data? Am I aware that, in most cases,
this can cause the inferential to become less accurate?
10. Have I been persuaded to locate my compressor con-
trols in specialist hardware rather than in the DCS? Do I know
that, if I apply the correct tuning method, this may
not be necessary?
How did you do in the test? If it has exposed even
one area where your knowledge is incomplete, then
chances are that there is an opportunity to improve
process performance that will capture benefits far ex-
ceeding the cost of effective training.
Training costs. What does it cost to train a control
engineer, and what are the economic benefits? In ad-
dition to the time spent on learning how to config-
ure the DCS and how to apply the chosen MPC, a control en-
gineer will need around three weeks of further training. This
training should cover basic control techniques, conventional
advanced control, process-specific techniques, inferentials, etc.
Such courses can cost $1,000 per day. Factoring in travel and
living expenses, the total price of training could be $20,000. A
manager might view this as costly, but it is insignificant com-
pared to the benefits to be achieved through additional training.
For example, a control engineer typically will be responsible
for control applications that are capable of capturing in excess
of $500,000 per year. Commissioning a project of this value just
two weeks sooner would be enough to justify the training. If
maintaining existing applications (for example, over a two-year
period), then a 2% increase in their utilization would generate
the same savings. Also, if the company relies on external special-
ists during implementation, then reducing the involvement of a
top-grade consultant by two weeks would yield similar savings.
While such benefits apply to operating companies, simi-
lar benefits can be achieved by those companies offering ad-
vanced process control (APC) implementation and process
engineering services. With only minor differences between
competing technologies, the main criterion in selecting an
APC implementation company is the expertise of the engi-
neers it offers. Winning even one more contract by demon-
strating a higher level of expertise more than justifies the cost
of developing that expertise.
Similarly, plant owners are increasingly expecting engineer-
ing contractors to be more aware of the importance of good
basic control design. Too many processes with inherent con-
trol problems exist, along with missed opportunities that could
have been avoided at negligible cost, if considered at the pro-
cess design phase.
Which course should an engineer choose? More than
any other engineering subject, process control training requires
practical, hands-on exercises. Most engineering disciplines
work with steady state. It is relatively easy to demonstrate
steady-state behavior in a computer slide presentation. How-
ever, it is not so easy to show parameters changing over time.
SP
PV (PID)
PV (PI)
FIG. 3. Use of derivative action.
Averaging control
Tight control
Vessel level
Downstream ow
FIG. 4. Use of surge capacity.
Winning even one more contract
by demonstrating a higher level
of expertise more than justifies the cost
of developing that expertise.
49
Student-friendly, dynamic simulations take far more time to
build; it can take 50 hours or more to develop the material cov-
ered in one hour on the course. The ratio for the preparation
of more conventional teaching material is likely less than 10:1.
More effective courses are necessarily more costly. This is par-
ticularly true if they are presented by the more experienced
and, therefore, usually more highly paidengineer. The value
of a course should be assessed on what impact the participant
can have on process profitability upon returning to work. He or
she should return with several ideas that can be put into prac-
tice immediately.
Presenting the course on a manufacturing site provides the
opportunity for practical exercises to be carried out on real con-
trollers. The resulting improvements have a noticeable impact
on process performance, and they greatly increase the confi-
dence of the engineer to implement other ideas.
Who should present the course? It might be easier to an-
swer this question by identifying potentially poor choices. The
DCS vendor is best placed to instruct staff in the use of the sys-
tem. However, vendors are generally more effective at explain-
ing the how than the why. For example, they can describe
the multiple versions of the PID algorithm available in their
systems, but they are generally less adept at explaining when
each algorithm should be used.
Similarly, the MPC suppliers will be able to describe how to
effectively design, implement and monitor their technology, but
they will not go into detail about the basic controls that should
be in place before step-testing is undertaken. While MPC sup-
pliers are concerned that such controllers operate well, they
generally place less demanding criteria on their performance.
With a few notable exceptions, most academic institutions
treat process control as a highly theoretical subject. Their
courses tend to be cheaper because the tutors time and the fa-
cilities have already been paid for; however, their usefulness is
often questionable.
Should the course be held in-company? There is the
temptation, particularly if only one or two engineers need
training, to send them on an open-access course. It costs the
supplier more to run these types of courses than it does to run
in-company courses since open-access courses must be mar-
keted to a wide client base, there is a greater administrative
load, and the course facilities must be rented.
For the customer, an open-access course may be the less
costly option, even with the inclusion of travel and living ex-
penses. Also, engineers may have the opportunity to develop
valuable contacts in other organizations. However, the follow-
ing points should be considered:
An in-company course opens up the opportunity for oth-
ers to attend; the most successful APC projects are those in
which the entire staff is involved.
Plant supervisors, process engineers and production
planners normally do not attend open-access process con-
trol courses; however, they will usually sit in on at least part
of an in-company course. An in-company course provides a
valuable opportunity for these personnel to develop an aware-
ness of technology and the role they can play in its successful
implementation.
An in-company course can be customized to closely
match the companys needs.
Some material included in an open-access course may
not be relevant; it may assume less previous knowledge, and its
timing may be inconvenient.
When should training take place? Training budgets, like
many expenses that are perceived as optional, are often the first
to be cut when the economic climate is poor. However, this is
precisely the time when control engineering expertise should
be developed. The likelihood is that no major APC projects will
be approved, and so releasing engineers for training does not
disrupt their schedules.
Furthermore, engineers will have time to identify and ex-
ploit the many zero-cost improvements revealed by the training.
Also, when major investments are again considered, the basic
process control layer will already be ready to receive APC
therefore, substantially shortening its commissioning.
MYKE KING is the author of Process Control: A Practical Approach,
as well as the director of Whitehouse Consulting. Previously, he
was a founding member of KBC Process Automation. Prior to
that, Mr. King was employed by Exxon. He is responsible for
consultant services, assisting clients with improvements to basic
controls, and with the development and execution of advanced
control projects. Mr. King has 35 years of experience in such
projects, having worked with many of the worlds leading oil and petrochemical
companies. He holds an MS degree in chemical engineering from Cambridge
University, and he is a Fellow of the Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE).
TOC COD TN TP BOD TOD
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Special Report
A. J. SZLADOW, REDUCT & Lobbe Technologies Inc.,
Richmond, British Columbia, Canada
Consider automated fault detection systems
to improve facility reliability
Automated fault detection and diagnosis systems (AFDDSs)
are well established in many consumer and industrial sectors.
1

The conventional limit-value based (high/low alarms) fault
detection and diagnosis systems have the advantage of simplic-
ity and reliability. Yet, they also have a major weakness. These
systems can only react to the deterioration of system condi-
tions, and they do not provide sufficient time and information
to detect and diagnose anomalous conditions proactively. TABLE
1 summarizes the relative advantages of AFDDS vs. standard
FDDS control. This article addresses how to implement an
AFDDS in a refinery, and discusses the advantages and key is-
sues with AFDDS.
AFDDS APPLICATIONS
There are numerous publications on fault detection and di-
agnosis in electrical systems, including application of statistical
and soft computing methods. However, very little of the knowl-
edge and experience gained from AFDDS application from oth-
er industrial sectors has been applied to the refining industry. A
literature review regarding methods applied in AFDDS in heavy
industry lists 367 references.
1
None of the 367 listed references
refers to applications found in petroleum refining.
In 1995 and 1997, similar literature reviews identified over
250 applications of intelligent systems including, AFDDS in
heavy-industry operations.
2
Again, the majority of the applica-
tions addressed process control and optimization, scheduling,
and design for productivity and product quality. Less than 10%
of the applications described fault detection and diagnosis sys-
tems, and most cases were not automated; they primarily pro-
vided decision support to process operators and engineers.
The number of AFDDSs applied appears to be related to the
automation level of the site plant and the risks associated with
unsafe operating conditions. The aerospace sector has a very
high level of AFDDS applications due to the risk associated
with this sector and corresponding levels of regulation. Given
the listed considerations and that very few AFDDSs have been
implemented in oil refineries, we will discuss AFDDS applica-
tion in petroleum refining and also review systems implement-
ed by industry to manage process and equipment failures.
Examples. There are very few published references to the ben-
efits of AFDDS within the petroleum sector, as summarized in
TABLE 2. A report by Berra indicates that one client gained sav-
ings from the reduction of unplanned shutdowns on the order
of $7.5 million with the application of predictive diagnosis in
critical refinery process units.
3
An EPRI report examined present adoption of control tech-
nologies in California refineries and the move to use of distrib-
uted control systems (DCSs), multivariable, neural networks
and future self-learning tools as shown in TABLE 3.
4
Such pro-
gression of technological changes has a large potential benefit.
But, this progression will require investment.
Following the methodology outlined in the EPRI report,
Table 4 shows the avoided maintenance cost for refineries be-
fore and after implementation of advanced control technolo-
gies. We assign any reduction in maintenance costs to AFDDS.
TABLE 4 depicts three levels of technology implementation:
1. Present level with advanced technologies
2. Application of marketable (present available cost-effec-
tive) technologies
3. Application of technical potential (future cost-effec-
tive) advanced technologies.
A large difference (double) between marketable and techni-
cal potential technologies indicates possible gains in technol-
ogy capacity through research.
Cost reduction. The maintenance cost was estimated at 7% of
the total operating cost (Salomon 2006), which yields a benefit
of over $1.3 million/yr from increased penetration of available
technologies and a further $1.7 million/yr from implementing
future (hybrid and self-learning) technologies (see TABLE 4).
The annual total reduced maintenance cost is estimated at over
$3 million for an average refinery.
TABLE 1. Standard controls vs. AFDDS
Issue Standard control AFDDS
Alarm detection Reactive Proactive/Prognosis
Alarm management Non-deductive Deductive notication
Personnel guidance Little Signicant
Inputs Largely from sensors Sensors and expert
knowledge
Corrective action Operator initiated
Automatic
Automatic
Used by Operating personnel Operating, maintenance,
engineering and safety
personnel
The lost production due to unscheduled shutdowns is typi-
cally reported to be between 10% to 20% of operating costs.
5
As-
suming a potential 50% reduction in unscheduled shutdowns,
etc., from installing an AFDDS, the estimated annual benefits
would exceed $3 million for an average refinery. However, to
achieve this level of benefits, an AFDDS would have to be ap-
plied on half of the following unit operations and processes:
1. Unit operations: Distillation, absorption columns, fur-
naces, heat exchangers and compressors.
2. Unit processes: Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC), catalytic
reformer, hydrocracking, delayed coking, hydrotreating and al-
kylation. About six AFDDS models would be required to gain
the benefits listed.
AFDDS PERFORMANCE
Heavy industry has used advanced process control (APC) sys-
tems for optimization projects and has given much less attention
to AFDDSs. However, depending on the level of automation,
benefits from managing abnormal process and equipment condi-
tions can increase reliability; the benefits often exceed the gains
found through process optimization. For example, for a large con-
tinuous operation, such as a refinery, process optimization can
typically yield a 3% improvement in productivity.
6
In contrast, a
well-implemented AFDDS may yield up to a 5% improvement in
profitability. This is because management for reliability improve-
ment goes beyond fault avoidance by providing the ability to:
1. Handle large disturbances and control variables at their
optimal values
2. Ensure and upgrade dynamic process models, including
factors omitted in initial implementation
3. Explain the behavior of controllers and, when needed,
correct controllers to meet planned targets
4. Provide advice on alarm management, including early
detection of problems before more serious problems develop.
As summarized in TABLE 5, it is possible to classify fault de-
tection and diagnosis methods into quantitative using models
based on first principles, qualitative using models describing
lumped system responses, or process history methods matching
fault patterns derived from historical data.
79
The methods are
similar and, yet, different from each other. They can identify the
relative strengths and weaknesses from methods when building
diagnostic methods for fault detection and diagnosis (anomaly
detection, disturbance detection and controller diagnostics)
and supervisory control (controller tuning, control reconfigu-
ration and online optimization). AFDDS not only address typi-
cal maintenance functions such as better root-cause analysis or
optimized inspection frequencies, but, in 7 out of 10 cases, they
also address processing issues.
Safety and reliability. Improving operational safety and
meeting regulatory requirements are critical to industry opera-
tions and businesses. For example, AFDDSs have been applied
for safety and regulator reasons in the automotive and aero-
space sectors. This article does not discuss using AFDDSs to
enhance safety and meet regulatory requirements in refineries.
It is assumed that, where needed, the refining industry would
implement such systems as required.
Higher reliability due to AFDDS results in a more energy
efficient and profitable facility. However, AFDDS-driven en-
ergy savings are often indirect through less production waste,
reduced plant outages, less plant startups and/or shutdowns,
and more optimal equipment/process performance through
better control systems management, etc. All lead to reduced net
energy consumption per product unit made, or higher overall
plant energy efficiency.
RELIABILITY FOCUS
A simple focus on benefits/cost analysis does not reflect the
true opportunities created by AFDDS technology. For such an
analysis, it may not include technologies that can be adopted
easily and will later lead to significant learning and a significant
cost reduction. Therefore, broader adoption criteria, such as
those listed in TABLE 6 can provide better guidance as to the best
AFDDS projects and development directions to support.
TABLE 2. Summary of methods used and process units
studied
Reference ES MPC NN PCA FL SI Process
Wang
11
v Distillation
column
Vedan
12
v FCC
Huang
13
v Coker
Yang
14
v v FCC
Yamamoto
15
v v FCC
Pranatasta v FCC
Patan v CC
Pranatyasto
16
v v FCC
Gofuku
17
v Renery
Du
18
v FCC
Wilson
19
v Utility
ESExpert systems
MPCModel predictive control
NNNeural networks
PCAPartial component analysis
FLFuzzy logic
SISemantic interface
TABLE 3. Present state of adoption of control technology
in California reneries
Present control technology
Sub-section
of the renery, % Whole renery, %
Move to DCS 90 90
Move to multivariable 40 0
Move to neural network 5 0
Future self-learning control 0 0
Source: EPRI, 2004
4
TABLE 4. Avoided maintenance costs of Canadian reneries
depending on the level of automation
Level of automation
Avoided cost,
$ million
Current level with the use of advanced control technologies 0
Application of marketable (cost-efective today)
advanced control (AFDDS) technologies
> 1.3
Application of technical potential (cost-efective
in the future) advanced control (AFDDS) technologies
> 1.7
However, in each technology stage, there are niches or spe-
cialized markets that often experience adopting new technology
much sooner. Some general criteria for applications of AFDDSs
in oil refineries sector should be sought, explored and emphasized
to commercialize AFDDSs at a faster rate in areas such as FCC.
Implementing an AFDDS requires a high investment in
knowledge of refining operations, plant controls and automa-
tion, information technologies and software, advanced technol-
ogies for data analytics and visualization, plant-wide information
systems, etc. The market size of the petroleum refining industry,
therefore, is critical for the private sector to justify investment of
the large amount of resources and manpower required.
A more detailed discussion of the barriers to the introduction
of advanced control technologies in the refinery sector and other
heavy industry sectors can be found in the literature.
10
The prog-
ress in AFDDS is not likely to come from a large breakthrough
in science and technology, but from incremental improvement
in the cost of AFDDS and the gradual acceptance by industry.
TABLE 6 shows the estimated potential benefits and costs for
an AFDDS, and a few observations are evident:
1. Because of the large difference between an average
AFDDS cost (about $200,000) and the cost of improving plant
digital infrastructure ($500,000 to $1.5 million), it is the plants
existing infrastructure (or required improvement in infrastruc-
ture) that drives the benefit/cost ratio for implementating an
AFDDS at any plant/refinery.
2. Assume that in all AFDDS cases, some infrastructure will
have to be updated. In spite of that, in all cases, benefit/cost ra-
tios of > 0.4 (with approximately 1 most likely) and paybacks of
less than two years (about one year most likely) were projected.
In the final analysis of AFDDS adoption, one has to ask:
What if the oil refining industry or a large industrial segment
does not adopt AFDDS technologies? It is difficult to predict
the future of a specific industry, but strong conclusions can be
made based on what is known about the role of technology in
industry growth:
1. Technical progress is the most important factor in eco-
nomic growth, and, typically, it accounts for more than half of
growth in developed countries.
2. Industries that use advanced technology are more pro-
ductive and profitable and have higher wages.
3. Industries that use advanced technologies have higher
job growth.
4. New technologies revitalize old industries, e.g., steel, au-
tomobile, textile, etc.
TABLE 5. Summary of fault detection and diagnosis methods
Quantitative methods Qualitative methods History methods
Given required measurements can distinguish
known from unknown faults
Can provide explanation for fault propagation Fault rules can be used where fundamental
principles are lacking
Can detect faults for systems with process
and measurement noise
Can generate and recognize full set of faults Have been demonstrated to perform well in
terms of robustness to noise and resolutions
of parameters
Efectiveness is determined by sensor data
and system knowledge
May have poor resolution due to ambiguity of
qualitative reasoning
Easy (time and cost) to implement
Approximation of disturbances can create
modeling errors
Resolution problems can be addressed with
quantitative information
Poor fault generalization from historical
data only
Complex systems modeling may generate
spurious solutions because of computational
complexity
May have dif culty with multiple faults
depending on algorithm used
Limited by a nite set of data
TABLE 6. Summary of potential AFDDS benets and costs,
millions of dollars
Cost element Petroleum
Plants Average benet Average cost
1
Reduction in maintenance cost 1.4 1.12.1
Reduction in cost of outages 3.1
1.12.1
Total reduction and cost 4.5
2
Benet/cost ratio 2.14 (1.52.8)
3
1
Based on six AFDDSs models per plant
2
Inline with $4 to $6 million reported by Stout
21
and Kant
20
3
Based on reduction in cost of outages only
TABLE 7. Examples of industry-wide AFDDS adoption criteria
Overall Detail Comments
Must represent
a forward step
Potential for learning by
doing and/or research
Cross-cutting potential
Customization
requirements
Doesnt have to
be new AFDDS
technology
Have clear adoption
issue
AFDDS barriers
Host plant expertise
Lack of support/
sponsorship
Securing technical
expertise
Business ownership
Innovative nancing
options
Clear and doable
Technology is easy
People are hard
Supports areas
of major interest
Relevance or impact
on oil reneries sector
Proponent expertise
A niche application
Identication of
applications relevant
to the sectors
strategic investments
will accelerate AFDDS
adoption and increase
capacity
Also, industry-wide AFDDS adoption criteria can be for-
mulated, as shown in Table 4. Failure to implement AFDDS or
slow progress to adopt is likely to result in a loss of opportuni-
ties as measured by productivity within the petroleum refining
industry.
LITERATURE CITED
1
Chiang, L. H., E. L. Russel, and R. D. Braatz, Fault detection and diagnosis in indus-
trial systems, Springer, 2001.
2
REDUCT and Lobbe, Technologies, Application of Intelligent Systems to
increase productivity, quality and energy efficiency in heavy industry, and
Advances in the application of Intelligent Systems in heavy industry, CANMET
Technology 1995 and 1997.
3
Berra, J., The digital refinery: A look at the future of automation, NPRA
Computer Conference, 2002.
4
EPRI Report 1007415, Using advanced control and power technologies to improve the
reliability and energy efficiency of petroleum refining and petrochemical manufacturing
in California, 2004.
5
White, D., The 21st century refinery: Impact of modeling and predictive analyt-
ics, NPRA Technical Forum on Plant Automation, 2007.
6
Gosh, A. and D. Wall, Abnormal conditions managementThe missing link
between sustained performance and costly disruptions, ARC Advisory Group,
March 2001.
7
Venkatasubramanian, V., R. Rengaswamy, S. N. Kavuri and K. Yin, A review of
process fault detection and diagnosis, Part III: Process history based method,
Computers & Chemical Engineering, 2003.
8
Venkatasubramanian, V., R. Rengaswamy and S. N. Kavuri, A review of pro-
cess fault detection and diagnosis, Part I: Quantitative model-based methods,
9
Venkatasubramanian, V., R. Rengaswamy and S. N. Kavuri, A review of process
fault detection and diagnosis, Part II: Quantitative models and search strategies,
10
Szladow, A., Developing intelligent systems for heavy industry: The adoption of
intelligent technologies, PCAI, Vol. 17.6, 2005.
11
Wang, X. Z., et al., Learning dynamic fault models based on a fuzzy set covering
method, Computers & Chemical Engineering, Vol. 21, No. 6, 1997.
12
Vedam, H. and V. Venkatasubramanian, PCA-SDG based process monitoring
and fault diagnosis, Control Engineering Practice, Vol. 7, No. 7, 1999.
13
Huang, B., et al., Fault diagnosis of an industrial CGO coker model predictive
control system, IEEE Canadian Conference, 1999.
14
Yang, S. H., B. H. Chen and X. Z. Wang, Engineering applications of Artificial
Intelligence, Vol. 13, No. 3, 2000.
15
Yamamoto, J., et al., Application of a cooperative control system to residue fluid
catalytic cracking plant using a knowledge based system and model predictive
multivariable control, IECON 2000.
16
Pranatyastos, T. and S. J. Qin, Sensor validation and process fault diagnosis for
FCC units under MPC feedback, Control Engineering Practice, Vol. 9, No. 8, 2001.
17
Gofuku, A., and Y. Tanaka, Display of diagnostic information from multiple view-
points in anomalous situation of complex plants, systems, man and cybernetics,
IEEE International Conference, 1999.
18
Du, D., et al., Expert System for diagnosis and performance of centrifugal
pumps, 1996.
19
Wilson, D., A. Jumenez and J. Souza, An on-line advisory system for optimizing
refinery utilities systems, NPRA Technical Forum on Plant Automation, 2006.
20
Kant, R., and K. Pihlaja, Abnormal situation prevention (ASP) in complex sys-
tem, NPRA Plant Automation Conference, 2006.
21
Stout, J., Reliability and operations management applications in olefins plants,
AIChE Spring National Meeting, Houston, April 2001.
ADAM J. SZLADOW is president of REDUCT & Lobbe Technologies. He has over 30
years of experience in the development and application of advanced technologies
in energy and heavy industry. He held management and research positions in utility
industry, energy development companies and government research laboratories.
Dr. Szladow was chairman of the Business Committee of the National Advisory
Council to CANMET, Natural Resources Canada; and a member of the Ministers
National Advisory Committee, Natural Resources Canada. He holds a PhD in
materials sciences and chemical engineering from Pennsylvania State University,
and has authored over 70 scientific publications including patents.
Dew Point Humidity Oxygen
Michell Instruments, Inc
319 Newburyport Turnpike, Suite 207, Rowley, MA 01969
T: 978 484 0005
us.info@michell.com

