Social Policy Analysis: On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy

Social Policy Analysis:

On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy Nicki Mosley University of Calgary

Social Policy Analysis: On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy Introduction Aboriginal housing is in a state of crisis across the nation (Mactavish, T., Marceau, M., Optis, M., Shaw, K., Stephenson, P., & Wild, P., 2009; First Nations Housing Action Plan, 2005). The housing conditions on reserves in Canada are being compared to third world conditions (Flanagan & Alcantara, 2002). There is a short fall of housing to meet the projected

growth of the Aboriginal population (birth rates were double the national average in 2005), and it is estimated that approximately 4,500 new units per year are needed between 2005 2015 (Mactavish et al, 2009). Substandard levels of housing on reserves across Canada are contributing to higher levels of adverse health issues (mental illness, alcoholism, diabetes, tuberculosis, obesity, asthma) amongst Aboriginal people in comparison to the rest of the Canadian public (Durbin, 2009). The poverty conditions are impacting educational outcomes, social interactions, community morale and identity, in addition to limiting economic opportunities (First Ministers and National Aboriginal Leaders Strengthening Relationships and Closing the Gap, 2005). There is a call out for changes to federal housing and infrastructure policies to be made in consultation with Aboriginal leadership and communities. The issue surrounding Aboriginal on reserve housing policy is complex in nature, with many historical ties to restrictive federal policies within the Indian Act, diverse Aboriginal populations (Inuit, First Nation, and Metis, in addition to on and off reserve Aboriginal people) with unique regional needs, and the many negative social outcomes for poor housing. This paper proposes that the resolution needs to come from within the Aboriginal community through a process of transformation that is supported by the federal government, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC), the Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC). (Durbin,

Social Policy Analysis: On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy

2005; Evaluation of INACs on reserve housing support, 2011) The complexity of this issue calls for complex solutions. A complex resolution may be uncomfortable for federal policy makers and government officials due to the uncertainty associated with the process and outcomes. Problem solving and policy making may require diversified strands and procedures depending on the unique nature of the reserve or region. A more horizontal strategy such as this must engage all policy making administrative levels and Aboriginal stakeholders impacted by the policy, often requiring a long-term process for long-term development, design and implementation. The strategy requires visioning and planning, with specific operational policies and procedures that will support communities in transformative change to adopt sustainable housing approaches. Social injustice is prevalent within the Canadian Aboriginal population. Applying a social justice continuum to the housing issues on reserve, policy recommendations will support the expansion of distributive justice, identity, human rights and social welfare for Aboriginal people in Canada (Bonnycastle, 2011).

Context and Background for On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy The history of social injustices between the Canadian federal government and Aboriginal people continues to plague communities across the country. Over the past century, the government put a number of different housing policies, accords, and plans forward. Some were implemented and others were not. To add relevance to the Aboriginal housing policy analysis, historical context in correlation with Indigenous determinants of health and a social justice continuum are relevant to take into account.

Social Policy Analysis: On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy Indian Act, 1876 A relevant historical overview is necessary to exemplify the layers of authority that regulate Aboriginal people and on reserve regulations and rights. The dominant overarching structure, put in place by the Parliament of Canada with the belief that this was in the best interests of the Indians, is the Indian Act of 1876. The Indian Act adopted a vision of cultural

assimilation in which people gained Indian status. This was based upon the states definition of an Indian, and Aboriginals were viewed as wards of the state in which it became the governments duty to protect and civilize the population (Makarenko, 2008). From this point onward, the Canadian government gained exclusive rights to legislate anything in relation to Indians and lands reserved for Indians (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Act, 2012). Since 1950, Aboriginal policy has been complex in nature with the overarching vision of assimilation. New approaches to policy development are being based on Aboriginal interests to regain control over their communities and decision-making, such as, entitlement to political, social and economic self-determination (Makarenko, 2008). On Reserve Housing Policy, 1996 With amendments to the Indian Act taking place, on reserve housing subsidy programs evolved and the development of a new Aboriginal housing policy followed suit. Pressure continued to mount in favor of Aboriginal rights with the rise of Indigenous movements. In 1996 an on reserve housing policy was introduced by the Canadian government to give more flexibility and control to First Nations over their housing policies and programs. With overarching management from Indian and Northern Affairs, communities who chose to opt into this policy were expected to develop and establish housing policies, programs and multiyear housing plans. The housing policy was based on four elements: First Nation control

