ABSTRACT

In this work the composite laminates of Epoxy/E-glass fiber hybridizing with and without E- glass powder are prepared for testing. The fabrication of the laminate is done by filament winding (hoop winding) on a drum mandrel mounted on a modified center lathe. The green layup obtained is cut into laminae of the desired orientations and stacked in the predefined way to a required thickness. The stacked laminate is cured at elevated temperatures under a pressure from a pressure plate. The edges of the laminate are trimmed first and it is then cut in to required size. The specimens are then subjected to indentation test on a universal testing machine (UTM) for a fixed indenter depth. An investigative study is conducted into the results obtained from test data. A number of illustrations are shown regarding the damage in the specimens of different fiber orientation and with different percentages of E-glass powder. Also indentation depth, contact radius, spring back effect, and maximum load carrying capacity are studied.

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CONTENTS
CHAPTER :1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 Overview of composites. Historical Development/Historical Overview. What is composite material. Classification of composites. Structure of composites. Advantages of composites. Applications of composites. Examples of composite materials. Scope of Project.

PAGE NO:

5 5 8 12 24 25 26 27 29

CHAPTER:2 LITERATURE SURVE CHAPTER:3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Hardener. 32 32 30

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3.2 Epoxy. 3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials. 3.3.1 Types of fibres. 3.3.2 Mechanical properties of fibres. 3.3.3 Fibre manufacturing. 3.3.4 Key properties. 3.4 Processing of composites. 3.4.1 Curing CHAPTER:4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. 4.1 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates without E-glass powder. 4.2 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 4.3 1.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. CHAPTER:5 71 57

32 34 35 43 46 47 49 52

56

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5.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. 5.2 REFERENCES

80 85

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of composites

The development of composite materials and related design and manufacturing technologies is one of the most important advances in the history of materials. Composites are multifunctional materials having unprecedented mechanical and physical properties that can be tailored to meet the requirements of a particular application. Many composites also exhibit great resistance to high-temperature corrosion and oxidation and wear. These unique characteristics provide the mechanical engineer with design opportunities not possible with conventional monolithic (unreinforced) materials. Composites technology also makes possible the use of an entire class of solid materials, ceramics, in applications for which monolithic versions are unsuited because of their great strength scatter and poor resistance to mechanical and thermal shock. Further, many manufacturing processes for composites are well adapted to the fabrication of large, complex structures, which allows consolidation of parts, reducing manufacturing costs.

1.2 Historical Development / Historical overview: Past: After making and controlling fire and inventing the wheel,
spinning of continuous yarns is probably the most important development of mankind, enabling him to survive outside the tropical climate zones and spread across the surface of the Earth. Flexible fabrics made of locally grown and spun fibres as cotton; flax and jute were a big step forward compared to animal skins. More and more natural resources were used, soon resulting in the first composites; straw
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reinforced walls, and bows (Figure M.1.1.a) and chariots made of glued layers of wood, bone and horn. More durable materials as wood and metal soon replaced these antique composites.

Fig M.1.1.a Composite Korean bow

Present:
Originating from early agricultural societies and being almost forgotten after centuries, a true revival started of using lightweight composite structures for many technical solutions during the second half of the 20th century. After being solely used for their electromagnetic properties (insulators and radar-domes), using composites to improve the structural performance of spacecraft and military aircraft became popular in the last two decades of the previous century. First at any costs, with development of improved materials with increasing costs, nowadays cost reduction during manufacturing and operation are the main technology drivers. Latest development is the use of composites to protect man

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against fire and impact and a tendency to a more environmental friendly design, leading to the reintroduction of natural fibres in the composite technology. Increasingly nowadays, the success of composites in applications, by volume and by numbers, can be ranked by accessibility and reproducibility of the applied manufacturing techniques. Some examples of use of natural fibers(M.1.1b M.1.1.e)

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Future:
In future, composites will be manufactured even more according to an integrated design process resulting in the optimum construction according to parameters such as shape, mass, strength, stiffness, durability, costs, etc. Newly developed design tools must be able to instantaneously show customers the influence of a design change on each one of these parameters.

1.3 What is Composite Material?

Composite materials are engineering materials made from two or more constituent materials that remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level while forming a single component. There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix Properties. The primary functions of the matrix are to transfer stresses between the reinforcing fibers/particles and to protect them from mechanical environmental damage whereas the presence of fibers/particles in a composite improves its mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness etc. The objective is to take advantage of the superior properties of both materials without compromising on the weakness of either. As defined by Agarwal and Broutman composite means material having two or more distinct constituent materials or phases. It is only when the constituent phases have significantly different physical properties and thus the composite properties are noticeably different from the constituent materials

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Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural. Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific character of a composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine to give them a specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve the desirable properties. Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the levels at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic. In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz., binding the reinforcement phases in place and deforming to distribute the stresses among the constituent materials under an applied force. The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be conductors or resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending on the purpose for which matrices are chosen. Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and metals have found applications as matrix materials in the designing of structural composites, with reinforcement

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commendable success. These materials remain elastic till failure occurs and show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression. Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion characteristics. The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two interphases between each side of the interphase and its adjoint constituent. Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of matrix on properties of reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the selection and fabrication of composites is that the constituents should be chemically inert non-reactive.

Properties of Matrix Materials:

Naturally fibers and whiskers are of little use unless they are bonded together to take form of structural element that can carry loads.

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The binder material is usually called a matrix. The purpose of the matrix is manifold support of fibers or whiskers, protection of the fibers or whiskers, stress transfer between broken fibers or whiskers, etc. Typically the matrix is of considerably lower density, stiffness, and strength than fibers or whiskers. However the combination of fibers or whiskers and a matrix can have very high strength and stiffness yet still have low density. Matrix materials can be polymers, metals, ceramics or carbon. Polymers (poly =many and mer = unit or molecule) exist in at least three major forms i.e linear, branched, or cross linked. A linear polymer is merely a chain of mers. A branched polymer consists of a primary chain of mers with other chains that are attached in three dimensions just like tree branches. Finally, a cross linked polymer has large number of three dimensional highly interconnected chains. Linear polymers have the least strength and stiffness, whereas cross linked polymer have most because of their inherently stiffer and stronger internal structure. The three main classes of structural polymers are rubbers, thermoplastics, and thermo sets. Rubbers are cross linked polymers that have semi crystalline state well below room temperature. Thermoplastics are polymers that branch, but generally dont cross link very much if at all. Thus, they usually can be repeatedly softened on heating and hardened on cooling. Examples of thermoplastics are nylon, polyethylene, and polysulfone. Thermo sets are polymers that are chemically reacted until almost all molecules are irreversibly cross linked in a three dimensional network. Thus, once an epoxy has set, it cannot be changed in form. Examples of thermo sets include epoxies, phenolics, and polyimides. Other matrix materials include metals that can be made to flow around an in-place fiber system by diffusion bonding or by heating vacuum infiltration. Common examples are shown in fig 1.3.1

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a) linear

b)branched

c)cross linked

d)network

figure 1.3.1

1.4 Classification of Composites

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels: The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites. The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres.

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 Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling. Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this category. Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.

1.4.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or Carbon-Carbon Composites

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications. Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are
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most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins. Thermoplastics have oneor two-dimensional

molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds. Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites.

Figure 1.4.1 a

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures.
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Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally. There thermoplastic temperatures. are a few options tend their to loose increase their heat strength resistance at like in

thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the heat resistance. But all composites However, elevated rigidity, redeeming qualities

toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc. Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds. Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas.

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Figure 1.4.1.b
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins. Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of 140C. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is ruled out.

Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in automobile and structural applications.
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The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75C or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey. Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service at around 200250C .

1.4.2 According to geometry:

Most composite materials developed thus far have been fabricated to improve mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, and high temperature performance. It is natural to study together the composites that have a common strengthening mechanism. The strengthening mechanism strongly depends on the geometry of the reinforcement. Therefore, it is quite convenient to classify composite materials on the basis of the geometry of a representative unit of reinforcement.

1.4.2.a Fibrous composite

A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite.

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Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension discourages the growth of incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement that might otherwise lead to failure, particularly with brittle matrices. Man-made filaments or fibers of non polymeric materials exhibit much higher strength along their length since large flaws, which may be present in the bulk material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness.Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite. Most composites used in structural applications are multilayered; that is, they consist of several layers of fibrous composites. Each layer or lamina is a single layer composite and its orientation is varied according to design. Several identical or different layers are bonded together to form a multilayered composites usable for engineering applications. When the constituent materials in each layer are the same, they are called simply laminates. Hybrid laminates refer to multilayered composites consisting of layers made up of different constituent materials. Reinforcing fibers in a single layer composite may be short or long compared to its overall dimensions. Composites with long fibers are called continuous fiber reinforced composites and those with short fibers, discontinuous fiber reinforced composites. The continuous fibers in single layer composites may be all aligned in one direction to form a unidirectional composite. Such composites are fabricated by laying the fibers parallel and saturating them with resinous material. The bidirectional reinforcement may be provided in a single layer in mutually perpendicular directions as in a

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woven fabric. The bidirectional reinforcement may be such that the strengths in two perpendicular directions are approximately equal. The orientation of discontinuous fibers cannot be easily controlled in a composite material.

So fibers can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented. In most cases the fibers are assumed to be randomly oriented in the composites. However, in the injection molding of a fiber reinforced polymer, considerable orientation can occur in the flow direction and which a case of preferred oriented fibers in the composites.

1.4.2.b Particulate Composites

As the name itself indicates, the reinforcement is of particle nature (platelets are also included in this class). It may be spherical, cubic, tetragonal, a platelet, or of other regular or irregular shape, but it is approximately equiaxed. In general, particles are not very effective in improving fracture resistance but they enhance the stiffness of the composite to a limited extent. Particle fillers are widely used to improve the properties of matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and electrical conductivities, improve performance at elevated temperatures, reduce friction, increase wear and abrasion resistance, improve machinability, increase surface hardness and reduce shrinkage. Also, in case of particulate reinforced composites the particle can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented.

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1.4.3 According to type of matrix material they are classified as:

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

1.4.3.a Metal Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites have many advantages over monolithic metals like higher specific modulus, higher specific strength, better properties at elevated temperatures, and lower coefficient of thermal expansion. Because of these attributes metal matrix composites are under consideration for wide range of applications viz. combustion chamber nozzle (in rocket, space shuttle), housings, tubing, cables, heat exchangers, structural members etc

1.4.3.b Ceramic matrix Composites

One of the main objectives in producing ceramic matrix composites is to increase the toughness Naturally it is hoped and indeed often found that there is a concomitant improvement in strength and stiffness of ceramic matrix composites.

1.4.3.c Polymer Matrix Composites

Most commonly used matrix materials are polymeric. The reasons for this are twofold. In general the mechanical properties of polymers are inadequate for many structural purposes. In particular their strength and stiffness are low compared to metals and ceramics. These difficulties are overcome by reinforcing other materials with polymers. Secondly the processing of polymer matrix composites need not involve high pressure
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and doesnt require high temperature. Also equipments required for manufacturing polymer matrix composites are simpler. For this reason polymer matrix composites developed rapidly and soon became popular for structural applications. Composites are used because overall properties of the composites are superior to those of the individual components for example polymer/ceramic. Composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component but arent as brittle as ceramics.

1.4.4 Classification Based on Reinforcements Introduction to Reinforcements

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with other two axes either often circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers.

Figure 1.4.4

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Two types of polymer composites are: Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) Particle reinforced polymer (PRP)

1.4.4.a Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Common fiber reinforced composites are composed of fibers and a matrix. Fibers are the reinforcement and the main source of strength while matrix glues all the fibers together in shape and transfers stresses between the reinforcing fibers. The fibers carry the loads along their longitudinal directions. Sometimes, filler might be added to smooth the manufacturing process, impact special properties to the composites, and /or reduce the product cost. Common fiber reinforcing agents include asbestos, carbon /graphite fibers, beryllium, beryllium carbide, beryllium oxide, molybdenum, aluminium oxide, glass fibers, polyamide,natural fibers etc. Similarly common matrix materials include epoxy, phenolic, polyester, polyurethane, peek, vinyl ester etc. Among these resin materials, epoxy is widely used for its higher adhesion and less shrinkage property.

1.4.4.b Particle Reinforced Polymer

Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminium and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black. Particles are used to increase the modules of the matrix and to decrease the ductility of the matrix. Particles are also used to reduce the cost of the composites. Reinforcements and matrices can be common, inexpensive materials and are easily processed.

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Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators. Some ceramics have special properties; some ceramics are magnetic materials; some are piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics are even superconductors at very low temperatures. Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback: they are brittle. An example of particle reinforced composites is an automobile tire, which has carbon black particles in a matrix of poly-isobutylene elastomeric polymer

1.5 Structure of Composite

Structure of composite material A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness. Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite

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Properties
1) Nature of the constituent material (bonding strength) 2) The geometry of the reinforcement (shape, size) 3) The concentration distribution(vol. fraction of reinforcement) 4) The orientation of the reinforcement(random or preferred) Good adhesion (bonding) between matrix phase and displaced phase provides transfer of load applied to the material to the displaced phase via the interface. Good adhesion is required for achieving high level of mechanical properties of composites. Very small particles less than 0.25 micrometer finely distributed in the matrix impede movement of dislocations and deformation of the material. They have strengthening effect. Large dispersed phase particles have low share load applied to the material resulting in increase of stiffness and decrease of ductility. Orientation of reinforcement: Planar:-In the form of 2-D woven fabric. When the fibers are laid parallel, the composite exhibits axistrope. Random or Three Dimensional:-The composite material tends to posses isotropic properties. One Dimensional: - Maximum strength and stiffness are obtained in the direction of fiber.

1.6 Advantages of Composites

Advantages of composites over their conventional counterparts are the ability to meet diverse design requirements with significant weight savings as well as strength-to-weight ratio. Some advantages of composite materials over conventional ones are as follows: Tensile strength of composites is four to six times greater than that of steel or aluminium (depending on the reinforcements).

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Improved torsional stiffness and impact properties. Higher fatigue endurance limit (up to 60% of ultimate tensile strength). 30% - 40% lighter for example any particular aluminium structures designed to the same functional requirements. Lower embedded energy compared to other structural metallic materials like steel, aluminium etc. Composites are less noisy while in operation and provide lower vibration transmission than metals. Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored to meet performance needs and complex design requirements. Long life offer excellent fatigue, impact, environmental resistance and reduce maintenance. Composites enjoy reduced life cycle cost compared to metals. Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and fire retardancy. Improved appearance with smooth surfaces and readily incorporable integral decorative melamine are other characteristics of composites. Composite parts can eliminate joints / fasteners, providing part simplification and integrated design compared to conventional metallic parts.

1.7 Applications of Composites

Industry Aircraft Aerospace Automotive Examples Door, elevators Space Shuttle, Space stations Body frames, engine Comments 20-35% Weight savings Great weight savings High stiffness & damage tolerance Corrosion resistance Weight savings, portable.

components Chemical Construction Pipes, Tanks, Pressure vessels Structural & decorative panels, Fuel tanks etc.

Figure 1.7

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1.8 EXAMPLES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Fibre reinforced plastics: Classified by type of fiber: Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix) Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP) Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally, "fiberglass") Classified by matrix: Thermoplastic Composites Short fiber thermoplastics Long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics Glass mat thermoplastics Continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics Thermoset Composites Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)

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 Metal matrix composites (MMCs): White cast iron Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix) Metal-intermetallic laminate Ceramic matrix composites: Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers) Cermet (ceramic and metal) Concrete Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites Asphalt concrete Dental composite Syntactic foam Mother of Pearl Chobham armour (see composite armour) Engineered wood

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Plywood Oriented strand board Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix) Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix) Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles Arborite Formica (plastic)

1.9 Scope of the project

The basic aim of the present work is to develop and characterize a new class of composites with epoxy as polymer matrix and glass fiber as the reinforcing material. Their physical and mechanical characterization is done. Attempt is made to use TiO2 as filler in these fiber reinforced .polymer matrix composites. Characterization of the resulting TiO2 filled glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite is done. The experimentally measured database of composites has also been predicted. This work is expected to introduce a new class of functional polymer composites suitable for tribological applications.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

This chapter outlines some of the recent reports published in literature on composites of fiber reinforced polymer composites. Polymer composite materials have generated wide interest in various engineering fields, particularly in aerospace applications. Research is underway worldwide to develop newer composites with varied combinations of fibers and fillers so as to make them useable under different operational conditions. The improved performance of polymer composites in engineering applications by the addition of filler materials has shown a great promise and so has become a subject of considerable interest. Ceramic filled polymer composites have been the subject of extensive research in last two decades. Various kinds of polymers and polymer matrix composites reinforced with ceramic particles have a wide range of industrial applications such as heaters, electrodes, composites with thermal durability at high temperature etc.

These engineering composites are desired due to their low density, high corrosion resistance consisting of ceramic or metal particles and fiber fillers made of glass are being used these days to dramatically improve the wear resistance even up to three orders of magnitude. The inclusion of inorganic fillers into polymers for commercial applications is primarily aimed at the cost reduction and stiffness improvement. Along with fiber-reinforced composites, the composites made with particulate fillers have been found to perform well in many real operational conditions. It is reported by Bonner that with the inclusion of micro-sized particulates into polymers, a high filler content (typically greater than 20 vol. %) is generally required to bring the above stated positive effects into
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play. But at the same time, this may also have detrimental effects on some important properties of the matrix polymers such as processability, appearance, density and aging performance. It has also been reported that the fracture surface energies of epoxy and polyester resin and their resistance to crack propagation are relatively low.

But if particulate filler is added to these resins, the particles inhibit crack growth. As the volume fraction of filler is varied, the fracture energy increases up to a critical volume fraction and then decreases again. Srivastava showed that the fracture toughness of epoxy resin could be improved by addition of flyash particles as filler. The fillers also affect the tensile properties according to their packing characteristics, size and interfacial bonding. The maximum volumetric packing fraction of filler reflects the size distribution and shapes of the particles. Recently, it has been observed that by incorporating filler particles into the matrix of fibre reinforced composites, synergistic effects may be achieved in the form of higher modulus and reduced material costs, yet accompanied with decreased strength and impact toughness. Polymer composites with both discontinuous and continuous fibre reinforcement possess usually very high specific (i.e. density related) stiffness and strength when measured in plane. Therefore, such composites are frequently used in engineering parts in automobile, aerospace, marine and energetic applications.

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CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the experimental procedures followed for their characterization and tribological evaluation. The raw materials used in this work are 1. E-glass fiber 2. E-Glass powder 3. Epoxy resin

3.1 Hardener:
The hardener used in Epoxy is polyamine. A polyamine is an organic compound having two or more primary amino groups -NH2.This class of compounds includes several synthetic substances that are important feed stocks for the chemical industry, such as ethylene diamine H2N-CH2-CH2-NH2, 1,3-diaminopropane H2N-(CH2)3-NH2, and hex methylenediamine H2N-(CH2)6-NH2. The amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

3.2 Epoxy:
Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener. When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

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The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements.

Resin:
Resin is a natural or synthetic compound which begins in a highly viscous state and hardens with treatment. Typically, resin is soluble in alcohol, but not in water. There are a number of different classes of resin, depending on exact chemical composition and potential uses. Matrix resins bind glass-reinforcing fibers together, protecting them from impact and the environment. Glass fiber properties such as strength dominate in continuously reinforced composites. When glass is used as a discontinuous reinforcement, resin properties dominate and are enhanced by the glass. Polymer matrix resins fall into two categories: thermo set and thermoplastic. The difference is in their chemistry. Thermo set resin is chemically comprised of molecular chains that crosslink during the cure reaction (set off by heat, catalyst, or both) and "set" into a final rigid form. Molecular chains in thermoplastic resin are processed at higher temperatures and remain "plastic," or capable of being reheated and reshaped. While the tradeoffs between thermosets and thermoplastics have been debated extensively, engineers will find that material suppliers will tailor matrix resin formulations best for their application

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3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials:

Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used. Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers, high silica and quartz fibers, alumina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron fibers, aramid fibers and multi phase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified into E-glass, S-glass, A- glass, R-glass etc. There is a greater market and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers. The potential of fibers of graphite, silicon carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific mind due to their applications in advanced composites.

3.3.1Types of fibers 3.3.1.a Glass Fibers

Over 95% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers, as they are inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the plastics with which they are reinforced.
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Their low density, resistance to chemicals, insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics, although the one major disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when subjected to high tensile stress for a long time.. However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time frames. This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is expected to sustain such loads for many months or years continuously. Period of loading, temperature, moisture and other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibers and the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning before the catastrophic failure. But all this can be easily overlooked in view of the fact that the wide range of glass fiber variety lend themselves amicably to fabrication processes like matched die moulding, filament winding lay-up and so on. Glass fibers are available in the form of mats, tapes, cloth, continuous and chopped filaments, rovings and yarns. Addition of chemicals to silica sand while making glass yields different types of glasses.

3.3.1.b Metal Fibers

As reinforcements, metal fibers have many advantages. They are easily produced using several fabrication processes and are more ductile, apart from being not too sensitive to surface damage and possess high strengths and temperature resistance. However, their weight and the tendency to react with each other through alloying mechanisms are major disadvantages. Steel wire is the most extensively used reinforcement in most large-scale metal filament applications. Wire is used for its capacity to enhance the tensile strength of concrete and continuous metal fibers are the reinforcing constituents in metal and ceramic composite materials.

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3.3.1.c Ceramic fibers improve vastly in performance when a fine metal outline is incorporated with refractory ceramics by improving their thermal shock and impact resistance properties. 3.3.1.d Metal wires, of the continuous version, also reinforce plastics like polyethylene and epoxy. Such combinations ensure high strength, light weight and good fatigue resistance. Besides, continuous metal fibers are easily handled, unlike glass fibers. Better flexural properties are observed in some metal fibers reinforced plastic composites which also offer improved strength and weight, than glass fibers. However, their poor tolerance of high temperatures and the resultant steep variation of thermal expansion coefficient with the resins are a discouragement that limits their application.

3.3.1.d Alumina Fibers

Alumina or aluminum oxide fibers, basically developed for use in metal matrices are considered a potential resin-matrix composite reinforcement. It offers good compressive strength rather than tensile strength. It is important property is it is high melting point of about 2000C and the composite can be successfully used at temperatures up to about 1000C. Magnesium and aluminum matrices frequently use alumina fiber reinforced composites as they do not damage the fiber even in the liquid state.

3.3.1.e Boron Fibers

They are basically composites, in which boron is coated on a substance which forms the substrate, usually made of tungsten. Boron-tungsten fibers are obtained by allowing hot tungsten filament through a mixture of gases. Boron is deposited on tungsten and the process is continued until the desired thickness is achieved. The tungsten however remains constant in its thickness. Properties of boron fibers generally change with the diameter, because of the changing ratio of boron to tungsten and the surface defects that change according to size. However, they
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are known for their remarkable stiffness

33and strength. Their strengths often compare with those of glass fibers, but their tensile modulus is high, almost four to five times that of glass. Boron coated carbons are much cheaper to make than boron tungsten fiber. But its low modulus of elasticity often works against it.

3.3.1.f Silicon Carbide Fibers

Silicon carbide can be coated over a few metals and their room temperature tensile strengths and tensile moduli are like those of boron-tungsten. The advantages of silicon carbide-tungsten are several and they are more desirable than uncoated boron tungsten fibers. Elevated temperature performance and the fact that they reported only a 35% loss of strength at 1350C are their best qualities. Silicon carbide-tungsten and silicon carbidecarbon have both been seen to have very high stress-rupture strength at 1100C and 1300C. Uncoated boron-tungsten fibers tend to lose all their strength at temperatures over 680C. Silicon carbide fibers do not react with molten aluminium, unlike uncoated boron and they also withstand high temperatures used in hot-press titanium matrices. However, silicon carbide-tungsten fibers are dense compared to boron- tungsten fibers of the same diameter. They are prone to surface damage and need careful, delicate handling, especially during fabrication of the composite. Further, above 930C, weakening reactions occur between tungsten and silicon carbide, making it difficult to maintain balance in high-temperature matrix formations. Silicon carbide on 'carbon substrates have several advantages, viz. no, reaction at high temperature, being lighter than silicon carbide tungsten and possessing tensile strengths and modulus that is are often better than those of silicon carbide-tungsten and boron fibers.

3.3.1.g Aramid Fibers

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Aramid fibers are made from aromatic polyamides which are long polymeric .chains and aromatic rings. They are structures in which six carbon atoms are bonded to each other and to combinations of hydrogen atoms. In aramid fibers, these rings occur and reoccur to form the fibers. They were initially used to reinforce automobile tires. Since then, they have also found other uses like bullet proof vests. As high strength applications, their use in power boats is not uncommon.

Aramid have high tensile strength, high modulus and low weight. Impact- resistant structures can be produced from aramid. The density of aramid fibers is less than that of glass and graphite fibers. They are fire resistant apart from being high-temperature resistant and also unaffected by organic solvents and fuels. But their resistance in acid and alkaline media is poor. They are supple and allow themselves to be woven into matrices by simple processes. Aramid fibers have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion in the fiber direction and the failure of aramid fibers is unique. When they fail, the fibers break into small fibrils, which are like fibers within the fibers. This unique failure mechanism is responsible for high strength.

3.3.1.h Quartz and Silica Fibers

The glass-types typically contain about 50 to 78% silica. Silica glass is a purer glass fiber that can be made by treating fiberglass in an acid bath, which removes all impurities without affecting the silica. The final product contains 93 to 99% silica. Quartz is even more pure, and quartz fibers are made from natural quartz crystals that contain 99.9% silica, possessing nearly all the properties of pure solid quartz. Ordinary fiberglass, high silica and quartz fibers share several characteristics and can be produced in a range of fiber diameters. Roving or yarns and other forms of fibers can be made from high silica as well as quartz. All matrix materials that accept fiberglass are amenable to high silica and quartz too. They differ from glass in many factors, however, especially in heat-related properties.
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Although quartz crystals are commonly available, pure crystals are hard to come by. On the other hand, high silica comes from the same material as glass fibers and is easily accessible. However, quartz makes up for its rarity with its capacity to" withstand high temperatures, which silica is incapable of. Barring this difference, silica and quartz are similar in other respects. They are highly elastic and can be stretched to 1 % of their length before break point. Both silica and quartz are not affected by acid attacks and are resistant to moisture. Owing to their thermal properties, silica and quartz are the natural choice as fibers in several applications. They have good insulating properties and do not melt at temperatures up to 1600C. In addition, they have low thermal expansion coefficients which make them withstand high temperatures.

3.3.1.i Graphite Fibers

While use of the term carbon for graphite is permissible, there is one basic difference between the two. Elemental analysis of poly-acrylo-nitrile (PAN) base carbon fibers show that they consist of 91 to 94% carbon. But graphite fibers are over 99% carbon. The difference arises from the fact that the fibers are made at different temperatures. PAN-based carbon cloth or fiber is produced at about 1320C, while graphite fibers and cloth are graphitized at 1950 to 3000C. The properties of graphite remain unchanged even at very high temperatures, but its willingness to react readily with most metals at the fabrication stage or during use at very high temperatures is often a stumbling block, as seen in aluminium matrices when carbides are produced at the interface. These carbides react with moisture with disastrous effects on the composite material.