measure moisture content
on-line in hydrocarbon
gases and liquids for
improved process control
Michell Hygrometers
Special Report
V. YADAV, P. DUBE, H. SHAH and S. DEBNATH,
Indian Oil Corp., Ltd., Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India
Optimize desulfurization of gasoline
via advanced process control techniques
At Indian Oil Corp.s (IOCs) Mathura refinery, a selective
desulfurization unit was commissioned to reduce the sulfur
content of fluidized catalytic cracked (FCC) gasolinea blend-
ing component for finished motor spirit (MS). The objective of
this new unit was lowering the sulfur content of FCC gasoline
from 500 ppmw to 100 ppmw, thus meeting Euro IV product
specifications for the refinery-gasoline blending pool. However,
along with desulfurization, some undesirable olefin saturation
reactions occurred, resulting in octane losses for the product
gasoline. As per design, the octane loss in the desulfurization
reactors is 1.3 units. With Euro IV specifications in place, the
octane loss negatively impacted the refinerys economics.
This refiner applied an advanced process control (APC)
solution to minimize octane loss. The objective of the desul-
furization units APC program is to maximize sulfur content in
the gasoline while still complying with Euro IV specifications
and other process operating constraints. The control philoso-
phy depended on sulfur estimations of the stabilizer-bottom
product. An inferential property was developed for online es-
timation of the sulfur content, and it was used as a controlled
variable in the multivariable predictive controller (MVPC).
This case history describes the development of the inferential
models used in open-loop and closed-loop applications, labora-
tory and analyzer update mechanisms, and APC model genera-
tion. With APC, it was possible to increase the sulfur content
in product gasoline by 10 ppm12 ppm, along with an average
octane gain of 0.11 units; all improved the
refinerys bottom line.
FCC GASOLINE
DESULFURIZATION PROCESS
IOCs Mathura refinery implemented
a new gasoline desulfurization process. It
is a two-step selective hydrotreating meth-
od. This processing unit consists of three
major operations:
Selective hydrogenation unit (SHU)
FCC-gasoline splitter (FCCGS) unit
Hydrodesulfurization (HDS) unit.
In the first step, FCC gasoline is treat-
ed in the SHU, which selectively converts
di-olefins into olefins and light mercap-
tans into heavier sulfur-containing com-
pounds. In the second step, the SHU
reactor effluent is separated into light-cut naphtha (LCN),
heart-cut naphtha and heavy-cut naphtha (HCN) in the FC-
CGS unit. In the third step, the heavy fraction from the splitter
bottom, containing high-sulfur content material, is processed
in the HDS unit. This processing step converts heavy sulfur
compounds into hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S). In addition, signifi-
cant saturation of olefins occurs along with the HDS reactions.
Saturating olefins reduces the final research octane number
(RON) and is an undesirable condition.
ADVANCED APC OBJECTIVES AND DESIGN
In the Mathura refinery application, the control objectives
are achieved by utilizing MVPC in conjunction with support-
ing predictions provided by an inferential property prediction
package (IPPP). Supporting calculations are required to sup-
plement existing process measurements. MVPC applications
incorporate process models that permit forward-feed distur-
bance rejection and intermediate variables feedback, as well as
constraint control. In configuring the controller, there is one
main controller. The objectives for the main controller are:
Maximizing stabilizer-bottom product sulfur level within
permissible limits, so that the upper limit of the total rundown
sulfur for the desulfurization unit is maintained per Euro IV
gasoline blending. Minimizing RON loss is also achieved.
Minimizing steam consumption by the stabilizer section
Maintaining safe unit operations.
306-E-01A
306FIC0104
306-P-01A/B
306-E-01B
306TIC0270
306-E-02
307-R-01
306FIC0202
306FIC0101
306FI0105
To FCCGSU gas feed
FCCU debutanizer ow
306LIC103
306TI0263
306-V-04
306-V-05
To FCCGSU liquid feed
Flow of SHU
gasoline recycle
306FIC0203
Steam
Manipulated variables
Controlled variables
Disturbance variables
Controller: MainCON
Sub-Controller: SHUCON
306-V-01
FIG. 1. Block diagram of the sub-controller for the selective hydrogenation unit.
To achieve these objectives, a main controller (MAIN-
CON) and two sub-controllers are used:
Selective hydrogenation unitSHUCON
Hydrodesulfurization unitHDSCON.
Note: The stabilizer section of the HDS unit is considered part
of HDSCON.
Sub-controller objectives. Before the APC installation,
the SHU was operated to maintain stable flow to the reactor.
Flow from the FCCU debutanizer (hot feed70% of total)
was routed to a feed-surge drum. A recycle stream (HDS sta-
bilizer bottom stream) from a nitrogen-blanketed storage (cold
feed30% of total) was also sent to the feed-surge drum. Unit
operators manually controlled the level of the SHU feed-surge
drum by adjusting the recycle stream.
To maintain the SHU reactor inlet temperature, feed from
the surge drum is heated by the SHU feed-effluent exchanger
on the tube side by exchanging heat from the SHU effluent. The
resulting mixture is heated in the SHU preheater using steam.
After the APC installation, the control objective was to
keep steady flow to the SHU feed and maintain the surge-drum
level by adjusting the FCCU debutanizer flow as a disturbance
variable (DV) and adjusting the recycle stream. The control
objective is to maintain a stable SHU RIT, by manipulating the
effluent exchanger bypass flow and steam flow to the SHU pre-
heater under allowable limits. The process equipment to be
managed via the APC included:
SHU feed-surge drum (306-V-01)
SHU feed-effluent exchanger (306-E-01A/B)
SHU preheater (306-E-02).
TABLE 1 summarizes the sub-controller design for the selec-
tive hydrogenation unit. The SHUCON sub-controller was de-
signed to manage steady flow to the SHU reactor while consid-
ering the debutanizer flow (hot feed) as a DV. The SHU feed/
effluent exchanger bypass flow, along with steam to the SHU
preheater, is used to control the SHU reactor-inlet temperature.
FIG. 1 shows the same sub-controller (SHUCON) for the SHU.
HDS unit sub-controller. Before the APC implementation,
the HDS unit was operated by controlling the sever-
ity conditions of the reactors. The unit operator con-
trolled HDS reaction (first-bed inlet temperature and
second-bed inlet temperature) based on daily sulfur
levels in the stabilizer bottom product and rundown
product. Sulfur levels were determined by analyzers
and lab testing. The fuel gas was cascaded with first-
bed inlet temperature, and the quench flow was cas-
caded with second-bed inlet temperature. To maintain stable
reflux flow to the stabilizer, unit operators adjusted the stabi-
lizer reboiler temperature and reflux pressure by continuous
monitoring of the light-end flow to the column.
Post-APC operations. The HDS reactor is set by the APC
based on sulfur levels of the stabilizer bottoms. The IPPP esti-
mation is done on a 15-second basis. Also, the APC will maxi-
mize the sulfur level within given operator limits, thereby by
adjusting the reactor severity. The stabilizer-bottom reboiler
temperature is controlled by APC and facilities minimizing the
steam consumption by the reboiler. However, the reflux flow to
the stabilizer is also controlled by APC, along with stabilizer-
bottom re-boiler temperature. The process equipment man-
aged via APC includes:
HDS reactor (307-R-01)
HDS heater (307-F-01)
HDS feed-effluent exchanger (307-E-01 A/B/C/D)
Stabilizer section (307-C-02).
TABLE 2 summarizes the sub-controller design for the HDS
unit. FIG. 2 shows the same sub-controller (HDSCON) for the
HDS unit.
Models. As shown in FIG. 3, the simple first-order process models
were not providing tight control on the HDS reactor-inlet tem-
peratures. In response, a ramp transfer function block was added
into the model, along with the first-order
transfer function block. The exothermic
reaction in the reactor behaves in a ramp
manner (unbounded runaway even in the
case of a bounded input disturbance).
Due to ramp behavior of the process, fast
action is required in manipulated variables
(MVs), such as fuel-gas flow and quench
flow, to quickly control the exotherm (by
controlling the first-bed and second-bed
inlet temperatures) before they rise too
high. The inherent instability of the reac-
tor was countered via a ramp block, plus
the normal first-order block, to relate the
MVs and DVs with the inlet temperatures.
For a step change in DVs, this combina-
tion predicts an unbounded response in
the inlet temperaturesthus, moving the
MVs quickly to reject the disturbance.
307TI0607.PV
307TI0630.PV
STABBTM_SULFUR
PV(RQE)
307-F-01
307-C-02
307FIC1003.PV
307TI0642.PV
307TIC0635.PV
307FIC0605.SP
306FIC0502.PV
307-E-04
307-V-04
307-E-05
307-E-06
307TI1014.PV
307AI1001.PV
307-V-06
307PIC1003.SP
307FIC0684.SP
To rundown
Steam
307-E-01
307-E-01
307-E-01
307-R-01
20TI0804.PV 307FI0606.PV
Manipulated variables
Controlled variables
Disturbance variables
Controller: MainCON
Sub-Controller: HDSCON
FIG. 2. Block diagram of the sub-controller for the hydrodesulfurization unit.
The objective of the desulfurization units
APC program is to maximize sulfur content
in the gasoline while still complying with Euro IV.
SUPPORTING CALCULATIONS
IPPP DEVELOPMENT
To calculate the sulfur content of the FCC feed inlet, several
predicted values were considered. By using the flowrate and sul-
fur quantity of all streams listed in TABLE 3, the total sulfur value
can be calculated at the FCCU feed inlet. The calculation used to
estimate the sulfur content is:
=(79FC803.PV S1 density) + (79FC802.PV
S2 density) + (79FC801.PV S3 density) +
(7FC6701.PV S4 density) + (12FIC100.PV
S6 (if crude_select.op=1) density)
or (MRA.12FIC100.PV S7 (if crude_select.op = 2)
density)
or (MRA.12FIC100.PV S8 (if crude_select.op = 3)
density) + ((2FC0708.PV S5)/1000) /
(79FC803.PV + 79FC802.PV + 79FC801.PV +
7FC6701.PV + 12FIC100.PV + 2FC0708.PV)
where S1S8 are sulfur values that are entered by the operator.
Sulfur content of FCC gasoline splitter. Feed to FCCGSU
is compensated by two streamshot feed from the debutaniz-
er (306FI0105.PV) and cold feed from recycle (306FIC0101.
PV). Calculations to estimate sulfur at FCCGSU feed are:
= ((DSU_SULFUR.PV 306FI0105) + (STABBTM_
SULFUR 306FIC0101.PV-5.5
*
)) / {(306FI0105)
+ (306FIC0101-5.5
*
)}
where DSU_SULFUR.PV and STABBTM_SULFUR are the
IPPP sulfur estimations.
*
5.5 is the flow correction since the control valve has a zero
error.
IPPP applications. Several IPPP models were developed for
the FCC gasoline desulfurization unit and include:
FCCDSU hot feed sulfur estimation
HDS feed sulfur estimation
Stabilizer bottom sulfur estimation.
FCCDSU feed sulfur. This model used several inputs:
Tag name Tag description
FCCUFD_SULFUR.PV Sulfur at FCCU (calculation)
19TRC153.PV FCCU main fractionator
top temperature
20TI99.PV FCCU debutanizer bottom
temperature.
To estimate the sulfur content of DSU feed, the following
linear equation is used:
P = Ax
1
+ Bx
2
+ Cx
3
+ Bias
where: P = DSU_SULFUR.PV
(FCCDSU feed sulfur in hot feed)
A = Coefficient 0.041417
x
1
= FCCUFD_SULFUR.PV
B = Coefficient 1.6497
x
2
= 19TRC153.PV
C = Coefficient 5.736500
x
3
= 20TI99.PV
Bias = 1067.4
FIG. 3. First-order process model response to reactor inlet temperature
control. FIG. 4. Quality and process improvement achieved through APC IPPP.
TABLE 1. APC variables for the sub-controller for the selective
hydrogenation unitSHUCON
Description Interface point
Manipulated variables:
Flow of SHU gasoline recycle 306FIC0101.SP
SHU feed/ef uent excahnger bypass 306FIC0202.SP
Steam ow to SHU pre heater 306FIC0203.SP
Disturbance variables:
FCCU debutanizer ow 306FI0105.PV
Flow to SHU from surge drum 306FIC0104.PV
Controlled variables:
Feed surge drum (306-V-01) level 306LIC0103.PV
SHU reactor (306-R-01 B) inlet
temperature
306TIC0270.PV
SHU pre-heater inlet temperature 306TI0263.PV
58
HDS feed sulfur. This model used several inputs:
Process inputs used
GSUFD_SULFUR.PV Feed to FCCGSU (calculation)
20PI0802.PV FCCGSU top pressure
20FC0306.PV FCCGSU light cut draw flow
20FC0404.PV FCCGSU heart cut draw flow
The following linear equation is used:
P = Ax
1
+ Bx
2
+ Cx
3
+ Dx
4
+ Bias
where: P = HDSFD_SULFUR.PV
x
1
= GSUFD_SULFUR.PV
x
2
= 20PI0802.PV
x
3
= 20FC0306.PV
D = Coefficient 3.291770
x
4
= 20FC0404.PV
Bias = 598.81
Stabilizer-bottom sulfur. This model used several inputs:
Process inputs used
HDSFD_SULFUR.PV HCN sulfur (HDS feed sulfur
IPPP estimation)
TABLE 3. Process monitoring points used to estimate sulfur
level for the FCC feed inlet
Description Tag name
OHCU bottom from tank 79FC803.PV
LS VGO from tank 79FC802.PV
BH VGO from tank 79FC801.PV
OHCU bottom hot feed 7FC6701.PV
HOT feed from AVU 12FIC100.PV
DHDS VGO ow 2FC0708.PV
AVU crude select tag* crude_select.op
*The sulfur quantity for each of the ow was operator entry.
AVU crude select tag is a digital tag pulled from the AVU having three values.
Tag value Crude type Sulfur quantity, ppm
1 Bombay High 4,000
2 High Sulfur 30,000
3 Nigerian 6,000
Description Densities
OHCU bottom from tank 0.875
LS VGO from tank 0.9
BH VGO from tank 0.9
OHCU bottom hot feed 0.875
HOT feed from AVU 0.9
DHDS VGO ow
AVU crude select tag
TABLE 2. APC variables for the sub-controller for the HDS unit
HDSCON
Description Interface point
Manipulated variables:
Fuel gas ow 307FIC0684.SP
HDS reactor 2nd bed quench 307FIC0605.SP
Stabilizer bottom steam pressure 307PIC1003.SP
Disturbance variables:
HDS feed from GSU 307FI0606.PV
Stabilizer light end feed from GSU 306FIC0502.PV
HDS reactor 2nd bed bottom
temperatue
307TI0630.PV
HDS feed temperature at GSU 20TI0804.PV
HDS feed sulfur HDSFD_SULFUR.PV
Controlled variables:
HDS reactor 1st bed inlet (307R01) temp 307TI0642.PV
HDS reactor 2nd bed inlet (307R01) temp 307TIC0635.PV
Feed ef uent exchanger inlet temp 307TI0607.PV
Stabilizer (307-C-02) bottom temp 307TI1014.PV
Reux ow to the stabilizer 307FIC1003.PV
Online stabilizer bottom sulfur 307AI1001.PV
Stabilizer bottom sulfur (inferred) STABBTM_SULFUR.PV
307TI0642.PV HDS reactor 1st bed inlet
temperature
307TI0630.PV HDS reactor 2nd bed bottom
temperature
307TI1014.PV Stabilizer bottom temperature.
To estimate the sulfur content of HDS feed, the following
linear equation is used:
P = Ax
1
+ Bx
2
+ Cx
3
+ Dx
4
+ Bias
where: P = STABBTM_SULFUR.PV
x
1
= HDSFD_SULFUR.PV
x
2
= 307TI0642.PV
x
3
= 307TI0630.PV
D = Coefficient 0.341067
x
4
= 307TI1014.PV
Bias = 1067.5
From FIG. 4, the quality estimation using the IPPP has good
agreement with the actual sulfur content as measured from
unit and lab analyzers. TABLE 4 summarizes the economic func-
tions and RON improvement possible with APC.
PROJECT MILESTONES
Implementing APC on the HDS unit has yielded substantial
tangible and intangible benefits. While the annual monetary
gain is of the order of Rs. 39 lakhs, significant improvement
via process control and optimization was achieved as measured
through tighter control of the SHU and HDS reactor inlet tem-
peratures. More accurate estimation of the stabilizer-bottom
sulfur inferential was possible, which facilitated proper control
action via the APC. With tighter control and action via APC,
adjusting and preferentially lowering the reactor-inlet tempera-
tures were possible. The effect of crude changes in the atmo-
spheric and vacuum distillation unit is also incorporated into
the model. The resultant sulfur changes in the FCC feed are
transmitted via means of intermediate calculations and inferen-
tial estimations to the final stabilizer-bottom sulfur prediction.
Operators now have more confidence when implementing
control and optimization strategies. This has resulted in better
operations of the refinery. Accordingly, APC was successfully
implemented and is yielding expected benefits.
LITERATURE CITED
1
Perry, R. H., Chemical Engineers Handbook, Sixth Ed., New York, McGraw Hill,
1984.
2