Social Policy Analysis: On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy (community-based housing programs), First Nation expertise (capacity development), shared responsibility (shelter charges and ownership options), and better access to private capital (debt

financing). (Evaluation of the 1996 On-Reserve Housing Policy, 2008) Although intentions were good, through a number of evaluations and recommendations, it is evident that the 1996 On Reserve Housing Policy has some faults contributing to the ever-expanding gap between Aboriginal housing conditions and the average Canadian public. Kelowna Accord, 2005 In November 2005, the Canadian Prime Minister at the time, Paul Martin, premiers and Aboriginal leaders met in Kelowna, British Columbia for a First Ministers Conference on Aboriginal Affairs. This gathering resulted in the development of a $5 billion plan to better the lives of all First Nations, Metis and Inuit peoples (www.cbc.ca/news/background/aboriginals/undoing-kelowna.html, 2006)a first of this collaborative nature. Within 72 hours of establishing this agreement, a Conservative government came into power, at which point this agreement known as the Kelowna Accord become irrelevant to the new government. Had the government implemented this agreement with goal to eradicate poverty, a 10-year commitment to raise the standard of living for Aboriginal Canadians would have ensued. The vision was to close the gap in quality of life existing between Aboriginal peoples and Canadians in education, housing, access to clean water and health care. Closing this gap and increasing the quality of life would have a substantial impact on the health and well being of Canadas Aboriginal people. (Durbin, 2008; First Ministers and National Aboriginal Leaders Strengthening Relationships and Closing the Gap, 2005) The strength of the accord was based in the collaborative efforts and mutual respect between Aboriginal peoples and federal, provincial and territorial governments (First Ministers and National Aboriginal Leaders

Social Policy Analysis: On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy Strengthening Relationships and Closing the Gap, 2005). Phil Fontaine, the National Chief of the Assembly of First Nations at the time, said, all the targets weve set are achievable. Were driving this process and were forcing the government to respond to our plan

(www.cbc.ca/news/background/aboriginals/undoing-kelowna.html, 2006). Within the Kelowna Accord, $1.6 billion was allocated to housing and $90 million to Aboriginal organizations to support training in public policy development. With housing as such a strong focus of the Accord, it was recognized that suitable housing within Aboriginal communities would have a substantial impact Aboriginal peoples wellbeing. Sustainable housing was, and still is, seen as playing a critical role in reducing the health disparities facing Aboriginal people in addition to increasing economic and employment opportunities. (Durbin, 2008) Assembly of First Nations Housing Action Plan, 2005 First Nations are seeking a nation to nation and government to government relationship wherein First Nations have the capacity to improve their quality of life through long term, sustainable funding to fulfill the Government of Canadas treaty, Aboriginal, and fiduciary obligations in the area of housing and infrastructure. This will allow First Nations to build a sufficient number of houses to deal with the housing backlog, and the future needs for adequate shelter for First Nations living on or away from their communities. (First Nations Housing Action Plan, 2005, p. 1) The Assembly of First Nations drafted a housing action plan based upon the understanding that housing and infrastructure within Aboriginal Communities is in crisis, leaving people at an extreme disadvantage. The plan provides a long-term vision to achieve transformative change within the Aboriginal community. It identifies that communities will begin to see immediate improvements to their housing situation, premised on three key concepts of: sustainability,