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Graphite fibers are some of the stiffest fibers known. The stiffness of the fiber is as high as the graphite content. But a major drawback is that stiffness and strength are inversely proportional to each other. Forbidding costs make the use of graphite fibers prohibitive. The best glass fibers are far less expensive than the cheapest, lowest quality of graphite, and in PAN-base fibers, other raw materials too are equally expensive. The carbonization and graphitization are time-consuming, apart from demanding excessive energy, materials and close controls throughout the process. Cheaper pitch base fibers are now being developed, with greater performance potential and there are possibilities of the increased use of graphite fibers.

3.3.1.j Multiphase Fibers

Spoolable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually the multi phase variety and they usually comprise materials like boron, silicon and their carbides formed on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or tungsten. They are usually good for high temperature applications, due to their reduced reaction with higher melting temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers. Boron filaments are sought after for structural and intermediate-temperature composites. A poly-phase fiber is a core-sheath fiber consisting of a polycrystalline core.

3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber:

E-Glass or electrical grade glass was originally developed for standoff insulators for electrical wiring. It was later found to have excellent fibre forming capabilities and is now used almost exclusively as the reinforcing phase in the material commonly known as fiber glass.

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. Figure 3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber

3.3.2 Mechanical Properties of fibers

Composite materials are not homogeneous. Their properties are dependent on many factors, the most important of which are the type of fibre, quantity of fibre (as volume fraction) and the configuration of the reinforcement. They are generally completely elastic up to failure and exhibit neither a yield point nor a region of plasticity. They tend to have low strain to failure(less than 3%). The resulting area under the stress/strain curve, which represents the work done to failure, is relatively small when compared to many metals. The properties of composites are dependent on the properties of the fibre and the matrix, the proportion of each and the configuration of the fibres. If all the fibres are aligned in one direction then the composite relatively stiff and strong in that direction, but in the transverse direction it has low modulus and low strength. When a unidirectional composite is tested at a small angle from the fibre axis, there is a considerable reduction in strength. A similar but less significant effect occurs with the tensile modulus, as shown in Figure 3.3.2

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Figure 3.3.2
Theoretical variation in tensile modulus with the angle of load relative to the principal fibre direction (unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced plastic (UD CFRP), fibre volume fraction = 0.5)

Strength and stiffness Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) E glass fibres, which have a modulus of about 70GPa, produce composites with modest moduli. In the case of unidirectional fibres and the highest typical fibre volume fraction of 0.65, a composite has a modulus of about45GPa and strength of around 1300MPa. At right angles to this, in the transverse direction, the modulus approaches that of the resin itself at about4GPa and the strength would be 50100MPa. The unidirectional compo-sites used in the ROBUST Project, manufactured using the vacuum process with prepreg material in an epoxy matrix, had the following properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 36GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 750MPa Elongation at break: 3.1%.

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Bidirectional E glass laminates have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.4 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about 14GPa.Random laminates (e.g. chopped strand mat) have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.2 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about9GPa. The use of S2 or R glass improves the composite modulus to about60GPa for unidirectional and 20GPa for woven fabric (bidirectional) constructions. This is at some monetary disadvantage. They are both more expensive than E glass and they are only available in a fairly limited range of material types and resin compatibilities. Probably the most important virtue of S2 and R glass is their high strength, which is considerably higher than E glass. Carbon and graphite fibers Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) The dominant carbon fibres in current use (typically Toray T700) have a tensile modulus of about 230GPa, a tensile strength of around 5000MPaand a strain-to-failure of 2%. Unidirectional composites produced from them in either an epoxy or vinyl-ester matrix have the following typical properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 155165GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 25003000MPa Elongation at break: 1.21.3% Carbon fibres are available which will give a tensile modulus of about250GPa in a unidirectional composite, comparing very favourably with steel at about 210GPa. However, as this composite is unidirectional, it has extremely low modulus in the transverse direction. The principal attributes of carbon fibre composites are their very high specific stiffness (the ratio of modulus/density), excellent fatigue and environmental resistance. Currently there are various pultruded CFRP plates available commercially for plate bonding applications. The pultruded plates used in the ROBUST Project, as well as the plates manufactured with prepreg materials, possessed a modulus of about 130GPa and a
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strength of 1500MPa.Pultruded plates now available from other sources typically exploit fibers with superior properties such as Toray T700, resulting in composites with the properties shown above. A financial penalty has to be paid for materials exhibiting properties significantly in excess of these; the strain-to-failure of composites made with them will also be reduced significantly. Carbon and graphite have substantial capability as reinforcing fibers, with great flexibility in the properties that can be provided. Primary characteristics for reinforcing fibers in polymer matrix composites are high stiffness and strength. The fibers must maintain these characteristics in hostile environments such as elevated temperatures, exposure to common solvents and fluids, and environmental moisture. To be used as part of a primary structure material it should also be available as continuous fiber. These characteristics and requirements have substantial implications for the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the fiber, which in turn implies processing and acceptance parameters. Interest in carbon fibers for structural materials was initiated in the late 1950s when synthesized rayons in textile form were carbonized to produce carbon fibers for high temperature missile applications. One of the first distinctions to be made is the difference between carbon and graphite fibers, although the terms are frequently used interchangeably. Background information for these differences is contained in the following sections. The primary purpose of making this distinction here is to alert the reader that users may mean different things when referring to graphite versus carbon fibers. Carbon and graphite fibers are both based on graphene (hexagonal) layer networks present in carbon. If the graphene layers or planes stack with three dimensional orders the material is defined as graphite. Usually extended time and temperature processing is required to form this order, making graphite fibers more expensive. Because the bonding between planes is weak, disorder frequently occurs such that only the two dimensional
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ordering within the layers is present. This material is defined as carbon. With this distinction made, it should be understood that while some differences are implied, there is not a single condition which strictly separates carbon from graphite fibers, and even graphite fibers retain some disorder in their structure.

3.3.3 Fiber Manufacture:

Glass fibers are generally produced using melt spinning techniques. These involve melting the glass composition into a platinum crown which has small holes for the molten glass to flow. Continuous fibers can be drawn out through the holes and wound onto spindles, while short fibers may be produced by spinning the crown, which forces molten glass out through the holes centrifugally. Fibers are cut to length using mechanical means or air jets. Fiber dimension and to some extent properties can be controlled by the process variables such as melt temperature (hence viscosity) and drawing/spinning rate. The temperature window that can be used to produce a melt of suitable viscosity is quite large, making this composition suitable for fiber forming. As fibers are being produced, they are normally treated with sizing and coupling agents. These reduce the effects of fiber- fiber abrasion which can significantly degrade the mechanical strength of the individual fibers. Other treatments may also be used to promote wetting and adherence of the matrix material to the fiber .

Composition
E-Glass is a low alkali glass with a typical nominal composition of SiO2 54wt%, Al2O3 14wt%, CaO+MgThe advantageous properties of E-glass generally outweigh the disadvantages which include:
Low modulus Self abrasiveness if not treated appropriately leading to reduced strength

Relatively low fatigue resistance

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Higher density compared to carbon fibres and organic fibresO 22wt%, B2O3 10wt% and Na2O+K2O less then 2wt%. Some other materials may also be present at impurity levels.

3.3.4 Key Properties:

Properties that have made E-glass so popular in 46iberglass and other glass reinforced composite include: Low cost High production rates High strength High stiffness Relatively low density Non-flammable Resistant to heat Good chemical resistance Relatively insensitive to moisture Able to maintain strength properties over a wide range of conditions Good electrical insulation

3.4 Processing of the Composites Fabrication of the Laminate

E-glass/Epoxy composite laminates were prepared by passing the E-glass fibers of 1200 TEX, through the resin bath of Epoxy and hardener maintaining a constant temperature of about 45 C.The fibers are then wound on a rotating drum with 15 rpm. After complete winding on the drum then it is cut opened and lay on a flat table in the atmospheric condition for about 48 hours to get the
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tackiness. The layers are cut in such a way that the desired fiber direction is obtained. In this experimentation it is decided to prepare the laminates such that the angle between the fibers are15o 30o 45o 60o and 90oas shown in fig-1. The sequence of layup shown in the fig -2. The number of layup depends on the thickness of the laminate required; here it is used 20 layers to obtain the thickness of the laminate about 4mm. All the overlapped layers then compacted between the two parallel flat steel plates with stainless steel spacers of required laminate thickness. The major purpose of lamination is to tailor the directional dependence of strength and stiffness of a composite material to match the loading environment of the structural element laminates are uniquely suited to this objective because the principal material directions of each layer can be oriented according to need. The plates are clamped with nuts and bolts with washers; the clamped setup is then placed in the oven. Maintain the oven temperature of 800 C for 4 hours and 1200 C for next 4 hours so that any entrapped air or volatile gases will be escaped for the first four hours and chemical reaction between the epoxy and hardener will takes place for the next four hours and will lead to permanent set and finally result into a single solid composite laminate. After total curing of 8 hours oven is then switched off so the temperature in the oven may come down to normal temperature. Take out the composite laminate and trim the edges so that the laminate is ready for testing purpose. Winding parameters 1. Tension of fibre =1.3 kgs 2. Resin temperature= 45 0c 3. RPM of lathe = 15
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4. Gap between doctor blade and drum = 1.25 mmThe parameters are kept constant for two different windings

FILAMENT WINDING SETUP

RESIN BATH

DRUM WINDING

REMOVING LAYUP

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LAYUP PLACED ON TABLE

APPLYING WAXPOL ON PLATES

LAYING UP LAYERS

REMOVING AIR GAP

COMPACTING LAYERS

PLACING IN THE OVEN

3.4.2 CURING PROCESS :

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Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener". The resin consists of monomers or short chain polymers with an epoxide group at either end. Most common epoxy resins are produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A, though the latter may be replaced by similar chemicals. The hardener consists of polyamine monomers, for example Triethylenetetramine (TETA). When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond.

Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily crosslinked, and is thus rigid and strong.The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. So the laminate that is fabricated is put into a Oven . The temperatures are maintained in two cycles. In the first cycle we have to maintain constant temperature of 80C for 4hours and in the next cycle maintain a temperature of 160C for next 4 hours.

AFTER CURING

MARKING

TRIMMING

AFTER TRIMMING

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DRILLING

AFTER DRILLING

Figure 3.6.a specifications of UTM (at CIPET)

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UTM SPECIFICATIONS

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COMPOSITE LAMINATE UNDER TESTING

4.1 Experimental procedure

Quasi-static Indentation tests were performed on INSTRON testing machine. The
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composite laminate of size 150mm x 150mm is placed on a steel supporting frame, with a square opening of size 50mm x 50mm. A similar square opening flat plate is placed ontop of the composite laminate; it is then clamped rigidly with nuts and bolts of 6mm size as shown in fig-3. The clamped setup is placed on the loading frame of testing machine. A spherical stainless steel ball indenter of diameter 8.32mmis used for indentation on the composites laminate. The tests were conducted with the controlled displacement of the indenter (0.2mm / minute). The test data is shown in Table-2.An extensometer is used to measure the displacement of the point just below the indentation location at the bottom side of the composite laminate. A 20kN load cell evaluated the load on each composite laminate. The data obtained during test for each laminate is shown in Table-2. The composite laminate with different fiber angles is indented for a fixed displacement of 5 mm. The damage in the different composite laminate with different fiber angles is shown fig-4. The damage area in each composite laminate is observed with the help of optical light microscope.
S. No. Specifications 1 2 3 4 5 ASTM Present work

Specimen 4 6 mm 4 - 5 mm thickness Indenter 10 16 mm 8.73 mm diameter Cross head 0.2 mm / 1 mm / min displacement min Indenter 5 10 mm 5 mm displacement No of samples 4 4 per test

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF UTM

00/150

00/300

00/450

00/600

00/900

Fig-1: Schematic diagram of five different laminates

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Fig-2: Sequence of angle plies

4.2 COMPOSITE LAMINATES WITHOUT E-GLASS POWDER FRONT SIDE BACK SIDE

0,90

0,60

FRONT SIDE

BACK SIDE

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0,45

0,30

0,15
S. No. Angle (0) Max. Load (KN) Indentation (mm) Spring back (mm)

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1 2 3 4 5

0/15 0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

3.77 4.11 4.69 4.99 5.83

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.86

0.92 1.17 2.50 3.08 3.44

Table - 2: Test results after Indentation.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Load (KN)

15 DEG 30 DEG 45 DEG 60 DEG 90 DEG

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5

Displacement (mm) Graph-1: Shows the load carrying capacity in each case for different indenter displacements of maximum 5mm for all the laminates. It is gradually increasing for the laminates with the fiber angles varying from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

Indentation ()

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-2: Indentation depth is increasing linearly as the fiber angle in laminates is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o),however it is suddenly increasing in the laminates with fiber angle varying from (0o/60o) to (0o/90o).

S. No. 1

Angle (0) 0/15

Front face damage area (mm2) 971

Back face damage area (mm2) 1256

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2 3 4 5

0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

1300 1894 2186 2623

1857 2280 2623 3257

Table-3: Experimental data of damage surface areas on front and back face of the laminates

Front face damage area 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 15 30 45

Back face damage area

60

75

90

105

Graph-3: Damage area is increasing with the increase in fiber angle of the laminates in front face and back face of the laminate; however the damage area back face is more than the front face as seen from the above graph.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Load (KN)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-4: Maximum load taken in each laminate with different fiber angles. The load is increasing linearly as the fiber angle is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

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4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Spring back (mm)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

5: Shows spring back effect is increasing in different laminates as the fiber angles are increasing

0o/15o) to (0o/90o), it shows that as the angle between fibers is increasing the laminate elasticity increasing

Material

Density (mg/m3)

Modulus (G Pa)

Poisons ratio(v)

Tensile strength (G Pa) 3.5

E-glass fiber

2.56

76

0.22

Epoxy resin

1.3

3.6

0.4

0.1

Table-4: Properties of materials

4.3) RATE OF LOADING (0.5mm/min) WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

0.5%

1%

1.5

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE
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(0/45)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE
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(0/15)

BACK SIDE
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GRAPH 1 :

0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1.0 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.92 1.8 1.4 2 3.4 3.1 3.1 3 4.62 4.1 3.5 4 4.85 4.19 3.6 5 4 3.73 3.11

GRAPH 2 :

0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

4
3 2 1 0 0 2

0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 % % % 0 0 0 2 1.7 1.6 3.15 3.2 2.95 4.65 3.72 3.2 5.4 3.12 2.25 3 2.38 1.89

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 3:

0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.1 2.2 1.7 2 3.8 3.6 3.15 3 4.26 4.2 2.91 4 4.5 2.92 2.29 5 3.5 2.32 1.83

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 4: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.15 2.1 1.2 2 3.75 3.5 2.3 3 5.18 4.2 3.4 4 4.2 3.15 2.85 5 2.5 1.9 1.75

GRAPH 5: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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5 4

FORCE (kN)

3 2 1 0 0 2

F 0.5 F1 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.9 1.8 1.7 2 3.1 2.85 2.6 3 3.9 3.8 3.3 4 3 2.8 2.5 5 2.85 2.35 1.7

GRAPH 6 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

0.5 mm/min

3.5 3 2.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

DEPTH mm)

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.42 2.6 2.5 2.1 2

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.38 2.54 2.6 2.4 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 2.67 2.98 2.9 2.55 2.38

ANGLE

GRAPH 7 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

0.5 mm /min

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PROJECTED HEIGHT

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5 %

ANGLE

ANGLE

0 15 30 45 60 90

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 0.5 % 0 2.84 3.2 2.5 2.55 2

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.0 % 0 3.24 3.6 2.7 3.5 2.1

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.5 % 0 3.31 3.76 3.33 3.67 2.6

4.4 1.5mm/min RATE OF LOADING WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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FRONT SIDE

(0/45)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/15)

BACK SIDE

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GRAPH 8: 0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

F F F 0.5% 1 % 1.5% 0 0 0 1.5 2.05 1.35 3.1 3.3 2.75 3.2 4.3 1.95 2.5 3.75 1.65 1.5 3.25 1.31

GRAPH 9:0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5 % 0 0 0 0 1 2.5 2.31 2.09 2 4.72 4.22 3.75 3 5.5 4.5 4.2 4 4.5 3.23 2.85 5 3.7 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 10: 0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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6 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 % 0 2.5 4.72 5.5 4.5 3.7

FORCE (kN)

4 3 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 1 0 0 2 DISPLACEMENT 4 (mm) 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 2.31 2.09 4.22 3.75 4.5 4.2 3.23 2.85 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 11: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

F 0.5 % 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2.5 4.2 5.55 4.65 3.25

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 (mm) DISPLACEMENT 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 1.75 1.65 3 2.65 4 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.2 1.8

GRAPH 12: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5 mm/min)

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DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 Page 75 (mm) %

F 1.0 %

F 1.5 %

6 5

FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 DISPLACEMENT (mm) F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

0 1 2 3 4 5

0 1.8 2.9 4.1 4.85 3.7

0 1.98 3.15 3.9 4.4 3.2

0 1.65 2.5 3.1 2.25 1.6

GRAPH13 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

1.5 mm/min

DEPTH OF INDENTATION mm)

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

0
0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.34 2.45 2.67 2.39 2.5

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.14 2.32 2.6 2.27 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 1.9 2.29 2.31 2 1.8

ANGLE

GRAPH 14 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

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3.5

PROJECTED HEIGHT

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5%

ANGLE

ANGLE PROJECTED PROJECTED PROJECTED HEIGHT HEIGHT HEIGHT 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 15 3 1.41 2.95 30 2.71 3.65 3.05 45 3.19 3.31 3.15 60 3.33 3.32 2.5 90 2.7 2.55 2.1

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Graph 1 (0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 1 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 4mm at 3.6kN. Graph 2 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 2 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 5.4kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN. Graph 3 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 3,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 3.15kN. Graph 4 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) :
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at the

In Graph 4,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.18kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.4kN. Graph 5 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 5,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.9kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.3kN. Graph 6 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 6,Depth of indentation is increasing with increase in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-150 to 0-300 later on there is increase angles 0-300 to 0-900. Graph 7 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 7, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-300 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600 and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing
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at the

in

depth of indentation,but it is decreases with

in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles. Graph 8(0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 8 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of2 mm at 2.75kN. Graph 9 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 9 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN. Graph 10 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 10,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN.
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Graph 11 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 11,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.55kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 2.65kN. Graph 12 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 12,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.1kN. Graph 13 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 13,Depth of indentation is increasing with decrease in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-450, later on there is decrease in depth of indentation from 0-450 to 0-600,but it is increases with angles 0-600 to 0-900. Graph 14 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 14, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-150 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600
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at the

at the

and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles.

REFERENCES
1) Agarwal, B. D and Broutman, L. J, (1990). Analysis and Performance
of Fiber Composites, Second Edition, Jhon Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 2) Robert M. Jones(1999), mechanics of composite materials, second edition Taylor & Francis group , New york London. 3) http://nptel.iitm.ac.in 4) http://www.wikipedia.org/ 5) Rothon R.N, (1999). Mineral fillers in thermoplastics: filler manufacture and characterization. Adv. Polym. Sci. 139, pp. 67-107. 6) http://composite.about.com/ 7) Applied composite materials, An international journal for the science And application of composites materials.

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8) Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, publishes research on Polymers, nano composites and particulate

ABSTRACT

In this work the composite laminates of Epoxy/E-glass fiber hybridizing with and without E- glass powder are prepared for testing. The fabrication of the laminate is done by filament winding (hoop winding) on a drum mandrel mounted on a modified center lathe. The green layup obtained is cut into laminae of the desired orientations and stacked in the predefined way to a required thickness. The stacked laminate is cured at elevated temperatures under a pressure from a pressure plate. The edges of the laminate are trimmed first and it is then cut in to required size. The specimens are then subjected to indentation test on a universal testing machine (UTM) for a fixed indenter depth. An investigative study is conducted into the results obtained from test data. A number of illustrations are shown regarding the damage in the specimens of different fiber orientation and with different percentages of E-glass powder. Also indentation depth, contact radius, spring back effect, and maximum load carrying capacity are studied.
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER :1 INTRODUCTION 1.10 Overview of composites. 1.11 Historical Development/Historical Overview. 1.12 What is composite material. 1.13 Classification of composites. 1.14 Structure of composites. 1.15 Advantages of composites. 1.16 Applications of composites. 1.17 Examples of composite materials. 1.18 Scope of Project. CHAPTER:2 LITERATURE SURVE

PAGE NO:

5 5 8 12 24 25 26 27 29

30

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CHAPTER:3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Hardener. 3.2 Epoxy. 3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials. 3.3.1 Types of fibres. 3.3.2 Mechanical properties of fibres. 3.3.3 Fibre manufacturing. 3.3.4 Key properties. 3.4 Processing of composites. 3.4.1 Curing CHAPTER:4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. 4.1 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates without E-glass powder. 4.2 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 62 57 56 32 32 32 34 35 43 46 47 49 52

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4.3

1.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 71

CHAPTER:5 5.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. 5.2 REFERENCES 80 85

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of composites

The development of composite materials and related design and manufacturing technologies is one of the most important advances in the history of materials. Composites are multifunctional materials having unprecedented mechanical and physical properties that can be tailored to meet the requirements of a particular application. Many composites also exhibit great resistance to high-temperature corrosion and oxidation and wear. These unique characteristics provide the mechanical engineer with design opportunities not possible with conventional monolithic (unreinforced) materials. Composites technology also makes possible the use of an entire class of solid materials, ceramics, in applications for which monolithic versions are unsuited because of their great strength scatter and poor resistance to mechanical and thermal shock. Further, many manufacturing processes for composites are well adapted to the fabrication of large, complex structures, which allows consolidation of parts, reducing manufacturing costs.

1.2 Historical Development / Historical overview: Past: After making and controlling fire and inventing the wheel,
spinning of continuous yarns is probably the most important development of mankind, enabling him to survive outside the tropical
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climate zones and spread across the surface of the Earth. Flexible fabrics made of locally grown and spun fibres as cotton; flax and jute were a big step forward compared to animal skins. More and more natural resources were used, soon resulting in the first composites; straw reinforced walls, and bows (Figure M.1.1.a) and chariots made of glued layers of wood, bone and horn. More durable materials as wood and metal soon replaced these antique composites.

Fig M.1.1.a Composite Korean bow

Present:
Originating from early agricultural societies and being almost forgotten after centuries, a true revival started of using lightweight composite structures for many technical solutions during the second half of the 20th century. After being solely used for their electromagnetic properties (insulators and radar-domes), using composites to improve the structural performance of spacecraft and military aircraft became popular in the last two decades of the previous century. First at any costs, with development of improved materials with increasing costs, nowadays cost

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reduction during manufacturing and operation are the main technology drivers. Latest development is the use of composites to protect man

against fire and impact and a tendency to a more environmental friendly design, leading to the reintroduction of natural fibres in the composite technology. Increasingly nowadays, the success of composites in applications, by volume and by numbers, can be ranked by accessibility and reproducibility of the applied manufacturing techniques. Some examples of use of natural fibers(M.1.1b M.1.1.e)

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Future:
In future, composites will be manufactured even more according to an integrated design process resulting in the optimum construction according to parameters such as shape, mass, strength, stiffness, durability, costs, etc. Newly developed design tools must be able to instantaneously show customers the influence of a design change on each one of these parameters.

1.3 What is Composite Material?

Composite materials are engineering materials made from two or more constituent materials that remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level while forming a single component. There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix
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Properties. The primary functions of the matrix are to transfer stresses between the reinforcing fibers/particles and to protect them from mechanical environmental damage whereas the presence of fibers/particles in a composite improves its mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness etc. The objective is to take advantage of the superior properties of both materials without compromising on the weakness of either. As defined by Agarwal and Broutman composite means material having two or more distinct constituent materials or phases. It is only when the constituent phases have significantly different physical properties and thus the composite properties are noticeably different from the constituent materials

Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural. Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific character of a composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine to give them a specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve the desirable properties. Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the levels at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic. In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz., binding the reinforcement phases in place and deforming

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to distribute the stresses among the constituent materials under an applied force.

reinforcement

The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be conductors or resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending on the purpose for which matrices are chosen. Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and metals have found applications as matrix materials in the designing of structural composites, with commendable success. These materials remain elastic till failure occurs and show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression. Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion characteristics. The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two interphases between each side of the interphase and its adjoint constituent. Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of matrix on properties of reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the selection and fabrication of composites is that the constituents should be chemically inert non-reactive.

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Properties of Matrix Materials:

Naturally fibers and whiskers are of little use unless they are bonded together to take form of structural element that can carry loads. The binder material is usually called a matrix. The purpose of the matrix is manifold support of fibers or whiskers, protection of the fibers or whiskers, stress transfer between broken fibers or whiskers, etc. Typically the matrix is of considerably lower density, stiffness, and strength than fibers or whiskers. However the combination of fibers or whiskers and a matrix can have very high strength and stiffness yet still have low density. Matrix materials can be polymers, metals, ceramics or carbon. Polymers (poly =many and mer = unit or molecule) exist in at least three major forms i.e linear, branched, or cross linked. A linear polymer is merely a chain of mers. A branched polymer consists of a primary chain of mers with other chains that are attached in three dimensions just like tree branches. Finally, a cross linked polymer has large number of three dimensional highly interconnected chains. Linear polymers have the least strength and stiffness, whereas cross linked polymer have most because of their inherently stiffer and stronger internal structure. The three main classes of structural polymers are rubbers, thermoplastics,
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and thermo sets. Rubbers are cross linked polymers that have semi crystalline state well below room temperature. Thermoplastics are polymers that branch, but generally dont cross link very much if at all. Thus, they usually can be repeatedly softened on heating and hardened on cooling. Examples of thermoplastics are nylon, polyethylene, and polysulfone. Thermo sets are polymers that are chemically reacted until almost all molecules are irreversibly cross linked in a three dimensional network. Thus, once an epoxy has set, it cannot be changed in form. Examples of thermo sets include epoxies, phenolics, and polyimides. Other matrix materials include metals that can be made to flow around an in-place fiber system by diffusion bonding or by heating vacuum infiltration. Common examples are shown in fig 1.3.1

a) linear

b)branched

c)cross linked

d)network

figure 1.3.1

1.4 Classification of Composites

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:

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 The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites. The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres. Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling. Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this category. Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.

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1.4.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or Carbon-Carbon Composites

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications. Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins. Thermoplastics have oneor two-dimensional

molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds. Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites.

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Figure 1.4.1 a

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures. Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally. There thermoplastic temperatures. are a few options tend their to loose increase their heat strength resistance at like in

thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the heat resistance. But all composites However, elevated rigidity, redeeming qualities

toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc.

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Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds. Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas.

Figure 1.4.1.b
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and
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dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins. Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of 140C. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is ruled out.

Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in automobile and structural applications. The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75C or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey. Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service at around 200250C .

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1.4.2 According to geometry:

Most composite materials developed thus far have been fabricated to improve mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, and high temperature performance. It is natural to study together the composites that have a common strengthening mechanism. The strengthening mechanism strongly depends on the geometry of the reinforcement. Therefore, it is quite convenient to classify composite materials on the basis of the geometry of a representative unit of reinforcement.