Levenspiel, O., Chemical Reaction Engineering, Third Ed., Singapore, John Wiley
and Sons, 1999.
3
Stephanopoulos, G., Chemical Process Control, Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt.
Ltd., 2007.
SHYAMAL DEBNATH is the chief technical services manager at
Indian Oil Corp. (IOC) Ltd.s Mathura refinery. His primarily
responsibilities include providing technical services for
strategic initiatives and advanced process control (APC).
Mr. Debnath has more than 25 years of experience in unit
operations, strategic initiatives (process and projects),
research, troubleshooting and APC for all the major process
units at various IOC refineries. He holds an MS degree in chemical engineering
from Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India.
HITESH SHAH is a senior technical services manager with Indian
Oil Corp. (IOC) Ltd.s Mathura Refinery. His primary
responsibilities include providing technical services for strategic
initiatives and APC. Mr. Shah has more than 14 years of
experience in strategic initiatives, planning and coordination,
and APC. At present, he is working as a senior technical services
manager at IOCs Gujarat refinery. Mr. Shah holds an MS degree
in chemical engineering from Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, India.
PRASHAT DUBE is a senior process engineer at Indian Oil Corp.
(IOC) Ltd.s Mathura Refinery. He is primarily responsible for
providing technical services for APC implementation and
maintenance. Mr. Dube has five years of experience in APC
for all major process units at the Mathura Refinery and holds
a BS degree in chemical engineering from Indian Institute
of Technology, New Delhi, India.
MS. VARSHA YADAV is a senior process engineer at Indian Oil
Corp. (IOC) Ltd.s Mathura refinery. She is primarily responsible
for providing technical services for APC implementation and
maintenance. Ms. Yadav has three years of experience in APC
for all major process units at the Mathura Refinery and holds
a BS degree in chemical engineering from Regional Institute
of Technology, Raipur, India.
TABLE 4. Economic benet and octane conservation possible
through APC
Economic function name Maximization of sulfur
Speed factor 0.10
Economic coef cients
MAX_AI 10
STEAMMIN 10
MAX_SULFUR 10
MINFG 100
MINRIT1 0
MINRIT2 0
RON improvement
RON improvement after MVPC
implementation from the rundown
stream (MS) of HDS unit
0.114
1 unit of RON improvement corresponds
to (1 metric ton of MS processed)
Rs. 91.30
Annual processing of feed (MS) in the
HDS unit (not considering the heart
cut drawn from FCCU-GS)
376,487 metric ton
Estimated annual benet due to
MVPC application in HDS unit
Rs. 39,32,517.86
Rs.39. 32 Lakhs
(Rupees thirty nine lakhs thirty
two thousand ve hundred
and seventeen only)
Sulfur in the stabilizer bottom
MS stream improved
15 ppmw
Sulfur in the rundown MS improved 11 ppmw
Targeted benets due to RON improvement
Targeted annual benet due to
MVPC application in HDS unit
Rs. 24.46 Lakhs
Targeted sulfur improvement
in the rundown MS
10 ppmw
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Refining Developments
P. K. NICCUM, KBR Inc., Houston, Texas
Maximize diesel production
in an FCC-centered refinery, Part 2
Part 1 of this article, published in September, presented
several methodologies for maximizing the production of
high-quality diesel in a refinery that relies on fluid catalytic
cracking (FCC) as its principal means of heavy oil conver-
sion. Part 2 focuses on the selection of FCC catalysts, meth-
ods for hydroprocessing light cycle oil (LCO) from the FCC
unit, and the production of diesel fuel from FCC byproducts,
among other topics.
FCC catalyst selection. Some catalyst recommendations
apply to both high-severity and low-severity FCC operations.
Low-hydrogen-transfer FCC catalyst is recommended for
maximizing refinery diesel production, as this type of catalyst
will generally produce a higher-yield and higher-quality LCO
that can be hydroprocessed, while increasing the yield of FCC
olefins that can be oligomerized. Similarly, active matrix func-
tionality improves LCO yield and quality.
H
2
transfer reactions strip H
2
from saturated LCO mole-
cules (such as naphthenes) and transfer it into gasoline boiling-
range olefins. The net impact of these H
2
transfer reactions is
that the LCO becomes more aromatic (lower cetane number
and more dense), the gasoline becomes more saturated (lower
olefin content and lower octane), naphtha yield increases, and
LPG olefin yield declines.
In FCC operations intended to maximize gasoline produc-
tion, the H
2
transfer reactions provide a net benefit due to the
increased gasoline volume resulting from the saturation of
the gasoline olefins before they catalytically crack into LPG
olefins. The negative impact of H
2
transfer activity on LPG
olefins, and on naphtha yields and naphtha octane, has been
widely documented, while the negative impact on LCO quality
has been less publicized.
In high-LCO-yield FCC operations where LCO quality,
gasoline octane and LPG yield considerations are more im-
portant than sheer gasoline volume, H
2
transfer reactions are
counter-productive. Refer to TABLE 1 for an example of how the
rare-earth content of FCC catalyst can impact FCC yields and
product qualities.
1
The base catalyst can also be used in combination with a
ZSM-5-containing catalyst additive to further preserve the gas-
oline octane and C
3
/C
4
olefins at low conversion levels. The
ZSM-5 additive is applicable to maximizing olefins production
from high-severity FCC operations.
1, 5
The data in TABLE 2 pro-
vide an example of how a ZSM-5 additive can change the yields
and product qualities in a moderate-severity FCC operation.
2
In low-severity, high-LCO-yield FCC unit operations,
ZSM-5 additives have also been shown to convert higher-boil-
ing FCC products into both gasoline and LPG. Two examples
of the impact of ZSM-5 additions in low-severity FCC opera-
tions are shown in TABLE 3. These data show that the cracking
of heavier molecules in the low-severity FCC products by the
ZSM-5 results in a loss of total cycle oil (302F698F) pro-
duction, along with increases in both 302F true-boiling-point
(TBP) gasoline and LPG production.
3
Based on a large sampling of pilot plant product from runs
having an average conversion level of 40% and a 0.5-wt%
ZSM-5 crystal addition, the average Research Octane Number
(RON) changes were as follows:
Increase of 2.4 numbers for the initial boiling point (IBP)
to 302F gasoline
Increase of 3.3 numbers for the IBP to 410F gasoline.
Low-equilibrium catalyst micro-activity testing (MAT) ac-
tivity is often employed when maximizing LCO production.
Active-matrix FCC catalysts are also recommended for LCO
TABLE 1. FCC pilot plant comparison of yields and product
qualities with diferent catalysts*
Catalyst
Higher-rare-earth
REY catalyst
Lower-rare-earth
USY octane catalyst
Conversion, vol% 72.5 72.5
Yields
H
2
, wt% 0.02 0.02
C
1
+ C
2
, wt% 1.28 1.13
C
3
, vol% 1.9 1.4
C
3
=, vol% 6 7.6
C
4
s, vol% 13.6 15.1
Gasoline, vol% 59 58
LCO, vol% 18.1 19.5
640F residue, vol% 9.4 8
Coke, wt% 4.6 4
Gasoline octane, RON + 0 86 90.4
Gasoline octane, MON + 0 78 80
LCO gravity, API 18.4 20.1
LCO aniline point, F 62 75
*Constant pilot plant feedstock and operating conditions: 23.9API VGO, 40 weight hourly
space velocity (WHSV), 4 catalyst:oil weight ratio (C/O), and temperature of 950F.
maximization, as they enable the cracking of LCO boiling-range
aliphatic side chains from high-molecular-weight feed compo-
nents. In addition to increasing LCO yield, the aliphatic side
chains that report to the LCO boiling range improve LCO ce-
tane. The active matrix also contributes to cetane improvements
because matrix cracking does not possess the higher H
2
transfer
characteristic of a zeolite. Refer to TABLE 4 for representative data
concerning the impact of changing the catalyst matrix activity.
4
Maximize LCO endpoint. The maximization of LCO end-
point is a common operating strategy for increasing LCO pro-
duction at the expense of low-value FCC slurry oil. In many
FCC operations, concern for coking in the FCC main frac-
tionator bottoms circuit limits the LCO endpoint. A number
of FCC operating parameters influence the propensity of the
bottoms circuit to suffer coking problems:
Bottoms circuit temperature
Bottoms circuit liquid residence time
Concentration of unconverted paraffins in the slurry oil.
In high-conversion FCC operations, the slurry oil is more
aromatic and can be held at higher temperatures and longer
residence times without coking. Some of the slurry oil quality
data that FCC operators monitor as indicators of coking ten-
dency are gravity and viscosity. The more aromatic slurry oil
produced by high-conversion FCC operations will allow the
unit to operate with lower API gravities while respecting bot-
toms viscosity targets selected to avoid fractionator coking.
FCC product considerations. Changes in FCC cracking
severity directly impact FCC product yield distribution and
qualities. In the FCC pilot plant example presented in TABLE
5, the VGO is of average quality as an FCC feedstock, and the
catalyst is a low-rare-earth catalyst with some matrix activity.
The pilot plant runs covered reactor temperatures and conver-
sion levels ranging from low to high, relative to industry norms.
The pilot plant data show the tradeoffs between LCO pro-
duction and quality, and the production and quality of FCC
naphtha. As shown in TABLE 5, even without adjusting the LCO
cutpoints, the LCO yield changes by a factor of almost 2 by
adjusting the FCC reaction severity. At the same time, among
the runs presented in TABLE 5, the gravity of the LCO increases
by about 11API as the operating severity is lowered.
FIG. 1 summarizes the positive relationship between increas-
ing LCO production rate and LCO quality, as observed in a
TABLE 2. Efect of ZSM-5 additive on yields and product
qualities in FCC pilot plant*
Catalyst
Octane-barrel
FCC catalyst
Catalyst with 4%
ZSM-5 additive Delta
Conversion, vol% 68 68 NA
Yields
H
2
, C
1
+ C
2
, wt% 2.38 2.49 0.11
C
3
, vol% 2 1.9 0.1
C
3
=, vol% 6.8 7.4 0.6
C
4
=, vol% 6.1 6.9 0.8
iC
4
, vol% 4.2 4 0.2
nC
4
, vol% 1.1 0.9 0.2
Total LPG 20.2 21.1 0.9
Gasoline
(450F TBP), vol%
57.6 56.8 0.8
LCO, vol% 18 17.9 0.1
Bottoms, wt% 14 14.1 0.1
Coke, wt% 3.9 3.8 0.1
Gasoline octane,
RON + 0
90.2 91.6 1.4
Gasoline cetane,
MON + 0
79.2 79.6 0.4
*Constant pilot plant feedstock (27.0API VGO) and operating conditions (960F).
TABLE 3. FCC plant data showing efect of ZSM-5
additive on yields and product qualities
Low-conversion FCC operation Plant A Plant B
Catalyst system
REY zeolite with
ZSM-5 additive
REY zeolite with
ZSM-5 additive
Incremental yields from ZSM-5 addition
Dry gas, wt% +0.3
LPG, vol% +2.4 +2.9
Gasoline (302F IBP), vol% +4.8 +3.3
Total cycle oil (302F698F) 3.2 6.7
Bottoms (698F+) 4.5 +0.2
Coke, wt% +0.2
TABLE 4. FCC pilot plant study results
Catalyst matrix surface area Low High
Conversion 69.5 69.7
Gasoline (C
5
at 421F)
Yield 53 53.1
RON 87.7 90
MON 77.8 78.5
Paraf ns/olens/napthenes/
aromatics (PONA)
36/23/15/27 26/36/14/24
LCO (421F602F)
Yield 16.3 19.2
Cetane index 24.5 28.5
API 21.8 23.8
Carbon NMR
Aromatic carbon, % 49.5 45.9
Aliphatic carbon, % 50.5 54.1
Bottoms (602F+)
Yield 14.2 11.1
Gravity, API 13 7.6
Carbon NMR
Aromatic carbon, % 39 57.4
Aliphatic carbon, % 61 42.6
Viscosity at 210F, cst 7.87 5.8
Viscosity at 100F, cst 116.4 68.14
larger sampling of the same pilot plant study data. Conversely,
FIG. 2 and FIG. 3 show a very direct and negative correlation
between LCO yield and FCC naphtha octane. FIG. 2 demon-
strates that, irrespective of the indicated FCC reaction tem-
perature, FCC naphtha motor octane will suffer as LCO yield
increases. FIG. 3 shows that the negative impact of increasing
LCO yield on the olefin-dependent RON can be mitigated to
some extent, if a high FCC reaction temperature is maintained.
The data in TABLE 5 also provide examples of how chang-
ing FCC reaction severity can impact LPG yield and naphtha
octane. Comparing the low-conversion and high-conversion
cases, the data show that the low-conversion case produces less
than one-half the LPG and 3 to 4 numbers lower octane than
the high-conversion case.
TABLE 5 also provides an example of the degradation of LCO
as a potential feedstock for upgrading into diesel as the FCC
conversion is increased; the LCO H
2
content decreases from
10.7 wt% to 8.8 wt% as the FCC conversion level is increased
from 59 wt% to over 76 wt%.
Hydroprocessing options. Processes for the upgrading of
LCO range from mild hydrodesulfurization to full-conversion
hydrocracking. FIG. 4 depicts some of the chemistry responsi-
ble for improving the cetane, density and aromatics content of
the LCO. For the purposes of this article, three upgrading pro-
cesses (hydrotreating, aromatics saturation and mild hydro-
cracking) are described as representative examples of some of
the processes being used today.
5
LCO hydrotreating. Mild hydrotreating of LCO will re-
duce its sulfur content significantly, but this will only modestly
improve the product qualities related to aromatic content. In
examples presented in TABLE 6, LCO in a 10% concentration, in
TABLE 5. FCC pilot plant data showing impact of changing operating severity
Low conversion Medium conversion High conversion
FCC feed properties
Gravity, API 22.5 22.5 22.5
50 vol% boiling point, F 851 851 851
Aniline point, F 176 176 176
Sulfur, wt% 0.55 0.55 0.55
CCR, wt% 0.89 0.89 0.89
FCC pilot plant operating conditions
Riser temperature, F 940 979 1,020
Feed temperature, F 416 485 337
Catalyst-to-oil ratio, wt/wt 6.6 6.7 11.4
Micro Activity Test (MAT) 67 67 67
Rare-earth oxides, wt% (FCC E-Cat property) 0.6 0.6 0.6
FCC pilot plant yields
Dry gas, wt% 1.23 2.08 3.5
C
3
LPG, wt% 2.97 4.26 7.27
C
4
LPG, wt% 5.98 7.88 11.57
Gasoline (C
5
at 430F), wt% 43.21 46.98 46
LCO (430F680F), wt% 27.42 24.47 16.01
Slurry oil (680F+), wt% 13.6 9.06 7.66
Coke, wt% 5.59 5.27 7.99
Conversion, wt% 58.98 66.47 76.33
FCC pilot plant product qualities
C
3
LPG olenicity, wt% 83.8 83.8 85.7
C
4
LPG olenicity, wt% 66.7 68.5 67
Naphtha gravity, API 56.6 57.2 55.9
Naphtha octane, RON/MON 91.7/81.1 92.9/81.6 95.6/84.4
Naphtha PONA, wt% 27.2/49.5/11.8/11.5 25.7/49.1/10.9/14.3 31.3/36.8/10.5/21.4
LCO gravity, API 22.2 17 11.3
LCO H
2
content, wt% 10.7 9.9 8.8
Slurry oil gravity, API 6 0.8 7.4
Slurry oil H
2
content, wt% 9 7.8 6.7
a mixture including straight-run gas oil (SRGO), is hydrotreat-
ed. Two options are presented, with the latter representing a
higher degree of desulfurization and greater aromatics reduc-
tion. These examples demonstrate that it is possible to include
about 10% LCO in the diesel pool by hydrotreating the LCO/
SRGO mixture.
Aromatics saturation. To accommodate larger concen-
trations of LCO in the diesel pool, more complete aromatics
saturation and cetane improvement are required. These goals
can be achieved through varying degrees of ring saturation and
ring opening, as shown in FIG. 4. TABLE 7 shows what is possible
utilizing a two-stage aromatics saturation unit to process 100%
LCO.
5
The drawback of ring saturation is high H
2
consumption.
Mild hydrocracking. Another alternative is to rely on ring
opening with mild hydrocracking to move some of the aro-
matics out of the LCO boiling range into gasoline, as shown
TABLE 6. Processing a 10% LCO blend with ULSD catalyst systems
Operating pressure
Feed: 90%
SRGO/10% LCO
Product
CoMo NiMo
Medium High
Density, kg/m3 880 863 853
Sulfur, wppm 15,300 50 10
D86 T10, F 543 534 523
D86 T50, F 586 579 570
D86 T90, F 660 657 649
IP391 monoaromatics, wt% 16.7 22.6 21.4
IP391 PNA, wt% 15 9.2 2.8
IP391 total aromatics, wt% 31.8 31.8 24.2
Cetane number 47 51 52.5
H
2
consumption, Nm3/m3 NA 37 72
TABLE 7. Two-stage LCO aromatics saturation
100% LCO Product
Operating mode Two-stage
Operating pressure Medium
Density, kg/m3 960 859
Sulfur, wppm 7,300 < 10
Total aromatics (FIA), vol% 79.1 2.5
Cetane index, D976 24.1 40.2
Cetane number < 20 44.9
Delta cetane number NA 25+
Liquid yield, vol% NA 115.7
H
2
consumption, Nm3/m3 NA 473
LCO quality
5
10
15
20
25
30
10 20 30
LCO yield, wt%
G
r
a
v
i
t
y
,