Social Policy Analysis: On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy jurisdiction, and coordination. These key concepts correlate with the social equality within the social justice continuum in relation to distributive justice, identity and social welfare. (First Nations Housing Action Plan, 2005) Defining the Social Justice Continuum Social justice can be expressed in two formseither as an ideal that people are striving towards, a utopian end to come to or, as a mobilizing idea that makes injustice visible and changeable. Social justice is a broad term that, if over used, could come to mean nothing or

everything, therefore it is important to provide a definition that grounds this dynamic expression. Locating social justice on a continuum between social oppression and social equality qualifies the two ways that social justice can be expressedpeople striving towards a goal of social equality or, the ideal of overcoming oppression may be of central concern. Bonnycastle (2011) states that social oppression exists when one social group, whether knowingly or unconsciously, exploits another for its own benefit (p. 270). Aboriginal people have been wards of the state for many years, controlled by the Indian Act that perpetuates the state of poverty. Ian Diaconu (Feb 22, 2012), a human-rights expert at the UN meeting of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, noted that there is discrimination against Indigenous peoples that have been in the country throughout all history, this has led to an inherent state of poverty that has not been overcome despite all the efforts (www.canada.com/mobile/iphone/story.html?id=6193201). Social equality conveys a principle that every person is of equal intrinsic worth and should therefore be entitled to equal civil, political, social, and economic rights, responsibilities and treatment (Mullay, 2007, p. 58). With gaps in housing conditions between Aboriginal people and other Canadians, social equality is high on the list of priorities aiming to return dignity and wellbeing to communities.

Social Policy Analysis: On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy

To understand the overlapping nature of the social justice continuumsocial equality can be understood as the construction of solidarity among oppressed populations, and their allies, to create social change at institutional and structural levels of society (Bonnycastle, 2011, p. 272). Social equality has not been present within Canadian societyTzay, a political activist, states he is struck that despite being sixth in terms of development of the countries in the world, the Indigenous peoples (in Canada) are in 66th place (www.canada.com/mobile/iphone/story.html? id=6193201, 2012). All of Canadian society is tarnished and weakened with this depth of disparity however, research has shown the correlation between increasing social equality amongst citizens and increased wellbeing and strengthened societies. Historically, the development and implementation of on reserve housing policy and legislation has not engaged in consultation with Aboriginal communities and leadership, therefore not taking into account the culturally diverse and regionally unique social and economic needs. As the housing gap widens, the Aboriginal community (First Nations, Metis and Inuit) is building in solidarity. The collective is growing stronger and voices are slowly being heard to bring about social transformation. Correlation between Housing Conditions and Health Indicators Health disparities facing Aboriginal people are concerning and closely linked to issues of distributive justice relating to equality of conditions (Bonnycastle, 2007). It is known that Aboriginal Canadians are less healthy than the rest of Canadians and providing a linear solution aiming to improve health care services is simply a band-aid solution that will not change the health disparities. (Drossos, 2003) Four Worlds Center for Development Learning (2011) defines health as mental, emotional, physical and spiritual wellbeing. Wellness refers to the values, choice making and patterns of living that lead to health (p. 3). Wellbeing is a

Social Policy Analysis: On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy combination of health and wellness and the following fourteen determinants of wellbeing have been identified by Four Worlds through many years of working with Indigenous communities who have all contributed to the synthesis of these determinants. The determinants are: 1. Basic physical needs 2. Spirituality and a sense of purpose 3. Life-sustaining values, morals and ethics 4. Safety and security 5. Adequate income and sustainable economics 6. Adequate power 7. Social justice and equity 8. Cultural integrity and identity 9. Community solidarity and social support 10. Strong families and healthy child development 11. Healthy ecosystems and a sustainable relationship between human beings and the natural world 12. Critical learning opportunities 13. Adequate human services and social safety net 14. Meaningful work and service to others Improper housing conditions correlate with a number of these determinants, such as basic physical needs, safety and security, adequate power, social justice and equity, cultural integrity

and identity, strong families and social support etc. (Bopp, 2006, p. 38-39) This demonstrates the complex nature of on reserve housing, and therefore the complex nature of determining housing policy that is suitable for the diverse needs of culturally, economically and regionally distinct

Social Policy Analysis: On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy communities. A house encompasses not just a physical structure, but the social and natural