1.4.2.a Fibrous composite

A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension discourages the growth of incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement that might otherwise lead to failure, particularly with brittle matrices. Man-made filaments or fibers of non polymeric materials exhibit much higher strength along their length since large flaws, which may be present in the bulk material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness.Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite. Most composites used in structural applications are multilayered; that is, they consist of

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several layers of fibrous composites. Each layer or lamina is a single layer composite and its orientation is varied according to design. Several identical or different layers are bonded together to form a multilayered composites usable for engineering applications. When the constituent materials in each layer are the same, they are called simply laminates. Hybrid laminates refer to multilayered composites consisting of layers made up of different constituent materials. Reinforcing fibers in a single layer composite may be short or long compared to its overall dimensions. Composites with long fibers are called continuous fiber reinforced composites and those with short fibers, discontinuous fiber reinforced composites. The continuous fibers in single layer composites may be all aligned in one direction to form a unidirectional composite. Such composites are fabricated by laying the fibers parallel and saturating them with resinous material. The bidirectional reinforcement may be provided in a single layer in mutually perpendicular directions as in a woven fabric. The bidirectional reinforcement may be such that the strengths in two perpendicular directions are approximately equal. The orientation of discontinuous fibers cannot be easily controlled in a composite material.

So fibers can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented. In most cases the fibers are assumed to be randomly oriented in the composites. However, in the injection molding of a fiber reinforced polymer, considerable orientation can occur in the flow direction and which a case of preferred oriented fibers in the composites.

1.4.2.b Particulate Composites

As the name itself indicates, the reinforcement is of particle nature (platelets are also included in this class). It may be spherical, cubic,
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tetragonal, a platelet, or of other regular or irregular shape, but it is approximately equiaxed. In general, particles are not very effective in improving fracture resistance but they enhance the stiffness of the composite to a limited extent. Particle fillers are widely used to improve the properties of matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and electrical conductivities, improve performance at elevated temperatures, reduce friction, increase wear and abrasion resistance, improve machinability, increase surface hardness and reduce shrinkage. Also, in case of particulate reinforced composites the particle can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented.

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1.4.3 According to type of matrix material they are classified as:

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

1.4.3.a Metal Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites have many advantages over monolithic metals like higher specific modulus, higher specific strength, better properties at elevated temperatures, and lower coefficient of thermal expansion.
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Because of these attributes metal matrix composites are under consideration for wide range of applications viz. combustion chamber nozzle (in rocket, space shuttle), housings, tubing, cables, heat exchangers, structural members etc

1.4.3.b Ceramic matrix Composites

One of the main objectives in producing ceramic matrix composites is to increase the toughness Naturally it is hoped and indeed often found that there is a concomitant improvement in strength and stiffness of ceramic matrix composites.

1.4.3.c Polymer Matrix Composites

Most commonly used matrix materials are polymeric. The reasons for this are twofold. In general the mechanical properties of polymers are inadequate for many structural purposes. In particular their strength and stiffness are low compared to metals and ceramics. These difficulties are overcome by reinforcing other materials with polymers. Secondly the processing of polymer matrix composites need not involve high pressure and doesnt require high temperature. Also equipments required for manufacturing polymer matrix composites are simpler. For this reason polymer matrix composites developed rapidly and soon became popular for structural applications. Composites are used because overall properties of the composites are superior to those of the individual components for example polymer/ceramic. Composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component but arent as brittle as ceramics.

1.4.4 Classification Based on Reinforcements Introduction to Reinforcements

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with
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other two axes either often circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers.

Figure 1.4.4

Two types of polymer composites are: Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) Particle reinforced polymer (PRP)

1.4.4.a Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Common fiber reinforced composites are composed of fibers and a matrix. Fibers are the reinforcement and the main source of strength while matrix glues all the fibers together in shape and transfers stresses between the reinforcing fibers. The fibers carry the loads along their longitudinal directions. Sometimes, filler might be added to smooth the manufacturing process, impact special properties to the composites, and
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/or reduce the product cost. Common fiber reinforcing agents include asbestos, carbon /graphite fibers, beryllium, beryllium carbide, beryllium oxide, molybdenum, aluminium oxide, glass fibers, polyamide,natural fibers etc. Similarly common matrix materials include epoxy, phenolic, polyester, polyurethane, peek, vinyl ester etc. Among these resin materials, epoxy is widely used for its higher adhesion and less shrinkage property.

1.4.4.b Particle Reinforced Polymer

Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminium and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black. Particles are used to increase the modules of the matrix and to decrease the ductility of the matrix. Particles are also used to reduce the cost of the composites. Reinforcements and matrices can be common, inexpensive materials and are easily processed.

Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators. Some ceramics have special properties; some ceramics are magnetic materials; some are piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics are even superconductors at very low temperatures. Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback: they are brittle. An example of particle reinforced composites is an automobile tire, which has carbon black particles in a matrix of poly-isobutylene elastomeric polymer

1.5 Structure of Composite

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Structure of composite material A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness. Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite

Properties
1) Nature of the constituent material (bonding strength) 2) The geometry of the reinforcement (shape, size) 3) The concentration distribution(vol. fraction of reinforcement) 4) The orientation of the reinforcement(random or preferred) Good adhesion (bonding) between matrix phase and displaced phase provides transfer of load applied to the material to the displaced phase via the interface. Good adhesion is required for achieving high level of mechanical properties of composites. Very small particles less than 0.25 micrometer finely distributed in the matrix impede movement of dislocations and deformation of the material. They have strengthening
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effect. Large dispersed phase particles have low share load applied to the material resulting in increase of stiffness and decrease of ductility. Orientation of reinforcement: Planar:-In the form of 2-D woven fabric. When the fibers are laid parallel, the composite exhibits axistrope. Random or Three Dimensional:-The composite material tends to posses isotropic properties. One Dimensional: - Maximum strength and stiffness are obtained in the direction of fiber.

1.6 Advantages of Composites

Advantages of composites over their conventional counterparts are the ability to meet diverse design requirements with significant weight savings as well as strength-to-weight ratio. Some advantages of composite materials over conventional ones are as follows: Tensile strength of composites is four to six times greater than that of steel or aluminium (depending on the reinforcements).

Improved torsional stiffness and impact properties. Higher fatigue endurance limit (up to 60% of ultimate tensile strength). 30% - 40% lighter for example any particular aluminium structures designed to the same functional requirements. Lower embedded energy compared to other structural metallic materials like steel, aluminium etc. Composites are less noisy while in operation and provide lower vibration transmission than metals. Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored to meet performance needs and complex design requirements. Long life offer excellent fatigue, impact, environmental resistance and reduce maintenance.
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Composites enjoy reduced life cycle cost compared to metals. Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and fire retardancy. Improved appearance with smooth surfaces and readily incorporable integral decorative melamine are other characteristics of composites. Composite parts can eliminate joints / fasteners, providing part simplification and integrated design compared to conventional metallic parts.

1.7 Applications of Composites

Figure 1.7

1.8 EXAMPLES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Fibre reinforced plastics:
Industry Examples Door, elevators Space Shuttle, Space stations Body frames, engine Comments 20-35% Weight savings Great weight savings High stiffness & damage tolerance

Classified by type of fiber:

Aerospace Automotive

Aircraft

Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix)

components

Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP)

Construction Fuel tanks etc.

Chemical

Pipes, Tanks, Pressure vessels Structural & decorative panels,

Corrosion resistance Weight savings, portable.

Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally, "fiberglass")

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Classified by matrix: Thermoplastic Composites Short fiber thermoplastics Long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics Glass mat thermoplastics Continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics Thermoset Composites Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)

Metal matrix composites (MMCs): White cast iron Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix) Metal-intermetallic laminate Ceramic matrix composites: Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers)

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Cermet (ceramic and metal) Concrete Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites Asphalt concrete Dental composite Syntactic foam Mother of Pearl Chobham armour (see composite armour) Engineered wood

Plywood Oriented strand board Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix) Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix) Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles Arborite Formica (plastic)
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1.9 Scope of the project

The basic aim of the present work is to develop and characterize a new class of composites with epoxy as polymer matrix and glass fiber as the reinforcing material. Their physical and mechanical characterization is done. Attempt is made to use TiO2 as filler in these fiber reinforced .polymer matrix composites. Characterization of the resulting TiO2 filled glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite is done. The experimentally measured database of composites has also been predicted. This work is expected to introduce a new class of functional polymer composites suitable for tribological applications.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

This chapter outlines some of the recent reports published in literature on composites of fiber reinforced polymer composites. Polymer composite materials have generated wide interest in various engineering fields, particularly in aerospace applications. Research is underway worldwide to develop newer composites with varied combinations of fibers and fillers so as to make them useable under different operational conditions. The improved performance of polymer composites in engineering applications by the addition of filler materials has shown a
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great promise and so has become a subject of considerable interest. Ceramic filled polymer composites have been the subject of extensive research in last two decades. Various kinds of polymers and polymer matrix composites reinforced with ceramic particles have a wide range of industrial applications such as heaters, electrodes, composites with thermal durability at high temperature etc.

These engineering composites are desired due to their low density, high corrosion resistance consisting of ceramic or metal particles and fiber fillers made of glass are being used these days to dramatically improve the wear resistance even up to three orders of magnitude. The inclusion of inorganic fillers into polymers for commercial applications is primarily aimed at the cost reduction and stiffness improvement. Along with fiber-reinforced composites, the composites made with particulate fillers have been found to perform well in many real operational conditions. It is reported by Bonner that with the inclusion of micro-sized particulates into polymers, a high filler content (typically greater than 20 vol. %) is generally required to bring the above stated positive effects into play. But at the same time, this may also have detrimental effects on some important properties of the matrix polymers such as processability, appearance, density and aging performance. It has also been reported that the fracture surface energies of epoxy and polyester resin and their resistance to crack propagation are relatively low.

But if particulate filler is added to these resins, the particles inhibit crack growth. As the volume fraction of filler is varied, the fracture energy increases up to a critical volume fraction and then decreases again. Srivastava showed that the fracture toughness of epoxy resin could be improved by addition of flyash particles as filler. The fillers also affect
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the

tensile

properties

according

to

their
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packing

characteristics, size and interfacial bonding. The maximum volumetric packing fraction of filler reflects the size distribution and shapes of the particles. Recently, it has been observed that by incorporating filler particles into the matrix of fibre reinforced composites, synergistic effects may be achieved in the form of higher modulus and reduced material costs, yet accompanied with decreased strength and impact toughness. Polymer composites with both discontinuous and continuous fibre reinforcement possess usually very high specific (i.e. density related) stiffness and strength when measured in plane. Therefore, such composites are frequently used in engineering parts in automobile, aerospace, marine and energetic applications.

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CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the experimental procedures followed for their characterization and tribological evaluation. The raw materials used in this work are 1. E-glass fiber 2. E-Glass powder 3. Epoxy resin

3.1 Hardener:
The hardener used in Epoxy is polyamine. A polyamine is an organic compound having two or more primary amino groups -NH2.This class of compounds includes several synthetic substances that are important feed stocks for the chemical industry, such as ethylene diamine H2N-CH2-CH2-NH2, 1,3-diaminopropane H2N-(CH2)3-NH2, and hex methylenediamine H2N-(CH2)6-NH2. The amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

3.2 Epoxy:
Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener. When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

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The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements.

Resin:
Resin is a natural or synthetic compound which begins in a highly viscous state and hardens with treatment. Typically, resin is soluble in alcohol, but not in water. There are a number of different classes of resin, depending on exact chemical composition and potential uses. Matrix resins bind glass-reinforcing fibers together, protecting them from impact and the environment. Glass fiber properties such as strength dominate in continuously reinforced composites. When glass is used as a discontinuous reinforcement, resin properties dominate and are enhanced by the glass. Polymer matrix resins fall into two categories: thermo set and thermoplastic. The difference is in their chemistry. Thermo set resin is chemically comprised of molecular chains that crosslink during the cure reaction (set off by heat, catalyst, or both) and "set" into a final rigid form. Molecular chains in thermoplastic resin are processed at higher temperatures and remain "plastic," or capable of being reheated and reshaped. While the tradeoffs between thermosets and thermoplastics have been debated extensively, engineers will find that material suppliers will tailor matrix resin formulations best for their application

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3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials:

Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used. Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers, high silica and quartz fibers, alumina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron fibers, aramid fibers and multi phase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified into E-glass, S-glass, A- glass, R-glass etc. There is a greater market and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers. The potential of fibers of graphite, silicon carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific mind due to their applications in advanced composites.

3.3.1Types of fibers 3.3.1.a Glass Fibers

Over 95% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers, as they are inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the plastics with which they are reinforced.
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Their low density, resistance to chemicals, insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics, although the one major disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when subjected to high tensile stress for a long time.. However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time frames. This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is expected to sustain such loads for many months or years continuously. Period of loading, temperature, moisture and other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibers and the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning before the catastrophic failure. But all this can be easily overlooked in view of the fact that the wide range of glass fiber variety lend themselves amicably to fabrication processes like matched die moulding, filament winding lay-up and so on. Glass fibers are available in the form of mats, tapes, cloth, continuous and chopped filaments, rovings and yarns. Addition of chemicals to silica sand while making glass yields different types of glasses.

3.3.1.b Metal Fibers

As reinforcements, metal fibers have many advantages. They are easily produced using several fabrication processes and are more ductile, apart from being not too sensitive to surface damage and possess high strengths and temperature resistance. However, their weight and the tendency to react with each other through alloying mechanisms are major disadvantages. Steel wire is the most extensively used reinforcement in most large-scale metal filament applications. Wire is used for its capacity to enhance the tensile strength of concrete and continuous metal fibers are the reinforcing constituents in metal and ceramic composite materials.

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3.3.1.c Ceramic fibers improve vastly in performance when a fine metal outline is incorporated with refractory ceramics by improving their thermal shock and impact resistance properties. 3.3.1.d Metal wires, of the continuous version, also reinforce plastics like polyethylene and epoxy. Such combinations ensure high strength, light weight and good fatigue resistance. Besides, continuous metal fibers are easily handled, unlike glass fibers. Better flexural properties are observed in some metal fibers reinforced plastic composites which also offer improved strength and weight, than glass fibers. However, their poor tolerance of high temperatures and the resultant steep variation of thermal expansion coefficient with the resins are a discouragement that limits their application.

3.3.1.d Alumina Fibers

Alumina or aluminum oxide fibers, basically developed for use in metal matrices are considered a potential resin-matrix composite reinforcement. It offers good compressive strength rather than tensile strength. It is important property is it is high melting point of about 2000C and the composite can be successfully used at temperatures up to about 1000C. Magnesium and aluminum matrices frequently use alumina fiber reinforced composites as they do not damage the fiber even in the liquid state.

3.3.1.e Boron Fibers

They are basically composites, in which boron is coated on a substance which forms the substrate, usually made of tungsten. Boron-tungsten fibers are obtained by allowing hot tungsten filament through a mixture of gases. Boron is deposited on tungsten and the process is continued until the desired thickness is achieved. The tungsten however remains constant in its thickness. Properties of boron fibers generally change with the diameter, because of the changing ratio of boron to tungsten and the surface defects that change according to size. However, they
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are known for their remarkable stiffness

33and strength. Their strengths often compare with those of glass fibers, but their tensile modulus is high, almost four to five times that of glass. Boron coated carbons are much cheaper to make than boron tungsten fiber. But its low modulus of elasticity often works against it.

3.3.1.f Silicon Carbide Fibers

Silicon carbide can be coated over a few metals and their room temperature tensile strengths and tensile moduli are like those of boron-tungsten. The advantages of silicon carbide-tungsten are several and they are more desirable than uncoated boron tungsten fibers. Elevated temperature performance and the fact that they reported only a 35% loss of strength at 1350C are their best qualities. Silicon carbide-tungsten and silicon carbidecarbon have both been seen to have very high stress-rupture strength at 1100C and 1300C. Uncoated boron-tungsten fibers tend to lose all their strength at temperatures over 680C. Silicon carbide fibers do not react with molten aluminium, unlike uncoated boron and they also withstand high temperatures used in hot-press titanium matrices. However, silicon carbide-tungsten fibers are dense compared to boron- tungsten fibers of the same diameter. They are prone to surface damage and need careful, delicate handling, especially during fabrication of the composite. Further, above 930C, weakening reactions occur between tungsten and silicon carbide, making it difficult to maintain balance in high-temperature matrix formations. Silicon carbide on 'carbon substrates have several advantages, viz. no, reaction at high temperature, being lighter than silicon carbide tungsten and possessing tensile strengths and modulus that is are often better than those of silicon carbide-tungsten and boron fibers.

3.3.1.g Aramid Fibers

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Aramid fibers are made from aromatic polyamides which are long polymeric .chains and aromatic rings. They are structures in which six carbon atoms are bonded to each other and to combinations of hydrogen atoms. In aramid fibers, these rings occur and reoccur to form the fibers. They were initially used to reinforce automobile tires. Since then, they have also found other uses like bullet proof vests. As high strength applications, their use in power boats is not uncommon.

Aramid have high tensile strength, high modulus and low weight. Impact- resistant structures can be produced from aramid. The density of aramid fibers is less than that of glass and graphite fibers. They are fire resistant apart from being high-temperature resistant and also unaffected by organic solvents and fuels. But their resistance in acid and alkaline media is poor. They are supple and allow themselves to be woven into matrices by simple processes. Aramid fibers have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion in the fiber direction and the failure of aramid fibers is unique. When they fail, the fibers break into small fibrils, which are like fibers within the fibers. This unique failure mechanism is responsible for high strength.

3.3.1.h Quartz and Silica Fibers

The glass-types typically contain about 50 to 78% silica. Silica glass is a purer glass fiber that can be made by treating fiberglass in an acid bath, which removes all impurities without affecting the silica. The final product contains 93 to 99% silica. Quartz is even more pure, and quartz fibers are made from natural quartz crystals that contain 99.9% silica, possessing nearly all the properties of pure solid quartz. Ordinary fiberglass, high silica and quartz fibers share several characteristics and can be produced in a range of fiber diameters. Roving or yarns and other forms of fibers can be made from high silica as well as quartz. All matrix materials that accept fiberglass are amenable to high silica and quartz too. They differ from glass in many factors, however, especially in heat-related properties.
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Although quartz crystals are commonly available, pure crystals are hard to come by. On the other hand, high silica comes from the same material as glass fibers and is easily accessible. However, quartz makes up for its rarity with its capacity to" withstand high temperatures, which silica is incapable of. Barring this difference, silica and quartz are similar in other respects. They are highly elastic and can be stretched to 1 % of their length before break point. Both silica and quartz are not affected by acid attacks and are resistant to moisture. Owing to their thermal properties, silica and quartz are the natural choice as fibers in several applications. They have good insulating properties and do not melt at temperatures up to 1600C. In addition, they have low thermal expansion coefficients which make them withstand high temperatures.

3.3.1.i Graphite Fibers

While use of the term carbon for graphite is permissible, there is one basic difference between the two. Elemental analysis of poly-acrylo-nitrile (PAN) base carbon fibers show that they consist of 91 to 94% carbon. But graphite fibers are over 99% carbon. The difference arises from the fact that the fibers are made at different temperatures. PAN-based carbon cloth or fiber is produced at about 1320C, while graphite fibers and cloth are graphitized at 1950 to 3000C. The properties of graphite remain unchanged even at very high temperatures, but its willingness to react readily with most metals at the fabrication stage or during use at very high temperatures is often a stumbling block, as seen in aluminium matrices when carbides are produced at the interface. These carbides react with moisture with disastrous effects on the composite material.

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Graphite fibers are some of the stiffest fibers known. The stiffness of the fiber is as high as the graphite content. But a major drawback is that stiffness and strength are inversely proportional to each other. Forbidding costs make the use of graphite fibers prohibitive. The best glass fibers are far less expensive than the cheapest, lowest quality of graphite, and in PAN-base fibers, other raw materials too are equally expensive. The carbonization and graphitization are time-consuming, apart from demanding excessive energy, materials and close controls throughout the process. Cheaper pitch base fibers are now being developed, with greater performance potential and there are possibilities of the increased use of graphite fibers.

3.3.1.j Multiphase Fibers

Spoolable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually the multi phase variety and they usually comprise materials like boron, silicon and their carbides formed on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or tungsten. They are usually good for high temperature applications, due to their reduced reaction with higher melting temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers. Boron filaments are sought after for structural and intermediate-temperature composites. A poly-phase fiber is a core-sheath fiber consisting of a polycrystalline core.

3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber:

E-Glass or electrical grade glass was originally developed for standoff insulators for electrical wiring. It was later found to have excellent fibre forming capabilities and is now used almost exclusively as the reinforcing phase in the material commonly known as fiber glass.

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. Figure 3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber

3.3.2 Mechanical Properties of fibers

Composite materials are not homogeneous. Their properties are dependent on many factors, the most important of which are the type of fibre, quantity of fibre (as volume fraction) and the configuration of the reinforcement. They are generally completely elastic up to failure and exhibit neither a yield point nor a region of plasticity. They tend to have low strain to failure(less than 3%). The resulting area under the stress/strain curve, which represents the work done to failure, is relatively small when compared to many metals. The properties of composites are dependent on the properties of the fibre and the matrix, the proportion of each and the configuration of the fibres. If all the fibres are aligned in one direction then the composite relatively stiff and strong in that direction, but in the transverse direction it has low modulus and low strength. When a unidirectional composite is tested at a small angle from the fibre axis, there is a considerable reduction in strength. A similar but less significant effect occurs with the tensile modulus, as shown in Figure 3.3.2

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Figure 3.3.2
Theoretical variation in tensile modulus with the angle of load relative to the principal fibre direction (unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced plastic (UD CFRP), fibre volume fraction = 0.5)

Strength and stiffness Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) E glass fibres, which have a modulus of about 70GPa, produce composites with modest moduli. In the case of unidirectional fibres and the highest typical fibre volume fraction of 0.65, a composite has a modulus of about45GPa and strength of around 1300MPa. At right angles to this, in the transverse direction, the modulus approaches that of the resin itself at about4GPa and the strength would be 50100MPa. The unidirectional compo-sites used in the ROBUST Project, manufactured using the vacuum process with prepreg material in an epoxy matrix, had the following properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 36GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 750MPa Elongation at break: 3.1%.

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Bidirectional E glass laminates have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.4 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about 14GPa.Random laminates (e.g. chopped strand mat) have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.2 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about9GPa. The use of S2 or R glass improves the composite modulus to about60GPa for unidirectional and 20GPa for woven fabric (bidirectional) constructions. This is at some monetary disadvantage. They are both more expensive than E glass and they are only available in a fairly limited range of material types and resin compatibilities. Probably the most important virtue of S2 and R glass is their high strength, which is considerably higher than E glass. Carbon and graphite fibers Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) The dominant carbon fibres in current use (typically Toray T700) have a tensile modulus of about 230GPa, a tensile strength of around 5000MPaand a strain-to-failure of 2%. Unidirectional composites produced from them in either an epoxy or vinyl-ester matrix have the following typical properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 155165GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 25003000MPa Elongation at break: 1.21.3% Carbon fibres are available which will give a tensile modulus of about250GPa in a unidirectional composite, comparing very favourably with steel at about 210GPa. However, as this composite is unidirectional, it has extremely low modulus in the transverse direction. The principal attributes of carbon fibre composites are their very high specific stiffness (the ratio of modulus/density), excellent fatigue and environmental resistance. Currently there are various pultruded CFRP plates available commercially for plate bonding applications. The pultruded plates used in the ROBUST Project, as well as the plates manufactured with prepreg materials, possessed a modulus of about 130GPa and a
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strength of 1500MPa.Pultruded plates now available from other sources typically exploit fibers with superior properties such as Toray T700, resulting in composites with the properties shown above. A financial penalty has to be paid for materials exhibiting properties significantly in excess of these; the strain-to-failure of composites made with them will also be reduced significantly. Carbon and graphite have substantial capability as reinforcing fibers, with great flexibility in the properties that can be provided. Primary characteristics for reinforcing fibers in polymer matrix composites are high stiffness and strength. The fibers must maintain these characteristics in hostile environments such as elevated temperatures, exposure to common solvents and fluids, and environmental moisture. To be used as part of a primary structure material it should also be available as continuous fiber. These characteristics and requirements have substantial implications for the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the fiber, which in turn implies processing and acceptance parameters. Interest in carbon fibers for structural materials was initiated in the late 1950s when synthesized rayons in textile form were carbonized to produce carbon fibers for high temperature missile applications. One of the first distinctions to be made is the difference between carbon and graphite fibers, although the terms are frequently used interchangeably. Background information for these differences is contained in the following sections. The primary purpose of making this distinction here is to alert the reader that users may mean different things when referring to graphite versus carbon fibers. Carbon and graphite fibers are both based on graphene (hexagonal) layer networks present in carbon. If the graphene layers or planes stack with three dimensional orders the material is defined as graphite. Usually extended time and temperature processing is required to form this order, making graphite fibers more expensive. Because the bonding between planes is weak, disorder frequently occurs such that only the two dimensional
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ordering within the layers is present. This material is defined as carbon. With this distinction made, it should be understood that while some differences are implied, there is not a single condition which strictly separates carbon from graphite fibers, and even graphite fibers retain some disorder in their structure.

3.3.3 Fiber Manufacture:

Glass fibers are generally produced using melt spinning techniques. These involve melting the glass composition into a platinum crown which has small holes for the molten glass to flow. Continuous fibers can be drawn out through the holes and wound onto spindles, while short fibers may be produced by spinning the crown, which forces molten glass out through the holes centrifugally. Fibers are cut to length using mechanical means or air jets. Fiber dimension and to some extent properties can be controlled by the process variables such as melt temperature (hence viscosity) and drawing/spinning rate. The temperature window that can be used to produce a melt of suitable viscosity is quite large, making this composition suitable for fiber forming. As fibers are being produced, they are normally treated with sizing and coupling agents. These reduce the effects of fiber- fiber abrasion which can significantly degrade the mechanical strength of the individual fibers. Other treatments may also be used to promote wetting and adherence of the matrix material to the fiber .

Composition
E-Glass is a low alkali glass with a typical nominal composition of SiO2 54wt%, Al2O3 14wt%, CaO+MgThe advantageous properties of E-glass generally outweigh the disadvantages which include:
Low modulus Self abrasiveness if not treated appropriately leading to reduced strength

Relatively low fatigue resistance

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Higher density compared to carbon fibres and organic fibresO 22wt%, B2O3 10wt% and Na2O+K2O less then 2wt%. Some other materials may also be present at impurity levels.