A
P
I

940F
980F
1,020F
FIG. 1. Relationship between increasing LCO production rate
and LCO quality.
940F
980F
1,020F
FCC naphtha quality
80
81
82
83
84
85
10 15 20 25 30 35
LCO yield, wt%
N
a
p
h
t
h
a

M
O
N
FIG. 2. Relationship between FCC naphtha quality (MON)
and LCO yield.
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
10 20 30
LCO yield, wt%
N
a
p
h
t
h
a

R
O
N
940F
980F
1,020F
FCC naphtha quality
FIG. 3. Relationship between FCC naphtha quality (RON)
and LCO yield.
2H
2
1
2
3
3H
2
Diesel
Diesel
Diesel
3H
2
C
5
H
11
C
5
H
11
Aromatic saturation
Hydrocracking
Selective ring opening
H
2
H
2
FIG. 4. Three reactions to upgrade LCO quality.
in FIG. 5.
5
This approach can provide substantive LCO quality
improvement with lower H
2
consumption. TABLE 8 provides
an example of coprocessing LCO along with straight-run dis-
tillate and other cracked products.
5
Creating diesel from FCC byproducts. Two processing op-
tions with limited application to date are the creation of syn-
thetic diesel from FCC olefins and the extraction of aromatics
from FCC naphtha. These options can be integrated into the
overall processing scheme, along with the other options de-
scribed earlier.
Reprocessing of C
3
C
9
olefins into distillate. Olefins can
be used to produce good-quality diesel with oligomerization
processes. For example, an oligomerization unit distillate yield
from a C
3
C
9
olefin feed was reported to be 78% distillate with
a byproduct gasoline yield of 19%, based on a zeolite catalyst,
as shown in TABLE 9. After hydrotreating to saturate the olefins,
the distillate was reported to have a cetane number of 52 to 54,
zero sulfur and less than 2% aromatics.
6
Therefore, for FCC-based refineries working to maximize die-
sel production, oligomerization of olefins-containing FCC light
gasoline and LPG may provide viable investment opportunities.
FCC naphtha extraction. Extractive techniques are avail-
able for separating a middle boiling fraction of FCC gasoline
into a higher-octane, aromatics-rich fraction and an olefins-
and paraffin-rich fraction.
7
A recently granted patent describes
a combined FCC/extraction process wherein an aromatics-
rich, higher-octane fraction of FCC gasoline can be produced
as a gasoline product, while a paraffinic/olefinic naphtha frac-
tion can be produced for recycle to an FCC riser for the pur-
pose of producing propylene and other olefins.
8
This FCC naphtha extraction concept and oligomeriza-
tion technology can be used together, as shown in FIG. 6, to
maximize the production of synthetic diesel from FCC olefins.
The combination can be especially useful in the context of a
high-LCO-yield, low-severity FCC operation because the low-
severity FCC naphtha will have a higher olefins content than
the more aromatic, more paraffinic naphtha from a high-sever-
ity FCC operation. Thus, the non-aromatic naphtha raffinate
from a low-severity FCC operation will make a better-quality
oligomerization feedstockor a better-quality FCC recycle
streamfor the purpose of increasing lighter FCC olefins pro-
duction, as olefins are easier to crack than paraffins.
Refinery diesel balance. With all the processing options
presented in this article, an obvious question is, How much
can the refinery diesel production be increased if many of these
options are applied in a retrofit of an existing refinery? The
answer depends on the specifics of the application. TABLE 10
shows estimated results from isolated examples provided in
this article, giving insight into the question.
N-parafn
Mononaphthenes
Selective ring
opening
Aromatic
saturation
Aromatic
naphthene
Monoaromatics
Dinaphthenes
Diaromatics
C
e
t
a
n
e

n
u
m
b
e
r
-20
0
100 150 200
Molecular weight
250 300
20
40
60
80
100
FIG. 5. Hydrocarbon comoponents and cetane number. Solvent
Rafnate: parafns + olens
Extract: sulfur + aromatics
Aromatics
MCN FCC naphtha
LCN
HCN
ULS gasoline blending
Severe HDS
HDS
HDS
Olen
oligomerization
unit
FCC C
3
/C
4
LPG
FCC recycle
H
2
H
2
S
H
2
H
2
S
Diesel
LPG
Naphtha
FIG. 6. Production of diesel from FCC LPG and FCC naphtha.
TABLE 8. ULSD and mild hydrocracking on feed blend containing 10% LCO and 35% coker diesel*
Property Feed ULSD product MHC product MHC product
Density, kg/m
3
866 842 829 822
Delta density NA 24 37 44
Sulfur, wppm 8,000 < 10 < 10 < 10
SFC aromatics (total), wt% 42.4 23 13.2 14
Mono 30 20 12.8 13.5
PNA 12.4 3 0.4 0.5
Total product cetane index, D4737 36.8 43.8 46.2 46.8
Delta cetane index NA 7 9.4 10
Chemical H
2
consumption, Nm
3
/m
3
NA 116 150 155
Incremental 379F minus, vol% NA 1.1 10 20
*For MHC cases, diesel product is 2 to 3 cetane numbers higher than total product.
Takeaway. Assuming demand for diesel continues to increase
faster than growth in gasoline, a number of reactions can be
expected from the refining industry:
The loss of virgin diesel to the FCC unit will diminish
through crude distillation unit improvements
FCC gasoline endpoint will be minimized
Hydrocracking and hydrotreating units designed to up-
grade LCO quality will proliferate
Low-H
2
-transfer, higher-matrix-surface-area FCC cata-
lyst will be used to improve LCO yield and quality, while in-
creasing LPG olefins production and naphtha octane
In some cases, ZSM-5 catalyst additives will be used to
further increase LPG olefins production and octane, but in
low-severity FCC operations, this may come at the expense of
some LCO yield.
For refiners that also place high value on propylene produc-
tion, high-octane gasoline, and minimization of refinery bottoms
production, the high-severity FCC route to making more diesel
will gain favor through the oligomerization of C
4
and higher FCC
olefins while continuing to hydroprocess the LCO production.
If a refiner has a more singular focus on the production of
diesel, the low-severity, traditional FCC route to increasing
diesel can be optimized and economically favored, with some
enhancements:
The loss of LCO in slurry oil product or recycle will di-
minish through the use of dedicated slurry distillation hardware
Some of the stripped slurry oil may be recycled to the
FCC reactor to produce more LCO and help maintain FCC
heat balance, while HCO recycle may also be advantageous
Low-severity FCC operations will rely on increasing feed
temperature and, in some cases, direct firing of the regenera-
tor with a liquid or gaseous fuel using technology designed to
minimize damage to the catalyst
FCC-produced LPG and naphtha olefins will be convert-
ed into diesel blending stock using oligomerization processes.
An ultimate vision for maximizing diesel production in a
specific FCC-centered refinery may also include a selective
combination of elements:
Extraction processes will separate aromatics-rich frac-
tions of FCC gasoline from fractions enriched in olefins and
paraffins. The aromatic fraction can be used for BTX produc-
tion or high-octane motor fuel; the non-aromatic fraction can
be recycled to the FCC reactor for the production of more ole-
fins (diesel precursors), or the olefins in the non-aromatic frac-
tion may be directly oligomerized into diesel.
FCC C
4
s and FCC light naphtha can be recycled to an ul-
tra-high-severity FCC riser to increase propylene and aromatic
naphtha yields, without diminishing LCO production.
A case-by-case analysis based on refinery-specific data is
needed to accurately contrast the costs and benefits associated
with the application of various options for increasing diesel pro-
duction from the FCC-centered refinery. The performance of
the study requires both refinery-wide and FCC-specific expe-
rience and related modeling capabilities. In the final analysis, it
is simply a question of economics; technologies are available to
maximize diesel production from the FCC-centered refinery.
LITERATURE CITED

Complete literature cited available online at HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
TABLE 9. Product yields and properties from oligomerization
of olens
Feed composition 82% C
3
C
9
olens
Product yields (based on feed olens), vol%
Gasoline 19
Distillate 78
Distillate qualities after mild hydrotreating
Boiling range, F (IP 123/84) 388676
Density, kg/m
3
at 20C 787
Cetane number 52 to 54
Aromatics content, wt% < 2
Sulfur content, wt% 0
Viscosity, cst at 104F 2.55
TABLE 10. Examples of renery diesel increases
Vol% of renery crude input (assuming 27% crude oil to FCC unit
and LCO hydroprocessing to maximize diesel in all cases) Low-severity FCC Moderate-severity FCC High-severity FCC
Change FCC severity (assuming constant MAT and no recycle) 0.9 2.5
Minimize diesel in FCC feedstock 3.2 3.4 3.6
Lower FCC naphtha endpoint 5.1 5.3 4.6
Change FCC catalyst formulation
(increase FCC catalyst matrix activity and reduce H
2
transfer activity)
1.3 1.3 1.3
Refractionate slurry oil (recover 30 vol% LCO from slurry) 1.1 0.7 0.6
Oligomerize C
3
C
5
olens 3.1 3.7 5.1
Oligomerize C
6
+ naphtha olens 3.8 4.3 2.6
Total increase in diesel production, vol% 18.4 18.6 15.3
PHILLIP NICCUM joined KBR Inc.s fluid catalytic cracking (FCC)
team in 1989, following nine years of FCC-related work for a
major oil company. Since that time, he has held various FCC-
related positions at KBR Inc., including process manager,
technology manager, chief technology engineer of FCC, director
of FCC technology, and now process engineering manager.
Mr. Niccums professional activities have included engineering
management, process engineering, project engineering, marketing, and
licensing. Areas of technical strength include FCC unit design, precommissioning
and startup, troubleshooting and economic optimization of FCC unit operations.
Optimize sulfur recovery from dilute H
2
S sources [S69]
CORPORATE PROFILES
CB&I [S75] Enersul Limited Partnership [S77] Foster Wheeler [S79] Shell Global Solutions [S80]
COVER PHOTO A sulfur recovery unit designed and operated by the Ponca City Refinery. Phillips 66 developed this
selective partial oxidation catalytic (SPOC) combustion technology for sulfur recovery. The technology, developed and extensively
tested by Phillips 66, is now exclusively licensed worldwide as a flameless Claus process by GTC Technology as GT-SPOC.
SULFUR 2012
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HYDROCARBON PROCESSING SULFUR 2012 S-69
SULFUR
OPTIMIZE SULFUR RECOVERY
FROM DILUTE H
2
S SOURCES
M. P. HEISEL, ITS Reaktortechnik GmbH, Pullack, Germany; and
A. F. SLAVENS, WorleyParsons, Monrovia, California
With the recent emergence of sweeter fuel sources such as uncon-
ventional gas and biofuels, the sulfur industry is challenged in providing
economical solutions to desulfurize gas streams with low hydrogen
sulfide (H
2
S) content. Historically, the sweetening of such gases was
primarily accomplished by using liquid redox processes.
a
These estab-
lished, sweetening processes treated the raw gas stream directly and
did not require an amine treating step, thereby reducing the total capital
and operating costs of the facility.
Liquid redox processes are capable of scrubbing the H
2
S to very
low levels and meeting typical treated-gas specifications, as proven by
several hundred units that are in operation. However, these facilities
often suffer from very high operating costs, low availability and a low-
quality sulfur product, which usually must be disposed rather than sold
as product. The inherent nature of these problems is discussed here:
High operating costs are a result of the process chemistry, espe-
cially consumption of the expensive chelating agents required to keep
the direct oxidation catalyst in solution. Consequently, chemical costs
range from $100 to $150 per ton of produced sulfur.
The product sulfur contains some chelating agent and, therefore, is
a low-quality material. As a consequence, no revenue from sulfur sales
can be expected. More important, additional costs associated with
landfill disposal can be incurred.
Low process availability results from two primary steps, as shown
in FIG. 1. In the scrubber (1), sour gas is contacted by liquid solvent
and thus forming the solid sulfur, which often leads to plugging in the
column or in downstream vessels and pipes. In the re-oxidation vessel
(5), foaming and sulfur froth can occur, thus reducing availability.
New technology. A newly developed process applies a totally differ-
ent approach.
b
This process first oxidizes H
2
S selectively in the gas
phase over a robust and low-cost catalyst. To increase sulfur recovery
efficiency above what was achievable in the selective oxidation step,
the process subsequently applies the sub-dewpoint principle. It is a well-
known Claus tail-gas treatment technology that takes advantage of the
improved Claus equilibrium at lower operating temperatures (below the
sulfur dewpoint) in the catalytic reactors. The process can achieve sulfur
recovery efficiencies exceeding 99% when treating in low H
2
S-content
gases, such as shale gas, coalbed methane and biogas. The process
is inexpensive and easy to operate; it generates no byproducts, and
the sulfur recovered is of premium quality. The direct oxidation process
is capable of treating raw gas streams containing H
2
S plus hydrogen,
light hydrocarbons, oxygen and/or inert gases. FIG. 2 shows a flow
diagram of the new direct oxidation process.
Process description. The feed gas to the sulfur recovery unit (SRU) is
mixed with a stoichiometric quantity of air to convert the incoming H
2
S
to elemental sulfur via direct oxidation. The gas mixture is sent through
a preheater to the first reactor. This reactor is different from conven-
tional Claus reactors: it contains two sections. The upper section at
the gas inlet is a conventional fixed-bed reactor with a direct-oxidation
catalyst. In this reactor section, part of the feed H
2
S is oxidized into
elemental sulfur according to Eq. 1. In parallel, some sulfur dioxide
(SO
2
) is formed. The second section in the lower part of the first reactor
contains a Claus catalyst with an embedded heat exchanger, which
is designed to remove the heat of reaction from the catalyst bed. The
heat removal within the catalyst bed shifts the equilibrium of the Claus
reaction (Eq. 2) toward more sulfur formation, substantially improving
conversion efficiency.
Direct oxidation of H
2
S
2 H
2
S + O
2
= 2/x S
x
+ 2 H
2
O + heat of reaction (1)
Sour gas
Vented air
Air
Sulfur
Catalytic solution
1
2
3
4
5
6
LP ash gas
Puried gas
FIG 1. Typical process flow diagram of a liquid redox process.
1
Feed gas
Air
Selective
oxidation
reactor
Sub-dewpoint
reactor
Reheat
4-way valve
Sulfur
separator
Air blower
Puried gas
Sulfur
condenser
Sulfur pit
Recycle
blower
(optional)
Preheat
4-way
valve
C01 Air blower, E01 Preheat, V01A/B 4-way valves, R01 A/B Reactors with internal cooling, E02 Sulfur condenser,
D01 Sulfur separator, E03 Reheat, P01 Sulfur product pump, C0
2
Recycle blower (optional)
FIG. 2. Typical process flow diagram of new direct oxidation
process for H
2
S.
S-70 SULFUR 2012 HydrocarbonProcessing.com
SULFUR
Claus reaction
2 H
2
S + SO
2
= 3/x S
x
+ H
2
O + heat of reaction (2)
where x = 2, 4, 5, 6, 8 sulfur molecules of different sizes, according
to temperature.
The heat exchanger applied is a thermoplate stack with large clear-
ances, as shown in FIG. 3. The space between the thermoplates is filled
with catalyst. As this heat exchanger type is not yet so well known within
the sulfur industry, it will be discussed in more detail later.
A sulfur condenser is located downstream of the first reactor. A
second reactor, identical to the first reactor, follows the sulfur condenser
but operates at lower temperature. This shifts the chemical Claus equi-
librium to even more sulfur formation. The reactor outlet temperatures
range from 100C to 125C, i.e., possibly even below the sulfur
solidification point.
When operating below the sulfur dewpoint, the sulfur formed via
the Claus reaction accumulates on the catalyst. Thus, the catalyst
deactivates slowly and must be regenerated. The regeneration is
accomplished by switching the second reactor into the first reactor
position. In the first reactor position, the inlet temperature approaches
320C, which desorbs sulfur and regenerates the catalyst. The former
first reactor is switched at the same time into the second, cooler reactor
position. This procedure is repeated typically once every 24 hours.
Treated gas from the second reactor is sent to the consumer, e.g., as
purified biogas or natural gas.
Process capabilities. The new direct oxidation process can be applied
to a number of plants such as for:
Biogas purification
Offgas treatment from chemical processes rich in methane, carbon
dioxide and hydrogen
Natural gas purification.
Pure, bright yellow elemental sulfur is produced. The process opera-
tion is fully automatic, with manual control only required during startup
and shutdown, similar to a conventional Claus plant. The first commer-
cial unit was installed in 1993 and is still in operation.
The high sulfur-recovery rate (SRR) in the new oxidation process
results from removing the heat of reaction, which shifts the chemical
equilibrium to more product formation. FIG. 4 illustrates the effect on
SRR, where the SRR is depicted as a function of the outlet temperature
from the second reactor.
In addition to high-sulfur recovery efficiency, the internally cooled
reactors provide other benefits. The internal heat exchangers are self-
controlling. Boiler feedwater (BFW) feeds the inside of the thermoplate;
the BFW always has a temperature corresponding to the generated
steam pressure. On the outside, i.e., between the thermoplates, the
catalyst and reaction gas release heat. The greater the gas flow, the
higher the heat of reaction, which is the temperature difference between
the gas and BFW. With the higher temperature , the heat of reaction is
automatically removed by internal cooling. As a consequence, the tem-
perature at the outlet of the reactors is constant within a narrow range,
and is independent of fluctuations in gas volume and gas composition.
Accordingly, this process is intrinsically stable, easy to operate and has
high reliability. Actually, all normal operations are fully automatic, thus
very little operator attention is necessary.
Commercial unit. The first commercial plant applied a two-reactor pro-
cess configuration; it was started up in December 1995 in the Nyns
refinery in Sweden (FIG. 5). This unit processes amine-acid gas and
sour-water-stripper gas. The plant has proven to be very reliable, easy
Solid sulfur
S
R
R
,