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environment [and fabric] in which it is situated (Social Determinants of Health, 2010, p. 1). With serious problems such as severe overcrowding, lack of plumbing, no electricity, poor insulation, toxic mould, substandard construction and a number of units in need of repairs (Assembly of First Nations Housing Plan, 2005), as a result of these correlations, Aboriginal Canadians have greater chances of developing mental illness, alcoholism, family violence, injuries, diabetes, tuberculosis, HIV infection, obesity and hypertension (Drossos, 2003, p. 2). The Assembly of First Nations (2005) notes, many familys have a cycle of stress and sickness that is never-ending (p. 2). The correlation between housing conditions and health disparities exemplifies the urgency of improving the Aboriginal housing crisis and the potential positive impacts a long-term sustainable solution may have on the wellbeing of those living on reserve. Application of Context and Background to the Analysis and Recommendations An overview of some major housing policy implementations and attempts to close the gaps in housing was provided in order to grasp the complexity of Aboriginal housing policy issues in Canada. Complexity theory will be drawn upon within the analysis section to bring to light the interconnected relationships between housing and community wellbeing. The social justice continuum will provide an additional framework to look at relational aspects of Aboriginal housing policy through the lens of social justice.

Aboriginal Housing Policy Analysis Presently, on reserve housing is the responsibility of the Canadian federal government who funds the Band Council to allocate them appropriatelythe government claims it has a mandate to work with Aboriginal communities to ensure increased access to safe and affordable

Social Policy Analysis: On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy housing. Through the two federally run government branches, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC) and the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC), approximately $261 million is invested annually into on reserve housing (Durbin, 2009).

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As of 2009, the CMHC allocated $123 million annually towards new home construction, renovations and subsidies for on reserve housing rentals run by Band Councils. INAC contributed approximately $138 million a year. The funds from INAC are designated for on reserve construction, maintenance, planning and renovation, with over 2300 new housing units built on average a year. Yet it remains evident that these contributions do not meet the direct needs of Aboriginal communities. For example, on the reserve that Blackfoot Elder, Casey Eagle Speaker comes from, only six new homes can be built per year by law. This Elder has been on the wait list to build a home for approximately 15 years and is presently only number 437 on the wait list (personal communication, February 27, 2012). The on reserve housing demand far surpasses what is provided with 17.2% of First Nations homes considered overcrowded (more than one person per room). When INAC introduced the 1996 On Reserve Housing Policy, it allowed communities to play a larger role in determining how to invest the funds they were allocated through the development of housing plans. The aim was to emphasize First Nations control, expertise and shared responsibility. (Durbin, 2009) Although it seems there is stronger Aboriginal representation within the policy, Aboriginal stakeholders were not consulted through the policy development process and the Indian Act remains over arching and oppressive. Therefore, the 1996 On Reserve Housing Policy remains limiting and restrictive for Aboriginal communities.

In theory, the 1996 On Reserve Housing Policy represented a fundamental shift in

Social Policy Analysis: On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy thinking, inviting communities to participate in allocating funds. The policy stated that the government would: 1. Protect and extend the life of existing housing and meet building standards. 2. Construct quality, affordable new housing based on the needs of the community

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3. Support individual pride and responsibility through community involvement and private investments 4. Relate housing activities to training, job creation and business development (Drosses, 2003, p. 5) With a historical colonial system that created and perpetuates patterns of dependency, this policy is inclusive of simple and complicated solutions. It remains exclusive and ignorant of the complex web of relationships and dynamics that play into the crisis of on reserve housing. Within a power-point presentation delivered by Mark Hattori Thursday January 25, 2012, the steps involved in manifesting a provincial policy vision within Alberta were defined and introduced. The course of action for policy development follows a vertical and linear progression. Starting with strategic policy development, outlining the broad governmental direction for change, directional policy as the next step to outlining a consistent approach to change. Operational policy is the final outcome that identifies key strategies and actions needed for change. (Class 4 PowerPoint, 2012) These steps demonstrate the vertical quality of the social policy development process. Policies are created to problem solve in response to citizens needs and expectations however, problems within society are complex in nature. Policies demand long-term solutions that engage and strengthen the relationships existing within the system. The on reserve Aboriginal housing issue is a multi-faceted social challenge that demands multifaceted solutions. The first job of the government is not to administer transactions, but to solve