3.3.4 Key Properties:

Properties that have made E-glass so popular in 129iberglass and other glass reinforced composite include: Low cost High production rates High strength High stiffness Relatively low density Non-flammable Resistant to heat Good chemical resistance Relatively insensitive to moisture Able to maintain strength properties over a wide range of conditions Good electrical insulation

3.4 Processing of the Composites Fabrication of the Laminate

E-glass/Epoxy composite laminates were prepared by passing the E-glass fibers of 1200 TEX, through the resin bath of Epoxy and hardener maintaining a constant temperature of about 45 C.The fibers are then wound on a rotating drum with 15 rpm. After complete winding on the drum then it is cut opened and lay on a flat table in the atmospheric condition for about 48 hours to get the
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tackiness. The layers are cut in such a way that the desired fiber direction is obtained. In this experimentation it is decided to prepare the laminates such that the angle between the fibers are15o 30o 45o 60o and 90oas shown in fig-1. The sequence of layup shown in the fig -2. The number of layup depends on the thickness of the laminate required; here it is used 20 layers to obtain the thickness of the laminate about 4mm. All the overlapped layers then compacted between the two parallel flat steel plates with stainless steel spacers of required laminate thickness. The major purpose of lamination is to tailor the directional dependence of strength and stiffness of a composite material to match the loading environment of the structural element laminates are uniquely suited to this objective because the principal material directions of each layer can be oriented according to need. The plates are clamped with nuts and bolts with washers; the clamped setup is then placed in the oven. Maintain the oven temperature of 800 C for 4 hours and 1200 C for next 4 hours so that any entrapped air or volatile gases will be escaped for the first four hours and chemical reaction between the epoxy and hardener will takes place for the next four hours and will lead to permanent set and finally result into a single solid composite laminate. After total curing of 8 hours oven is then switched off so the temperature in the oven may come down to normal temperature. Take out the composite laminate and trim the edges so that the laminate is ready for testing purpose. Winding parameters 5. Tension of fibre =1.3 kgs 6. Resin temperature= 45 0c 7. RPM of lathe = 15
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8. Gap between doctor blade and drum = 1.25 mmThe parameters are kept constant for two different windings

FILAMENT WINDING SETUP

RESIN BATH

DRUM WINDING

REMOVING LAYUP

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LAYUP PLACED ON TABLE

APPLYING WAXPOL ON PLATES

LAYING UP LAYERS

REMOVING AIR GAP

COMPACTING LAYERS

PLACING IN THE OVEN

3.4.2 CURING PROCESS :

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Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener". The resin consists of monomers or short chain polymers with an epoxide group at either end. Most common epoxy resins are produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A, though the latter may be replaced by similar chemicals. The hardener consists of polyamine monomers, for example Triethylenetetramine (TETA). When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond.

Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily crosslinked, and is thus rigid and strong.The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. So the laminate that is fabricated is put into a Oven . The temperatures are maintained in two cycles. In the first cycle we have to maintain constant temperature of 80C for 4hours and in the next cycle maintain a temperature of 160C for next 4 hours.

AFTER CURING

MARKING

TRIMMING

AFTER TRIMMING

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DRILLING

AFTER DRILLING

Figure 3.6.a specifications of UTM (at CIPET)

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UTM SPECIFICATIONS

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COMPOSITE LAMINATE UNDER TESTING

4.1 Experimental procedure

Quasi-static Indentation tests were performed on INSTRON testing machine. The
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composite laminate of size 150mm x 150mm is placed on a steel supporting frame, with a square opening of size 50mm x 50mm. A similar square opening flat plate is placed ontop of the composite laminate; it is then clamped rigidly with nuts and bolts of 6mm size as shown in fig-3. The clamped setup is placed on the loading frame of testing machine. A spherical stainless steel ball indenter of diameter 8.32mmis used for indentation on the composites laminate. The tests were conducted with the controlled displacement of the indenter (0.2mm / minute). The test data is shown in Table-2.An extensometer is used to measure the displacement of the point just below the indentation location at the bottom side of the composite laminate. A 20kN load cell evaluated the load on each composite laminate. The data obtained during test for each laminate is shown in Table-2. The composite laminate with different fiber angles is indented for a fixed displacement of 5 mm. The damage in the different composite laminate with different fiber angles is shown fig-4. The damage area in each composite laminate is observed with the help of optical light microscope.
S. No. Specifications 1 2 3 4 5 ASTM Present work

Specimen 4 6 mm 4 - 5 mm thickness Indenter 10 16 mm 8.73 mm diameter Cross head 0.2 mm / 1 mm / min displacement min Indenter 5 10 mm 5 mm displacement No of samples 4 4 per test

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF UTM

00/150

00/300

00/450

00/600

00/900

Fig-1: Schematic diagram of five different laminates

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Fig-2: Sequence of angle plies

4.2 COMPOSITE LAMINATES WITHOUT E-GLASS POWDER FRONT SIDE BACK SIDE

0,90

0,60

FRONT SIDE

BACK SIDE

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0,45

0,30

0,15
S. No. Angle (0) Max. Load (KN) Indentation (mm) Spring back (mm)

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1 2 3 4 5

0/15 0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

3.77 4.11 4.69 4.99 5.83

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.86

0.92 1.17 2.50 3.08 3.44

Table - 2: Test results after Indentation.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Load (KN)

15 DEG 30 DEG 45 DEG 60 DEG 90 DEG

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5

Displacement (mm) Graph-1: Shows the load carrying capacity in each case for different indenter displacements of maximum 5mm for all the laminates. It is gradually increasing for the laminates with the fiber angles varying from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

Indentation ()

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-2: Indentation depth is increasing linearly as the fiber angle in laminates is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o),however it is suddenly increasing in the laminates with fiber angle varying from (0o/60o) to (0o/90o).

S. No. 1

Angle (0) 0/15

Front face damage area (mm2) 971

Back face damage area (mm2) 1256

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2 3 4 5

0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

1300 1894 2186 2623

1857 2280 2623 3257

Table-3: Experimental data of damage surface areas on front and back face of the laminates

Front face damage area 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 15 30 45

Back face damage area

60

75

90

105

Graph-3: Damage area is increasing with the increase in fiber angle of the laminates in front face and back face of the laminate; however the damage area back face is more than the front face as seen from the above graph.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Load (KN)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-4: Maximum load taken in each laminate with different fiber angles. The load is increasing linearly as the fiber angle is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

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4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Spring back (mm)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

5: Shows spring back effect is increasing in different laminates as the fiber angles are increasing

0o/15o) to (0o/90o), it shows that as the angle between fibers is increasing the laminate elasticity increasing

Material

Density (mg/m3)

Modulus (G Pa)

Poisons ratio(v)

Tensile strength (G Pa) 3.5

E-glass fiber

2.56

76

0.22

Epoxy resin

1.3

3.6

0.4

0.1

Table-4: Properties of materials

4.3) RATE OF LOADING (0.5mm/min) WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

0.5%

1%

1.5

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE
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(0/45)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE
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(0/15)

BACK SIDE
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GRAPH 1 :

0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1.0 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.92 1.8 1.4 2 3.4 3.1 3.1 3 4.62 4.1 3.5 4 4.85 4.19 3.6 5 4 3.73 3.11

GRAPH 2 :

0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

4
3 2 1 0 0 2

0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 % % % 0 0 0 2 1.7 1.6 3.15 3.2 2.95 4.65 3.72 3.2 5.4 3.12 2.25 3 2.38 1.89

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 3:

0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.1 2.2 1.7 2 3.8 3.6 3.15 3 4.26 4.2 2.91 4 4.5 2.92 2.29 5 3.5 2.32 1.83

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 4: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.15 2.1 1.2 2 3.75 3.5 2.3 3 5.18 4.2 3.4 4 4.2 3.15 2.85 5 2.5 1.9 1.75

GRAPH 5: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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5 4

FORCE (kN)

3 2 1 0 0 2

F 0.5 F1 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.9 1.8 1.7 2 3.1 2.85 2.6 3 3.9 3.8 3.3 4 3 2.8 2.5 5 2.85 2.35 1.7

GRAPH 6 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

0.5 mm/min

3.5 3 2.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

DEPTH mm)

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.42 2.6 2.5 2.1 2

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.38 2.54 2.6 2.4 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 2.67 2.98 2.9 2.55 2.38

ANGLE

GRAPH 7 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

0.5 mm /min

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PROJECTED HEIGHT

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5 %

ANGLE

ANGLE

0 15 30 45 60 90

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 0.5 % 0 2.84 3.2 2.5 2.55 2

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.0 % 0 3.24 3.6 2.7 3.5 2.1

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.5 % 0 3.31 3.76 3.33 3.67 2.6

4.4 1.5mm/min RATE OF LOADING WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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FRONT SIDE

(0/45)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/15)

BACK SIDE

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GRAPH 8: 0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

F F F 0.5% 1 % 1.5% 0 0 0 1.5 2.05 1.35 3.1 3.3 2.75 3.2 4.3 1.95 2.5 3.75 1.65 1.5 3.25 1.31

GRAPH 9:0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5 % 0 0 0 0 1 2.5 2.31 2.09 2 4.72 4.22 3.75 3 5.5 4.5 4.2 4 4.5 3.23 2.85 5 3.7 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 10: 0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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6 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 % 0 2.5 4.72 5.5 4.5 3.7

FORCE (kN)

4 3 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 1 0 0 2 DISPLACEMENT 4 (mm) 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 2.31 2.09 4.22 3.75 4.5 4.2 3.23 2.85 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 11: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

F 0.5 % 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2.5 4.2 5.55 4.65 3.25

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 (mm) DISPLACEMENT 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 1.75 1.65 3 2.65 4 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.2 1.8

GRAPH 12: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5 mm/min)

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DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 Page 158 (mm) %

F 1.0 %

F 1.5 %

6 5

FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 DISPLACEMENT (mm) F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

0 1 2 3 4 5

0 1.8 2.9 4.1 4.85 3.7

0 1.98 3.15 3.9 4.4 3.2

0 1.65 2.5 3.1 2.25 1.6

GRAPH13 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

1.5 mm/min

DEPTH OF INDENTATION mm)

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

0
0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.34 2.45 2.67 2.39 2.5

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.14 2.32 2.6 2.27 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 1.9 2.29 2.31 2 1.8

ANGLE

GRAPH 14 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

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4
3.5

PROJECTED HEIGHT

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5%

ANGLE

ANGLE PROJECTED PROJECTED PROJECTED HEIGHT HEIGHT HEIGHT 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 15 3 1.41 2.95 30 2.71 3.65 3.05 45 3.19 3.31 3.15 60 3.33 3.32 2.5 90 2.7 2.55 2.1

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Graph 1 (0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 1 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 4mm at 3.6kN. Graph 2 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 2 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 5.4kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN. Graph 3 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 3,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 3.15kN. Graph 4 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) :
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at the

In Graph 4,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.18kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.4kN. Graph 5 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 5,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.9kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.3kN. Graph 6 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 6,Depth of indentation is increasing with increase in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-150 to 0-300 later on there is increase angles 0-300 to 0-900. Graph 7 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 7, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-300 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600 and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing
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at the

in

depth of indentation,but it is decreases with

in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles. Graph 8(0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 8 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of2 mm at 2.75kN. Graph 9 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 9 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN. Graph 10 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 10,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN.
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Graph 11 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 11,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.55kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 2.65kN. Graph 12 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 12,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.1kN. Graph 13 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 13,Depth of indentation is increasing with decrease in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-450, later on there is decrease in depth of indentation from 0-450 to 0-600,but it is increases with angles 0-600 to 0-900. Graph 14 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 14, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-150 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600
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at the

at the

and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles.

REFERENCES
1) Agarwal, B. D and Broutman, L. J, (1990). Analysis and Performance
of Fiber Composites, Second Edition, Jhon Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 2) Robert M. Jones(1999), mechanics of composite materials, second edition Taylor & Francis group , New york London. 3) http://nptel.iitm.ac.in 4) http://www.wikipedia.org/ 5) Rothon R.N, (1999). Mineral fillers in thermoplastics: filler manufacture and characterization. Adv. Polym. Sci. 139, pp. 67-107. 6) http://composite.about.com/ 7) Applied composite materials, An international journal for the science And application of composites materials.

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8) Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, publishes research on Polymers, nano composites and particulate

ABSTRACT

In this work the composite laminates of Epoxy/E-glass fiber hybridizing with and without E- glass powder are prepared for testing. The fabrication of the laminate is done by filament winding (hoop winding) on a drum mandrel mounted on a modified center lathe. The green layup obtained is cut into laminae of the desired orientations and stacked in the predefined way to a required thickness. The stacked laminate is cured at elevated temperatures under a pressure from a pressure plate. The edges of the laminate are trimmed first and it is then cut in to required size. The specimens are then subjected to indentation test on a universal testing machine (UTM) for a fixed indenter depth. An investigative study is conducted into the results obtained from test data. A number of illustrations are shown regarding the damage in the specimens of different fiber orientation and with different percentages of E-glass powder. Also indentation depth, contact radius, spring back effect, and maximum load carrying capacity are studied.

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CONTENTS
CHAPTER :1 INTRODUCTION 1.19 Overview of composites. 1.20 Historical Development/Historical Overview. 1.21 What is composite material. 1.22 Classification of composites. 1.23 Structure of composites. 1.24 Advantages of composites. 1.25 Applications of composites. 1.26 Examples of composite materials. 1.27 Scope of Project. CHAPTER:2 LITERATURE SURVE CHAPTER:3

PAGE NO:

5 5 8 12 24 25 26 27 29

30

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MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Hardener. 3.2 Epoxy. 3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials. 3.3.1 Types of fibres. 3.3.2 Mechanical properties of fibres. 3.3.3 Fibre manufacturing. 3.3.4 Key properties. 3.4 Processing of composites. 3.4.1 Curing CHAPTER:4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. 4.1 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates without E-glass powder. 4.2 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 4.3 1.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates 62 57 56

32 32 32 34 35 43 46 47 49 52

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with E-glass powder. CHAPTER:5 5.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. 5.2 REFERENCES

71

80 85

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of composites

The development of composite materials and related design and manufacturing technologies is one of the most important advances in the history of materials. Composites are multifunctional materials having unprecedented mechanical and physical properties that can be tailored to meet the requirements of a particular application. Many composites also exhibit great resistance to high-temperature corrosion and oxidation and wear. These unique characteristics provide the mechanical engineer with design opportunities not possible with conventional monolithic (unreinforced) materials. Composites technology also makes possible the use of an entire class of solid materials, ceramics, in applications for which monolithic versions are unsuited because of their great strength scatter and poor resistance to mechanical and thermal shock. Further, many manufacturing processes for composites are well adapted to the fabrication of large, complex structures, which allows consolidation of parts, reducing manufacturing costs.

1.2 Historical Development / Historical overview: Past: After making and controlling fire and inventing the wheel,
spinning of continuous yarns is probably the most important development of mankind, enabling him to survive outside the tropical climate zones and spread across the surface of the Earth. Flexible fabrics made of locally grown and spun fibres as cotton; flax and jute were a big
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step forward compared to animal skins. More and more natural resources were used, soon resulting in the first composites; straw reinforced walls, and bows (Figure M.1.1.a) and chariots made of glued layers of wood, bone and horn. More durable materials as wood and metal soon replaced these antique composites.

Fig M.1.1.a Composite Korean bow

Present:
Originating from early agricultural societies and being almost forgotten after centuries, a true revival started of using lightweight composite structures for many technical solutions during the second half of the 20th century. After being solely used for their electromagnetic properties (insulators and radar-domes), using composites to improve the structural performance of spacecraft and military aircraft became popular in the last two decades of the previous century. First at any costs, with development of improved materials with increasing costs, nowadays cost reduction during manufacturing and operation are the main technology drivers. Latest development is the use of composites to protect man

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against fire and impact and a tendency to a more environmental friendly design, leading to the reintroduction of natural fibres in the composite technology. Increasingly nowadays, the success of composites in applications, by volume and by numbers, can be ranked by accessibility and reproducibility of the applied manufacturing techniques. Some examples of use of natural fibers(M.1.1b M.1.1.e)

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Future:
In future, composites will be manufactured even more according to an integrated design process resulting in the optimum construction according to parameters such as shape, mass, strength, stiffness, durability, costs, etc. Newly developed design tools must be able to instantaneously show customers the influence of a design change on each one of these parameters.

1.3 What is Composite Material?

Composite materials are engineering materials made from two or more constituent materials that remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level while forming a single component. There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix Properties. The primary functions of the matrix are to transfer stresses between the reinforcing fibers/particles and to protect them from mechanical environmental damage whereas the presence of fibers/particles in a composite improves its mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness etc. The objective is to take advantage of the superior properties of both materials without compromising on the weakness of either. As defined by Agarwal and Broutman composite means material having two or more distinct constituent materials or phases. It is only when the constituent phases have significantly different physical properties and thus the composite properties are noticeably different from the constituent materials
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Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural. Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific character of a composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine to give them a specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve the desirable properties. Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the levels at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic. In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz., binding the reinforcement phases in place and deforming to distribute the stresses among the constituent materials under an applied force. The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be conductors or resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending on the purpose for which matrices are chosen. Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and metals have found applications as matrix materials in the designing of structural composites, with
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reinforcement

commendable success. These materials remain elastic till failure occurs and show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression. Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion characteristics. The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two interphases between each side of the interphase and its adjoint constituent. Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of matrix on properties of reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the selection and fabrication of composites is that the constituents should be chemically inert non-reactive.

Properties of Matrix Materials:

Naturally fibers and whiskers are of little use unless they are bonded together to take form of structural element that can carry loads.

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The binder material is usually called a matrix. The purpose of the matrix is manifold support of fibers or whiskers, protection of the fibers or whiskers, stress transfer between broken fibers or whiskers, etc. Typically the matrix is of considerably lower density, stiffness, and strength than fibers or whiskers. However the combination of fibers or whiskers and a matrix can have very high strength and stiffness yet still have low density. Matrix materials can be polymers, metals, ceramics or carbon. Polymers (poly =many and mer = unit or molecule) exist in at least three major forms i.e linear, branched, or cross linked. A linear polymer is merely a chain of mers. A branched polymer consists of a primary chain of mers with other chains that are attached in three dimensions just like tree branches. Finally, a cross linked polymer has large number of three dimensional highly interconnected chains. Linear polymers have the least strength and stiffness, whereas cross linked polymer have most because of their inherently stiffer and stronger internal structure. The three main classes of structural polymers are rubbers, thermoplastics, and thermo sets. Rubbers are cross linked polymers that have semi crystalline state well below room temperature. Thermoplastics are polymers that branch, but generally dont cross link very much if at all. Thus, they usually can be repeatedly softened on heating and hardened on cooling. Examples of thermoplastics are nylon, polyethylene, and polysulfone. Thermo sets are polymers that are chemically reacted until almost all molecules are irreversibly cross linked in a three dimensional network. Thus, once an epoxy has set, it cannot be changed in form. Examples of thermo sets include epoxies, phenolics, and polyimides. Other matrix materials include metals that can be made to flow around an in-place fiber system by diffusion bonding or by heating vacuum infiltration. Common examples are shown in fig 1.3.1

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a) linear

b)branched

c)cross linked

d)network

figure 1.3.1

1.4 Classification of Composites

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels: The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites. The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres.

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 Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling. Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this category. Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.

1.4.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or Carbon-Carbon Composites

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications. Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are
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most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins. Thermoplastics have oneor two-dimensional

molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds. Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites.

Figure 1.4.1 a

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures.
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Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally. There thermoplastic temperatures. are a few options tend their to loose increase their heat strength resistance at like in

thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the heat resistance. But all composites However, elevated rigidity, redeeming qualities

toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc. Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds. Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas.

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Figure 1.4.1.b
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins. Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of 140C. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is ruled out.

Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in automobile and structural applications.
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The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75C or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey. Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service at around 200250C .

1.4.2 According to geometry:

Most composite materials developed thus far have been fabricated to improve mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, and high temperature performance. It is natural to study together the composites that have a common strengthening mechanism. The strengthening mechanism strongly depends on the geometry of the reinforcement. Therefore, it is quite convenient to classify composite materials on the basis of the geometry of a representative unit of reinforcement.

1.4.2.a Fibrous composite

A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite.

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Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension discourages the growth of incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement that might otherwise lead to failure, particularly with brittle matrices. Man-made filaments or fibers of non polymeric materials exhibit much higher strength along their length since large flaws, which may be present in the bulk material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness.Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite. Most composites used in structural applications are multilayered; that is, they consist of several layers of fibrous composites. Each layer or lamina is a single layer composite and its orientation is varied according to design. Several identical or different layers are bonded together to form a multilayered composites usable for engineering applications. When the constituent materials in each layer are the same, they are called simply laminates. Hybrid laminates refer to multilayered composites consisting of layers made up of different constituent materials. Reinforcing fibers in a single layer composite may be short or long compared to its overall dimensions. Composites with long fibers are called continuous fiber reinforced composites and those with short fibers, discontinuous fiber reinforced composites. The continuous fibers in single layer composites may be all aligned in one direction to form a unidirectional composite. Such composites are fabricated by laying the fibers parallel and saturating them with resinous material. The bidirectional reinforcement may be provided in a single layer in mutually perpendicular directions as in a

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woven fabric. The bidirectional reinforcement may be such that the strengths in two perpendicular directions are approximately equal. The orientation of discontinuous fibers cannot be easily controlled in a composite material.

So fibers can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented. In most cases the fibers are assumed to be randomly oriented in the composites. However, in the injection molding of a fiber reinforced polymer, considerable orientation can occur in the flow direction and which a case of preferred oriented fibers in the composites.

1.4.2.b Particulate Composites

As the name itself indicates, the reinforcement is of particle nature (platelets are also included in this class). It may be spherical, cubic, tetragonal, a platelet, or of other regular or irregular shape, but it is approximately equiaxed. In general, particles are not very effective in improving fracture resistance but they enhance the stiffness of the composite to a limited extent. Particle fillers are widely used to improve the properties of matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and electrical conductivities, improve performance at elevated temperatures, reduce friction, increase wear and abrasion resistance, improve machinability, increase surface hardness and reduce shrinkage. Also, in case of particulate reinforced composites the particle can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented.

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1.4.3 According to type of matrix material they are classified as:

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

1.4.3.a Metal Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites have many advantages over monolithic metals like higher specific modulus, higher specific strength, better properties at elevated temperatures, and lower coefficient of thermal expansion. Because of these attributes metal matrix composites are under consideration for wide range of applications viz. combustion chamber nozzle (in rocket, space shuttle), housings, tubing, cables, heat exchangers, structural members etc

1.4.3.b Ceramic matrix Composites

One of the main objectives in producing ceramic matrix composites is to increase the toughness Naturally it is hoped and indeed often found that there is a concomitant improvement in strength and stiffness of ceramic matrix composites.

1.4.3.c Polymer Matrix Composites

Most commonly used matrix materials are polymeric. The reasons for this are twofold. In general the mechanical properties of polymers are inadequate for many structural purposes. In particular their strength and stiffness are low compared to metals and ceramics. These difficulties are overcome by reinforcing other materials with polymers. Secondly the processing of polymer matrix composites need not involve high pressure
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and doesnt require high temperature. Also equipments required for manufacturing polymer matrix composites are simpler. For this reason polymer matrix composites developed rapidly and soon became popular for structural applications. Composites are used because overall properties of the composites are superior to those of the individual components for example polymer/ceramic. Composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component but arent as brittle as ceramics.

1.4.4 Classification Based on Reinforcements Introduction to Reinforcements

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with other two axes either often circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers.

Figure 1.4.4

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Two types of polymer composites are: Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) Particle reinforced polymer (PRP)

1.4.4.a Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Common fiber reinforced composites are composed of fibers and a matrix. Fibers are the reinforcement and the main source of strength while matrix glues all the fibers together in shape and transfers stresses between the reinforcing fibers. The fibers carry the loads along their longitudinal directions. Sometimes, filler might be added to smooth the manufacturing process, impact special properties to the composites, and /or reduce the product cost. Common fiber reinforcing agents include asbestos, carbon /graphite fibers, beryllium, beryllium carbide, beryllium oxide, molybdenum, aluminium oxide, glass fibers, polyamide,natural fibers etc. Similarly common matrix materials include epoxy, phenolic, polyester, polyurethane, peek, vinyl ester etc. Among these resin materials, epoxy is widely used for its higher adhesion and less shrinkage property.

1.4.4.b Particle Reinforced Polymer

Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminium and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black. Particles are used to increase the modules of the matrix and to decrease the ductility of the matrix. Particles are also used to reduce the cost of the composites. Reinforcements and matrices can be common, inexpensive materials and are easily processed.

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Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators. Some ceramics have special properties; some ceramics are magnetic materials; some are piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics are even superconductors at very low temperatures. Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback: they are brittle. An example of particle reinforced composites is an automobile tire, which has carbon black particles in a matrix of poly-isobutylene elastomeric polymer

1.5 Structure of Composite

Structure of composite material A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness. Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite

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Properties
1) Nature of the constituent material (bonding strength) 2) The geometry of the reinforcement (shape, size) 3) The concentration distribution(vol. fraction of reinforcement) 4) The orientation of the reinforcement(random or preferred) Good adhesion (bonding) between matrix phase and displaced phase provides transfer of load applied to the material to the displaced phase via the interface. Good adhesion is required for achieving high level of mechanical properties of composites. Very small particles less than 0.25 micrometer finely distributed in the matrix impede movement of dislocations and deformation of the material. They have strengthening effect. Large dispersed phase particles have low share load applied to the material resulting in increase of stiffness and decrease of ductility. Orientation of reinforcement: Planar:-In the form of 2-D woven fabric. When the fibers are laid parallel, the composite exhibits axistrope. Random or Three Dimensional:-The composite material tends to posses isotropic properties. One Dimensional: - Maximum strength and stiffness are obtained in the direction of fiber.

1.6 Advantages of Composites

Advantages of composites over their conventional counterparts are the ability to meet diverse design requirements with significant weight savings as well as strength-to-weight ratio. Some advantages of composite materials over conventional ones are as follows: Tensile strength of composites is four to six times greater than that of steel or aluminium (depending on the reinforcements).

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Improved torsional stiffness and impact properties. Higher fatigue endurance limit (up to 60% of ultimate tensile strength). 30% - 40% lighter for example any particular aluminium structures designed to the same functional requirements. Lower embedded energy compared to other structural metallic materials like steel, aluminium etc. Composites are less noisy while in operation and provide lower vibration transmission than metals. Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored to meet performance needs and complex design requirements. Long life offer excellent fatigue, impact, environmental resistance and reduce maintenance. Composites enjoy reduced life cycle cost compared to metals. Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and fire retardancy. Improved appearance with smooth surfaces and readily incorporable integral decorative melamine are other characteristics of composites. Composite parts can eliminate joints / fasteners, providing part simplification and integrated design compared to conventional metallic parts.

1.7 Applications of Composites

Industry Aircraft Aerospace Automotive Examples Door, elevators Space Shuttle, Space stations Body frames, engine Comments 20-35% Weight savings Great weight savings High stiffness & damage tolerance Corrosion resistance Weight savings, portable.

components Chemical Construction Pipes, Tanks, Pressure vessels Structural & decorative panels, Fuel tanks etc.

Figure 1.7

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1.8 EXAMPLES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Fibre reinforced plastics: Classified by type of fiber: Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix) Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP) Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally, "fiberglass") Classified by matrix: Thermoplastic Composites Short fiber thermoplastics Long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics Glass mat thermoplastics Continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics Thermoset Composites Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)

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 Metal matrix composites (MMCs): White cast iron Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix) Metal-intermetallic laminate Ceramic matrix composites: Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers) Cermet (ceramic and metal) Concrete Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites Asphalt concrete Dental composite Syntactic foam Mother of Pearl Chobham armour (see composite armour) Engineered wood

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Plywood Oriented strand board Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix) Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix) Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles Arborite Formica (plastic)

1.9 Scope of the project

The basic aim of the present work is to develop and characterize a new class of composites with epoxy as polymer matrix and glass fiber as the reinforcing material. Their physical and mechanical characterization is done. Attempt is made to use TiO2 as filler in these fiber reinforced .polymer matrix composites. Characterization of the resulting TiO2 filled glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite is done. The experimentally measured database of composites has also been predicted. This work is expected to introduce a new class of functional polymer composites suitable for tribological applications.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

This chapter outlines some of the recent reports published in literature on composites of fiber reinforced polymer composites. Polymer composite materials have generated wide interest in various engineering fields, particularly in aerospace applications. Research is underway worldwide to develop newer composites with varied combinations of fibers and fillers so as to make them useable under different operational conditions. The improved performance of polymer composites in engineering applications by the addition of filler materials has shown a great promise and so has become a subject of considerable interest. Ceramic filled polymer composites have been the subject of extensive research in last two decades. Various kinds of polymers and polymer matrix composites reinforced with ceramic particles have a wide range of industrial applications such as heaters, electrodes, composites with thermal durability at high temperature etc.