%
Liquid sulfur
99.2
100 105 110 115 120
Temperature, C
125 130 135 140
99.3
99.4
99.5
99.6
99.7
99.8
99.9
100.0
FIG. 4. Sulfur recovery rate as a function of outlet temperature
of the second reactor for rich feed gas with 85% H
2
S.
FIG. 5. Sulfur recovery plant in the Nyns refinery in Sweden.
FIG 3. Top view of a thermoplate heat exchanger for a reactor
during construction in the shop.
HydrocarbonProcessing.com
HPI
MARKET
DATA
2013
Available October 15th
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global HPI. What does this mean for your company?
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and global levels. Also included in the 2013 edition are:
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S-72 SULFUR 2012 HydrocarbonProcessing.com
SULFUR
to operate, and requires very little maintenance. Availability is always
better than 99.5%/yr. The refiner claims that this plant is the most reli-
able within the whole refinery, even after more than 15 years of opera-
tion. It achieved the required SRR and reached optimal values of up to
99.85%, even with aged catalysts. In operation at low load conditions
(at 6:1 turndown), the SRR dropped by only 0.1%.
Thermoplates for internal cooling of catalytic reactors. Internally
cooled catalytic reactors have been successfully used in many applica-
tions. They are applied primarily for selective reactions, where rigorous
temperature control is required, or in reactions where the chemical
equilibrium is strongly temperature dependent. In the past, straight-tube
reactors, with the catalyst inside the tubes, have typically been used. In
a few cases, spiral-wound tubular heat exchangers have been applied
with the tubes submerged in the catalyst.
However, these reactor types have features that are not comple-
mentary to the operations. Primarily, the heat exchangers fabricated
geometry often forces conditions on the catalytic reactions that are
not optimal. For example, the straight-tube reactors had to be built
slim and high to avoid excessive thermal stress on the tube sheets,
which resulted in a high pressure drop, high linear gas velocity and
mechanical stress on the lower catalyst particles. The spiral-wound
heat exchangers avoid these disadvantages to some degree, but they
require many manufacturing steps and precise fabrication skill. They
are typically more expensive.
Both types of reactors cannot be built onsite, and, therefore, one
must observe transportation limitations. This also limits throughput
capacity. In view of ever-increasing plant sizes, this condition becomes
increasingly more important. All of these features for tubular reactors
are detrimental for sulfur recovery, which may explain why internally
cooled reactors have not been used widely in sulfur recovery previously.
The catalytic reactors incorporated in the new-generation direct oxida-
tion process use thermoplates as heat exchangers, thus eliminating all
of the listed disadvantages. The basic element of a thermoplate heat
exchanger is the thermoplate itself, as shown in FIG. 6. FIG. 6. Schematic of a thermoplate heat exchanger.
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HYDROCARBON PROCESSING SULFUR 2012 S-73
SULFUR
A thermoplate consists of two metal sheets welded together along
their edges and point-welded across their surfaces. This is accomplished
with precise fabrication machinery that facilitates the manufacturing of
large surface area exchangers at low cost. The plates are expanded
by injecting high-pressure liquid between the metal sheets, which opens
channels for the cooling medium, as shown schematically in FIG. 6.
The expansion generates the typical cushion shape, and the point and
seam welds of the thermoplates are gap free. Multiple thermoplates are
combined to form a heat exchanger package, which is then inserted in
a shell to complete the heat exchanger.
For application in a reactor, the catalyst is poured into the spacing
between thermoplates, as shown in FIG. 3. Vertical plane walls are
formed by the thermoplates and allow easy filling of the catalyst particles.
Several thousand such thermoplate heat exchangers have been built
and installed worldwide. They are in service in even the most severe
applications, such as condensing phosgene, which is not only highly
toxic, but is also very corrosive when in contact with water. Single
heat exchangers with several thousands square meters of exchanger
surface area have been installed and operated. The thermoplate heat
exchanger is considered a proven technology. These exchangers are
compact and light weight, have low pressure drop, and provide high
heat exchange coefficients; they are ideal for sulfur-recovery reactors.
The outer and inner fluid channels are completely separated from
each other by seam welds. As in contrast to other plate-heat exchangers,
there is no contact between adjacent thermoplates; each thermoplate
is self-contained and no forces are transferred to the next plate. The
catalyst particles are insulated and do not experience mechanical stress.
The distance between plates, file height, pitch of the point welds,
dimensions and number of thermoplates can vary widely. Therefore,
thermoplate reactors can be optimally tailored to each sulfur recovery
application.
Options. The new direct oxidation process is an economic method
for sulfur recovery from low-H
2
S content gases. It converts H
2
S in a
gas catalytic process directly to elemental sulfur. The sulfur recovery
efficiency, which depends on the feed-gas composition, is greater than
99%. The reaction takes place in two identical fixed-bed reactors with
internal cooling by thermoplate heat exchangers, which maintain the
outlet temperatures of the reactors within a narrow range, thus maintain-
ing a constant SRR. This process has proven to be easy to operate, very
reliable and with low maintenance costs. As one customer commented,
Our biggest problem with this process is that the operators tend to for-
get about it, because it requires so little of their time and attention.
LITERATURE CITED
1
www.prosernat.com/en/processes/gas-sweetening/sulfint-hp.
NOTES
a
Liquid redox processes include LO-CAT, SulFerox and Sulfint.
b
SMARTSULF is a new sulfur oxidation process.
Michael Heisel, PhD, is general manager of ITS Reaktortechnik GmbH. He has
more than 30 years of experience in sulfur recovery plant design, startup, validation
and troubleshooting.
Angela Slavens is vice president and global director of sulfur technology for Worley
Parsons. She has more than 15 years of experience in the oil and gas industry, primarily
in the field of sour gas treating and sulfur recovery.
2628 March 2013
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in the field. Long-standing relationships with sulphur producers have
established Enersuls reputation as a leader in reliability, safety, and
environmental consideration.
Having taken complete operational control of the sulphur require-
ments of a variety of projects enables Enersul to innovate their offer-
ings to meet the needs of the real world. Lessons learned by Enersuls
international project teams are applied across every aspect of Enersuls
products and services.
TECHNICAL SOLUTIONS
From when molten sulphur leaves the SRU to transportation loading
for its final destination, Enersul provides customizable technical solutions
for every step of the process. Each technology has been designed to
meet the strictest safety and environmental standards with a dedicated
focus to functional reliability and standard setting end-product quality.
H
2
S DEGASSING
In response to the need for a compact and efficient sulfur degassing
process, Enersul developed the HySpec H
2
S degassing process.
These processes has been specifically designed to quickly, effectively
and economically reduce the H
2
S content of liquid sulfur to 10 ppm
or less. The in-line, continuous flow design of the HySpec process
eliminates the need for large molten sulfur pits typically required with
traditional batch-type degassing systems.
This concept allows for easy retrofitting of existing facilities, reducing
the capital cost of degassing system installations. Due to its modular and
compact design, a HySpec unit can be installed with only minor tie-ins
and minimal disruption to ongoing operations.
LIQUID SULPHUR SOLUTIONS
Enersul develops systems to pipe, store, filter, cool, and load molten
sulphur. Safety, the environment, and reliability are constant consider-
ations applied to flexible executions to meet any specific plant produc-
tion requirements or shipping schedule.
SULPHUR FORMING
The GXM1 has a forming capacity of 1250 tonnes per day. It is
completely self-contained: a compact design with a rotating drum, a
cooling water system, a wet scrubber, vibrating screens and conveyors.
Operation is simple so on-time performance is high, labor requirements
are minimal, and costs for repair, maintenance and utility consumption
are kept low.
The GXM3 is the first SinglePass granulation technology and the
only portable sulfur forming unit on the market. This patent pending tech-
nology was developed for use on sites with smaller plant footprints and
for clients that require smaller production rates. It arrives 90% assembled,
with most of the system checks already completed, thus saving on con-
struction and commissioning time and costs. Each unit can produce up
to 400 tonnes of high quality granules per day.
Enersuls WetPrill product is known for its low friability, lower
moisture content and high bulk density as compared to other wet prill
products. The WetPrill process units can be scaled for operations rang-
ing from 100 to 2500 tonnes per day with higher throughput achieved
with multiple process lines.
SOLID SULPHUR HANDLING AND STORING
Enersul provides a variety of conveyor systems to safely and efficiently
handle formed sulphur designed to reduce end-product degradation.
Transfer points are kept to a minimum, drop distances are minimized,
and covered or non-covered handling systems are designed to ensure
formed sulphur retains the high quality only available from Enersuls
patented forming technologies.
TRUSTED EXPERIENCE. PROVEN EXCELLENCE.
Enersul specializes in one thing, the safe, reliable, and environmen-
tally friendly forming and handling of sulphur. Over 60 years of innova-
tion with a focus on end-product quality, and the ability to customize
technical and operational solutions to any plant requirement means
the worlds sulphur needs can rely on Enersuls Trusted Experience and
Proven Excellence.
CONTACT INFORMATION
7210 Blackfoot Trail SE
Calgary Alberta Canada T2H 1M5
Phone: (403) 253-5969
Fax: (403) 259-2771
E-Mail: enersul@enersul.com
www.enersul.com
What you can do
with a
touch of blue.
You can
Enhance the efciency of your overall sulfur recovery to achieve peak
operating and environmental performance with our SRU technology.
Lower burner operating temperatures with our proprietary acid gas
burner technology, ultimately extending the operating life of the
burner and reducing operating and maintenance costs.
Maintain environmental compliance with sulfur recovery efciencies
up to 99.9+% to meet the most stringent environmental regulations.
Replace your burner in an existing plant.
Our high performance technology, coupled with our focus on
aftermarket support and training, delivers the result you need.

Visit www.fwc.com/touchofblue for more information on our sulfur recovery technology.
FOSTER WHEELER
OPERATING, ENVIRONMENTAL SOLUTIONS
WITH SULFUR RECOVERY TECHNOLOGY
SULFUR RECOVERY TECHNOLOGY
Foster Wheelers proprietary and proven sulfur recovery technology
brings clear advantages to our refinery customers. The technology pro-
vides cost-effective designs with enhanced operability features. Included
in the proprietary technology is a Claus unit burner that is capable of
destroying ammonia up to 25 mole % in the SRU feed, and providing
low level oxygen enrichment up to 28 mole %. The units typically deliver
overall sulfur recovery efficiencies ranging from 96% to 99.9+% depend-
ing on the configuration of the claus and tail gas treating sections.
OUR EXPERTISE
Our personnel employed at the new Foster Wheeler Salt Lake City
office are knowledgeable in the design of sulfur block units, including
Claus units, tail gas treating units and tail gas incinerators. Our sulfur
expertise also includes sour liquid or gas amine absorbers, amine regen-
erators, sour water strippers, sulfur condensers, waste heat boilers, sulfur
storage, sulfur degassing, and sulfur pit vent disposition. Other areas of
proficiency include hazardous waste incineration, natural gas process-
ing, general refinery units, and mining and chemical plants.
OUR SCOPE OF WORK
Coupled with the small footprint, our design offers reduced piping
runs that are completely free draining. Lower corrosion and reduced
pressure drop are clear benefits from the reduced pipe routing, which
also results in lower Capex and enhanced operability and maintenance.
The footprint of our claus units is minimized by combining the waste
heat boiler and sulfur condensing tube bundles in a common shell
operating at steam pressures matching the refinery steam system, and
providing the steam required for the claus unit operation. The mechanical
expertise required for reliable and safe design of the waste heat boiler
and sulfur condenser tubesheets, as well as the partitioning of the con-
denser passes in the boiler plenums, has been developed through many
years of experience. Steam pressures ranging from 50 psig to 600 psig
are available, and each plant is designed to be self-sustaining in steam
usage during normal operation. These proven, innovative designs help
to set our technology apart from the rest.
GLOBAL REACH
Our sulfur technology is currently operating all over the world, includ-
ing North America, South America, Europe, and Asia. Recently, we
performed basic engineering of sulfur recovery units for four refineries in
South America and one in the Middle East, each with an MDEA amine
tail gas treating unit followed by tail gas incineration.
The sulfur recovery technology compliments Foster Wheelers heavy
oil conversion technologies including delayed coking, and full EPC
capabilities. We are also known in the chemicals, petrochemicals and
polymers market. From consultancy and small process unit revamps to
large integrated grass root complexes, we deliver comprehensive solu-
tions that meet your requirements.
We are truly a global engineering and construction contractor, and
power equipment supplier adding value with technically advanced
services, reliable facilities and equipment.
Reach your peak operating and environmental performance with
Foster Wheelers Sulfur Recovery Technology! Foster Wheeler develops
solutions to meet your Sulfur Recovery needs.
CONTACT INFORMATION
Foster Wheeler USA
10876 S River Front Parkway, Suite 250
South Jordan, UT 84095
Phone: 801 382 6900
Fax: 801 382 6901
Email: dean_bybee@fwhou.fwc.com
www.fwc.com
585 N. Dairy Ashford
Houston, Texas 77079
Phone: (713) 929-5500
Fax: (713) 929-5170
Email: info@fwc.com
www.fwc.com
New Burner Showing Double Air Barrel
3 Catalytic Reactor Beds 200LTPD Sulfur Recovery Unit
S-80 SULFUR 2012 HydrocarbonProcessing.com SPONSORED CONTENT
SHELL GLOBAL SOLUTIONS
PRESSURISING THE SHELL SULPHUR DEGASSER
How a small modification to enable pressurised degassing operations
can substantially cut emissions and enhance safety
KEES VAN DEN BRAND, Senior Process Engineer, Gas Treating & Sulphur Processes,
Shell Global Solutions International BV
Shell Global Solutions has designed a small modification to its sul-
phur recovery and degassing configuration that can unlock major cuts
in sulphur emissions and also enhance safety. The inexpensive adjust-
ment enables compliance with the stringent World Bank standards.
The conventional Shell sulphur degassing process, a well-estab-
lished technology with more than 330 applications worldwide,
removes hydrogen sulphide (H
2
S) and polysulphides (H
2
S
x
) from the
liquid sulphur produced in Claus sulphur recovery units and sends
them to the incinerator. However, burning these sulphur compounds
increases sulphur dioxide (SO
2
) emissions, so Shell Global Solutions
has investigated the possibility of recycling these gases to the front
end of the Claus unit.
In the past, Shell has evaluated reducing SO
2
emissions by using
a compressed recycle towards the main burner with either a compres-
sor or a steam- or air-driven ejector. These options have significant
drawbacks. A compressor is expensive, a steam-driven ejector cools
the main flame too much, and an air-driven ejector results in poor
turndown on the air side of the main burner.
The conventional Shell sulphur degasser operates at near atmo-
spheric pressure (see FIG. 1). The sulphur rundown lines from the
Claus unit (which also operate at atmospheric pressure) drain by
gravity flow into the degasser. Traditionally, this was a concrete
pit, but in recent years there has been a design shift away from
the use of pits in favour of vessels. This is a crucial development
because having a vessel unlocks the possibility of recycling the vent
gas from the degasser to the front end of the Claus unit at a slightly
elevated pressure.
As the vessel is leak tight, sweep air is not required to prevent
uncontrolled leakage. Furthermore, the vessel facilitates more robust
safeguarding and tracing solutions for corrosion prevention.
This approach also offers the additional flexibility of off-plot installa-
tion. The conventional atmospheric configuration requires the degasser
to be placed near the sulphur condensers to minimise the pressure
drop in the rundown. In contrast, with the new pressurised line-up,
the degasser vessel can be installed in another part of the Claus plot,
which can result in more efficient use of the available plot space.
The new configuration for pressurised sulphur degassing (see
FIG. 2) requires a small Roots-type blower to create a pressure of
about 0.9 barg in order to recycle the vent gas to the Claus units
front end, as well as an additional small collecting vessel.
Shell carefully evaluated the effect of higher pressures on degas-
sing performance. The tests confirmed that degassing is more effec-
tive at a slightly elevated pressure. More oxygen can dissolve in the
sulphur, which enhances the decomposition of H
2
S
x
. Therefore, for
the same efficiency, the residence time could be decreased or smaller
units could be used.
LC
Stripping column
with separation bafe
Sulphur from Claus plant
Sulphur to storage
Sweep gas
To incinerator Low-pressure steam
Air
Stripping column
with separation bafe
Air
FIG. 1. Simplified flow scheme of the atmospheric Shell sulphur degassing process.
SPONSORED CONTENT
SHELL GLOBAL SOLUTIONS
DELIVERING VALUE
World Bank standards specify that no more than 150 mgSO
2
/Nm
3

(about 53 ppmv SO
2
) must leave the incinerator (dry basis and no
oxygen). This is typically equivalent to 35 ppmv of SO
2
in the actual
stack gas. These limits, or even tighter ones, are increasingly being
specified on projects all around the world and setting major challenges
for operators.
The pressurised Shell sulphur degassing process offers a safe,
robust and cheap solution for achieving the required reductions
in SO
2
emissions. The main modifications required for pressurised
operations are:
replacing the below-ground concrete pit with a below- or
above-ground vessel, if appropriate;
recycling the degasser vent to the front end of the Claus unit; and
installing a simple compressor.
These changes require only minor capital expenditure. The advan-
tages include:
reduced SO
2
emissions;
enhanced safety; and
plot flexibility.
Refineries, gas plants and upstream facilities can all benefit, either
in grassroots installations or retrofit situations, and Shell expects the
pressurised degasser to become the default configuration in future
projects that have highly stringent SO
2
emission requirements.
CONTACT INFORMATION
www.shell.com/gasprocessing
gasprocessing@shell.com
FIG. 2. The pressurised Shell sulphur degassing process.
Bubble
column
To/from sulphur
recovery unit coalescer
Air
Liquid sulphur
from sulphur
locks
Sulphur
collecting
vessel
Concrete pit
Bubble
column
Liquid sulphur
to storage
Sulphur degassing
vessel
Vent air to Claus
main burner gun
LC
PG
PC
PC
SPONSORED CONTENT
EVENT
Oct ober 3031, 2012 Hyat t Regency Houst on Houst on, Texas USA
H
O
U
S
T
O
N
H
O
U
S
T
O
N 2012 WOME N S
Register online at WGLNetwork.com
The Womens Global Leadership Conference in Energy and Technology (WGLC) is
one of the largest womens events in the industry, and the only one that focuses on
discussing key environmental, economic and professional development issues in oil
and gas.
This year, Houston Mayor Annise Parker will deliver a welcome address the morning of
Oct. 30 to open day one of the conference. The 2012 WGLC keynote speakers are:

This year, conference content will focus on the global impact of recent technological
advances in exploration and production. Presentations will also cover IOC/NOC
relationships, work force trends, shale energy in North America, challenges facing
young professionals, global upstream activity, and more.
Additional speakers include:
Melody Meyer, President, Chevron Asia Pacic Operation Company
Cindy Yeilding, VP, Gulf of Mexico Exploration, BP
Alexandra Roberts-Judd, Upstream Projects Public and
Government Affairs Manager, ExxonMobil
Denise Hamsher, Director, Planning-Major Projects, Enbridge Incorporated
Stephanie Sterling, VP Business and JV Management, Shell
Cristina Pinho, General Manager, Operations and Maintenance, Petrobras
To download the full conference agenda, please visit WGLNetwork.com.
Participate in the 2012 Womens Global Leadership Conference
in Energy & Technology
Inquiries: Contact Gwen Hood, Events Manager, at +1 (713) 520-4402
or Gwen.Hood@GulfPub.com
Registration Fees: Single attendee: $880; Team of two: $1,595;
Small group of 5: $3,300; Leadership pack of 10: $6,325
Henrietta H. Fore
Chairman and CEO
Holsman International
Mark P. Mills
CEO
Digital Power Group
Signage Sponsor:
Platinum Sponsor:
Silver Sponsors:
Wine-Tasting Sponsor:
Gold Sponsor:
Bronze Sponsor:
Bronze/Conference
Bag Sponsor:
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Heat Transfer
S. AHAMAD and R. VALLAVANATT,
Bechtel Corp., Houston, Texas
Identify and control excess air
from process heaters
Process heaters are the largest consumers of energy in most
plants. A refinery, on average, burns approximately 2 billion
Btu/hr of fuel in fired heaters. The total quantity of fuel burned
(heat released) is so high that any improvement will result in
significant fuel savings. Although there are many ways to im-
prove heater performance, including better design, operation
and maintenance, excess air is the No. 1 contributor to poor
heater efficiency and must be addressed.
High energy costs and tighter emissions regulations require
increased understanding and control of excess air. Any reduc-
tion in excess air will raise the efficiency of a heater and reduce
total emissions. NO
X
emissions are of the highest concern in a
fired heater, although excess air control will also reduce refin-
ery CO
2
emissions and boost heater efficiency.
Fuel efficiency in a fired heater is a function of heater de-
sign, maintenance and operating parameters. Heaters must be
designed for optimum efficiency, and providing an adequate
heat-transfer area at the design stage will ensure better efficien-
cy. It is recommended that the flue gas temperature approach
(defined as flue gas temperature leaving convection, minus pro-
cess inlet temperature) be between 50F and 100F, depending
on heater tube material and the cost of fuel. However, heater
efficiency may decline with the degradation of heater compo-
nents. The degree of degradation is dependent on the quality
of the maintenance program implemented at the refinery.
Excess air is defined as the amount of air above the stoichio-
metric air requirement that is needed to complete the combus-
tion process. Excess oxygen (O
2
) is the amount of O
2
in the
incoming air not used during combustion.
In an operating plant, the airflow rate can be adjusted at a
fixed absorbed-heat duty (constant feed flowrate and inlet/out-
let conditions) until an optimum fuel-to-air ratio is achieved. It
is important to note that there is a limit on minimum possible
excess O
2
. Below this level, combustibles can enter the flue gas,
which poses a safety hazard. Heater and burner manufacturers
establish this minimum limit during the design stage. Opera-
tors should also keep a safe margin for upset conditions.
A frequently asked question is, Why do operators often
run heaters with higher excess air? The answer is that addi-
tional excess air reduces flame temperature, shortens flame
length and decreases tube flame impingement, thereby mak-
ing it easier for workers to operate the heater without over-
heating the tube.
Excess O
2
can be measured in flue gases, which can be cor-
related with excess air. FIG. 1 provides a correlation between
excess air and flue gas O
2
for a typical natural gas. Also, the fol-
lowing equation can be used to calculate the excess air based
on flue gas O
2
:
(1)
EA
92 O
2
21 O
2
where:
EA = excess air, %
O
2
= vol% of flue gas oxygen (dry).
Higher excess O
2
helps achieve a stable flame in the firebox.
At the same time, it reduces the efficiency of the heater. As a
general rule, 3% O
2
in flue gas is equivalent to 15% excess air.
Flue gas quantity increases with a rise in excess air, which
lowers heat and increases the fuel requirement. FIG. 2 provides
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0 2 4 6 8 10
F
l
u
e