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problems. The problems that people care about are not defined or shaped in the same way that departments and agencies are, and when government reform focuses only on smooth administration, real problems fall between the gaps (6, Leat, Seltzer, & Stoker, 1999, p. 15). Upon reviewing the Evaluation for INACs On Reserve Housing Support of the 1996 On Reserve Housing Policy the complexity of this social problem was not taken into account. Instead, a linear approach to solving this problem was applied. Politicians long for simple resolutions to social problems, being drawn to linear and mechanical solutions of one size fits all such as, standard housing units that are used across the nation. These units provided by the government are not culturally relevant and often times there is little regard for the climate in the design of these INAC funded homes that stretch coast to coast on reserves (Polsuns, 2011). Larcombe et al (2011) defines adequate shelter as housing that would protect [people] from the harsh climate, that would foster human dignity and emotional wellbeing and that would support (rather than undermine) health. Housing [is] viewed in the communities as an issue of health, justice and human and Indigenous rights (p. 142). This statement exemplifies the layers and intricacies of relationships associated with poor housing on reserves in Canada. An industrial view of the world would compare the globe a welloiled machine, constantly striving to support progress where human resources are applied as tools to support the enginea linear and economically driven view. However, the whole is different to the sum of the partsIn complex systems, relationships are key. Connections or relationships define how complex systems workBy using a machine metaphor, often unconsciously, we ignore the living aspects of our world and our work (Westley, Zimmerman, & Patton, 2007, p. 7). For example, within the Aboriginal and Northern Affairs Canada report on the Evaluation of INAC's [1996] On Reserve Housing Support the following recommendation

Social Policy Analysis: On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy was made:

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It is recommended that INAC, working with First Nations and seeking the active involvement of CMHC and other key stakeholders: 1. Develop a policy statement building on the 1996 Policy and other On-Reserve Housing Initiatives. The policy statement should lay out clear objectives and be flexible enough in its application to ensure it meets the different types of needs in First Nation communities. (http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/aiarch/arp/aev/pubs/ev/orhs/orhs-eng.asp, 2012) The uniqueness of each community is acknowledged in this statement in addition to the need to work with First Nation communities. This demonstrates a small shift in the worldview of policy evaluators however, a larger and more profound shift is necessary. Take the following examples distinguishing different problems requiring different solutions: 1. Baking a cake is a simple problem that needs a simple recipe solution requiring people to follow the steps. Not a lot of skill is necessary. Success is had with the quality and quantity of ingredients and there is room to experiment with the recipe. 2. Sending rocket to the moon is a complicated problem. In order to do so, a number of protocols and formulas must be follow and those taking the rocket to the moon need lengthily and specific training to do so. Success depends on a blueprint directing the separate parts (ie: many policies of today). 3. Raising a child is complex due to each unique child and family dynamics. There is lots of uncertainty based in the outcome and different children will have different needs. Therefore rigid rules and standard protocols would back fire. One cannot separate the parts from the whole due to different relationships, experiences, interpretations etc.

Social Policy Analysis: On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy (Westley et al, 2007)