These engineering composites are desired due to their low density, high corrosion resistance consisting of ceramic or metal particles and fiber fillers made of glass are being used these days to dramatically improve the wear resistance even up to three orders of magnitude. The inclusion of inorganic fillers into polymers for commercial applications is primarily aimed at the cost reduction and stiffness improvement. Along with fiber-reinforced composites, the composites made with particulate fillers have been found to perform well in many real operational conditions. It is reported by Bonner that with the inclusion of micro-sized particulates into polymers, a high filler content (typically greater than 20 vol. %) is generally required to bring the above stated positive effects into
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play. But at the same time, this may also have detrimental effects on some important properties of the matrix polymers such as processability, appearance, density and aging performance. It has also been reported that the fracture surface energies of epoxy and polyester resin and their resistance to crack propagation are relatively low.

But if particulate filler is added to these resins, the particles inhibit crack growth. As the volume fraction of filler is varied, the fracture energy increases up to a critical volume fraction and then decreases again. Srivastava showed that the fracture toughness of epoxy resin could be improved by addition of flyash particles as filler. The fillers also affect the tensile properties according to their packing characteristics, size and interfacial bonding. The maximum volumetric packing fraction of filler reflects the size distribution and shapes of the particles. Recently, it has been observed that by incorporating filler particles into the matrix of fibre reinforced composites, synergistic effects may be achieved in the form of higher modulus and reduced material costs, yet accompanied with decreased strength and impact toughness. Polymer composites with both discontinuous and continuous fibre reinforcement possess usually very high specific (i.e. density related) stiffness and strength when measured in plane. Therefore, such composites are frequently used in engineering parts in automobile, aerospace, marine and energetic applications.

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CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the experimental procedures followed for their characterization and tribological evaluation. The raw materials used in this work are 1. E-glass fiber 2. E-Glass powder 3. Epoxy resin

3.1 Hardener:
The hardener used in Epoxy is polyamine. A polyamine is an organic compound having two or more primary amino groups -NH2.This class of compounds includes several synthetic substances that are important feed stocks for the chemical industry, such as ethylene diamine H2N-CH2-CH2-NH2, 1,3-diaminopropane H2N-(CH2)3-NH2, and hex methylenediamine H2N-(CH2)6-NH2. The amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

3.2 Epoxy:
Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener. When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

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The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements.

Resin:
Resin is a natural or synthetic compound which begins in a highly viscous state and hardens with treatment. Typically, resin is soluble in alcohol, but not in water. There are a number of different classes of resin, depending on exact chemical composition and potential uses. Matrix resins bind glass-reinforcing fibers together, protecting them from impact and the environment. Glass fiber properties such as strength dominate in continuously reinforced composites. When glass is used as a discontinuous reinforcement, resin properties dominate and are enhanced by the glass. Polymer matrix resins fall into two categories: thermo set and thermoplastic. The difference is in their chemistry. Thermo set resin is chemically comprised of molecular chains that crosslink during the cure reaction (set off by heat, catalyst, or both) and "set" into a final rigid form. Molecular chains in thermoplastic resin are processed at higher temperatures and remain "plastic," or capable of being reheated and reshaped. While the tradeoffs between thermosets and thermoplastics have been debated extensively, engineers will find that material suppliers will tailor matrix resin formulations best for their application

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3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials:

Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used. Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers, high silica and quartz fibers, alumina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron fibers, aramid fibers and multi phase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified into E-glass, S-glass, A- glass, R-glass etc. There is a greater market and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers. The potential of fibers of graphite, silicon carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific mind due to their applications in advanced composites.

3.3.1Types of fibers 3.3.1.a Glass Fibers

Over 95% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers, as they are inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the plastics with which they are reinforced.
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Their low density, resistance to chemicals, insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics, although the one major disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when subjected to high tensile stress for a long time.. However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time frames. This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is expected to sustain such loads for many months or years continuously. Period of loading, temperature, moisture and other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibers and the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning before the catastrophic failure. But all this can be easily overlooked in view of the fact that the wide range of glass fiber variety lend themselves amicably to fabrication processes like matched die moulding, filament winding lay-up and so on. Glass fibers are available in the form of mats, tapes, cloth, continuous and chopped filaments, rovings and yarns. Addition of chemicals to silica sand while making glass yields different types of glasses.

3.3.1.b Metal Fibers

As reinforcements, metal fibers have many advantages. They are easily produced using several fabrication processes and are more ductile, apart from being not too sensitive to surface damage and possess high strengths and temperature resistance. However, their weight and the tendency to react with each other through alloying mechanisms are major disadvantages. Steel wire is the most extensively used reinforcement in most large-scale metal filament applications. Wire is used for its capacity to enhance the tensile strength of concrete and continuous metal fibers are the reinforcing constituents in metal and ceramic composite materials.

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3.3.1.c Ceramic fibers improve vastly in performance when a fine metal outline is incorporated with refractory ceramics by improving their thermal shock and impact resistance properties. 3.3.1.d Metal wires, of the continuous version, also reinforce plastics like polyethylene and epoxy. Such combinations ensure high strength, light weight and good fatigue resistance. Besides, continuous metal fibers are easily handled, unlike glass fibers. Better flexural properties are observed in some metal fibers reinforced plastic composites which also offer improved strength and weight, than glass fibers. However, their poor tolerance of high temperatures and the resultant steep variation of thermal expansion coefficient with the resins are a discouragement that limits their application.

3.3.1.d Alumina Fibers

Alumina or aluminum oxide fibers, basically developed for use in metal matrices are considered a potential resin-matrix composite reinforcement. It offers good compressive strength rather than tensile strength. It is important property is it is high melting point of about 2000C and the composite can be successfully used at temperatures up to about 1000C. Magnesium and aluminum matrices frequently use alumina fiber reinforced composites as they do not damage the fiber even in the liquid state.

3.3.1.e Boron Fibers

They are basically composites, in which boron is coated on a substance which forms the substrate, usually made of tungsten. Boron-tungsten fibers are obtained by allowing hot tungsten filament through a mixture of gases. Boron is deposited on tungsten and the process is continued until the desired thickness is achieved. The tungsten however remains constant in its thickness. Properties of boron fibers generally change with the diameter, because of the changing ratio of boron to tungsten and the surface defects that change according to size. However, they
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are known for their remarkable stiffness

33and strength. Their strengths often compare with those of glass fibers, but their tensile modulus is high, almost four to five times that of glass. Boron coated carbons are much cheaper to make than boron tungsten fiber. But its low modulus of elasticity often works against it.

3.3.1.f Silicon Carbide Fibers

Silicon carbide can be coated over a few metals and their room temperature tensile strengths and tensile moduli are like those of boron-tungsten. The advantages of silicon carbide-tungsten are several and they are more desirable than uncoated boron tungsten fibers. Elevated temperature performance and the fact that they reported only a 35% loss of strength at 1350C are their best qualities. Silicon carbide-tungsten and silicon carbidecarbon have both been seen to have very high stress-rupture strength at 1100C and 1300C. Uncoated boron-tungsten fibers tend to lose all their strength at temperatures over 680C. Silicon carbide fibers do not react with molten aluminium, unlike uncoated boron and they also withstand high temperatures used in hot-press titanium matrices. However, silicon carbide-tungsten fibers are dense compared to boron- tungsten fibers of the same diameter. They are prone to surface damage and need careful, delicate handling, especially during fabrication of the composite. Further, above 930C, weakening reactions occur between tungsten and silicon carbide, making it difficult to maintain balance in high-temperature matrix formations. Silicon carbide on 'carbon substrates have several advantages, viz. no, reaction at high temperature, being lighter than silicon carbide tungsten and possessing tensile strengths and modulus that is are often better than those of silicon carbide-tungsten and boron fibers.

3.3.1.g Aramid Fibers

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Aramid fibers are made from aromatic polyamides which are long polymeric .chains and aromatic rings. They are structures in which six carbon atoms are bonded to each other and to combinations of hydrogen atoms. In aramid fibers, these rings occur and reoccur to form the fibers. They were initially used to reinforce automobile tires. Since then, they have also found other uses like bullet proof vests. As high strength applications, their use in power boats is not uncommon.

Aramid have high tensile strength, high modulus and low weight. Impact- resistant structures can be produced from aramid. The density of aramid fibers is less than that of glass and graphite fibers. They are fire resistant apart from being high-temperature resistant and also unaffected by organic solvents and fuels. But their resistance in acid and alkaline media is poor. They are supple and allow themselves to be woven into matrices by simple processes. Aramid fibers have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion in the fiber direction and the failure of aramid fibers is unique. When they fail, the fibers break into small fibrils, which are like fibers within the fibers. This unique failure mechanism is responsible for high strength.

3.3.1.h Quartz and Silica Fibers

The glass-types typically contain about 50 to 78% silica. Silica glass is a purer glass fiber that can be made by treating fiberglass in an acid bath, which removes all impurities without affecting the silica. The final product contains 93 to 99% silica. Quartz is even more pure, and quartz fibers are made from natural quartz crystals that contain 99.9% silica, possessing nearly all the properties of pure solid quartz. Ordinary fiberglass, high silica and quartz fibers share several characteristics and can be produced in a range of fiber diameters. Roving or yarns and other forms of fibers can be made from high silica as well as quartz. All matrix materials that accept fiberglass are amenable to high silica and quartz too. They differ from glass in many factors, however, especially in heat-related properties.
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Although quartz crystals are commonly available, pure crystals are hard to come by. On the other hand, high silica comes from the same material as glass fibers and is easily accessible. However, quartz makes up for its rarity with its capacity to" withstand high temperatures, which silica is incapable of. Barring this difference, silica and quartz are similar in other respects. They are highly elastic and can be stretched to 1 % of their length before break point. Both silica and quartz are not affected by acid attacks and are resistant to moisture. Owing to their thermal properties, silica and quartz are the natural choice as fibers in several applications. They have good insulating properties and do not melt at temperatures up to 1600C. In addition, they have low thermal expansion coefficients which make them withstand high temperatures.

3.3.1.i Graphite Fibers

While use of the term carbon for graphite is permissible, there is one basic difference between the two. Elemental analysis of poly-acrylo-nitrile (PAN) base carbon fibers show that they consist of 91 to 94% carbon. But graphite fibers are over 99% carbon. The difference arises from the fact that the fibers are made at different temperatures. PAN-based carbon cloth or fiber is produced at about 1320C, while graphite fibers and cloth are graphitized at 1950 to 3000C. The properties of graphite remain unchanged even at very high temperatures, but its willingness to react readily with most metals at the fabrication stage or during use at very high temperatures is often a stumbling block, as seen in aluminium matrices when carbides are produced at the interface. These carbides react with moisture with disastrous effects on the composite material.

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Graphite fibers are some of the stiffest fibers known. The stiffness of the fiber is as high as the graphite content. But a major drawback is that stiffness and strength are inversely proportional to each other. Forbidding costs make the use of graphite fibers prohibitive. The best glass fibers are far less expensive than the cheapest, lowest quality of graphite, and in PAN-base fibers, other raw materials too are equally expensive. The carbonization and graphitization are time-consuming, apart from demanding excessive energy, materials and close controls throughout the process. Cheaper pitch base fibers are now being developed, with greater performance potential and there are possibilities of the increased use of graphite fibers.

3.3.1.j Multiphase Fibers

Spoolable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually the multi phase variety and they usually comprise materials like boron, silicon and their carbides formed on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or tungsten. They are usually good for high temperature applications, due to their reduced reaction with higher melting temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers. Boron filaments are sought after for structural and intermediate-temperature composites. A poly-phase fiber is a core-sheath fiber consisting of a polycrystalline core.

3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber:

E-Glass or electrical grade glass was originally developed for standoff insulators for electrical wiring. It was later found to have excellent fibre forming capabilities and is now used almost exclusively as the reinforcing phase in the material commonly known as fiber glass.

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. Figure 3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber

3.3.2 Mechanical Properties of fibers

Composite materials are not homogeneous. Their properties are dependent on many factors, the most important of which are the type of fibre, quantity of fibre (as volume fraction) and the configuration of the reinforcement. They are generally completely elastic up to failure and exhibit neither a yield point nor a region of plasticity. They tend to have low strain to failure(less than 3%). The resulting area under the stress/strain curve, which represents the work done to failure, is relatively small when compared to many metals. The properties of composites are dependent on the properties of the fibre and the matrix, the proportion of each and the configuration of the fibres. If all the fibres are aligned in one direction then the composite relatively stiff and strong in that direction, but in the transverse direction it has low modulus and low strength. When a unidirectional composite is tested at a small angle from the fibre axis, there is a considerable reduction in strength. A similar but less significant effect occurs with the tensile modulus, as shown in Figure 3.3.2

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Figure 3.3.2
Theoretical variation in tensile modulus with the angle of load relative to the principal fibre direction (unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced plastic (UD CFRP), fibre volume fraction = 0.5)

Strength and stiffness Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) E glass fibres, which have a modulus of about 70GPa, produce composites with modest moduli. In the case of unidirectional fibres and the highest typical fibre volume fraction of 0.65, a composite has a modulus of about45GPa and strength of around 1300MPa. At right angles to this, in the transverse direction, the modulus approaches that of the resin itself at about4GPa and the strength would be 50100MPa. The unidirectional compo-sites used in the ROBUST Project, manufactured using the vacuum process with prepreg material in an epoxy matrix, had the following properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 36GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 750MPa Elongation at break: 3.1%.

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Bidirectional E glass laminates have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.4 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about 14GPa.Random laminates (e.g. chopped strand mat) have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.2 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about9GPa. The use of S2 or R glass improves the composite modulus to about60GPa for unidirectional and 20GPa for woven fabric (bidirectional) constructions. This is at some monetary disadvantage. They are both more expensive than E glass and they are only available in a fairly limited range of material types and resin compatibilities. Probably the most important virtue of S2 and R glass is their high strength, which is considerably higher than E glass. Carbon and graphite fibers Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) The dominant carbon fibres in current use (typically Toray T700) have a tensile modulus of about 230GPa, a tensile strength of around 5000MPaand a strain-to-failure of 2%. Unidirectional composites produced from them in either an epoxy or vinyl-ester matrix have the following typical properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 155165GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 25003000MPa Elongation at break: 1.21.3% Carbon fibres are available which will give a tensile modulus of about250GPa in a unidirectional composite, comparing very favourably with steel at about 210GPa. However, as this composite is unidirectional, it has extremely low modulus in the transverse direction. The principal attributes of carbon fibre composites are their very high specific stiffness (the ratio of modulus/density), excellent fatigue and environmental resistance. Currently there are various pultruded CFRP plates available commercially for plate bonding applications. The pultruded plates used in the ROBUST Project, as well as the plates manufactured with prepreg materials, possessed a modulus of about 130GPa and a
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strength of 1500MPa.Pultruded plates now available from other sources typically exploit fibers with superior properties such as Toray T700, resulting in composites with the properties shown above. A financial penalty has to be paid for materials exhibiting properties significantly in excess of these; the strain-to-failure of composites made with them will also be reduced significantly. Carbon and graphite have substantial capability as reinforcing fibers, with great flexibility in the properties that can be provided. Primary characteristics for reinforcing fibers in polymer matrix composites are high stiffness and strength. The fibers must maintain these characteristics in hostile environments such as elevated temperatures, exposure to common solvents and fluids, and environmental moisture. To be used as part of a primary structure material it should also be available as continuous fiber. These characteristics and requirements have substantial implications for the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the fiber, which in turn implies processing and acceptance parameters. Interest in carbon fibers for structural materials was initiated in the late 1950s when synthesized rayons in textile form were carbonized to produce carbon fibers for high temperature missile applications. One of the first distinctions to be made is the difference between carbon and graphite fibers, although the terms are frequently used interchangeably. Background information for these differences is contained in the following sections. The primary purpose of making this distinction here is to alert the reader that users may mean different things when referring to graphite versus carbon fibers. Carbon and graphite fibers are both based on graphene (hexagonal) layer networks present in carbon. If the graphene layers or planes stack with three dimensional orders the material is defined as graphite. Usually extended time and temperature processing is required to form this order, making graphite fibers more expensive. Because the bonding between planes is weak, disorder frequently occurs such that only the two dimensional
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ordering within the layers is present. This material is defined as carbon. With this distinction made, it should be understood that while some differences are implied, there is not a single condition which strictly separates carbon from graphite fibers, and even graphite fibers retain some disorder in their structure.

3.3.3 Fiber Manufacture:

Glass fibers are generally produced using melt spinning techniques. These involve melting the glass composition into a platinum crown which has small holes for the molten glass to flow. Continuous fibers can be drawn out through the holes and wound onto spindles, while short fibers may be produced by spinning the crown, which forces molten glass out through the holes centrifugally. Fibers are cut to length using mechanical means or air jets. Fiber dimension and to some extent properties can be controlled by the process variables such as melt temperature (hence viscosity) and drawing/spinning rate. The temperature window that can be used to produce a melt of suitable viscosity is quite large, making this composition suitable for fiber forming. As fibers are being produced, they are normally treated with sizing and coupling agents. These reduce the effects of fiber- fiber abrasion which can significantly degrade the mechanical strength of the individual fibers. Other treatments may also be used to promote wetting and adherence of the matrix material to the fiber .

Composition
E-Glass is a low alkali glass with a typical nominal composition of SiO2 54wt%, Al2O3 14wt%, CaO+MgThe advantageous properties of E-glass generally outweigh the disadvantages which include:
Low modulus Self abrasiveness if not treated appropriately leading to reduced strength

Relatively low fatigue resistance

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Higher density compared to carbon fibres and organic fibresO 22wt%, B2O3 10wt% and Na2O+K2O less then 2wt%. Some other materials may also be present at impurity levels.

3.3.4 Key Properties:

Properties that have made E-glass so popular in 211iberglass and other glass reinforced composite include: Low cost High production rates High strength High stiffness Relatively low density Non-flammable Resistant to heat Good chemical resistance Relatively insensitive to moisture Able to maintain strength properties over a wide range of conditions Good electrical insulation

3.4 Processing of the Composites Fabrication of the Laminate

E-glass/Epoxy composite laminates were prepared by passing the E-glass fibers of 1200 TEX, through the resin bath of Epoxy and hardener maintaining a constant temperature of about 45 C.The fibers are then wound on a rotating drum with 15 rpm. After complete winding on the drum then it is cut opened and lay on a flat table in the atmospheric condition for about 48 hours to get the
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tackiness. The layers are cut in such a way that the desired fiber direction is obtained. In this experimentation it is decided to prepare the laminates such that the angle between the fibers are15o 30o 45o 60o and 90oas shown in fig-1. The sequence of layup shown in the fig -2. The number of layup depends on the thickness of the laminate required; here it is used 20 layers to obtain the thickness of the laminate about 4mm. All the overlapped layers then compacted between the two parallel flat steel plates with stainless steel spacers of required laminate thickness. The major purpose of lamination is to tailor the directional dependence of strength and stiffness of a composite material to match the loading environment of the structural element laminates are uniquely suited to this objective because the principal material directions of each layer can be oriented according to need. The plates are clamped with nuts and bolts with washers; the clamped setup is then placed in the oven. Maintain the oven temperature of 800 C for 4 hours and 1200 C for next 4 hours so that any entrapped air or volatile gases will be escaped for the first four hours and chemical reaction between the epoxy and hardener will takes place for the next four hours and will lead to permanent set and finally result into a single solid composite laminate. After total curing of 8 hours oven is then switched off so the temperature in the oven may come down to normal temperature. Take out the composite laminate and trim the edges so that the laminate is ready for testing purpose. Winding parameters 9. Tension of fibre =1.3 kgs 10. 11.
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12.

Gap between doctor blade and drum = 1.25 mmThe

parameters are kept constant for two different windings

FILAMENT WINDING SETUP

RESIN BATH

DRUM WINDING

REMOVING LAYUP

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LAYUP PLACED ON TABLE

APPLYING WAXPOL ON PLATES

LAYING UP LAYERS

REMOVING AIR GAP

COMPACTING LAYERS

PLACING IN THE OVEN

3.4.2 CURING PROCESS :

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Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener". The resin consists of monomers or short chain polymers with an epoxide group at either end. Most common epoxy resins are produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A, though the latter may be replaced by similar chemicals. The hardener consists of polyamine monomers, for example Triethylenetetramine (TETA). When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond.

Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily crosslinked, and is thus rigid and strong.The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. So the laminate that is fabricated is put into a Oven . The temperatures are maintained in two cycles. In the first cycle we have to maintain constant temperature of 80C for 4hours and in the next cycle maintain a temperature of 160C for next 4 hours.

AFTER CURING

MARKING

TRIMMING

AFTER TRIMMING

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DRILLING

AFTER DRILLING

Figure 3.6.a specifications of UTM (at CIPET)

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UTM SPECIFICATIONS

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COMPOSITE LAMINATE UNDER TESTING

4.1 Experimental procedure

Quasi-static Indentation tests were performed on INSTRON testing machine. The
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composite laminate of size 150mm x 150mm is placed on a steel supporting frame, with a square opening of size 50mm x 50mm. A similar square opening flat plate is placed ontop of the composite laminate; it is then clamped rigidly with nuts and bolts of 6mm size as shown in fig-3. The clamped setup is placed on the loading frame of testing machine. A spherical stainless steel ball indenter of diameter 8.32mmis used for indentation on the composites laminate. The tests were conducted with the controlled displacement of the indenter (0.2mm / minute). The test data is shown in Table-2.An extensometer is used to measure the displacement of the point just below the indentation location at the bottom side of the composite laminate. A 20kN load cell evaluated the load on each composite laminate. The data obtained during test for each laminate is shown in Table-2. The composite laminate with different fiber angles is indented for a fixed displacement of 5 mm. The damage in the different composite laminate with different fiber angles is shown fig-4. The damage area in each composite laminate is observed with the help of optical light microscope.
S. No. Specifications 1 2 3 4 5 ASTM Present work

Specimen 4 6 mm 4 - 5 mm thickness Indenter 10 16 mm 8.73 mm diameter Cross head 0.2 mm / 1 mm / min displacement min Indenter 5 10 mm 5 mm displacement No of samples 4 4 per test

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF UTM

00/150

00/300

00/450

00/600

00/900

Fig-1: Schematic diagram of five different laminates

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Fig-2: Sequence of angle plies

4.2 COMPOSITE LAMINATES WITHOUT E-GLASS POWDER FRONT SIDE BACK SIDE

0,90

0,60

FRONT SIDE

BACK SIDE

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0,45

0,30

0,15
S. No. Angle (0) Max. Load (KN) Indentation (mm) Spring back (mm)

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1 2 3 4 5

0/15 0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

3.77 4.11 4.69 4.99 5.83

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.86

0.92 1.17 2.50 3.08 3.44

Table - 2: Test results after Indentation.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Load (KN)

15 DEG 30 DEG 45 DEG 60 DEG 90 DEG

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5

Displacement (mm) Graph-1: Shows the load carrying capacity in each case for different indenter displacements of maximum 5mm for all the laminates. It is gradually increasing for the laminates with the fiber angles varying from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

Indentation ()

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-2: Indentation depth is increasing linearly as the fiber angle in laminates is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o),however it is suddenly increasing in the laminates with fiber angle varying from (0o/60o) to (0o/90o).

S. No. 1

Angle (0) 0/15

Front face damage area (mm2) 971

Back face damage area (mm2) 1256

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2 3 4 5

0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

1300 1894 2186 2623

1857 2280 2623 3257

Table-3: Experimental data of damage surface areas on front and back face of the laminates

Front face damage area 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 15 30 45

Back face damage area

60

75

90

105

Graph-3: Damage area is increasing with the increase in fiber angle of the laminates in front face and back face of the laminate; however the damage area back face is more than the front face as seen from the above graph.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Load (KN)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-4: Maximum load taken in each laminate with different fiber angles. The load is increasing linearly as the fiber angle is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

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4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Spring back (mm)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

5: Shows spring back effect is increasing in different laminates as the fiber angles are increasing

0o/15o) to (0o/90o), it shows that as the angle between fibers is increasing the laminate elasticity increasing

Material

Density (mg/m3)

Modulus (G Pa)

Poisons ratio(v)

Tensile strength (G Pa) 3.5

E-glass fiber

2.56

76

0.22

Epoxy resin

1.3

3.6

0.4

0.1

Table-4: Properties of materials

4.3) RATE OF LOADING (0.5mm/min) WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

0.5%

1%

1.5

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE
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(0/45)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE
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(0/15)

BACK SIDE
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GRAPH 1 :

0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1.0 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.92 1.8 1.4 2 3.4 3.1 3.1 3 4.62 4.1 3.5 4 4.85 4.19 3.6 5 4 3.73 3.11

GRAPH 2 :

0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

4
3 2 1 0 0 2

0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 % % % 0 0 0 2 1.7 1.6 3.15 3.2 2.95 4.65 3.72 3.2 5.4 3.12 2.25 3 2.38 1.89

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 3:

0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.1 2.2 1.7 2 3.8 3.6 3.15 3 4.26 4.2 2.91 4 4.5 2.92 2.29 5 3.5 2.32 1.83

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 4: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.15 2.1 1.2 2 3.75 3.5 2.3 3 5.18 4.2 3.4 4 4.2 3.15 2.85 5 2.5 1.9 1.75

GRAPH 5: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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5 4

FORCE (kN)

3 2 1 0 0 2

F 0.5 F1 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.9 1.8 1.7 2 3.1 2.85 2.6 3 3.9 3.8 3.3 4 3 2.8 2.5 5 2.85 2.35 1.7

GRAPH 6 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

0.5 mm/min

3.5 3 2.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

DEPTH mm)

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.42 2.6 2.5 2.1 2

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.38 2.54 2.6 2.4 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 2.67 2.98 2.9 2.55 2.38

ANGLE

GRAPH 7 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

0.5 mm /min

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PROJECTED HEIGHT

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5 %

ANGLE

ANGLE

0 15 30 45 60 90

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 0.5 % 0 2.84 3.2 2.5 2.55 2

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.0 % 0 3.24 3.6 2.7 3.5 2.1

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.5 % 0 3.31 3.76 3.33 3.67 2.6

4.4 1.5mm/min RATE OF LOADING WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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FRONT SIDE

(0/45)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/15)

BACK SIDE

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GRAPH 8: 0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

F F F 0.5% 1 % 1.5% 0 0 0 1.5 2.05 1.35 3.1 3.3 2.75 3.2 4.3 1.95 2.5 3.75 1.65 1.5 3.25 1.31

GRAPH 9:0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5 % 0 0 0 0 1 2.5 2.31 2.09 2 4.72 4.22 3.75 3 5.5 4.5 4.2 4 4.5 3.23 2.85 5 3.7 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 10: 0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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6 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 % 0 2.5 4.72 5.5 4.5 3.7

FORCE (kN)

4 3 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 1 0 0 2 DISPLACEMENT 4 (mm) 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 2.31 2.09 4.22 3.75 4.5 4.2 3.23 2.85 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 11: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

F 0.5 % 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2.5 4.2 5.55 4.65 3.25

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 (mm) DISPLACEMENT 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 1.75 1.65 3 2.65 4 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.2 1.8

GRAPH 12: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5 mm/min)

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DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 Page 240 (mm) %

F 1.0 %

F 1.5 %

6 5

FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 DISPLACEMENT (mm) F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

0 1 2 3 4 5

0 1.8 2.9 4.1 4.85 3.7

0 1.98 3.15 3.9 4.4 3.2

0 1.65 2.5 3.1 2.25 1.6

GRAPH13 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

1.5 mm/min

DEPTH OF INDENTATION mm)

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

0
0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.34 2.45 2.67 2.39 2.5

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.14 2.32 2.6 2.27 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 1.9 2.29 2.31 2 1.8

ANGLE

GRAPH 14 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

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4
3.5

PROJECTED HEIGHT

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5%

ANGLE

ANGLE PROJECTED PROJECTED PROJECTED HEIGHT HEIGHT HEIGHT 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 15 3 1.41 2.95 30 2.71 3.65 3.05 45 3.19 3.31 3.15 60 3.33 3.32 2.5 90 2.7 2.55 2.1

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Graph 1 (0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 1 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 4mm at 3.6kN. Graph 2 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 2 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 5.4kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN. Graph 3 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 3,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 3.15kN. Graph 4 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) :
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at the

In Graph 4,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.18kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.4kN. Graph 5 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 5,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.9kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.3kN. Graph 6 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 6,Depth of indentation is increasing with increase in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-150 to 0-300 later on there is increase angles 0-300 to 0-900. Graph 7 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 7, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-300 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600 and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing
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at the

in

depth of indentation,but it is decreases with

in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles. Graph 8(0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 8 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of2 mm at 2.75kN. Graph 9 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 9 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN. Graph 10 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 10,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN.
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Graph 11 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 11,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.55kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 2.65kN. Graph 12 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 12,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.1kN. Graph 13 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 13,Depth of indentation is increasing with decrease in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-450, later on there is decrease in depth of indentation from 0-450 to 0-600,but it is increases with angles 0-600 to 0-900. Graph 14 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 14, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-150 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600
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at the

at the

and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles.