g
a
s

O
2
,

%

w
e
t
Flue gas O
2
, % dry
O
2
dry vs. wet
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 2 4 6 8 10
E
x
c
e
s
s

a
i
r
,

%
Flue gas O
2
, % dry
Excess air vs. O
2
FIG. 1. Correlation between excess air and flue gas O
2
for a typical
natural gas.
Heat Transfer
a correlation between flue gas generated during combustion,
and excess air.
The following equation can be used to calculate approxi-
mate flue gas quantity for natural gas:
q
f
= 1 + 0.167 (100 + EA)
or (2)
q
f
= 17.7 +
15.4 O
2
21 O
2
where:
EA = excess air, %
O
2
= vol% of flue gas oxygen (dry)
q
f
= flue gas quantity in lb/lb of fuel.
As a general rule, flue gas quantity is approximately 20 times
the fuel quantity at 15% excess air.
The net efficiency of a fired heater is equal to the total heat
absorbed, divided by the total heat input. The heat absorbed
is equal to the total heat input, minus the total losses. The net
thermal heater efficiency can be calculated using the following
equation:
(3)
=
Total heat input (stack + seting) losses
Total heat input
100
=
LHV H
a
H
f
H
m
H
s
H
L
LHV H
a
H
f
H
m
100
where:
= Net thermal efficiency, %
LHV = Lower heating value of the fuel, Btu/lb of fuel
H
a
= Sensible heat of air, Btu/lb of fuel
H
f
= Sensible heat of fuel, Btu/lb of fuel
H
m
= Sensible heat of atomizing media, Btu/lb of fuel
H
s
= Stack heat losses, Btu/lb of fuel
H
L
= Setting loss, Btu/lb of fuel.
For all practical purposes, we can assume H
a
and H
f
to be
negligible. H
m
is applicable for fuel oil firing. Setting (casing)
heat losses are in the range of 1.5%2.5%, depending on the
capacity, design and size of the heater. Given these assump-
tions, there are two parameters for the estimation of efficiency:
excess air/flue gas O
2
and stack temperature.
FIG. 3 depicts a graph for the estimation of fired heater ef-
ficiency, based on flue gas O
2
and stack temperature for a typi-
cal natural gas with a setting heat loss of 1.5%. For heat losses
higher than 1.5%, additional heat loss should be reduced from
the calculated efficiency.
For example, consider a heater operating at a stack tem-
perature of 400F, with 4% O
2
(dry), and a 1.5% setting loss.
Using the graph in FIG. 3, the efficiency can be estimated at
89%. For the same heater with a higher setting loss of 2.5%,
the efficiency is 88%.
Knowledge of efficiency loss will clarify economic incen-
tives to lower the stack temperature or the percentage of excess
O
2
. As a general rule, every 35F increase in flue gas tempera-
ture reduces the heater efficiency by 1%.
Natural draft heaters use the draft (buoyancy) effect of hot
flue gases to draw combustion air into the heater. The net draft
available is the draft created by the stack effect, minus frictional
and velocity losses. The net draft should be sufficient to obtain
a negative pressure along the heater flue gas path.
It is important to maintain a safe draft level in a fired heat-
er to achieve the best possible efficiency and operation. The
60
65
70
75
85
80
90
95
2 4 6 8 10 12
E
f
c
i
e
n
c
y
,

%
Flue gas O
2
, vol% (dry)
Flue gas O
2
vs. efciency
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
Flue gas stack
temperature, F
FIG. 3. Estimation of fired heater efficiency.
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
l
b

o
f

u
e

g
a
s

p
e
r

l
b

o
f

f
u
e
l
Excess air
Flue gas quantity
FIG. 2. Correlation between flue gas generated during combustion,
and excess air.
Heat Transfer
target draft of 0.1 inchWC is set at the heater arch. A higher
value of draft will result in ingress of tramp air into the heater.
Tramp air takes heat from the combustion process and exits
the stack, reducing heater efficiency. The flue gas sample taken
from the stack does not represent the actual volume of O
2
avail-
able for combustion. It is the sum of unused O
2
from the fire-
box (actual excess O
2
) and O
2
from tramp air.
A positive draft value will result in the leakage of hot flue
gases through openings in the heater. This is a hazardous op-
eration that can overheat the steel structure, refractory and
heater supports, and, consequently, shorten heater life.
FIG. 4 provides the value of draft generated in the heater for
flue gas temperature and ambient air temperature. It should
be noted that stack effect decreases with an increase in site al-
titude. The calculated draft should be amended using the cor-
rection factor for site altitude. The following equation can be
used to calculate the draft generated in a heater:
(4)
Draft = 0.52 H P
atm

1
T
amb

1
T
fg

where:
H = Height, ft
P
atm
= Atmospheric pressure, psia
T
amb
= Ambient air temperature, R
T
fg
= Flue gas temperature, R.
As a general rule, for every 10 ft of firebox height, the draft
increases by 0.1 inchWC:
Draft at burner (inchWC) 0.1 + H
fb
100 (5)
where:
H
fb
= Firebox height, ft.
As an example, for a 50-ft-tall firebox, the draft at burner is
0.6 inchWC (0.1 inchWC at arch, plus 0.5 inchWC as a stack
effect). Generally, the stack effect decreases with an increase
in site elevation. For example, a taller stack will be needed for a
heater operating in Wyoming (altitude ~ 5,000 ft) than for one
operating along the Texas Gulf Coast (altitude ~ 0 ft).
The typical combustion air preheater (APH) will in-
crease the heater efficiency by approximately 10%. Fuel gas
generally contains H
2
S or sulfur, which convert into SO
2
and
then into SO
3
. The APHs heat-transfer surface is subject to
cold-end corrosion caused by condensation of sulfur trioxide
(SO
3
), which results in APH leakage. Air preheater leakage is
one of the most common APH operating problems, and any
such leakage results in a reduction in the overall efficiency of
the heater.
In APH operation, the flue gas is generally at negative pres-
sure, and the air is at positive pressure. Therefore, leakage oc-
curs from air to the flue gas side. This reduces the quantity of
air available for combustion, and it increases the quantity of
flue gas leaving the APH.
This leakage can be detected by measuring the flue gas O
2

content at the APH inlet and outlet. Any leakage will result in
higher flue gas O
2
at the APH exit, compared to the APH inlet.
Generally, the APH is not equipped with a flue gas O
2
analyzer
at the inlet and the outlet; however, the inclusion of 2-in. con-
nections at the APHs inlet and outlet will enable operators to
measure O
2
levels using a portable analyzer.
Another method of measuring leakage involves heat bal-
ance. The flue gas/air heat balance across the APH can be de-
scribed as follows:
(m Cp T)
flue gas
= (m Cp T)
air
(6)
For a typical fuel gas at 15% excess air:
m
flue gas
1.05 m
air

Cp
flue gas
1.15 Cp
air
(7)
T
air
1.2 T
flue gas
where:
m = Flowrate
Cp = Specific heat
T = Temperature difference across the APH.
Any leakage in the APH will reduce the ratio of T
air
to T
flue
gas
. For example, for a 10% leakage in the APH, the ratio of tem-
perature difference will be around 1.1.
FIG. 5 indicates the percentage of air leakage based on the
ratio of T
air
to T
flue gas
for a typical natural gas firing.
Air leakage through openings. A fired heater is not a 100%
sealed unit; there are always openings through which air in-
gress (tramp air) can move. The volume of tramp air depends
on the opening size and the draft at the location of the opening.
After the draft at the opening location is estimated, the fol-
lowing equation can be used to estimate the air leakage through
an opening:
P = C 0.003 v
2
(8)
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000
F
a
c
t
o
r
Altitude, ft
Altitude correction factor
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
200 700 1,200 1,700 2,200
D
r
a
f
t

p
e
r

1
0
0

f
t
,

i
n
c
h
W
C
Flue gas temperature, F
Stack efect (draft)
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
Ambient air
temperature, F
FIG. 4. Value of draft generated in the heater for flue gas and ambient
air temperatures.
Heat Transfer
This equation can be simplified for the leakage calculation
purpose based on the following data:
Molecular weight (MW) of air = 28.96
Atmospheric pressure (psia) = 14.7
Velocity head (C) = taken as 1
The simplified equation reads:
(9)
q
l
=
115 P
T

where:
P = Draft at opening location, inchWC
= Density of air at ambient temperature, lb/ft
3
v = Velocity of air through opening, ft/s
C = Velocity head
q
l
= Air leakage, lb per ft
2
/s
T = Ambient air temperature, R.
FIG. 6 provides the quantity of air leakage per ft
2
of opening
size. This figure is based on an ambient air temperature of 60F.
Once the opening size is known, the amount of air leakage can
be estimated. The estimated air can be translated into the ad-
ditional firing rate required.
Fuel savings. A commonly asked question in heater discus-
sions is, How much fuel can be saved if excess air is opti-
mized? The efficiency chart in FIG. 3, which shows operating
O
2
and target O
2
, helps calculate the savings.
However, there is a drawback. The absorbed heat duty of the
fired heater is constant. Any increase in the O
2
level will reduce
the efficiency, resulting in a higher firing rate. This increase in
the firing rate will lead to a rise in stack temperature, which re-
sults in another reduction in efficiency. This reduction, in turn,
demands a further increase in the firing rate.
For example, a 100-MM-Btu/hr fired heater is designed for
operating at a stack temperature of 600F, with 84% efficiency
at 3% O
2
. The operating efficiency at 6% O
2
is around 80%
(and not 82%, as shown in the efficiency chart).
The method of efficiency calculation for off-design operat-
ing conditions presented in API-560 Appendix G can be used
to estimate the stack temperature when excess air is present.
This method can be simplified for excess air as follows:
(10)
T
S2
T
f 2
(T
S1
T
f 1
)
100EA
2
100EA
1
n
n
180
T
S1
T
f 1
0.35
where:
T
s
= Flue gas stack temperature, R
EA = Excess air, %
T
f
= Feed inlet temperature, R (T
f1
= T
f2
)
= Excess air correction factor (subscripts 1 and 2 refer to
design and operating conditions, respectively).
Once the new flue gas stack temperature at excess air is
known, then the heater efficiency can be estimated. FIG. 7
shows the estimated fuel savings for a reduction in the O
2
level
to 3%. This graph is based on a fuel price of $6/MMBtu. The
design flue gas temperature lines indicate the baseline stack
temperature (i.e., the flue gas stack temperature at 3% O
2
).
CO
2
emissions reduction. The volume of CO
2
emissions
generated in a fired heater is directly proportional to the firing
rate. In combustion processes, fuel carbon converts into CO
2
.
Therefore, excess air reduction will lower CO
2
emissions.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
A
P
H

a
i
r

l
e
a
k
a
g
e
,

%
T air/T ue gas
APH leakage
FIG. 5. Percentage of air leakage for a typical natural gas firing.
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
18,000
20,000
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
A
i
r

l
e
a
k
a
g
e

p
e
r

f
t
2

o
f

o
p
e
n
i
n
g
,

l
b
/
h
r

Draft, inchWC
Air leakage
FIG. 6. Quantity of air leakage per ft
2
of opening size.
Heat Transfer
FIG. 8 provides estimated decreases in CO
2
emissions through
a reduction in the O
2
level to 3%. The basis for this graph is the
same as that in FIG. 7.
Recommendations. Heater excess air control starts at the de-
sign stage. Well-designed heaters have low tramp air. There are
three stages of excess air control:
1. Design stage
2. Maintenance
3. Control.
The following methods can be used to reduce excess air and
tramp air in the heater.
Design stage. A heater has many potential leak points for
air ingress:
Clearance around the bottom coil guide (spigots)
Sight doors and peepholes
Header boxes, manholes and other openings for viewing
and access
Modules and duct splice joints
Terminals and crossover tubes
Weld joints on the heater casing
Soot-blower sleeves
The APH.
These leak points must be designed for the lowest possible
leakage. Suggestions for designing a low-leakage heater include
the following:
Seal the clearance space around the bottom tube guides
by using a floor sleeve with an end cap, or seal boots
Use sight doors, with safety glass, that are equipped with
an interlock cover or flapper
Use a self-closing peephole cover in the heater floor
Ensure that header box panels and other openings are air-
tight, and use gaskets between the gaps
Seal-weld all splice joints between modules from the
inside, or use high-temperature sealant; also, use closer-bolt
spacing (6 in. from center to center)
Seal all terminals and crossover openings with flexible seals
Ensure that all header box drain points are plugged
Ensure that no leakage is occurring through instrument
mountings
Limit leakage through the APH during the design stage,
and perform an air-leakage test in the shop.
Maintenance. Routine maintenance of the heaters is es-
sential, since corrosive agents can be present in flue gases. De-
terioration from sulfur oxides occurs mostly on cold sections
of the steel casing. Climate conditions can also lead to rusting
on exposed surfaces of the heater casing. Suggested inspection
and maintenance methods include the following:
Check for heater casing corrosion; if any leaks are discov-
ered, they should be sealed to stop air ingress
Ensure that observation doors (generally located in the
bottom section of the radiant box) are closed after technicians
inspect the heater flame
Check peepholes, access doors, etc., for proper closing
Check flue gas O
2
content in the convection section and
on the APH; if there is any increase in O
2
content across the
flue gas path, it indicates leakage
Use a smoke test during heater shutdown to detect leakage
Use infrared scanning, while the heater is in operation, to
pinpoint locations with air leakage; these will have localized,
lower heater casing temperatures
To reduce leakage in burners, keep all burners in opera-
tion, even during lower operating loads; and close the air regis-
ter when a burner is taken out of service.
0
500,000
1,000,000
1,500,000
2,000,000
2 4 6 8 10 12
A
n
n
u
a
l

f
u
e
l

s
a
v
i
n
g
,

U
S

d
o
l
l
a
r
s
Flue gas O
2
, vol% (dry)
Fuel savings
400
600
800
Design ue gas
temperature, F
Basis:
|e:|jr|a|i|r|e|
temperature = 300 F
|ae|r|teHH||a
k|:cr|ei|e|ia|{
HH||a|r
FIG. 7. Estimated fuel savings for a reduction in the O
2
level to 3%.
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
4,500
2 4 6 8 10 12
A
n
n
u
a
l

C
O
2

r
e
d
u
c
t
i
o
n
,

M
M
l
b
Flue gas O
2
, vol% (dry)
CO
2
reduction
400
600
800
Design ue gas
temperature, F
Basis:
|e:|jr|a|i|r|e|
temperature = 300 F
|ae|r|teHH||a
k|:cr|ei|e|ia|{
HH||a|r
FIG. 8. Estimated decreases in CO
2
emissions through a reduction
in the O
2
level to 3%.
Heat Transfer
Excess air control. Knowing the target flue gas O
2
content
is the first step in excess air control. Each heater is unique in its
design. The O
2
level required to achieve ideal combustion may
be anywhere from 1%4% or higher, depending on the design
and operating characteristics of the heater.
The following two instruments are necessary to control
excess air:
Flue gas O
2
analyzer. This is the most important instru-
ment on the heater. It is recommended to install an O
2
analyzer
at the radiant section arch.
Draft gauge. A draft gauge should be installed at the
heater arch. The arch is the point of the highest flue gas pres-
sure in the heater.
Heater O
2
and draft at the radiant arch should be checked
and, if necessary, adjusted at least once per shift and whenever
there is a change in process load. All operators should be fa-
miliar with the heater controls. Often, heaters with air registers
and stack dampers become jammed simply because they are
not used. FIG. 9 provides tactics for controlling excess air in a
natural draft heater. For controlling excess air in other types of
heaters, TABLE 1 and TABLE 2 can be used alongside FIG. 7.
Automatic control. The basics of automatic heater control are
similar to those described in the manual control method. In auto-
matic control, reliable instrumentation is key. One reason for the
small number of heaters with automatic control is a lack of confi-
dence in reliable instrumentation. Also, artificial intelligence can
be built into the control system to account for all operating cases.
A remote manual control for both O
2
and draft is best suited
for the natural draft heater. A fully automated control can be safe-
ly implemented on balanced draft heaters. Optimum heater per-
formance can be achieved by controlling O
2
and combustibles in
flue gas using an O
2
/CO analyzer and automatic dampers.
Case Study 1. In this case study, a vertical, cylindrical, natural
draft heater with an absorbed heat duty of 100 MMBtu/hr in-
cluded the following design parameters:
Flue gas stack temperature: 600F
Fluid inlet temperature: 300F
Design excess air: 15%
Design heat loss: 2%
Firebox height: 55 ft
Number of radiant tubes: 64
Flue gas O
2
content at operating conditions: 6 vol% (dry)
Efficiency of heater at design conditions: 84.2% at 1.5%
heat loss (see FIG. 3)
Efficiency at 2% heat loss: 83.7%
Firing rate: 100/0.837 = 119.5 MMBtu/hr
Fuel gas flowrate: 5,770 lb/hr (using a fuel gas LHV of
20,700 Btu/lb)
Flue gas flowrate: 5,770 [1 + 0.167 (100 + 15)] =
116,582 lb/hr
Air flowrate (flue gas flowrate fuel flowrate): 116,582
5,770 = 110,812 lb/hr.
The heater operated under the following conditions:
Flue gas O
2
: 6 vol% (dry)
Excess air: (92 6)/(21 6) = 36.8% (also see FIG. 1)
Efficiency at higher excess air, design stack temperature
of 600F and 2% heat loss = 81.3%; however, the revised ef-
ficiency must be calculated based on operating stack tempera-
ture, and if this measurement is not available, then the revised
stack temperature can be estimated as follows:
(11)
T
S2
T
f 2
(T
S1
T
f 1
)
n
180
600 300
^ `
0.35
0.836
100 36.8
100 15
0.836
1.156
T
S2
300 1.156 (600 300) 647qF
Efficiency at revised stack temperature and operating flue
gas excess air: 80.5% (from FIG. 3)
Corrected efficiency for 2% heat loss: 80%
Operating firing rate: 100 0.8 = 125 MMBtu/hr
Fuel savings potential: (125 119 .5) 24 365 =
48,180 MMBtu/yr; at a fuel price of $6/MMBtu/hr, the an-
nual fuel savings potential = $289,000 (this can also be esti-
mated using FIG. 7).
Case Study 2. In this case study, the heater experienced leak-
age through the bottom guide and an open peephole. The coil
guide and sleeve size were 2-in. Nominal Pipe Size (NPS)
Schedule 80 and 3-in. NPS Schedule 80, respectively. The heat-
er was not provided with a cap on the sleeve. The open area be-
tween the sleeve and the guide included an inside cross-section
of 3-in. NPS sleeve and an outside cross-section of 2-in. NPS
guide (equal to 2.96 in.
2
). Other design parameters included:
Number of guides: 32 (one guide for two radiant tubes)
Total opening area at guides: 32 2.96 144 = 0.66 ft
2
Size of radiant section observation door: 5 in. 9 in.
Opening area of observation door: 45 in.
2
(0.31 ft
2
)
Total open area: 0.97 ft
2
O
2
Draft
Close stack
damper
Open stack
damper
Close air
registers
Open air
registers
Start Finish OK
High
OK
Low
High
Low
FIG. 9. Tactics for controlling excess air in a natural draft heater.
TABLE 1 . Methods for controlling excess air
O
2
level Natural/induced draft Forced/balanced draft
High Close burner air register Close fan/duct air damper
Low Open burner air register Open fan/duct air damper
TABLE 2. Methods for controlling draft
Draft level Natural/forced draft Induced/balanced draft
High Close stack damper Close induced-draft fan damper
Low Open stack damper Open induced-draft fan damper
Heat Transfer
Firebox height: 55 ft
Draft at opening (draft at heater floor): 0.1 + 55 100 =
0.65 inchWC
Ambient air temperature: 60F
Air leakage per ft
2
of opening:
115 0.65
(460 + 60)
= 4.07 lb/s/f
2
Total air leakage: 4.07 0.97 3,600 = 14,212 lb/hr
(this can also be estimated using FIG. 6)
Excess air for the burner: 15%
Actual excess air, including leakage, can be calculated as
follows:

(Air leakage + air required)
Air required
(100EA) 100
(14,212 110,182)
110,182
(10015) 100 29.8%
Based on revised excess air, a fuel savings can be calculated
as in Case Study 1:
Calculated efficiency: 81.1%
Loss in efficiency due to air leakage: 83.7 81.1 = 2.5%
Annual fuel savings potential = $201,320.
Recommendations. Controlling excess air has many ben-
efits, and opportunities exist to save fuel regardless of whether
the heater is old or new. Day-to-day monitoring significantly
improves heater operation. The first visible benefit of excess
air reduction is a decrease in fuel consumption. Reduction of
emissions, including CO
2
, is another benefit.
The heater must be provided with at least two instruments
(an O
2
analyzer and a draft gauge at the arch), both of which
are important for energy improvement. Additionally, proper
training should be provided for heater operators, and a simple
and straightforward heater tuning program must be imple-
mented. It is unlikely that an operator will voluntarily adjust
the heater unless a plan is in place to do so.
SULTAN AHAMAD is a fired-heater equipment engineer at
Bechtel Corp. in Houston, Texas. He has more than 14 years of
experience in the design, engineering and troubleshooting of
fired heaters and combustion systems for the refining and
petrochemical industries. He graduated from the Indian Institute
of Technology in Roorkee, India, with a degree in chemical
engineering. He worked for eight years at Engineers India Ltd. in
New Delhi, India, and for five years at Furnace Improvements in Sugar Land, Texas.
RIMON VALLAVANATT is the senior principal engineer at
Bechtel Corp. in Houston, Texas. He has more than 37 years of
experience in the design, engineering and troubleshooting of
fired heaters, thermal oxidizers, boilers and flares. He
graduated from the University of Kerala in India with a degree
in mechanical engineering. He also received a degree in
industrial engineering from St. Marys University in San
Antonio, Texas. Mr. Vallavanatt is a registered professional engineer in the state
of Texas, and he has served on the American Petroleum Institutes subcommittee
on heat transfer equipment for the past 27 years.
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Pittsburgh Corning Corporation
s
800 Presque Isle Drive
s
Pittsburgh, PA 15239
Protecting Companies and Their People Worldwide
Rotating Equipment
K. BIHLER, Bihlertech, Inc. Chicago, Illinois;
D. DOMINIAK, Automate the World, Inc.,
Chicago, Illinois; B. KEITH, Toshiba International
Corp., Houston, Texas; and J. JOHNSON,
Hydro Inc., Chicago, Illinois
Apply new pump-drive software to test performance
Process control schemes involving fluid-flow machinery
with traditional adjustable speed drives (ASDs) or modules
encounter limitations such as control flexibility and accuracy.
In this context, the traditional approach implies that propor-
tional integral derivative (PID) methods can be used and that
these methods can directly control frequency. However, ap-
plying PID and directly controlling frequency on centrifugal
pump drives restricts flowrates and pressures along a non-
linear pump-performance curve. The widely known pump-
performance curve shapes are determined by a particular
machines impeller design or fabrication details. With respect
to controlling flowrate and/or pump discharge pressure, ASD
modules using traditional PID methods suffer from trying to
apply a linear equation to solve a nonlinear problem.
In contrast, a newly developed pump performance algo-
rithm (PPA) can indirectly solve for power in Eq. 1 of the
Pump Affinity Laws. As shown in FIG. 1, a PPA was developed
for modern centrifugal pump applications and test-stand du-
ties where superior control is needed. The superior control is
achieved when an algorithm linearizes a pump curve; it of-
fers expanded new ASD-related control options and improved
energy efficiency as compared to conventional PID methods.
Extensive testing corroborated the developments, and testing
results will be described in this article.
Pump laws and equations. Consider the Pump Affinity
Laws (Eq. 1), where the diameter of the impeller is held con-
stant and:
Q = Flow P = Power
H = Pressure N = Impeller speed
Flow Pressure Power
(1)
Q
1
Q
2
N
1
N
2

H
1
H
2
N
1
N
2
2

P
1
P
2
N
1
N
2
3
Note: The basic principle behind PPA modules and software
used in these devices solve for power, P and indirectly solve for
speed, N.
COMPARING OLD VS. NEW CONTROL METHODS
Common PID software used in an ASD provides an estimat-
ed speed to achieve a desired or targeted head vs. flow setpoint.
However, when the target speed is reached using this method,
an exact answer is not available and the desired setpoint may
have been missed. The correct answer lies on an unknown and
nonlinear pump performance curve. PID software must now
guess the speed and, hopefully, decrease the error. This process
continues until a reasonable closeness to (or deviation from)
setpoint is reached. If any event or process variable causes the
system curve to change, the whole control process must be re-
attempted. The process of searching for the correct speed will
consume driver energy, even on a single machine.
Multiple machines. On a fluid-flow system or fluid-process-
ing unit with multiple machines operating either in series or
in parallel, a second and more serious problembalancing the
loadpresents itself. Even if the machines in a multi-machine
flow loop or fluid-moving unit are built to the same specifica-
tions, there will be differences in motor performance, impeller
clearances, internal wear, surface roughness, and perhaps other
parameters. Some or all of these conditions can affect the re-
lationship (or constancy and accuracy) of pump speed and its
associated head vs. flow performance.
Using conventional frequency control, multiple fluid-flow
devices (pumps) are operated at the same speed when running
together. For the reasons listed above, this will inevitably pro-
FIG. 1. Modern pump test stand with ASD drive modules (cabinets)
on the right side of the picture. Photo courtesy of Hydro Inc., Chicago,
Illinois, and Toshiba International Corp., Houston, Texas.
Rotating Equipment
duce different flows and pressures from each machine. Result:
While in parallel operation, one pump will (usually) produce
most of the output and require a correspondingly higher elec-
tric current flow or amperage. Meanwhile, the other pump or
pumps will demand a lesser, but still high-power draw while
adding very little to the total fluid-flow output. Using conven-
tional control approaches, it will not be possible to balance a
load using frequency directly. Again, this inability exists be-
cause even the smallest of physical differences will cause a shift
in proportional power demand to the fluid device with the
highest pressure-to-flow ratio.
TEST OVERVIEW AND PPA DEMONSTRATION
As part of the development work, the deficiencies of simple
speed control algorithms were addressed; the difference be-
tween traditional ASDs and new PPAs had to be quantified.
Extensive testing at a state-of-the-art facility (FIG. 1) were
scheduled and conducted.
1
The results were analyzed and
formally reported. It was ascertained that the testing facility
was designed in compliance with the Hydraulic Institute and
API-610 standards. Instrumentation included a modern data-
collection system with electronic flowmeters, torque meters
and remote valve controls. Modern PPA drives were used in
the testing and two pumps were operated in parallel and series
configurations. The various testing sequences involved both
standard ASD control and also the new PPA.
During a straightforward test with a single pump, many of
the different capabilities of PPA software were demonstrated.
This software maintained constant system pressure as pumps
were added or shut down to modulate flow, or, as was done in
FIG. 2, by modifying the flow through a single pump by par-
tially closing a discharge valve and purposefully altering the
pump speed. Likewise and by holding a particular PPA num-
ber, the specifically developed software maintained constant
power usage. Power usage corresponds to the PPA
number by altering the frequency in response to ex-
ternally imposed flow changes.
The advanced PPA software balanced loads and
eliminated the process of searching for a setpoint.
The PPA starts with a fixed PPA number. If the out-
put electrical current is less than the PPA number,
then the frequency is increased. Otherwise, if the
output current is greater than the PPA number, then
the frequency is decreased. The frequency (in Hz)
is directly proportional to driver rpm (N in Eq. 1)
and is adjusted to meet the drivers electric current
(amperage, or amp) draw. On centrifugal process
pumps, amp draw is linear to both pressure and flow,
and nonlinear to N. This then differs from the PPA algorithm,
which controls power directly to meet pressure, flow or a cho-
sen pressure vs. flow intersection.
SETTING UP PPA
The PPA number is a percentage of the total amperage
available from a specific ASD. When a motor/pump is first set
up in the PPA wizard, the user is instructed to enter the motor
full-load amps into the drive. The ASD temporarily sets the
PPA Max variable to the entered motor amps divided by the
ASD available output amps. The operator can then adjust the
PPA Max number to achieve the maximum desired setpoint
for flow, pressure, etc. Once this is done, the operator will set
the PPA Min variable to find the lower limit, or motor stall
point. At this time, the ASD has stored the limits within which
the pump is allowed to operate. On multiple pump systems,
this is repeated so each machine has the same operational set-
points. The PPA numbers, which also affect the corresponding
amperage draw and frequencies at any given operating point,
will differ among pumps. Mechanical differences in piping,
impeller wear, or trim and motor efficiency are responsible for
the differences in PPA numbers.
Virtual pump curves. Next, a virtual linear pump curve is
created in software; it describes a power percentage that will
be compared to the other pumps. The PPA makes it possible
to compare power draws and make speed adjustments until all
power draws match each other.
If controlled from a common external analog signal, a PPA
Min of 0% will cause all the pumps to operate at the PPA Min
setpoint. The same is true at 100%, where all pumps will be
running at their individual PPA Max setpoints. What is im-
portant is that, for each change in setpoint, the resulting flow
or pressure will be linear, whereas the frequencies and amp
-400
8
8
4
1
7
6
7
2
6
5
0
3
5
3
3
4
4
1
6
5
2
9
9
6
1
8
2
7
0
6
5
7
9
4
8
8
8
3
1
9
7
1
4
1
0
5
9
7
1
1
4
8
0
1
2
3
6
3
1
3
2
4
6
1
4
1
2
9
1
5
0
1
2
1
5
8
9
5
1
6
7
7
8
1
7
6
6
1
1
8
5
4
4
1
9
4
2
7
2
0
3
1
0
2
1
1
9
3
2
2
0
7
6
2
2
9
5
9
2
3
8
4
2
2
4
7
2
5
2
5
6
0
8
2
6
4
9
1
2
7
3
7
4
2
8
2
5
7
2
9
1
4
0
-200
0
200
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
F
l
o
w
,

g
p
m
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
1,600
1,800
Total, ow
System, psi
FIG. 2. Testing verified that PPA software is capable of maintaining
constant pressure even if wide flow variations occur. Source: Hydro,
Inc., Chicago, Illinois.
Each pump is tuned during
commissioning to produce a specific
result, such as a flowrate or pressure.
Each motor/pump combination is unique
and requires slightly different frequencies
and power requirements.
Rotating Equipment
draws will be nonlinear. Whenever the input frequency to a
single machine is changed in a standard ASD, the output is
nonlinear, and energy is wasted searching to find the speed
needed to satisfy the control loop. Because PPA produces a
virtual linear performance curve, even the first calculation
from an external PID controller will likely be the correct and
most precise calculation.
The PPA software apportions power to the motor to pro-
duce the desired pressure or flow. No time or energy is wasted
accelerating and decelerating past the needed frequency. When
the internal PPA process hold loop is used with an external
feedback signal from a pressure transducer or flowmeter, the
control loop process is greatly enhanced because there is no
communication lag, and the variables can be tested and satis-
fied at CPU clock speed.
Calculating pump speed. Another relevant characteristic of
PPA is that, for each ASD actually operating, the software can
calculate at what speed to run to hold the PPA number inde-
pendently. This would be impossible for separate drives run-
ning speed-control PID because each drive would be fighting
the other while hunting errors until the whole system became
unbalanced. Because PPA software provides a virtual and lin-
ear line of performance, each ASD can simply select an indi-
vidual point that represents exactly the same flow-pressure
intersect as every other ASD. This means that the total con-
trol system is greatly simplified. Therefore, an external PLC or
DCS system needs only to tell each PPA-equipped ASD when
to run and what setpoint to hold, and to provide the feedback
reference signal. The important duty of calculating the spe-
cific power requirements to maintain a setpoint is distributed
across all of the individual machines that are online.
In this scenario, each PPA-equipped ASD that is online,
whether the driver is operating or not, is continuously calculat-
ing what power it needs to maintain the desired setpoint based
on its initial stored setup values. When called, the next drive
will ramp up and recalculate the feedback to find its point on
the performance line. At the same time, the lead pump will be
backing down because the additional flow will be changing its
reference signal. Eventually, all pumps will reach the needed fre-
quency to meet the virtual pump performance setpoint, while
the PPA software runs in the background to find the required
power. This process occurs very quickly because each estimate
finds a known performance point. It generally happens faster
than the mechanical force variations can cause any pressure or
flow changes. This leads to the most important function of PPA
software: balancing the load between multiple pumps.
Tuning. Each pump is tuned during commissioning to pro-
duce a specific result, such as a flowrate or pressure at both
PPA Min and PPA Max. Each motor/pump combination is
unique and requires slightly different frequencies and power
requirements at both end points and at every point in between.
As a percentage, they are all the same. Since all PPA-equipped
ASDs share the same common reference signal, they can each
independently calculate the power needed to match the flow-
pressure intersect of all of the pumps online. In a series opera-
tion, this effect is even more pronounced. If series pumps are
run at the same speed, then they have different fluid velocities.
This is analogous to a traffic jam on an expressway where the
cars are stopping and starting. Using PPA, the cars are all
moving at exactly the same velocity. Without PPA, differences
in velocities between pumps can result in overpressure waves
that amplify and resonate. This causes mechanical stress,
which, in turn, consumes more power.
With PPA, the frequency can range to satisfy changes in
the system curve. An example of this may be found in a com-
mon lift station connected to a force main that is shared by
other pumping stations. In this case, a transducer would pro-
vide feedback to keep the wet well at a constant level. As the
flowrate changes, PPA would increase and decrease power
to achieve this, just as a standard ASD would range the fre-
quency. In contrast, the different PPA machines solve for P of
the Power Affinity Laws simultaneously. At a given power set-
ting on a pump with an increasing power curve, PPA increases
the frequency to maintain the specified power when the force
main pressure increases as other stations come online. When
running in PPA process hold mode, the PPA software will do
it independently, and, each time the feedback changes the PPA
output number. The result is that, unlike with a simple speed-
control system, the PPA software corrects the frequency based
on power before any change comes from the feedback loop.
This has a two-fold advantage: more accurate process control
and, consequently, less power used by the pump.
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
H
e
r
t
z
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
P
o
w
e
r
,

k
W
1
0
:
5
6
:
5
4
1
0
:
5
6
:
5
4
1
0
:
5
7
:
2
1
1
0
:
5
7
:
4
7
1
0
:
5
8
:
1
3
1
0
:
5
8
:
3
9
1
0
:
5
9
:
0
6
1
0
:
5
9
:
3
2
1
0
:
5
9
:
5
8
1
1
:
0
0
:
2
4
1
1
:
0
0
:
5
1
1
1
:
0
1
:
1
7
1
1
:
0
1
:
4
3
1
1
:
0
2
:
0
9
1
1
:
0
2
:
3
6
1
1
:
0
3
:
0
2
1
1
:
0
3
:
2
8
1
1
:
0
3
:
5
5
1
1
:
0
4
:
2
1
1
1
:
0
4
:
4
7
1
1
:
0
5
:
1
3
1
1
:
0
5
:
4
0
1
1
:
0
6
:
0
6
1
0
:
5
7
:
1
9
1
0
:
5
7
:
4
3
1
0
:
5
8
:
0
7
1
0
:
5
8
:
3
1
1
0
:
5
8
:
5
6
1
0
:
5
9
:
2
0
1
0
:
5
9
:
4
4
1
0
:
0
0
:
0
8
1
0
:
0
0
:
3
3
1
0
:
0
0
:
5
7
1
0
:
0
1
:
2
1
1
0
:
0
1
:
4
5
1
0
:
0
2
:
0
9
1
0
:
0
2
:
3
4
1
0
:
0
2
:
5
8
1
0
:
0
3
:
2
2
1
0
:
0
3
:
4
6
1
0
:
0
4
:
1
1
1
0
:
0
4
:
3
5
1
0
:
0
4
:
5
9
1
0
:
0
5
:
2
3
1
0
:
0
5
:
4
8
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
Pressure, psi
Hz
Hz
kW
kW
Total
FIG. 3. Two pumps (on common headers), using PID. Their respective
speeds lag. Also, maintaining the setpoint pressure (95 psi) is difficult.
Rotating Equipment
MORE ABOUT THE TESTS
Among the tests conducted was Test A, also known as the
PID lead-pump test. It involved settings and findings summa-
rized as:
95 psi setpoint (blue pump)
Speed follower lag pump (red pump)
Average kW usage from 10:59:32 to 11:05:49 = 70.88.
As shown in FIG. 3, this test shows the traditional method
of using two pumps on a common header. A PID algorithm
with feedback is used on the first pump. (Note: PID cannot be
used on more than one pump in a system.) The second pump
is set to follow the speed reference from the lead machine. The
response lag from FIG. 3 is attributable to the acceleration time.
With traditional PID, significant energy is wasted in the un-
balanced systems. Although operating in parallel, one pump
will take over and produce the majority of the flow when all
pumps are running at the same speed. This occurs whether
on an ASD or across the line. All of the other pumps will draw
a considerable amount of power, but will contribute little to
the total flow. By contrast, in a PPA system, each machine will
precisely produce its portion of the flow and use the same
amount of energy. With PPA, all of the pumps in the system
become one virtual machine.
Test B involved settings and findings labeled Independent
PPA operation:
95 psi setpoint
Average kW usage from 11:57:30 to 12:11:19 = 65.93.
As shown in FIG. 4, this test, i.e., Test B, uses the same set-
points as Test A, but places both drives in independent PPA
process hold modes. Of note is the smoothness in pressure and
flow, and that the drives do not get out of synchronism and
fight each other, as shown in the earlier Test A.
One additional point of interest is that, in Test A, the PID
loop was tuned by a professional application engineer. By con-
trast, in Test B, the drives, as shown in FIG. 4, were simply oper-
ated through the PPA setup wizard, and no tuning was done.
Instead, all the values were the drive defaults.
From FIG. 4 and comparing it to Test A (FIG. 3), it is clearly
demonstrated how PPAs can save energy. Precise control of the
process and balancing of the load reduces energy demand that
is otherwise converted into heat and mechanical stress.
Pressure, psi
Hz
Hz
kW
kW
Total
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
H
e
r
t
z
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
1
1
:
2
9
:
5
1
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
1
1
:
2
9
:
5
1
1
1
:
3
1
:
5
2
1
1
:
3
3
:
5
3
1
1
:
3
5
:
5
4
1
1
:
3
7
:
5
5
1
1
:
3
9
:
5
6
1
1
:
4
1
:
5
7
1
1
:
4
3
:
5
8
1
1
:
4
5
:
2
9
1
1
:
4
8
:
0
0
1
1
:
5
0
:
0
1
1
1
:
5
2
:
0
2
1
1
:
5
4
:
0
3
1
1
:
5
6
:
0
3
1
1
:
5
8
:
0
4
1
2
:
0
0
:
0
5
1
2
:
0
2
:
0
6
1
2
:
0
4
:
0
7
1
2
:
0
6
:
0
8
1
2
:
0
8
:
0
9
1
2
:
1
0
:
1
0
1
2
:
1
2
:
1
1
1
1
:
3
2
:
0
1
1
1
:
3
4
:
1
0
1
1
:
3
6
:
2
0
1
1
:
3
8
:
2
9
1
1
:
4
0
:
3
9
1
1
:
4
2
:
4
9
1
1
:
4
4
:
5
8
1
1
:
4
7
:
0
8
1
1
:
4
9
:
1
7
1
1
:
5
1
:
2
7
1
1
:
5
3
:
3
7
1
1
:
5
5
:
4
6
1
1
:
5
7
:
5
6
1
2
:
0
0
:
0
5
1
2
:
0
2
:
1
5
1
2
:
0
4
:
2
5
1
2
:
0
6
:
3
4
1
2
:
0
8
:
4
4
1
2
:
1
0
:
5
3
1
2
:
1
3
:
1
3
1
2
:
1
5
:
1
3
P
o
w
e
r
,