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Based upon these examples, the solution to the on-reserve housing crisis is complex in nature making it challenging for the federal government, who follows the complicated approach to problem solving. A complex approach would require all those involved to engage in a certain degree of uncertainty. This uncertainty of the outcome will prevail, as relationships between stakeholders and the various systems are better understood. This approach supports the most efficient and low impact solution to arise based on relations already in tact. There is still a place for simple and complicated solutions with specific, clear strategies and policies. However, the approach used for complex solutions needs to be integrated. Additional relationships must be accounted for. For example, improving living conditions is a catalyst to increase the overall health and well being of the peoplea complex solution for a complex problem. (Drossos, 2003) In addition, in a traditional administrative model of government policy makers, management and accountability functions are arranged vertically within departments. There is little room in this model for inter-agency collaboration in defining social problems and making policies to address them, let alone for the involvement of citizens in policy deliberation (Peach, 2004). This statement exemplifies that a stronger collaborative effort is necessary. The following recommendations acknowledge this need in the Evaluation of the On Reserve Housing Policy (2008): Undertake research, in partnership with First Nations and CMHC, to identify: Cost-effective design options for on-reserve housing construction and renovation; The impact of demographic trends on the needs for on-reserve housing INAC will compile best practices for achieving success in First Nations housing for

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inclusion in the guide Creating Effective Community Strategies for First Nations Housing, which will be a tool made available to First Nations; Options for effective governance of on-reserve housing.

Although these recommendations are more inclusive and collaborative in nature than previous policy development strategies, a top down, vertical approach continues the cycle of dependency. In addition, the recommendations would continue to be considered limiting if the governments aim was to support communities to transform from within. In relation to ones identity along the social justice continuum, ending oppression and raising levels of equality requires the equal representation of Aboriginal people who have been quieted by structural injustice. (Bonnycastle, 2011) With over a century of misrepresentation, how do Aboriginal communities build autonomy and engage in a participatory approach to the development of on reserve housing policy in order to attain long-term wellbeing? Within the 1996 On Reserve Housing Policy the government aimed to give more responsibility to communities, such as: allocating the funds provided, creating housing plans, more power to Band Councils in decision making etc. However, it is evident that the process of allocating funds and reporting require demanding and complicated documentation. Many people in Aboriginal communities are not properly trained in specific documentation requirements and if they are, spend much of their time documenting and report writing instead of time problem solving. Polsun (2011) reports that, small bands are required to do far more reporting to the Government than small municipalities provide to their provincial government (http://www.slaw.ca/2011/12/02/dunkin%E2%80%99-the-victim-a-note-on-legal-politicalbackground-of-the-current-attawapiskat-campaign/). The challenge associated with report writing is a common theme within a number of government audits and evaluations. For

Social Policy Analysis: On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy example, in 2003, the Office of the Auditor General of Canada noted, the policy changes introduced in 1996 were intended, among other things, to streamline federal assistance and strengthen accountability to the government and First Nations communities. We found that, overall, the programs and funding mechanisms continue to be complex and accountability for

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results remains unclear (2003 April Report of the Auditor General of Canada). In addition to roles and responsibilities being unclear, the evaluation of the 1996 policy by Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development acknowledged a lack of capacity within human resources on First Nations reserves. From the perspective of the ten First Nations interviewed [for the 2008 evaluation], the planning and reporting requirements of INAC are considered to be unclear, inconsistent or onerous (2003 April Report of the Auditor General of Canada, 2003)more proof and evidence of the poverty gap limiting access to capacity building, lower levels of education and complicated requirements from policies that demonstrate structural injustice. These impacts contribute to a perpetual cycle of dependency. In summary, the stakeholders involved in on reserve housing policy development are INAC, CMHC, Aboriginal communities and those living in the homes. The policies have been developed vertically with limited, if any, consultation from Aboriginal communities or the people directly impacted, the home dwellers. When the policies are implemented, they aim to give more control to the communities, yet roles and responsibilities between government departments and community are unclear and complicated. In addition, the report and documentation demands place on the community are unclear, complicated and onerous. With limited skilled human resources and limited access to capacity building, meeting expectations of the government departments is challenging.