REFERENCES
1) Agarwal, B. D and Broutman, L. J, (1990). Analysis and Performance
of Fiber Composites, Second Edition, Jhon Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 2) Robert M. Jones(1999), mechanics of composite materials, second edition Taylor & Francis group , New york London. 3) http://nptel.iitm.ac.in 4) http://www.wikipedia.org/ 5) Rothon R.N, (1999). Mineral fillers in thermoplastics: filler manufacture and characterization. Adv. Polym. Sci. 139, pp. 67-107. 6) http://composite.about.com/ 7) Applied composite materials, An international journal for the science And application of composites materials.

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8) Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, publishes research on Polymers, nano composites and particulate

ABSTRACT

In this work the composite laminates of Epoxy/E-glass fiber hybridizing with and without E- glass powder are prepared for testing. The fabrication of the laminate is done by filament winding (hoop winding) on a drum mandrel mounted on a modified center lathe. The green layup obtained is cut into laminae of the desired orientations and stacked in the predefined way to a required thickness. The stacked laminate is cured at elevated temperatures under a pressure from a pressure plate. The edges of the laminate are trimmed first and it is then cut in to required size. The specimens are then subjected to indentation test on a universal testing machine (UTM) for a fixed indenter depth. An investigative study is conducted into the results obtained from test data. A number of illustrations are shown regarding the damage in the specimens of different fiber orientation and with different percentages of E-glass powder. Also indentation depth, contact radius, spring back effect, and maximum load carrying capacity are studied.
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER :1 INTRODUCTION 1.28 Overview of composites. 1.29 Historical Development/Historical Overview. 1.30 What is composite material. 1.31 Classification of composites. 1.32 Structure of composites. 1.33 Advantages of composites. 1.34 Applications of composites. 1.35 Examples of composite materials. 1.36 Scope of Project. CHAPTER:2 LITERATURE SURVE

PAGE NO:

5 5 8 12 24 25 26 27 29

30

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CHAPTER:3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Hardener. 3.2 Epoxy. 3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials. 3.3.1 Types of fibres. 3.3.2 Mechanical properties of fibres. 3.3.3 Fibre manufacturing. 3.3.4 Key properties. 3.4 Processing of composites. 3.4.1 Curing CHAPTER:4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. 4.1 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates without E-glass powder. 4.2 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 62 57 56 32 32 32 34 35 43 46 47 49 52

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4.3

1.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 71

CHAPTER:5 5.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. 5.2 REFERENCES 80 85

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of composites

The development of composite materials and related design and manufacturing technologies is one of the most important advances in the history of materials. Composites are multifunctional materials having unprecedented mechanical and physical properties that can be tailored to meet the requirements of a particular application. Many composites also exhibit great resistance to high-temperature corrosion and oxidation and wear. These unique characteristics provide the mechanical engineer with design opportunities not possible with conventional monolithic (unreinforced) materials. Composites technology also makes possible the use of an entire class of solid materials, ceramics, in applications for which monolithic versions are unsuited because of their great strength scatter and poor resistance to mechanical and thermal shock. Further, many manufacturing processes for composites are well adapted to the fabrication of large, complex structures, which allows consolidation of parts, reducing manufacturing costs.

1.2 Historical Development / Historical overview: Past: After making and controlling fire and inventing the wheel,
spinning of continuous yarns is probably the most important development of mankind, enabling him to survive outside the tropical
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climate zones and spread across the surface of the Earth. Flexible fabrics made of locally grown and spun fibres as cotton; flax and jute were a big step forward compared to animal skins. More and more natural resources were used, soon resulting in the first composites; straw reinforced walls, and bows (Figure M.1.1.a) and chariots made of glued layers of wood, bone and horn. More durable materials as wood and metal soon replaced these antique composites.

Fig M.1.1.a Composite Korean bow

Present:
Originating from early agricultural societies and being almost forgotten after centuries, a true revival started of using lightweight composite structures for many technical solutions during the second half of the 20th century. After being solely used for their electromagnetic properties (insulators and radar-domes), using composites to improve the structural performance of spacecraft and military aircraft became popular in the last two decades of the previous century. First at any costs, with development of improved materials with increasing costs, nowadays cost

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reduction during manufacturing and operation are the main technology drivers. Latest development is the use of composites to protect man

against fire and impact and a tendency to a more environmental friendly design, leading to the reintroduction of natural fibres in the composite technology. Increasingly nowadays, the success of composites in applications, by volume and by numbers, can be ranked by accessibility and reproducibility of the applied manufacturing techniques. Some examples of use of natural fibers(M.1.1b M.1.1.e)

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Future:
In future, composites will be manufactured even more according to an integrated design process resulting in the optimum construction according to parameters such as shape, mass, strength, stiffness, durability, costs, etc. Newly developed design tools must be able to instantaneously show customers the influence of a design change on each one of these parameters.

1.3 What is Composite Material?

Composite materials are engineering materials made from two or more constituent materials that remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level while forming a single component. There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix
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Properties. The primary functions of the matrix are to transfer stresses between the reinforcing fibers/particles and to protect them from mechanical environmental damage whereas the presence of fibers/particles in a composite improves its mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness etc. The objective is to take advantage of the superior properties of both materials without compromising on the weakness of either. As defined by Agarwal and Broutman composite means material having two or more distinct constituent materials or phases. It is only when the constituent phases have significantly different physical properties and thus the composite properties are noticeably different from the constituent materials

Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural. Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific character of a composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine to give them a specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve the desirable properties. Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the levels at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic. In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz., binding the reinforcement phases in place and deforming

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to distribute the stresses among the constituent materials under an applied force.

reinforcement

The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be conductors or resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending on the purpose for which matrices are chosen. Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and metals have found applications as matrix materials in the designing of structural composites, with commendable success. These materials remain elastic till failure occurs and show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression. Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion characteristics. The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two interphases between each side of the interphase and its adjoint constituent. Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of matrix on properties of reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the selection and fabrication of composites is that the constituents should be chemically inert non-reactive.

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Properties of Matrix Materials:

Naturally fibers and whiskers are of little use unless they are bonded together to take form of structural element that can carry loads. The binder material is usually called a matrix. The purpose of the matrix is manifold support of fibers or whiskers, protection of the fibers or whiskers, stress transfer between broken fibers or whiskers, etc. Typically the matrix is of considerably lower density, stiffness, and strength than fibers or whiskers. However the combination of fibers or whiskers and a matrix can have very high strength and stiffness yet still have low density. Matrix materials can be polymers, metals, ceramics or carbon. Polymers (poly =many and mer = unit or molecule) exist in at least three major forms i.e linear, branched, or cross linked. A linear polymer is merely a chain of mers. A branched polymer consists of a primary chain of mers with other chains that are attached in three dimensions just like tree branches. Finally, a cross linked polymer has large number of three dimensional highly interconnected chains. Linear polymers have the least strength and stiffness, whereas cross linked polymer have most because of their inherently stiffer and stronger internal structure. The three main classes of structural polymers are rubbers, thermoplastics,
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and thermo sets. Rubbers are cross linked polymers that have semi crystalline state well below room temperature. Thermoplastics are polymers that branch, but generally dont cross link very much if at all. Thus, they usually can be repeatedly softened on heating and hardened on cooling. Examples of thermoplastics are nylon, polyethylene, and polysulfone. Thermo sets are polymers that are chemically reacted until almost all molecules are irreversibly cross linked in a three dimensional network. Thus, once an epoxy has set, it cannot be changed in form. Examples of thermo sets include epoxies, phenolics, and polyimides. Other matrix materials include metals that can be made to flow around an in-place fiber system by diffusion bonding or by heating vacuum infiltration. Common examples are shown in fig 1.3.1

a) linear

b)branched

c)cross linked

d)network

figure 1.3.1

1.4 Classification of Composites

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:

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 The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites. The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres. Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling. Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this category. Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.

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1.4.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or Carbon-Carbon Composites

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications. Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins. Thermoplastics have oneor two-dimensional

molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds. Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites.

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Figure 1.4.1 a

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures. Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally. There thermoplastic temperatures. are a few options tend their to loose increase their heat strength resistance at like in

thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the heat resistance. But all composites However, elevated rigidity, redeeming qualities

toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc.

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Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds. Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas.

Figure 1.4.1.b
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and
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dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins. Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of 140C. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is ruled out.

Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in automobile and structural applications. The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75C or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey. Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service at around 200250C .

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1.4.2 According to geometry:

Most composite materials developed thus far have been fabricated to improve mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, and high temperature performance. It is natural to study together the composites that have a common strengthening mechanism. The strengthening mechanism strongly depends on the geometry of the reinforcement. Therefore, it is quite convenient to classify composite materials on the basis of the geometry of a representative unit of reinforcement.

1.4.2.a Fibrous composite

A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension discourages the growth of incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement that might otherwise lead to failure, particularly with brittle matrices. Man-made filaments or fibers of non polymeric materials exhibit much higher strength along their length since large flaws, which may be present in the bulk material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness.Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite. Most composites used in structural applications are multilayered; that is, they consist of

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several layers of fibrous composites. Each layer or lamina is a single layer composite and its orientation is varied according to design. Several identical or different layers are bonded together to form a multilayered composites usable for engineering applications. When the constituent materials in each layer are the same, they are called simply laminates. Hybrid laminates refer to multilayered composites consisting of layers made up of different constituent materials. Reinforcing fibers in a single layer composite may be short or long compared to its overall dimensions. Composites with long fibers are called continuous fiber reinforced composites and those with short fibers, discontinuous fiber reinforced composites. The continuous fibers in single layer composites may be all aligned in one direction to form a unidirectional composite. Such composites are fabricated by laying the fibers parallel and saturating them with resinous material. The bidirectional reinforcement may be provided in a single layer in mutually perpendicular directions as in a woven fabric. The bidirectional reinforcement may be such that the strengths in two perpendicular directions are approximately equal. The orientation of discontinuous fibers cannot be easily controlled in a composite material.

So fibers can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented. In most cases the fibers are assumed to be randomly oriented in the composites. However, in the injection molding of a fiber reinforced polymer, considerable orientation can occur in the flow direction and which a case of preferred oriented fibers in the composites.

1.4.2.b Particulate Composites

As the name itself indicates, the reinforcement is of particle nature (platelets are also included in this class). It may be spherical, cubic,
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tetragonal, a platelet, or of other regular or irregular shape, but it is approximately equiaxed. In general, particles are not very effective in improving fracture resistance but they enhance the stiffness of the composite to a limited extent. Particle fillers are widely used to improve the properties of matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and electrical conductivities, improve performance at elevated temperatures, reduce friction, increase wear and abrasion resistance, improve machinability, increase surface hardness and reduce shrinkage. Also, in case of particulate reinforced composites the particle can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented.

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1.4.3 According to type of matrix material they are classified as:

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

1.4.3.a Metal Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites have many advantages over monolithic metals like higher specific modulus, higher specific strength, better properties at elevated temperatures, and lower coefficient of thermal expansion.
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Because of these attributes metal matrix composites are under consideration for wide range of applications viz. combustion chamber nozzle (in rocket, space shuttle), housings, tubing, cables, heat exchangers, structural members etc

1.4.3.b Ceramic matrix Composites

One of the main objectives in producing ceramic matrix composites is to increase the toughness Naturally it is hoped and indeed often found that there is a concomitant improvement in strength and stiffness of ceramic matrix composites.

1.4.3.c Polymer Matrix Composites

Most commonly used matrix materials are polymeric. The reasons for this are twofold. In general the mechanical properties of polymers are inadequate for many structural purposes. In particular their strength and stiffness are low compared to metals and ceramics. These difficulties are overcome by reinforcing other materials with polymers. Secondly the processing of polymer matrix composites need not involve high pressure and doesnt require high temperature. Also equipments required for manufacturing polymer matrix composites are simpler. For this reason polymer matrix composites developed rapidly and soon became popular for structural applications. Composites are used because overall properties of the composites are superior to those of the individual components for example polymer/ceramic. Composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component but arent as brittle as ceramics.

1.4.4 Classification Based on Reinforcements Introduction to Reinforcements

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with
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other two axes either often circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers.

Figure 1.4.4

Two types of polymer composites are: Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) Particle reinforced polymer (PRP)

1.4.4.a Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Common fiber reinforced composites are composed of fibers and a matrix. Fibers are the reinforcement and the main source of strength while matrix glues all the fibers together in shape and transfers stresses between the reinforcing fibers. The fibers carry the loads along their longitudinal directions. Sometimes, filler might be added to smooth the manufacturing process, impact special properties to the composites, and
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/or reduce the product cost. Common fiber reinforcing agents include asbestos, carbon /graphite fibers, beryllium, beryllium carbide, beryllium oxide, molybdenum, aluminium oxide, glass fibers, polyamide,natural fibers etc. Similarly common matrix materials include epoxy, phenolic, polyester, polyurethane, peek, vinyl ester etc. Among these resin materials, epoxy is widely used for its higher adhesion and less shrinkage property.

1.4.4.b Particle Reinforced Polymer

Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminium and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black. Particles are used to increase the modules of the matrix and to decrease the ductility of the matrix. Particles are also used to reduce the cost of the composites. Reinforcements and matrices can be common, inexpensive materials and are easily processed.

Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators. Some ceramics have special properties; some ceramics are magnetic materials; some are piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics are even superconductors at very low temperatures. Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback: they are brittle. An example of particle reinforced composites is an automobile tire, which has carbon black particles in a matrix of poly-isobutylene elastomeric polymer

1.5 Structure of Composite

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Structure of composite material A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness. Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite

Properties
1) Nature of the constituent material (bonding strength) 2) The geometry of the reinforcement (shape, size) 3) The concentration distribution(vol. fraction of reinforcement) 4) The orientation of the reinforcement(random or preferred) Good adhesion (bonding) between matrix phase and displaced phase provides transfer of load applied to the material to the displaced phase via the interface. Good adhesion is required for achieving high level of mechanical properties of composites. Very small particles less than 0.25 micrometer finely distributed in the matrix impede movement of dislocations and deformation of the material. They have strengthening
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effect. Large dispersed phase particles have low share load applied to the material resulting in increase of stiffness and decrease of ductility. Orientation of reinforcement: Planar:-In the form of 2-D woven fabric. When the fibers are laid parallel, the composite exhibits axistrope. Random or Three Dimensional:-The composite material tends to posses isotropic properties. One Dimensional: - Maximum strength and stiffness are obtained in the direction of fiber.

1.6 Advantages of Composites

Advantages of composites over their conventional counterparts are the ability to meet diverse design requirements with significant weight savings as well as strength-to-weight ratio. Some advantages of composite materials over conventional ones are as follows: Tensile strength of composites is four to six times greater than that of steel or aluminium (depending on the reinforcements).

Improved torsional stiffness and impact properties. Higher fatigue endurance limit (up to 60% of ultimate tensile strength). 30% - 40% lighter for example any particular aluminium structures designed to the same functional requirements. Lower embedded energy compared to other structural metallic materials like steel, aluminium etc. Composites are less noisy while in operation and provide lower vibration transmission than metals. Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored to meet performance needs and complex design requirements. Long life offer excellent fatigue, impact, environmental resistance and reduce maintenance.
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Composites enjoy reduced life cycle cost compared to metals. Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and fire retardancy. Improved appearance with smooth surfaces and readily incorporable integral decorative melamine are other characteristics of composites. Composite parts can eliminate joints / fasteners, providing part simplification and integrated design compared to conventional metallic parts.

1.7 Applications of Composites

Figure 1.7

1.8 EXAMPLES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Fibre reinforced plastics:
Industry Examples Door, elevators Space Shuttle, Space stations Body frames, engine Comments 20-35% Weight savings Great weight savings High stiffness & damage tolerance

Classified by type of fiber:

Aerospace Automotive

Aircraft

Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix)

components

Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP)

Construction Fuel tanks etc.

Chemical

Pipes, Tanks, Pressure vessels Structural & decorative panels,

Corrosion resistance Weight savings, portable.

Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally, "fiberglass")

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Classified by matrix: Thermoplastic Composites Short fiber thermoplastics Long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics Glass mat thermoplastics Continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics Thermoset Composites Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)

Metal matrix composites (MMCs): White cast iron Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix) Metal-intermetallic laminate Ceramic matrix composites: Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers)

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Cermet (ceramic and metal) Concrete Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites Asphalt concrete Dental composite Syntactic foam Mother of Pearl Chobham armour (see composite armour) Engineered wood

Plywood Oriented strand board Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix) Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix) Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles Arborite Formica (plastic)
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1.9 Scope of the project

The basic aim of the present work is to develop and characterize a new class of composites with epoxy as polymer matrix and glass fiber as the reinforcing material. Their physical and mechanical characterization is done. Attempt is made to use TiO2 as filler in these fiber reinforced .polymer matrix composites. Characterization of the resulting TiO2 filled glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite is done. The experimentally measured database of composites has also been predicted. This work is expected to introduce a new class of functional polymer composites suitable for tribological applications.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

This chapter outlines some of the recent reports published in literature on composites of fiber reinforced polymer composites. Polymer composite materials have generated wide interest in various engineering fields, particularly in aerospace applications. Research is underway worldwide to develop newer composites with varied combinations of fibers and fillers so as to make them useable under different operational conditions. The improved performance of polymer composites in engineering applications by the addition of filler materials has shown a
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great promise and so has become a subject of considerable interest. Ceramic filled polymer composites have been the subject of extensive research in last two decades. Various kinds of polymers and polymer matrix composites reinforced with ceramic particles have a wide range of industrial applications such as heaters, electrodes, composites with thermal durability at high temperature etc.

These engineering composites are desired due to their low density, high corrosion resistance consisting of ceramic or metal particles and fiber fillers made of glass are being used these days to dramatically improve the wear resistance even up to three orders of magnitude. The inclusion of inorganic fillers into polymers for commercial applications is primarily aimed at the cost reduction and stiffness improvement. Along with fiber-reinforced composites, the composites made with particulate fillers have been found to perform well in many real operational conditions. It is reported by Bonner that with the inclusion of micro-sized particulates into polymers, a high filler content (typically greater than 20 vol. %) is generally required to bring the above stated positive effects into play. But at the same time, this may also have detrimental effects on some important properties of the matrix polymers such as processability, appearance, density and aging performance. It has also been reported that the fracture surface energies of epoxy and polyester resin and their resistance to crack propagation are relatively low.

But if particulate filler is added to these resins, the particles inhibit crack growth. As the volume fraction of filler is varied, the fracture energy increases up to a critical volume fraction and then decreases again. Srivastava showed that the fracture toughness of epoxy resin could be improved by addition of flyash particles as filler. The fillers also affect
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tensile

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packing

characteristics, size and interfacial bonding. The maximum volumetric packing fraction of filler reflects the size distribution and shapes of the particles. Recently, it has been observed that by incorporating filler particles into the matrix of fibre reinforced composites, synergistic effects may be achieved in the form of higher modulus and reduced material costs, yet accompanied with decreased strength and impact toughness. Polymer composites with both discontinuous and continuous fibre reinforcement possess usually very high specific (i.e. density related) stiffness and strength when measured in plane. Therefore, such composites are frequently used in engineering parts in automobile, aerospace, marine and energetic applications.

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CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the experimental procedures followed for their characterization and tribological evaluation. The raw materials used in this work are 1. E-glass fiber 2. E-Glass powder 3. Epoxy resin

3.1 Hardener:
The hardener used in Epoxy is polyamine. A polyamine is an organic compound having two or more primary amino groups -NH2.This class of compounds includes several synthetic substances that are important feed stocks for the chemical industry, such as ethylene diamine H2N-CH2-CH2-NH2, 1,3-diaminopropane H2N-(CH2)3-NH2, and hex methylenediamine H2N-(CH2)6-NH2. The amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

3.2 Epoxy:
Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener. When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

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The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements.

Resin:
Resin is a natural or synthetic compound which begins in a highly viscous state and hardens with treatment. Typically, resin is soluble in alcohol, but not in water. There are a number of different classes of resin, depending on exact chemical composition and potential uses. Matrix resins bind glass-reinforcing fibers together, protecting them from impact and the environment. Glass fiber properties such as strength dominate in continuously reinforced composites. When glass is used as a discontinuous reinforcement, resin properties dominate and are enhanced by the glass. Polymer matrix resins fall into two categories: thermo set and thermoplastic. The difference is in their chemistry. Thermo set resin is chemically comprised of molecular chains that crosslink during the cure reaction (set off by heat, catalyst, or both) and "set" into a final rigid form. Molecular chains in thermoplastic resin are processed at higher temperatures and remain "plastic," or capable of being reheated and reshaped. While the tradeoffs between thermosets and thermoplastics have been debated extensively, engineers will find that material suppliers will tailor matrix resin formulations best for their application

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3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials:

Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used. Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers, high silica and quartz fibers, alumina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron fibers, aramid fibers and multi phase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified into E-glass, S-glass, A- glass, R-glass etc. There is a greater market and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers. The potential of fibers of graphite, silicon carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific mind due to their applications in advanced composites.

3.3.1Types of fibers 3.3.1.a Glass Fibers

Over 95% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers, as they are inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the plastics with which they are reinforced.
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Their low density, resistance to chemicals, insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics, although the one major disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when subjected to high tensile stress for a long time.. However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time frames. This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is expected to sustain such loads for many months or years continuously. Period of loading, temperature, moisture and other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibers and the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning before the catastrophic failure. But all this can be easily overlooked in view of the fact that the wide range of glass fiber variety lend themselves amicably to fabrication processes like matched die moulding, filament winding lay-up and so on. Glass fibers are available in the form of mats, tapes, cloth, continuous and chopped filaments, rovings and yarns. Addition of chemicals to silica sand while making glass yields different types of glasses.

3.3.1.b Metal Fibers

As reinforcements, metal fibers have many advantages. They are easily produced using several fabrication processes and are more ductile, apart from being not too sensitive to surface damage and possess high strengths and temperature resistance. However, their weight and the tendency to react with each other through alloying mechanisms are major disadvantages. Steel wire is the most extensively used reinforcement in most large-scale metal filament applications. Wire is used for its capacity to enhance the tensile strength of concrete and continuous metal fibers are the reinforcing constituents in metal and ceramic composite materials.

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3.3.1.c Ceramic fibers improve vastly in performance when a fine metal outline is incorporated with refractory ceramics by improving their thermal shock and impact resistance properties. 3.3.1.d Metal wires, of the continuous version, also reinforce plastics like polyethylene and epoxy. Such combinations ensure high strength, light weight and good fatigue resistance. Besides, continuous metal fibers are easily handled, unlike glass fibers. Better flexural properties are observed in some metal fibers reinforced plastic composites which also offer improved strength and weight, than glass fibers. However, their poor tolerance of high temperatures and the resultant steep variation of thermal expansion coefficient with the resins are a discouragement that limits their application.

3.3.1.d Alumina Fibers

Alumina or aluminum oxide fibers, basically developed for use in metal matrices are considered a potential resin-matrix composite reinforcement. It offers good compressive strength rather than tensile strength. It is important property is it is high melting point of about 2000C and the composite can be successfully used at temperatures up to about 1000C. Magnesium and aluminum matrices frequently use alumina fiber reinforced composites as they do not damage the fiber even in the liquid state.

3.3.1.e Boron Fibers

They are basically composites, in which boron is coated on a substance which forms the substrate, usually made of tungsten. Boron-tungsten fibers are obtained by allowing hot tungsten filament through a mixture of gases. Boron is deposited on tungsten and the process is continued until the desired thickness is achieved. The tungsten however remains constant in its thickness. Properties of boron fibers generally change with the diameter, because of the changing ratio of boron to tungsten and the surface defects that change according to size. However, they
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are known for their remarkable stiffness

33and strength. Their strengths often compare with those of glass fibers, but their tensile modulus is high, almost four to five times that of glass. Boron coated carbons are much cheaper to make than boron tungsten fiber. But its low modulus of elasticity often works against it.

3.3.1.f Silicon Carbide Fibers

Silicon carbide can be coated over a few metals and their room temperature tensile strengths and tensile moduli are like those of boron-tungsten. The advantages of silicon carbide-tungsten are several and they are more desirable than uncoated boron tungsten fibers. Elevated temperature performance and the fact that they reported only a 35% loss of strength at 1350C are their best qualities. Silicon carbide-tungsten and silicon carbidecarbon have both been seen to have very high stress-rupture strength at 1100C and 1300C. Uncoated boron-tungsten fibers tend to lose all their strength at temperatures over 680C. Silicon carbide fibers do not react with molten aluminium, unlike uncoated boron and they also withstand high temperatures used in hot-press titanium matrices. However, silicon carbide-tungsten fibers are dense compared to boron- tungsten fibers of the same diameter. They are prone to surface damage and need careful, delicate handling, especially during fabrication of the composite. Further, above 930C, weakening reactions occur between tungsten and silicon carbide, making it difficult to maintain balance in high-temperature matrix formations. Silicon carbide on 'carbon substrates have several advantages, viz. no, reaction at high temperature, being lighter than silicon carbide tungsten and possessing tensile strengths and modulus that is are often better than those of silicon carbide-tungsten and boron fibers.