k
W
FIG. 4. Test B, same setpoints as Test A but using PPA. Note smoothness.
-20
-20
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Booster start
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
H
e
r
t
z
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
P
o
w
e
r
,

k
W
0
9
:
2
0
.
7
1
0
:
1
5
.
8
1
1
:
1
0
.
9
1
2
:
0
5
.
9
1
3
:
0
1
.
0
1
3
:
5
6
.
1
1
4
:
5
1
.
2
1
5
:
4
6
.
3
1
6
:
4
1
.
3
1
7
:
3
6
.
4
1
8
:
3
1
.
5
1
9
:
2
6
.
6
2
0
:
2
1
.
7
2
1
:
1
6
.
7
2
2
:
1
1
.
8
2
3
:
0
6
.
9
2
4
:
0
2
.
0
2
4
:
5
7
.
1
2
5
:
5
4
.
2
2
6
:
4
9
.
3
2
7
:
4
4
.
3
2
8
:
3
9
.
4
0
9
:
2
0
.
7
1
0
:
1
5
.
8
1
1
:
1
0
.
9
1
2
:
0
5
.
9
1
3
:
0
1
.
0
1
3
:
5
6
.
1
1
4
:
5
1
.
2
1
5
:
4
6
.
3
1
6
:
4
1
.
3
1
7
:
3
6
.
4
1
8
:
3
1
.
5
1
9
:
2
6
.
6
2
0
:
2
1
.
7
2
1
:
1
6
.
7
2
2
:
1
1
.
8
2
3
:
0
6
.
9
2
4
:
0
2
.
0
2
4
:
5
7
.
1
2
5
:
5
4
.
2
2
6
:
4
9
.
3
2
7
:
4
4
.
3
2
8
:
3
9
.
4
Pressure, psi
Hz
Hz
kW
kW
Total
FIG. 5. PPA on one of two pumps operating in series. Header pressure
is set at 95 psi.
Rotating Equipment
PPA with across the line booster vs. load share. The
blue pump drive in FIG. 5 was configured for PPA operation to
control pressure at a setpoint of 95 psi. The pressure setpoint
was chosen because it was obtainable by the 10-hp pump and
motor, but it would cause the pump to operate at an undesir-
able efficiency level. The red pump drive was configured to
emulate a soft-start deviceaccelerating to 60 Hz, using a
7.5 second acceleration time. At the top chart, the green line
shows the pressure on the common header, while the blue and
red lines show the output frequency on the respective drives.
The lower chart indicates kW consumed for each drive, as
well as total kW. In this example, the total power consumption
(with both pumps running) is 118 kW.
FIG. 5 confirms, in the case of the pumps operating in series
and running one at a fixed-line frequency is 36% less efficient
than an ASD with PPA for each pump. Operating one pump
at a fixed-line frequency and one with an ASD with PID soft-
ware would be 31% less efficient than an ASD with PPA for
each pump. The initial incremental cost of installing an ASD
with PPA for each pump would be quickly returned. Ineffi-
ciencies will manifest themselves in the form of heat loss, vi-
bration energy and mechanical stress. PPA software will, as in
this test case, be about 5% more energy efficient than a tradi-
tional speed-control PID.
One ASD with PPA for each pump represents the lowest
cost of ownership over the service life of the facility. The test
results, as shown in FIG. 6, demonstrate both pumps in PPA
direct mode reacting to changes imposed by increasing or de-
creasing the system pressure. The power does not change, and
the flows are balanced. In operations similar to this but without
PPA, one pump would use most of the power and produce the
majority of the flow; the second pump would use somewhat
less electric power but contribute very little to the total flow.
Direct-mode load balance with an empty pipeline. Two
important pump control issues addressed by PPA software are
illustrated in FIG. 7. First, PPA will limit pump overload that
normally occurs when starting a pump on an empty pipeline.
In this case, the pump having no restriction on flow would elec-
trically overload. The PPA algorithm will, however, limit the
output frequency to limit the output amperage. Also, precise
process control eliminates wasted energy. This is the key to en-
ergy savings. PPA cannot change pump efficiency or process
piping geometry, but it can limit wasted power due to mistakes
in the process control introduced by traditional speed control.
Second, this test demonstrated that the PPA software is also ca-
pable of achieving identical power consumption by two pumps
operating in parallel and feeding into a zero back-pressure
downstream environmentan empty pipeline.
-200
5
5
3
1
6
5
7
2
7
6
1
3
8
6
5
4
9
6
9
6
0
7
3
7
1
7
7
8
2
8
1
9
3
8
5
1
0
4
8
9
1
1
5
9
3
1
2
6
9
7
1
3
8
0
1
1
4
9
0
5
1
6
0
0
9
1
7
1
1
3
1
8
2
1
7
1
9
3
2
1
2
0
4
2
5
2
1
5
2
9
2
2
6
3
3
2
3
7
3
7
2
4
8
4
1
2
5
9
4
5
2
7
0
4
9
2
8
1
5
3
2
9
2
5
7
3
0
3
6
1
3
1
4
6
5
200
400
600
800
1,000
0
Power
Power
Flow
Flow
P
o
w
e
r
,

k
W
F
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
,

g
p
m
FIG. 6. Two pumps in PPA direct mode reacting to changing discharge
header pressures imposed by manipulating a traditional control valve.
Pressure, psi
Hz
Hz
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
P
o
w
e
r
,

k
W
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
0
6
:
3
6
.
8
0
6
:
4
4
.
9
0
6
:
5
2
.
9
0
7
:
0
1
.
0
0
7
:
0
9
.
0
0
7
:
1
7
.
0
0
7
:
2
5
.
1
0
7
:
3
3
.
1
0
7
:
4
5
.
2
0
7
:
5
7
.
2
0
8
:
2
1
.
4
0
8
:
4
9
.
5
0
9
:
0
5
.
6
1
0
:
3
0
.
1
1
0
:
5
8
.
2
0
9
:
4
0
.
6
1
0
:
3
3
.
1
1
1
:
0
3
.
4
1
1
:
1
9
.
6
1
1
:
2
3
.
6
FIG. 7. Pump startup without restriction on flow is made possible by PPA.
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
P
o
w
e
r
,

k
W
F
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
,

g
p
m
2
8
:
1
9
.
2
2
8
:
4
8
.
3
2
9
:
1
7
.
4
2
9
:
4
6
.
5
3
0
:
1
5
.
6
3
0
:
4
4
.
7
3
1
:
1
3
.
8
3
1
:
4
2
.
9
3
2
:
1
2
.
0
3
2
:
4
1
.
1
3
3
:
1
0
.
2
3
3
:
3
9
.
3
3
4
:
0
8
.
4
3
4
:
3
7
.
5
3
5
:
0
6
.
6
3
5
:
3
5
.
7
3
6
:
0
4
.
8
3
6
:
3
3
.
9
3
7
:
0
3
.
0
3
7
:
3
2
.
1
3
8
:
0
1
.
2
3
8
:
3
0
.
3
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
2
8
:
1
9
.
2
2
8
:
4
8
.
3
2
9
:
1
7
.
4
2
9
:
4
6
.
5
3
0
:
1
5
.
6
3
0
:
4
4
.
7
3
1
:
1
3
.
8
3
1
:
4
2
.
9
3
2
:
1
2
.
0
3
2
:
4
1
.
1
3
3
:
1
0
.
2
3
3
:
3
9
.
3
3
4
:
0
8
.
4
3
4
:
3
7
.
5
3
5
:
0
6
.
6
3
5
:
3
5
.
7
3
6
:
0
4
.
8
3
6
:
3
3
.
9
3
7
:
0
3
.
0
3
7
:
3
2
.
1
3
8
:
0
1
.
2
3
8
:
3
0
.
3
kW
kW
Total
Pressure, psi
Flowrate
FIG. 8. In the direct-mode PPA series both the red-lined and blue-lined
pumps consume approximately the same amount of energy. Note: The
wide variations in flow and system pressure allowed in this test.
Rotating Equipment
Series direct mode. As illustrated in FIG. 8, the PPA series
direct-mode test shows that, with PPA and system pressure in-
creasing, the power remains balanced. Pressure is represented
as the jagged bottom green line in FIG. 8, while power draws for
each of the two pumps remain close to identical (red and blue
lines). The total power consumed is shown as the black line on
the kW vs. time graph.
MORE EFFICIENT PUMP OPERATIONS
Over time, pump manufacturers have improved the fluid
mechanics in pump designs via increasingly more sophisticat-
ed computer CAD/CAM modeling and automated machin-
ing capabilities. This is the first advancement step. For the
second advancement step, standard ASDs represent notable
advantages or innovations. In particular, ASDs achieve better
energy efficiency because plain kW usage drops off along with
the voltage/frequency ratio.
PPAs represent another quantum step forward; it is poten-
tially the third major development benefiting industry. The
PPA algorithm enables solving indirectly for the power draw
of each individual machine, whether the machine(s) operate
alone or in series. Solving indirectly for power in the Pump
Affinity Laws or in parallel has been missing from all conven-
tional or traditional ASD methods. The new state-of-the-art
PPA software addresses this issue and solves the problem.
Enabled by the PPA algorithm, a modern pump drive can
quickly reach the desired setpoint. Among the many important
gains are enhanced energy efficiency and more rapid configura-
tion of complex systems. In addition, operator training is simpli-
fied. There is reduced damage potential for fluid machines.
Process control via traditional ASDs with centrifugal de-
vices is encumbered by attempting to use a linear equation to
solve a nonlinear problem. By contrast, PPA software corrects
the power needed before any change is announced from the
feedback loop. This rapid before-the-fact correction yields a
two-fold advantage: more accurate process control and, conse-
quently, less power consumed by the pump.
NOTES
1
Tests conducted at the Hydro, Inc., facilities in Chicago, Illinois. Extensive test-
ing conducted at Hydro accurately measured every relevant parameter and then
assisted in defining the important differences between traditional approaches and
the PPA algorithms. All involved parties reached the conclusion that PPA software
offers unprecedented savings to owner-operators wishing to pursue optimized
and reliability-focused pump control.
NOMENCLATURE
ASD Adjustable speed drive
CAD Computer aided design
DCS Distributed control system
P Power, as represented by the Pump Affinity Laws
PID Proportional integral derivative
PLC Programmable logic controller
PPA Pump performance algorithm (a newly developed linear pump
performance algorithm)
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This article was edited and refocused by Hydrocarbon Processings Equipment
and Reliability Editor, Heinz Bloch, P.E. His latest books, Pump Wisdom and the
widely read co-authored Pump Users Handbook (3rd Ed., 2010), are among his 18
comprehensive reliability textbooks.
KURT BIHLER has over 30 years of experience in industrial
controls. His past work experiences includes programming in
the US and Japan for SORD Computer Corp. Since 1993, he has
been president of Bihlertech, Inc., a company that specializes in
building pump station controls. Mr. Bihler is presently a
consultant to Toshiba, and is one of the co-inventors of an
advanced PPA algorithm.
DANA DOMINIAK holds a PhD in computer science from the
Illinois Institute of Technology. With programming experience in
many languages, including C and C++, she specializes in
advanced automation programming. In addition, she has
extensive experience programming graphical interfaces of
energy analysis systems for institutions such as Argonne
National Laboratory and the International Atomic Energy
Agency. Dr. Dominiak serves as an adjunct professor at Lewis University,
where she teaches courses in computer graphics and C/C++ Programming.
BRIAN KEITH has over 25 years of experience in industrial
automation and controls. Starting in the pharmaceutical
industry, he has studied under Dr. Melvin First at the Harvard
School of Public Health for specialized biological, chemical and
radiological containment systems. In 2007, he completed the
Georgia Tech Executive Management Training Program. Over
the past 15 years, he has focused mainly on the development
and marketing of adjustable speed drives for both industrial and commercial
markets. Mr. Keith was instrumental in the development and implementation of
PPA Technology into the Toshiba ADS family.
JEFF JOHNSON has 36 years of experience in the pump service
industry covering numerous markets. Having worked with
major OEMs around the world including, Sulzer and Flowserve,
he joined Hydro in 2009 and was appointed vice president of
Hydros petroleum and pipeline division. Supporting pump
users nationwide, he was instrumental in the design and
construction of Hydros 5000 HP Test Lab.
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We offer engineered surplus equipment solutions.
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Phone 210-342-7106 Fax 210-223-0018
www.bexarenergy.com Email: info@bexarenergy.com
Specialty Engineering
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Rotating Equipment
Metallurgical and
Materials Lab
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Specialists in design, failure
analysis, and troubleshooting of
static and rotating equipment
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Select 209 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS Select 211 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
ADVERTISER INDEX / HydrocarbonProcessing.com
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www.info.hotims.com/41433-77
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Axens .....................................................................104 (53)
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Gulf Publishing Company
Construction Boxscore...........................................S-72
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Invensys ................................................................... 18 (69)
KBR ......................................................................... 30 (59)
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Michell Instruments Inc. ........................................... 54 (164)
Milliken Workwear ................................................... 46 (61)
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Shell Global Solutions ................................... S-80S-81
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Water
Management
LORAINE A. HUCHLER, CONTRIBUTING EDITOR
Huchler@martechsystems.com
Consider software tools for water reuse projects
The hydrocarbon processing industry
needs reliable and economic sources of
water for present and future operations.
Ensuring a sustainable water supply re-
quires a focused effort to evaluate the qual-
ity and quantity of alternative water sourc-
es, reuse of individual water streams or the
combined outfall stream, and/or changing
regulatory requirements.
Modeling. The most common method-
ologies to analyze water circuits are pinch
technology and mass balance/solution
modeling. Application of classic pinch
technology for water systems, as shown
in FIG. 1, evaluates only the hydraulic de-
mands for water.
Better option. A better solution is to
construct a sophisticated computerized
model of the facilitys water systems that
incorporates hydraulic information, along
with ionic equilibria of soluble contami-
nants. Like pinch technology, this ap-
proach requires an accurate water balance.
FIG. 2 is a sample flow diagram with
color-coded streams: steamsred, wa-
terblue, recycled watergreen and
wastewaterbrown. This approach mod-
els the ionic equilibria of the soluble con-
taminants, providing information about
water quality for each unit operation.
Modeling a water system also requires
creating a salt or contaminant balance.
The optimal approach is to profile water
quality throughout the system by analyz-
ing numerous samples at every location,
and then compare the actual water quality
to the predicted value in the model. When
the actual water quality and flowrates close-
ly match the predicted values, the model
is considered validated for the present
plant conditionsthe baseline case.
A validated model allows the facility
to hypothetically reprocess water to meet
the specification limits for individual pro-
cess units and to identify candidate water
streams for reuse or retreatment (recy-
cling). The model also provides insight
into the hydraulic and chemical impacts
on the unit and the total system balances
for mass and salt concentrations.
This computerized modeling provides
an accurate assessment of options: dif-
ferent configurations and/or operating
scenarios to improve system operability,
justification capital improvement projects,
optimization system reliability and mini-
mization of the risk of off-spec or lost pro-
duction. Embedded within this analysis is a
projection of the chemistry change for the
cooling water. The only remaining analysis
for this unit operation is a separate model-
ing task using a different software program
to design an appropriate chemical-treat-
ment program to control the corrosion,
deposition and microbiological popula-
tions within the cooling water circuit.
Quality repurposing. As the quantity
and quality of water decreases, industrial
users will need to increase their efforts to
conserve, recycle water and conform to
even stricter regulatory requirements for
withdrawal and discharge. Software tools
can provide methods for plant personnel
to quickly and economically analyze nu-
merous system configurations providing a
high level of confidence about the option
that best meets their objectives.
LITERATURE CITED

1
EPRI document TA-114453, Electric Power Research
Institute, Inc., 1999.

2
Data Mobility Systems, a business of Nalco, www.
datamobility.com, 2011.
Internal source
Fresh water
Pure
water
Purity
Water sources
Water demands
Water pinch
Internal
sink
Water ow
Wastewater
FIG. 1. Sample water-pinch diagram.
1
City water
Pretreatment Deaerator
Pretreatment Degasier
East
plant
West
plant
Process/
letdown
Safety
shower/
eyewash
Complex 5
tank farm
Waste
treatment
Waste
treatment
Process
waste
Truck ofsite
Sludge
storage
DWSD
DA
Eight
cooling
towers
East
complex
boilers
West
complex
boilers
550/150/50
psig
Process/
letdown
600/150 psig
Lime
softener
FIG. 2. Refinery water flow schematic.
2
LORAINE A. HUCHLER
is president of MarTech
Systems, Inc., a consulting
firm that provides technical
advisory services to
manage risk and optimize
energy- and water-related
systems including steam,
cooling and wastewater
in refineries and
petrochemical plants.
She holds a BS degree
in chemical engineering, along with professional
engineering licenses in New Jersey and Maryland,
and is a certified management consultant.
LeadIng - Our People Create our Success
&XVWRPHUVDQGSHRSOHGULYH/LQGH3URFHVV3ODQWV,QFWREH/HDG,QJLQRXUHOG2XUSHRSOHWDNH
on challenges and create innovative solutions for our customers every day.
/RRNLQJIRUQHZFKDOOHQJHV",QDGGLWLRQWRRXUSURSULHWDU\WHFKQRORJLHVZHVXSSO\WKHRLO
DQGJDVUHQLQJDQGSHWURFKHPLFDOLQGXVWULHVZLWKHQJLQHHULQJGHVLJQPDQXIDFWXULQJDQG
construction.
Consider Linde Process Plants, Inc. for your next process plant or career.
Linde Process Plants, Inc.
6100 South Yale Avenue, Suite 1200, Tulsa, Oklahoma 74136, USA
Phone: +1.918.477.1200, Fax: +1.918.477.1100, www.LPPUSA.com, e-mail: sales@LPPUSA.com
Linde Process Plants, Inc. is an Equal Employment Opportunity Employer
Linde Process Plants, Inc.
Accepting Challenges. Creating Solutions.
A member of The Linde Group
Your objectives
in focus
Make the most of todays and tomorrows
challenges with leading-edge solutions from Axens
- Clean and alternative fuel technologies
- Petrochemicals
- Energy efficiency
- High performance catalysts & adsorbents
- Revamps
Single source technology and service provider
ISO 9001 ISO 14001 OHSAS 18001
www.axens.net

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