Social Policy Analysis: On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy Recommendations Pre-Recommendations Acknowledgement: The recommendations I put forward are not policy specific recommendations. The recommendations are directed towards a major shift that is needed in the approach used to create on reserve housing policy

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Orienting social policy to integrate complex solutions is a necessary step for stakeholders to take. Instead of placing the emphasis solely on housing infrastructure, policies need to harness and invest in the social capital present in communities. Social capital is the social networks and systems that constitute civic society, the glue that binds communities together, what engages people in community including governance processes through which decisions are made. (Hancock, 2001) These intricate relationships form the strength of Aboriginal communities. If attention is focused on the structural inequalitiesit is possible to begin to create participatory opportunities for people to develop the capacities of wellbeing and social equality (Bonnycastle, 2011, p. 280). Complex solutions engage people in dialog, taking a participatory approach that respects differences and finds similarities to support new ideas. This builds respect within a community causing integrity to inherently expand. People begin to make plans and decisions based upon values and whats best for future generationssustainable choices. Often times, creative solutions come from a place of crisis. For solutions to be realized, resiliency needs to come into play, taking action while standing still, ideas generated based upon reflections of the past, present and future visions (Westley, 2007). Applying this to the on reserve housing policycomplexity theory relies on change coming from withincommunities harnessing their resilience through action and reflection. This raises the questionare linear and generic, federally created, housing policies an appropriate solution to the Aboriginal housing crisis? With little or no consultation from First Nations, [changes in funding initiated by the

Social Policy Analysis: On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy federal government], led to a series of debt related issueswhere none existed before (Assembly of First Nations housing plan, 2005, p. 2). This statement exemplifies that if

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restrictive policy continues to be the governments solution, consultation and collaboration with Aboriginal communities in imperative. In 2004, the Prime Minister of Canada suggested a new direction fostered in a relationship between Aboriginal people and the government, built upon collaboration that strives towards transformative change. Sadly, this new collaborative direction was short lived, starting with the Kelowna Accord being let go post elections. However, the vision for transformative change continues to thrive in the vision for the future amongst Aboriginal communities. Blackfoot Elder, Casey Eagle Speaker states, policies are built by society, [therefore] how do we bring two societies [Aboriginal and Canadian] together for a common policy aimed at health and wellbeing for all? (Personal communication, February 27, 2012). The recommendation is, in addition to a collaborative policy development, consultation of those living on reserve in the derelict homes needs to take place. If the solution continues to be the creation of housing policies the government either must begin by a) consulting with community members for ideas and solutions; or b) support participatory research approaches. Taking a participatory approach to policy development encourages solutions to come from within, supporting empowerment and capacity building through community ownership. This would assist Aboriginal people to develop community-specific policies that are culturally and regionally appropriate. Four Worlds Center for Development Learning in Alberta, is supporting an Aboriginal community, who will remain anonymous, engage in a community change process. The community is participating in a process of endogenous development development based on peoples own resources, strategies and initiative (Learning Endogenous Development, 2007). This translates into transformation from within. Instead of applying short-

Social Policy Analysis: On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy term housing regulations, the community is in the stages of approving a long-term sustainable

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housing plan that does not involve government resources or funding. The community took this into their own hands because they are tired of waiting on broken promises from the Canadian government. Through many community consultations and planning processes, the consensus being heard from all these meetings iswe must solve this problem ourselves. We can not wait for a solution from the government (Sustainable Housing Plan PowerPoint, 2012). The plan being put forward involves the following: a. Build 150 houses in years one (with a government policy that only allows the reserve to build 10 new homes a year) b. Most of these new homes will be assigned to families who can pay a mortgage. c. This will free up the majority of homes now occupied by those families. d. Within 2 years the housing deficit will be roughly cut in half. e. Skills development and jobs will be created through the reserve construction company, therefore qualifying more families for a mortgage with full time employment.