3.3.1.g Aramid Fibers

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Aramid fibers are made from aromatic polyamides which are long polymeric .chains and aromatic rings. They are structures in which six carbon atoms are bonded to each other and to combinations of hydrogen atoms. In aramid fibers, these rings occur and reoccur to form the fibers. They were initially used to reinforce automobile tires. Since then, they have also found other uses like bullet proof vests. As high strength applications, their use in power boats is not uncommon.

Aramid have high tensile strength, high modulus and low weight. Impact- resistant structures can be produced from aramid. The density of aramid fibers is less than that of glass and graphite fibers. They are fire resistant apart from being high-temperature resistant and also unaffected by organic solvents and fuels. But their resistance in acid and alkaline media is poor. They are supple and allow themselves to be woven into matrices by simple processes. Aramid fibers have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion in the fiber direction and the failure of aramid fibers is unique. When they fail, the fibers break into small fibrils, which are like fibers within the fibers. This unique failure mechanism is responsible for high strength.

3.3.1.h Quartz and Silica Fibers

The glass-types typically contain about 50 to 78% silica. Silica glass is a purer glass fiber that can be made by treating fiberglass in an acid bath, which removes all impurities without affecting the silica. The final product contains 93 to 99% silica. Quartz is even more pure, and quartz fibers are made from natural quartz crystals that contain 99.9% silica, possessing nearly all the properties of pure solid quartz. Ordinary fiberglass, high silica and quartz fibers share several characteristics and can be produced in a range of fiber diameters. Roving or yarns and other forms of fibers can be made from high silica as well as quartz. All matrix materials that accept fiberglass are amenable to high silica and quartz too. They differ from glass in many factors, however, especially in heat-related properties.
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Although quartz crystals are commonly available, pure crystals are hard to come by. On the other hand, high silica comes from the same material as glass fibers and is easily accessible. However, quartz makes up for its rarity with its capacity to" withstand high temperatures, which silica is incapable of. Barring this difference, silica and quartz are similar in other respects. They are highly elastic and can be stretched to 1 % of their length before break point. Both silica and quartz are not affected by acid attacks and are resistant to moisture. Owing to their thermal properties, silica and quartz are the natural choice as fibers in several applications. They have good insulating properties and do not melt at temperatures up to 1600C. In addition, they have low thermal expansion coefficients which make them withstand high temperatures.

3.3.1.i Graphite Fibers

While use of the term carbon for graphite is permissible, there is one basic difference between the two. Elemental analysis of poly-acrylo-nitrile (PAN) base carbon fibers show that they consist of 91 to 94% carbon. But graphite fibers are over 99% carbon. The difference arises from the fact that the fibers are made at different temperatures. PAN-based carbon cloth or fiber is produced at about 1320C, while graphite fibers and cloth are graphitized at 1950 to 3000C. The properties of graphite remain unchanged even at very high temperatures, but its willingness to react readily with most metals at the fabrication stage or during use at very high temperatures is often a stumbling block, as seen in aluminium matrices when carbides are produced at the interface. These carbides react with moisture with disastrous effects on the composite material.

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Graphite fibers are some of the stiffest fibers known. The stiffness of the fiber is as high as the graphite content. But a major drawback is that stiffness and strength are inversely proportional to each other. Forbidding costs make the use of graphite fibers prohibitive. The best glass fibers are far less expensive than the cheapest, lowest quality of graphite, and in PAN-base fibers, other raw materials too are equally expensive. The carbonization and graphitization are time-consuming, apart from demanding excessive energy, materials and close controls throughout the process. Cheaper pitch base fibers are now being developed, with greater performance potential and there are possibilities of the increased use of graphite fibers.

3.3.1.j Multiphase Fibers

Spoolable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually the multi phase variety and they usually comprise materials like boron, silicon and their carbides formed on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or tungsten. They are usually good for high temperature applications, due to their reduced reaction with higher melting temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers. Boron filaments are sought after for structural and intermediate-temperature composites. A poly-phase fiber is a core-sheath fiber consisting of a polycrystalline core.

3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber:

E-Glass or electrical grade glass was originally developed for standoff insulators for electrical wiring. It was later found to have excellent fibre forming capabilities and is now used almost exclusively as the reinforcing phase in the material commonly known as fiber glass.

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. Figure 3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber

3.3.2 Mechanical Properties of fibers

Composite materials are not homogeneous. Their properties are dependent on many factors, the most important of which are the type of fibre, quantity of fibre (as volume fraction) and the configuration of the reinforcement. They are generally completely elastic up to failure and exhibit neither a yield point nor a region of plasticity. They tend to have low strain to failure(less than 3%). The resulting area under the stress/strain curve, which represents the work done to failure, is relatively small when compared to many metals. The properties of composites are dependent on the properties of the fibre and the matrix, the proportion of each and the configuration of the fibres. If all the fibres are aligned in one direction then the composite relatively stiff and strong in that direction, but in the transverse direction it has low modulus and low strength. When a unidirectional composite is tested at a small angle from the fibre axis, there is a considerable reduction in strength. A similar but less significant effect occurs with the tensile modulus, as shown in Figure 3.3.2

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Figure 3.3.2
Theoretical variation in tensile modulus with the angle of load relative to the principal fibre direction (unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced plastic (UD CFRP), fibre volume fraction = 0.5)

Strength and stiffness Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) E glass fibres, which have a modulus of about 70GPa, produce composites with modest moduli. In the case of unidirectional fibres and the highest typical fibre volume fraction of 0.65, a composite has a modulus of about45GPa and strength of around 1300MPa. At right angles to this, in the transverse direction, the modulus approaches that of the resin itself at about4GPa and the strength would be 50100MPa. The unidirectional compo-sites used in the ROBUST Project, manufactured using the vacuum process with prepreg material in an epoxy matrix, had the following properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 36GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 750MPa Elongation at break: 3.1%.

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Bidirectional E glass laminates have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.4 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about 14GPa.Random laminates (e.g. chopped strand mat) have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.2 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about9GPa. The use of S2 or R glass improves the composite modulus to about60GPa for unidirectional and 20GPa for woven fabric (bidirectional) constructions. This is at some monetary disadvantage. They are both more expensive than E glass and they are only available in a fairly limited range of material types and resin compatibilities. Probably the most important virtue of S2 and R glass is their high strength, which is considerably higher than E glass. Carbon and graphite fibers Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) The dominant carbon fibres in current use (typically Toray T700) have a tensile modulus of about 230GPa, a tensile strength of around 5000MPaand a strain-to-failure of 2%. Unidirectional composites produced from them in either an epoxy or vinyl-ester matrix have the following typical properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 155165GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 25003000MPa Elongation at break: 1.21.3% Carbon fibres are available which will give a tensile modulus of about250GPa in a unidirectional composite, comparing very favourably with steel at about 210GPa. However, as this composite is unidirectional, it has extremely low modulus in the transverse direction. The principal attributes of carbon fibre composites are their very high specific stiffness (the ratio of modulus/density), excellent fatigue and environmental resistance. Currently there are various pultruded CFRP plates available commercially for plate bonding applications. The pultruded plates used in the ROBUST Project, as well as the plates manufactured with prepreg materials, possessed a modulus of about 130GPa and a
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strength of 1500MPa.Pultruded plates now available from other sources typically exploit fibers with superior properties such as Toray T700, resulting in composites with the properties shown above. A financial penalty has to be paid for materials exhibiting properties significantly in excess of these; the strain-to-failure of composites made with them will also be reduced significantly. Carbon and graphite have substantial capability as reinforcing fibers, with great flexibility in the properties that can be provided. Primary characteristics for reinforcing fibers in polymer matrix composites are high stiffness and strength. The fibers must maintain these characteristics in hostile environments such as elevated temperatures, exposure to common solvents and fluids, and environmental moisture. To be used as part of a primary structure material it should also be available as continuous fiber. These characteristics and requirements have substantial implications for the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the fiber, which in turn implies processing and acceptance parameters. Interest in carbon fibers for structural materials was initiated in the late 1950s when synthesized rayons in textile form were carbonized to produce carbon fibers for high temperature missile applications. One of the first distinctions to be made is the difference between carbon and graphite fibers, although the terms are frequently used interchangeably. Background information for these differences is contained in the following sections. The primary purpose of making this distinction here is to alert the reader that users may mean different things when referring to graphite versus carbon fibers. Carbon and graphite fibers are both based on graphene (hexagonal) layer networks present in carbon. If the graphene layers or planes stack with three dimensional orders the material is defined as graphite. Usually extended time and temperature processing is required to form this order, making graphite fibers more expensive. Because the bonding between planes is weak, disorder frequently occurs such that only the two dimensional
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ordering within the layers is present. This material is defined as carbon. With this distinction made, it should be understood that while some differences are implied, there is not a single condition which strictly separates carbon from graphite fibers, and even graphite fibers retain some disorder in their structure.

3.3.3 Fiber Manufacture:

Glass fibers are generally produced using melt spinning techniques. These involve melting the glass composition into a platinum crown which has small holes for the molten glass to flow. Continuous fibers can be drawn out through the holes and wound onto spindles, while short fibers may be produced by spinning the crown, which forces molten glass out through the holes centrifugally. Fibers are cut to length using mechanical means or air jets. Fiber dimension and to some extent properties can be controlled by the process variables such as melt temperature (hence viscosity) and drawing/spinning rate. The temperature window that can be used to produce a melt of suitable viscosity is quite large, making this composition suitable for fiber forming. As fibers are being produced, they are normally treated with sizing and coupling agents. These reduce the effects of fiber- fiber abrasion which can significantly degrade the mechanical strength of the individual fibers. Other treatments may also be used to promote wetting and adherence of the matrix material to the fiber .

Composition
E-Glass is a low alkali glass with a typical nominal composition of SiO2 54wt%, Al2O3 14wt%, CaO+MgThe advantageous properties of E-glass generally outweigh the disadvantages which include:
Low modulus Self abrasiveness if not treated appropriately leading to reduced strength

Relatively low fatigue resistance

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Higher density compared to carbon fibres and organic fibresO 22wt%, B2O3 10wt% and Na2O+K2O less then 2wt%. Some other materials may also be present at impurity levels.

3.3.4 Key Properties:

Properties that have made E-glass so popular in 294iberglass and other glass reinforced composite include: Low cost High production rates High strength High stiffness Relatively low density Non-flammable Resistant to heat Good chemical resistance Relatively insensitive to moisture Able to maintain strength properties over a wide range of conditions Good electrical insulation

3.4 Processing of the Composites Fabrication of the Laminate

E-glass/Epoxy composite laminates were prepared by passing the E-glass fibers of 1200 TEX, through the resin bath of Epoxy and hardener maintaining a constant temperature of about 45 C.The fibers are then wound on a rotating drum with 15 rpm. After complete winding on the drum then it is cut opened and lay on a flat table in the atmospheric condition for about 48 hours to get the
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tackiness. The layers are cut in such a way that the desired fiber direction is obtained. In this experimentation it is decided to prepare the laminates such that the angle between the fibers are15o 30o 45o 60o and 90oas shown in fig-1. The sequence of layup shown in the fig -2. The number of layup depends on the thickness of the laminate required; here it is used 20 layers to obtain the thickness of the laminate about 4mm. All the overlapped layers then compacted between the two parallel flat steel plates with stainless steel spacers of required laminate thickness. The major purpose of lamination is to tailor the directional dependence of strength and stiffness of a composite material to match the loading environment of the structural element laminates are uniquely suited to this objective because the principal material directions of each layer can be oriented according to need. The plates are clamped with nuts and bolts with washers; the clamped setup is then placed in the oven. Maintain the oven temperature of 800 C for 4 hours and 1200 C for next 4 hours so that any entrapped air or volatile gases will be escaped for the first four hours and chemical reaction between the epoxy and hardener will takes place for the next four hours and will lead to permanent set and finally result into a single solid composite laminate. After total curing of 8 hours oven is then switched off so the temperature in the oven may come down to normal temperature. Take out the composite laminate and trim the edges so that the laminate is ready for testing purpose. Winding parameters 13. 14. 15.
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16.

Gap between doctor blade and drum = 1.25 mmThe

parameters are kept constant for two different windings

FILAMENT WINDING SETUP

RESIN BATH

DRUM WINDING

REMOVING LAYUP

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LAYUP PLACED ON TABLE

APPLYING WAXPOL ON PLATES

LAYING UP LAYERS

REMOVING AIR GAP

COMPACTING LAYERS

PLACING IN THE OVEN

3.4.2 CURING PROCESS :

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Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener". The resin consists of monomers or short chain polymers with an epoxide group at either end. Most common epoxy resins are produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A, though the latter may be replaced by similar chemicals. The hardener consists of polyamine monomers, for example Triethylenetetramine (TETA). When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond.

Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily crosslinked, and is thus rigid and strong.The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. So the laminate that is fabricated is put into a Oven . The temperatures are maintained in two cycles. In the first cycle we have to maintain constant temperature of 80C for 4hours and in the next cycle maintain a temperature of 160C for next 4 hours.

AFTER CURING

MARKING

TRIMMING

AFTER TRIMMING

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DRILLING

AFTER DRILLING

Figure 3.6.a specifications of UTM (at CIPET)

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UTM SPECIFICATIONS

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COMPOSITE LAMINATE UNDER TESTING

4.1 Experimental procedure

Quasi-static Indentation tests were performed on INSTRON testing machine. The
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composite laminate of size 150mm x 150mm is placed on a steel supporting frame, with a square opening of size 50mm x 50mm. A similar square opening flat plate is placed ontop of the composite laminate; it is then clamped rigidly with nuts and bolts of 6mm size as shown in fig-3. The clamped setup is placed on the loading frame of testing machine. A spherical stainless steel ball indenter of diameter 8.32mmis used for indentation on the composites laminate. The tests were conducted with the controlled displacement of the indenter (0.2mm / minute). The test data is shown in Table-2.An extensometer is used to measure the displacement of the point just below the indentation location at the bottom side of the composite laminate. A 20kN load cell evaluated the load on each composite laminate. The data obtained during test for each laminate is shown in Table-2. The composite laminate with different fiber angles is indented for a fixed displacement of 5 mm. The damage in the different composite laminate with different fiber angles is shown fig-4. The damage area in each composite laminate is observed with the help of optical light microscope.
S. No. Specifications 1 2 3 4 5 ASTM Present work

Specimen 4 6 mm 4 - 5 mm thickness Indenter 10 16 mm 8.73 mm diameter Cross head 0.2 mm / 1 mm / min displacement min Indenter 5 10 mm 5 mm displacement No of samples 4 4 per test

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF UTM

00/150

00/300

00/450

00/600

00/900

Fig-1: Schematic diagram of five different laminates

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Fig-2: Sequence of angle plies

4.2 COMPOSITE LAMINATES WITHOUT E-GLASS POWDER FRONT SIDE BACK SIDE

0,90

0,60

FRONT SIDE

BACK SIDE

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0,45

0,30

0,15
S. No. Angle (0) Max. Load (KN) Indentation (mm) Spring back (mm)

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1 2 3 4 5

0/15 0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

3.77 4.11 4.69 4.99 5.83

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.86

0.92 1.17 2.50 3.08 3.44

Table - 2: Test results after Indentation.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Load (KN)

15 DEG 30 DEG 45 DEG 60 DEG 90 DEG

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5

Displacement (mm) Graph-1: Shows the load carrying capacity in each case for different indenter displacements of maximum 5mm for all the laminates. It is gradually increasing for the laminates with the fiber angles varying from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

Indentation ()

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-2: Indentation depth is increasing linearly as the fiber angle in laminates is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o),however it is suddenly increasing in the laminates with fiber angle varying from (0o/60o) to (0o/90o).

S. No. 1

Angle (0) 0/15

Front face damage area (mm2) 971

Back face damage area (mm2) 1256

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2 3 4 5

0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

1300 1894 2186 2623

1857 2280 2623 3257

Table-3: Experimental data of damage surface areas on front and back face of the laminates

Front face damage area 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 15 30 45

Back face damage area

60

75

90

105

Graph-3: Damage area is increasing with the increase in fiber angle of the laminates in front face and back face of the laminate; however the damage area back face is more than the front face as seen from the above graph.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Load (KN)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-4: Maximum load taken in each laminate with different fiber angles. The load is increasing linearly as the fiber angle is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

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4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Spring back (mm)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

5: Shows spring back effect is increasing in different laminates as the fiber angles are increasing

0o/15o) to (0o/90o), it shows that as the angle between fibers is increasing the laminate elasticity increasing

Material

Density (mg/m3)

Modulus (G Pa)

Poisons ratio(v)

Tensile strength (G Pa) 3.5

E-glass fiber

2.56

76

0.22

Epoxy resin

1.3

3.6

0.4

0.1

Table-4: Properties of materials

4.3) RATE OF LOADING (0.5mm/min) WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

0.5%

1%

1.5

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE
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(0/45)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE
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(0/15)

BACK SIDE
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GRAPH 1 :

0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1.0 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.92 1.8 1.4 2 3.4 3.1 3.1 3 4.62 4.1 3.5 4 4.85 4.19 3.6 5 4 3.73 3.11

GRAPH 2 :

0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

4
3 2 1 0 0 2

0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 % % % 0 0 0 2 1.7 1.6 3.15 3.2 2.95 4.65 3.72 3.2 5.4 3.12 2.25 3 2.38 1.89

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 3:

0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.1 2.2 1.7 2 3.8 3.6 3.15 3 4.26 4.2 2.91 4 4.5 2.92 2.29 5 3.5 2.32 1.83

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 4: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.15 2.1 1.2 2 3.75 3.5 2.3 3 5.18 4.2 3.4 4 4.2 3.15 2.85 5 2.5 1.9 1.75

GRAPH 5: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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5 4

FORCE (kN)

3 2 1 0 0 2

F 0.5 F1 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.9 1.8 1.7 2 3.1 2.85 2.6 3 3.9 3.8 3.3 4 3 2.8 2.5 5 2.85 2.35 1.7

GRAPH 6 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

0.5 mm/min

3.5 3 2.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

DEPTH mm)

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.42 2.6 2.5 2.1 2

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.38 2.54 2.6 2.4 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 2.67 2.98 2.9 2.55 2.38

ANGLE

GRAPH 7 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

0.5 mm /min

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PROJECTED HEIGHT

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5 %

ANGLE

ANGLE

0 15 30 45 60 90

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 0.5 % 0 2.84 3.2 2.5 2.55 2

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.0 % 0 3.24 3.6 2.7 3.5 2.1

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.5 % 0 3.31 3.76 3.33 3.67 2.6

4.4 1.5mm/min RATE OF LOADING WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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FRONT SIDE

(0/45)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/15)

BACK SIDE

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GRAPH 8: 0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

F F F 0.5% 1 % 1.5% 0 0 0 1.5 2.05 1.35 3.1 3.3 2.75 3.2 4.3 1.95 2.5 3.75 1.65 1.5 3.25 1.31

GRAPH 9:0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5 % 0 0 0 0 1 2.5 2.31 2.09 2 4.72 4.22 3.75 3 5.5 4.5 4.2 4 4.5 3.23 2.85 5 3.7 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 10: 0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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6 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 % 0 2.5 4.72 5.5 4.5 3.7

FORCE (kN)

4 3 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 1 0 0 2 DISPLACEMENT 4 (mm) 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 2.31 2.09 4.22 3.75 4.5 4.2 3.23 2.85 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 11: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

F 0.5 % 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2.5 4.2 5.55 4.65 3.25

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 (mm) DISPLACEMENT 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 1.75 1.65 3 2.65 4 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.2 1.8

GRAPH 12: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5 mm/min)

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DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 Page 323 (mm) %

F 1.0 %

F 1.5 %

6 5

FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 DISPLACEMENT (mm) F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

0 1 2 3 4 5

0 1.8 2.9 4.1 4.85 3.7

0 1.98 3.15 3.9 4.4 3.2

0 1.65 2.5 3.1 2.25 1.6

GRAPH13 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

1.5 mm/min

DEPTH OF INDENTATION mm)

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

0
0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.34 2.45 2.67 2.39 2.5

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.14 2.32 2.6 2.27 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 1.9 2.29 2.31 2 1.8

ANGLE

GRAPH 14 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

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3.5

PROJECTED HEIGHT

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5%

ANGLE

ANGLE PROJECTED PROJECTED PROJECTED HEIGHT HEIGHT HEIGHT 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 15 3 1.41 2.95 30 2.71 3.65 3.05 45 3.19 3.31 3.15 60 3.33 3.32 2.5 90 2.7 2.55 2.1

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Graph 1 (0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 1 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 4mm at 3.6kN. Graph 2 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 2 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 5.4kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN. Graph 3 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 3,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 3.15kN. Graph 4 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) :
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at the

In Graph 4,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.18kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.4kN. Graph 5 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 5,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.9kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.3kN. Graph 6 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 6,Depth of indentation is increasing with increase in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-150 to 0-300 later on there is increase angles 0-300 to 0-900. Graph 7 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 7, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-300 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600 and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing
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at the

in

depth of indentation,but it is decreases with

in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles. Graph 8(0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 8 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of2 mm at 2.75kN. Graph 9 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 9 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN. Graph 10 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 10,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN.
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Graph 11 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 11,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.55kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 2.65kN. Graph 12 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 12,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.1kN. Graph 13 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 13,Depth of indentation is increasing with decrease in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-450, later on there is decrease in depth of indentation from 0-450 to 0-600,but it is increases with angles 0-600 to 0-900. Graph 14 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 14, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-150 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600
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at the

at the

and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles.

REFERENCES
1) Agarwal, B. D and Broutman, L. J, (1990). Analysis and Performance
of Fiber Composites, Second Edition, Jhon Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 2) Robert M. Jones(1999), mechanics of composite materials, second edition Taylor & Francis group , New york London. 3) http://nptel.iitm.ac.in 4) http://www.wikipedia.org/ 5) Rothon R.N, (1999). Mineral fillers in thermoplastics: filler manufacture and characterization. Adv. Polym. Sci. 139, pp. 67-107. 6) http://composite.about.com/ 7) Applied composite materials, An international journal for the science And application of composites materials.

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8) Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, publishes research on Polymers, nano composites and particulate

ABSTRACT

In this work the composite laminates of Epoxy/E-glass fiber hybridizing with and without E- glass powder are prepared for testing. The fabrication of the laminate is done by filament winding (hoop winding) on a drum mandrel mounted on a modified center lathe. The green layup obtained is cut into laminae of the desired orientations and stacked in the predefined way to a required thickness. The stacked laminate is cured at elevated temperatures under a pressure from a pressure plate. The edges of the laminate are trimmed first and it is then cut in to required size. The specimens are then subjected to indentation test on a universal testing machine (UTM) for a fixed indenter depth. An investigative study is conducted into the results obtained from test data. A number of illustrations are shown regarding the damage in the specimens of different fiber orientation and with different percentages of E-glass powder. Also indentation depth, contact radius, spring back effect, and maximum load carrying capacity are studied.

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CONTENTS
CHAPTER :1 INTRODUCTION 1.37 Overview of composites. 1.38 Historical Development/Historical Overview. 1.39 What is composite material. 1.40 Classification of composites. 1.41 Structure of composites. 1.42 Advantages of composites. 1.43 Applications of composites. 1.44 Examples of composite materials. 1.45 Scope of Project. CHAPTER:2 LITERATURE SURVE

PAGE NO:

5 5 8 12 24 25 26 27 29

30

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CHAPTER:3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Hardener. 3.2 Epoxy. 3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials. 3.3.1 Types of fibres. 3.3.2 Mechanical properties of fibres. 3.3.3 Fibre manufacturing. 3.3.4 Key properties. 3.4 Processing of composites. 3.4.1 Curing CHAPTER:4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. 4.1 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates without E-glass powder. 4.2 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 62 57 56 32 32 32 34 35 43 46 47 49 52

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4.3

1.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 71

CHAPTER:5 5.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. 5.2 REFERENCES 80 85

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of composites

The development of composite materials and related design and manufacturing technologies is one of the most important advances in the history of materials. Composites are multifunctional materials having unprecedented mechanical and physical properties that can be tailored to meet the requirements of a particular application. Many composites also exhibit great resistance to high-temperature corrosion and oxidation and wear. These unique characteristics provide the mechanical engineer with design opportunities not possible with conventional monolithic (unreinforced) materials. Composites technology also makes possible the use of an entire class of solid materials, ceramics, in applications for which monolithic versions are unsuited because of their great strength scatter and poor resistance to mechanical and thermal shock. Further, many manufacturing processes for composites are well adapted to the fabrication of large, complex structures, which allows consolidation of parts, reducing manufacturing costs.

1.2 Historical Development / Historical overview: Past: After making and controlling fire and inventing the wheel,
spinning of continuous yarns is probably the most important development of mankind, enabling him to survive outside the tropical
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climate zones and spread across the surface of the Earth. Flexible fabrics made of locally grown and spun fibres as cotton; flax and jute were a big step forward compared to animal skins. More and more natural resources were used, soon resulting in the first composites; straw reinforced walls, and bows (Figure M.1.1.a) and chariots made of glued layers of wood, bone and horn. More durable materials as wood and metal soon replaced these antique composites.

Fig M.1.1.a Composite Korean bow

Present:
Originating from early agricultural societies and being almost forgotten after centuries, a true revival started of using lightweight composite structures for many technical solutions during the second half of the 20th century. After being solely used for their electromagnetic properties (insulators and radar-domes), using composites to improve the structural performance of spacecraft and military aircraft became popular in the last two decades of the previous century. First at any costs, with development of improved materials with increasing costs, nowadays cost

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reduction during manufacturing and operation are the main technology drivers. Latest development is the use of composites to protect man

against fire and impact and a tendency to a more environmental friendly design, leading to the reintroduction of natural fibres in the composite technology. Increasingly nowadays, the success of composites in applications, by volume and by numbers, can be ranked by accessibility and reproducibility of the applied manufacturing techniques. Some examples of use of natural fibers(M.1.1b M.1.1.e)

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Future:
In future, composites will be manufactured even more according to an integrated design process resulting in the optimum construction according to parameters such as shape, mass, strength, stiffness, durability, costs, etc. Newly developed design tools must be able to instantaneously show customers the influence of a design change on each one of these parameters.

1.3 What is Composite Material?

Composite materials are engineering materials made from two or more constituent materials that remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level while forming a single component. There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix
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Properties. The primary functions of the matrix are to transfer stresses between the reinforcing fibers/particles and to protect them from mechanical environmental damage whereas the presence of fibers/particles in a composite improves its mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness etc. The objective is to take advantage of the superior properties of both materials without compromising on the weakness of either. As defined by Agarwal and Broutman composite means material having two or more distinct constituent materials or phases. It is only when the constituent phases have significantly different physical properties and thus the composite properties are noticeably different from the constituent materials

Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural. Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific character of a composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine to give them a specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve the desirable properties. Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the levels at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic. In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz., binding the reinforcement phases in place and deforming

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to distribute the stresses among the constituent materials under an applied force.

reinforcement

The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be conductors or resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending on the purpose for which matrices are chosen. Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and metals have found applications as matrix materials in the designing of structural composites, with commendable success. These materials remain elastic till failure occurs and show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression. Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion characteristics. The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two interphases between each side of the interphase and its adjoint constituent. Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of matrix on properties of reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the selection and fabrication of composites is that the constituents should be chemically inert non-reactive.