This solution contributes to the complex nature of the housing issue through building new homes, employment rates in the community increase, mortgages are paid contributing to reducing Band Council debt and therefore raising the levels of health and wellbeing. The Chief of the community says, this is our work that we are doing and were solving problems. We are searching for sustainability in housing. It will take timeUnfortunately we have to meet targets and work in that system so that we can get out of it (Sustainable Housing Plan, 2012). Although this example is not directly a participatory approach, it is a case of the community

Social Policy Analysis: On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy developing from within. By taking a human centered approach, the community is expanding

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their social capitalthe achievement of human potential requires a form of economic activity that is environmentally and socially sustainable in this and future generations (Hancock, 2001, p. 276). The vision of the Assembly of First Nations Housing Action Plan was built upon three key concepts: sustainability, jurisdiction and coordination (Assembly of First Nations, 2005, p. 5)all playing a role in this example of a community housing plan. This process of selfdetermination supports the rise out of oppression while aligning with solidarity rights closely associated with the global indigenous movement. The application of this human rights-centered approach is rooted in the dialog of sustainable development. With a reputation of denying Indigenous rights, if the Canadian government supports communities to building in autonomy and self-government, they may begin to clear the blemish from Canadas oppressive past. The community previously discussed is in a slow transition towards self-government, building in autonomy, reclaiming self-reliance and reducing the cycle of dependency. Ideally this transforms into a relationship of equality with provincial and federal powers, leaving the history of colonial controls in the past. However, for this to happen, the Indian Act needs to be abolished, liberating Aboriginal people from the clutches of the state. Present day policy recommendations are steeped with an increased focus on collaboration, yet Aboriginal involvement in policy design is often subservient to the final say by government officials. (Wall, 1999) Therefore, the ultimate policy recommendation is to end the rule of the Indian Act, thereby engaging in true collaborative dialog towards long-term, sustainable housing solutions. Reference List Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada. (2008). Evaluation of the 1996 OnReserve Housing Policy. Retrieved February 21, 2012 from www.aadncaandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100011910 Anonymous. (2012). Sustainable housing plan. [PowerPoint]. Calgary, Canada: Four Worlds

Social Policy Analysis: On Reserve Aboriginal Housing Policy Center for Development Learning. Assembly of First Nations. (2010). Assembly of First Nations housing. Retrieved February 21, 2012 from www.afn.ca/index.php/en/policy-areas/housing. Assembly of First Nations. (2005). First Nations housing action plan. Retrieved from Google February 29, 2012.

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Berthiaume, L. (2012, February 22). UN slams Canada for First Nations treatment. Postmedia News. Retrieved February 22, 2012 from www.canada.com/mobile/iphone/story.html? id=6193201. Bonnycastle, C. (2011). Social justice along a continuum: A relational illustrative model. Social Service Review. 85(2), 267-295. Bopp, M., & Bopp, J. (2006). Recreating the world: A practical guide to building sustainable communities (2nd ed.). Calgary, Alberta, Canada: Four Worlds Press Compas. (2007). Learning endogenous development: Building on bio-cultural diversity. Warwickshire, United Kingdom: Intermediate Technology Publications Ltd. Drossos, A. (2003). The housing conditions of Aboriginal Canadians: A determinants of health framework and current policy analysis. (Briefing Document). Retrieved February 21, 2012 from www.alexdrosses.ca/downloads/aboriginalhousingbriefing.pdf Durbin, A. (2009). Canadas response to the on-reserve housing crisis: A study of the Kelowna Accord. Pimatisiwin: A journal of Aboriginal and indigenous community health, 7(2), 181199. First ministers and national Aboriginal leaders strengthening relationships and closing the gap. (2005). Kelowna, BC. Retrieved February 21, 2012 from www.health.gov.sk.ca/aboriginalfirst-ministers-meeting. Flanagan, T., & Alcantara, C. (2002). Individual property rights on Canadian Indian reserves. Public Policy Sources. Vancouver, BC: The Fraser Institute. Government of Alberta. (2011). Speaker: Introduction to Government Policy-Making [PowerPoint slides]. Calgary, Canada: University of Calgary. Hancock, T. (2001). People, partnerships and human progress: Building community capital. Health Promotion International, 16(3), 275-280. Hattori, M. (2012). Class 4: Introduction to government housing policy. [PowerPoint]. Calgary, Canada: University of Calgary. In depth: Aboriginal CanadiansUndoing the Kelowna agreement. (2006, November 21). CBC News Online. Retrieved February 21, 2012 from www.cbc.ca/news/background/aboriginals/undoing-kelowna.html

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