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Properties of Matrix Materials:

Naturally fibers and whiskers are of little use unless they are bonded together to take form of structural element that can carry loads. The binder material is usually called a matrix. The purpose of the matrix is manifold support of fibers or whiskers, protection of the fibers or whiskers, stress transfer between broken fibers or whiskers, etc. Typically the matrix is of considerably lower density, stiffness, and strength than fibers or whiskers. However the combination of fibers or whiskers and a matrix can have very high strength and stiffness yet still have low density. Matrix materials can be polymers, metals, ceramics or carbon. Polymers (poly =many and mer = unit or molecule) exist in at least three major forms i.e linear, branched, or cross linked. A linear polymer is merely a chain of mers. A branched polymer consists of a primary chain of mers with other chains that are attached in three dimensions just like tree branches. Finally, a cross linked polymer has large number of three dimensional highly interconnected chains. Linear polymers have the least strength and stiffness, whereas cross linked polymer have most because of their inherently stiffer and stronger internal structure. The three main classes of structural polymers are rubbers, thermoplastics,
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and thermo sets. Rubbers are cross linked polymers that have semi crystalline state well below room temperature. Thermoplastics are polymers that branch, but generally dont cross link very much if at all. Thus, they usually can be repeatedly softened on heating and hardened on cooling. Examples of thermoplastics are nylon, polyethylene, and polysulfone. Thermo sets are polymers that are chemically reacted until almost all molecules are irreversibly cross linked in a three dimensional network. Thus, once an epoxy has set, it cannot be changed in form. Examples of thermo sets include epoxies, phenolics, and polyimides. Other matrix materials include metals that can be made to flow around an in-place fiber system by diffusion bonding or by heating vacuum infiltration. Common examples are shown in fig 1.3.1

a) linear

b)branched

c)cross linked

d)network

figure 1.3.1

1.4 Classification of Composites

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:

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 The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites. The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres. Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling. Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this category. Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.

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1.4.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or Carbon-Carbon Composites

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications. Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins. Thermoplastics have oneor two-dimensional

molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds. Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites.

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Figure 1.4.1 a

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures. Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally. There thermoplastic temperatures. are a few options tend their to loose increase their heat strength resistance at like in

thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the heat resistance. But all composites However, elevated rigidity, redeeming qualities

toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc.

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Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds. Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas.

Figure 1.4.1.b
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and
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dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins. Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of 140C. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is ruled out.

Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in automobile and structural applications. The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75C or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey. Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service at around 200250C .

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1.4.2 According to geometry:

Most composite materials developed thus far have been fabricated to improve mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, and high temperature performance. It is natural to study together the composites that have a common strengthening mechanism. The strengthening mechanism strongly depends on the geometry of the reinforcement. Therefore, it is quite convenient to classify composite materials on the basis of the geometry of a representative unit of reinforcement.

1.4.2.a Fibrous composite

A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension discourages the growth of incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement that might otherwise lead to failure, particularly with brittle matrices. Man-made filaments or fibers of non polymeric materials exhibit much higher strength along their length since large flaws, which may be present in the bulk material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness.Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite. Most composites used in structural applications are multilayered; that is, they consist of

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several layers of fibrous composites. Each layer or lamina is a single layer composite and its orientation is varied according to design. Several identical or different layers are bonded together to form a multilayered composites usable for engineering applications. When the constituent materials in each layer are the same, they are called simply laminates. Hybrid laminates refer to multilayered composites consisting of layers made up of different constituent materials. Reinforcing fibers in a single layer composite may be short or long compared to its overall dimensions. Composites with long fibers are called continuous fiber reinforced composites and those with short fibers, discontinuous fiber reinforced composites. The continuous fibers in single layer composites may be all aligned in one direction to form a unidirectional composite. Such composites are fabricated by laying the fibers parallel and saturating them with resinous material. The bidirectional reinforcement may be provided in a single layer in mutually perpendicular directions as in a woven fabric. The bidirectional reinforcement may be such that the strengths in two perpendicular directions are approximately equal. The orientation of discontinuous fibers cannot be easily controlled in a composite material.

So fibers can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented. In most cases the fibers are assumed to be randomly oriented in the composites. However, in the injection molding of a fiber reinforced polymer, considerable orientation can occur in the flow direction and which a case of preferred oriented fibers in the composites.

1.4.2.b Particulate Composites

As the name itself indicates, the reinforcement is of particle nature (platelets are also included in this class). It may be spherical, cubic,
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tetragonal, a platelet, or of other regular or irregular shape, but it is approximately equiaxed. In general, particles are not very effective in improving fracture resistance but they enhance the stiffness of the composite to a limited extent. Particle fillers are widely used to improve the properties of matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and electrical conductivities, improve performance at elevated temperatures, reduce friction, increase wear and abrasion resistance, improve machinability, increase surface hardness and reduce shrinkage. Also, in case of particulate reinforced composites the particle can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented.

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1.4.3 According to type of matrix material they are classified as:

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

1.4.3.a Metal Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites have many advantages over monolithic metals like higher specific modulus, higher specific strength, better properties at elevated temperatures, and lower coefficient of thermal expansion.
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Because of these attributes metal matrix composites are under consideration for wide range of applications viz. combustion chamber nozzle (in rocket, space shuttle), housings, tubing, cables, heat exchangers, structural members etc

1.4.3.b Ceramic matrix Composites

One of the main objectives in producing ceramic matrix composites is to increase the toughness Naturally it is hoped and indeed often found that there is a concomitant improvement in strength and stiffness of ceramic matrix composites.

1.4.3.c Polymer Matrix Composites

Most commonly used matrix materials are polymeric. The reasons for this are twofold. In general the mechanical properties of polymers are inadequate for many structural purposes. In particular their strength and stiffness are low compared to metals and ceramics. These difficulties are overcome by reinforcing other materials with polymers. Secondly the processing of polymer matrix composites need not involve high pressure and doesnt require high temperature. Also equipments required for manufacturing polymer matrix composites are simpler. For this reason polymer matrix composites developed rapidly and soon became popular for structural applications. Composites are used because overall properties of the composites are superior to those of the individual components for example polymer/ceramic. Composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component but arent as brittle as ceramics.

1.4.4 Classification Based on Reinforcements Introduction to Reinforcements

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with
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other two axes either often circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers.

Figure 1.4.4

Two types of polymer composites are: Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) Particle reinforced polymer (PRP)

1.4.4.a Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Common fiber reinforced composites are composed of fibers and a matrix. Fibers are the reinforcement and the main source of strength while matrix glues all the fibers together in shape and transfers stresses between the reinforcing fibers. The fibers carry the loads along their longitudinal directions. Sometimes, filler might be added to smooth the manufacturing process, impact special properties to the composites, and
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/or reduce the product cost. Common fiber reinforcing agents include asbestos, carbon /graphite fibers, beryllium, beryllium carbide, beryllium oxide, molybdenum, aluminium oxide, glass fibers, polyamide,natural fibers etc. Similarly common matrix materials include epoxy, phenolic, polyester, polyurethane, peek, vinyl ester etc. Among these resin materials, epoxy is widely used for its higher adhesion and less shrinkage property.

1.4.4.b Particle Reinforced Polymer

Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminium and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black. Particles are used to increase the modules of the matrix and to decrease the ductility of the matrix. Particles are also used to reduce the cost of the composites. Reinforcements and matrices can be common, inexpensive materials and are easily processed.

Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators. Some ceramics have special properties; some ceramics are magnetic materials; some are piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics are even superconductors at very low temperatures. Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback: they are brittle. An example of particle reinforced composites is an automobile tire, which has carbon black particles in a matrix of poly-isobutylene elastomeric polymer

1.5 Structure of Composite

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Structure of composite material A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness. Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite

Properties
1) Nature of the constituent material (bonding strength) 2) The geometry of the reinforcement (shape, size) 3) The concentration distribution(vol. fraction of reinforcement) 4) The orientation of the reinforcement(random or preferred) Good adhesion (bonding) between matrix phase and displaced phase provides transfer of load applied to the material to the displaced phase via the interface. Good adhesion is required for achieving high level of mechanical properties of composites. Very small particles less than 0.25 micrometer finely distributed in the matrix impede movement of dislocations and deformation of the material. They have strengthening
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effect. Large dispersed phase particles have low share load applied to the material resulting in increase of stiffness and decrease of ductility. Orientation of reinforcement: Planar:-In the form of 2-D woven fabric. When the fibers are laid parallel, the composite exhibits axistrope. Random or Three Dimensional:-The composite material tends to posses isotropic properties. One Dimensional: - Maximum strength and stiffness are obtained in the direction of fiber.

1.6 Advantages of Composites

Advantages of composites over their conventional counterparts are the ability to meet diverse design requirements with significant weight savings as well as strength-to-weight ratio. Some advantages of composite materials over conventional ones are as follows: Tensile strength of composites is four to six times greater than that of steel or aluminium (depending on the reinforcements).

Improved torsional stiffness and impact properties. Higher fatigue endurance limit (up to 60% of ultimate tensile strength). 30% - 40% lighter for example any particular aluminium structures designed to the same functional requirements. Lower embedded energy compared to other structural metallic materials like steel, aluminium etc. Composites are less noisy while in operation and provide lower vibration transmission than metals. Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored to meet performance needs and complex design requirements. Long life offer excellent fatigue, impact, environmental resistance and reduce maintenance.
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Composites enjoy reduced life cycle cost compared to metals. Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and fire retardancy. Improved appearance with smooth surfaces and readily incorporable integral decorative melamine are other characteristics of composites. Composite parts can eliminate joints / fasteners, providing part simplification and integrated design compared to conventional metallic parts.

1.7 Applications of Composites

Figure 1.7

1.8 EXAMPLES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Fibre reinforced plastics:
Industry Examples Door, elevators Space Shuttle, Space stations Body frames, engine Comments 20-35% Weight savings Great weight savings High stiffness & damage tolerance

Classified by type of fiber:

Aerospace Automotive

Aircraft

Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix)

components

Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP)

Construction Fuel tanks etc.

Chemical

Pipes, Tanks, Pressure vessels Structural & decorative panels,

Corrosion resistance Weight savings, portable.

Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally, "fiberglass")

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Classified by matrix: Thermoplastic Composites Short fiber thermoplastics Long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics Glass mat thermoplastics Continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics Thermoset Composites Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)

Metal matrix composites (MMCs): White cast iron Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix) Metal-intermetallic laminate Ceramic matrix composites: Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers)

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Cermet (ceramic and metal) Concrete Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites Asphalt concrete Dental composite Syntactic foam Mother of Pearl Chobham armour (see composite armour) Engineered wood

Plywood Oriented strand board Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix) Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix) Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles Arborite Formica (plastic)
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1.9 Scope of the project

The basic aim of the present work is to develop and characterize a new class of composites with epoxy as polymer matrix and glass fiber as the reinforcing material. Their physical and mechanical characterization is done. Attempt is made to use TiO2 as filler in these fiber reinforced .polymer matrix composites. Characterization of the resulting TiO2 filled glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite is done. The experimentally measured database of composites has also been predicted. This work is expected to introduce a new class of functional polymer composites suitable for tribological applications.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

This chapter outlines some of the recent reports published in literature on composites of fiber reinforced polymer composites. Polymer composite materials have generated wide interest in various engineering fields, particularly in aerospace applications. Research is underway worldwide to develop newer composites with varied combinations of fibers and fillers so as to make them useable under different operational conditions. The improved performance of polymer composites in engineering applications by the addition of filler materials has shown a
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great promise and so has become a subject of considerable interest. Ceramic filled polymer composites have been the subject of extensive research in last two decades. Various kinds of polymers and polymer matrix composites reinforced with ceramic particles have a wide range of industrial applications such as heaters, electrodes, composites with thermal durability at high temperature etc.

These engineering composites are desired due to their low density, high corrosion resistance consisting of ceramic or metal particles and fiber fillers made of glass are being used these days to dramatically improve the wear resistance even up to three orders of magnitude. The inclusion of inorganic fillers into polymers for commercial applications is primarily aimed at the cost reduction and stiffness improvement. Along with fiber-reinforced composites, the composites made with particulate fillers have been found to perform well in many real operational conditions. It is reported by Bonner that with the inclusion of micro-sized particulates into polymers, a high filler content (typically greater than 20 vol. %) is generally required to bring the above stated positive effects into play. But at the same time, this may also have detrimental effects on some important properties of the matrix polymers such as processability, appearance, density and aging performance. It has also been reported that the fracture surface energies of epoxy and polyester resin and their resistance to crack propagation are relatively low.

But if particulate filler is added to these resins, the particles inhibit crack growth. As the volume fraction of filler is varied, the fracture energy increases up to a critical volume fraction and then decreases again. Srivastava showed that the fracture toughness of epoxy resin could be improved by addition of flyash particles as filler. The fillers also affect
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the

tensile

properties

according

to

their
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packing

characteristics, size and interfacial bonding. The maximum volumetric packing fraction of filler reflects the size distribution and shapes of the particles. Recently, it has been observed that by incorporating filler particles into the matrix of fibre reinforced composites, synergistic effects may be achieved in the form of higher modulus and reduced material costs, yet accompanied with decreased strength and impact toughness. Polymer composites with both discontinuous and continuous fibre reinforcement possess usually very high specific (i.e. density related) stiffness and strength when measured in plane. Therefore, such composites are frequently used in engineering parts in automobile, aerospace, marine and energetic applications.

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CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the experimental procedures followed for their characterization and tribological evaluation. The raw materials used in this work are 1. E-glass fiber 2. E-Glass powder 3. Epoxy resin

3.1 Hardener:
The hardener used in Epoxy is polyamine. A polyamine is an organic compound having two or more primary amino groups -NH2.This class of compounds includes several synthetic substances that are important feed stocks for the chemical industry, such as ethylene diamine H2N-CH2-CH2-NH2, 1,3-diaminopropane H2N-(CH2)3-NH2, and hex methylenediamine H2N-(CH2)6-NH2. The amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

3.2 Epoxy:
Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener. When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

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The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements.

Resin:
Resin is a natural or synthetic compound which begins in a highly viscous state and hardens with treatment. Typically, resin is soluble in alcohol, but not in water. There are a number of different classes of resin, depending on exact chemical composition and potential uses. Matrix resins bind glass-reinforcing fibers together, protecting them from impact and the environment. Glass fiber properties such as strength dominate in continuously reinforced composites. When glass is used as a discontinuous reinforcement, resin properties dominate and are enhanced by the glass. Polymer matrix resins fall into two categories: thermo set and thermoplastic. The difference is in their chemistry. Thermo set resin is chemically comprised of molecular chains that crosslink during the cure reaction (set off by heat, catalyst, or both) and "set" into a final rigid form. Molecular chains in thermoplastic resin are processed at higher temperatures and remain "plastic," or capable of being reheated and reshaped. While the tradeoffs between thermosets and thermoplastics have been debated extensively, engineers will find that material suppliers will tailor matrix resin formulations best for their application

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3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials:

Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used. Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers, high silica and quartz fibers, alumina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron fibers, aramid fibers and multi phase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified into E-glass, S-glass, A- glass, R-glass etc. There is a greater market and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers. The potential of fibers of graphite, silicon carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific mind due to their applications in advanced composites.

3.3.1Types of fibers 3.3.1.a Glass Fibers

Over 95% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers, as they are inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the plastics with which they are reinforced.
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Their low density, resistance to chemicals, insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics, although the one major disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when subjected to high tensile stress for a long time.. However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time frames. This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is expected to sustain such loads for many months or years continuously. Period of loading, temperature, moisture and other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibers and the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning before the catastrophic failure. But all this can be easily overlooked in view of the fact that the wide range of glass fiber variety lend themselves amicably to fabrication processes like matched die moulding, filament winding lay-up and so on. Glass fibers are available in the form of mats, tapes, cloth, continuous and chopped filaments, rovings and yarns. Addition of chemicals to silica sand while making glass yields different types of glasses.

3.3.1.b Metal Fibers

As reinforcements, metal fibers have many advantages. They are easily produced using several fabrication processes and are more ductile, apart from being not too sensitive to surface damage and possess high strengths and temperature resistance. However, their weight and the tendency to react with each other through alloying mechanisms are major disadvantages. Steel wire is the most extensively used reinforcement in most large-scale metal filament applications. Wire is used for its capacity to enhance the tensile strength of concrete and continuous metal fibers are the reinforcing constituents in metal and ceramic composite materials.

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3.3.1.c Ceramic fibers improve vastly in performance when a fine metal outline is incorporated with refractory ceramics by improving their thermal shock and impact resistance properties. 3.3.1.d Metal wires, of the continuous version, also reinforce plastics like polyethylene and epoxy. Such combinations ensure high strength, light weight and good fatigue resistance. Besides, continuous metal fibers are easily handled, unlike glass fibers. Better flexural properties are observed in some metal fibers reinforced plastic composites which also offer improved strength and weight, than glass fibers. However, their poor tolerance of high temperatures and the resultant steep variation of thermal expansion coefficient with the resins are a discouragement that limits their application.

3.3.1.d Alumina Fibers

Alumina or aluminum oxide fibers, basically developed for use in metal matrices are considered a potential resin-matrix composite reinforcement. It offers good compressive strength rather than tensile strength. It is important property is it is high melting point of about 2000C and the composite can be successfully used at temperatures up to about 1000C. Magnesium and aluminum matrices frequently use alumina fiber reinforced composites as they do not damage the fiber even in the liquid state.

3.3.1.e Boron Fibers

They are basically composites, in which boron is coated on a substance which forms the substrate, usually made of tungsten. Boron-tungsten fibers are obtained by allowing hot tungsten filament through a mixture of gases. Boron is deposited on tungsten and the process is continued until the desired thickness is achieved. The tungsten however remains constant in its thickness. Properties of boron fibers generally change with the diameter, because of the changing ratio of boron to tungsten and the surface defects that change according to size. However, they
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are known for their remarkable stiffness

33and strength. Their strengths often compare with those of glass fibers, but their tensile modulus is high, almost four to five times that of glass. Boron coated carbons are much cheaper to make than boron tungsten fiber. But its low modulus of elasticity often works against it.

3.3.1.f Silicon Carbide Fibers

Silicon carbide can be coated over a few metals and their room temperature tensile strengths and tensile moduli are like those of boron-tungsten. The advantages of silicon carbide-tungsten are several and they are more desirable than uncoated boron tungsten fibers. Elevated temperature performance and the fact that they reported only a 35% loss of strength at 1350C are their best qualities. Silicon carbide-tungsten and silicon carbidecarbon have both been seen to have very high stress-rupture strength at 1100C and 1300C. Uncoated boron-tungsten fibers tend to lose all their strength at temperatures over 680C. Silicon carbide fibers do not react with molten aluminium, unlike uncoated boron and they also withstand high temperatures used in hot-press titanium matrices. However, silicon carbide-tungsten fibers are dense compared to boron- tungsten fibers of the same diameter. They are prone to surface damage and need careful, delicate handling, especially during fabrication of the composite. Further, above 930C, weakening reactions occur between tungsten and silicon carbide, making it difficult to maintain balance in high-temperature matrix formations. Silicon carbide on 'carbon substrates have several advantages, viz. no, reaction at high temperature, being lighter than silicon carbide tungsten and possessing tensile strengths and modulus that is are often better than those of silicon carbide-tungsten and boron fibers.

3.3.1.g Aramid Fibers

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Aramid fibers are made from aromatic polyamides which are long polymeric .chains and aromatic rings. They are structures in which six carbon atoms are bonded to each other and to combinations of hydrogen atoms. In aramid fibers, these rings occur and reoccur to form the fibers. They were initially used to reinforce automobile tires. Since then, they have also found other uses like bullet proof vests. As high strength applications, their use in power boats is not uncommon.

Aramid have high tensile strength, high modulus and low weight. Impact- resistant structures can be produced from aramid. The density of aramid fibers is less than that of glass and graphite fibers. They are fire resistant apart from being high-temperature resistant and also unaffected by organic solvents and fuels. But their resistance in acid and alkaline media is poor. They are supple and allow themselves to be woven into matrices by simple processes. Aramid fibers have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion in the fiber direction and the failure of aramid fibers is unique. When they fail, the fibers break into small fibrils, which are like fibers within the fibers. This unique failure mechanism is responsible for high strength.

3.3.1.h Quartz and Silica Fibers

The glass-types typically contain about 50 to 78% silica. Silica glass is a purer glass fiber that can be made by treating fiberglass in an acid bath, which removes all impurities without affecting the silica. The final product contains 93 to 99% silica. Quartz is even more pure, and quartz fibers are made from natural quartz crystals that contain 99.9% silica, possessing nearly all the properties of pure solid quartz. Ordinary fiberglass, high silica and quartz fibers share several characteristics and can be produced in a range of fiber diameters. Roving or yarns and other forms of fibers can be made from high silica as well as quartz. All matrix materials that accept fiberglass are amenable to high silica and quartz too. They differ from glass in many factors, however, especially in heat-related properties.
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Although quartz crystals are commonly available, pure crystals are hard to come by. On the other hand, high silica comes from the same material as glass fibers and is easily accessible. However, quartz makes up for its rarity with its capacity to" withstand high temperatures, which silica is incapable of. Barring this difference, silica and quartz are similar in other respects. They are highly elastic and can be stretched to 1 % of their length before break point. Both silica and quartz are not affected by acid attacks and are resistant to moisture. Owing to their thermal properties, silica and quartz are the natural choice as fibers in several applications. They have good insulating properties and do not melt at temperatures up to 1600C. In addition, they have low thermal expansion coefficients which make them withstand high temperatures.

3.3.1.i Graphite Fibers

While use of the term carbon for graphite is permissible, there is one basic difference between the two. Elemental analysis of poly-acrylo-nitrile (PAN) base carbon fibers show that they consist of 91 to 94% carbon. But graphite fibers are over 99% carbon. The difference arises from the fact that the fibers are made at different temperatures. PAN-based carbon cloth or fiber is produced at about 1320C, while graphite fibers and cloth are graphitized at 1950 to 3000C. The properties of graphite remain unchanged even at very high temperatures, but its willingness to react readily with most metals at the fabrication stage or during use at very high temperatures is often a stumbling block, as seen in aluminium matrices when carbides are produced at the interface. These carbides react with moisture with disastrous effects on the composite material.

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Graphite fibers are some of the stiffest fibers known. The stiffness of the fiber is as high as the graphite content. But a major drawback is that stiffness and strength are inversely proportional to each other. Forbidding costs make the use of graphite fibers prohibitive. The best glass fibers are far less expensive than the cheapest, lowest quality of graphite, and in PAN-base fibers, other raw materials too are equally expensive. The carbonization and graphitization are time-consuming, apart from demanding excessive energy, materials and close controls throughout the process. Cheaper pitch base fibers are now being developed, with greater performance potential and there are possibilities of the increased use of graphite fibers.

3.3.1.j Multiphase Fibers

Spoolable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually the multi phase variety and they usually comprise materials like boron, silicon and their carbides formed on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or tungsten. They are usually good for high temperature applications, due to their reduced reaction with higher melting temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers. Boron filaments are sought after for structural and intermediate-temperature composites. A poly-phase fiber is a core-sheath fiber consisting of a polycrystalline core.

3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber:

E-Glass or electrical grade glass was originally developed for standoff insulators for electrical wiring. It was later found to have excellent fibre forming capabilities and is now used almost exclusively as the reinforcing phase in the material commonly known as fiber glass.

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. Figure 3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber

3.3.2 Mechanical Properties of fibers

Composite materials are not homogeneous. Their properties are dependent on many factors, the most important of which are the type of fibre, quantity of fibre (as volume fraction) and the configuration of the reinforcement. They are generally completely elastic up to failure and exhibit neither a yield point nor a region of plasticity. They tend to have low strain to failure(less than 3%). The resulting area under the stress/strain curve, which represents the work done to failure, is relatively small when compared to many metals. The properties of composites are dependent on the properties of the fibre and the matrix, the proportion of each and the configuration of the fibres. If all the fibres are aligned in one direction then the composite relatively stiff and strong in that direction, but in the transverse direction it has low modulus and low strength. When a unidirectional composite is tested at a small angle from the fibre axis, there is a considerable reduction in strength. A similar but less significant effect occurs with the tensile modulus, as shown in Figure 3.3.2

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Figure 3.3.2
Theoretical variation in tensile modulus with the angle of load relative to the principal fibre direction (unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced plastic (UD CFRP), fibre volume fraction = 0.5)

Strength and stiffness Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) E glass fibres, which have a modulus of about 70GPa, produce composites with modest moduli. In the case of unidirectional fibres and the highest typical fibre volume fraction of 0.65, a composite has a modulus of about45GPa and strength of around 1300MPa. At right angles to this, in the transverse direction, the modulus approaches that of the resin itself at about4GPa and the strength would be 50100MPa. The unidirectional compo-sites used in the ROBUST Project, manufactured using the vacuum process with prepreg material in an epoxy matrix, had the following properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 36GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 750MPa Elongation at break: 3.1%.

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Bidirectional E glass laminates have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.4 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about 14GPa.Random laminates (e.g. chopped strand mat) have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.2 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about9GPa. The use of S2 or R glass improves the composite modulus to about60GPa for unidirectional and 20GPa for woven fabric (bidirectional) constructions. This is at some monetary disadvantage. They are both more expensive than E glass and they are only available in a fairly limited range of material types and resin compatibilities. Probably the most important virtue of S2 and R glass is their high strength, which is considerably higher than E glass. Carbon and graphite fibers Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) The dominant carbon fibres in current use (typically Toray T700) have a tensile modulus of about 230GPa, a tensile strength of around 5000MPaand a strain-to-failure of 2%. Unidirectional composites produced from them in either an epoxy or vinyl-ester matrix have the following typical properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 155165GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 25003000MPa Elongation at break: 1.21.3% Carbon fibres are available which will give a tensile modulus of about250GPa in a unidirectional composite, comparing very favourably with steel at about 210GPa. However, as this composite is unidirectional, it has extremely low modulus in the transverse direction. The principal attributes of carbon fibre composites are their very high specific stiffness (the ratio of modulus/density), excellent fatigue and environmental resistance. Currently there are various pultruded CFRP plates available commercially for plate bonding applications. The pultruded plates used in the ROBUST Project, as well as the plates manufactured with prepreg materials, possessed a modulus of about 130GPa and a
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strength of 1500MPa.Pultruded plates now available from other sources typically exploit fibers with superior properties such as Toray T700, resulting in composites with the properties shown above. A financial penalty has to be paid for materials exhibiting properties significantly in excess of these; the strain-to-failure of composites made with them will also be reduced significantly. Carbon and graphite have substantial capability as reinforcing fibers, with great flexibility in the properties that can be provided. Primary characteristics for reinforcing fibers in polymer matrix composites are high stiffness and strength. The fibers must maintain these characteristics in hostile environments such as elevated temperatures, exposure to common solvents and fluids, and environmental moisture. To be used as part of a primary structure material it should also be available as continuous fiber. These characteristics and requirements have substantial implications for the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the fiber, which in turn implies processing and acceptance parameters. Interest in carbon fibers for structural materials was initiated in the late 1950s when synthesized rayons in textile form were carbonized to produce carbon fibers for high temperature missile applications. One of the first distinctions to be made is the difference between carbon and graphite fibers, although the terms are frequently used interchangeably. Background information for these differences is contained in the following sections. The primary purpose of making this distinction here is to alert the reader that users may mean different things when referring to graphite versus carbon fibers. Carbon and graphite fibers are both based on graphene (hexagonal) layer networks present in carbon. If the graphene layers or planes stack with three dimensional orders the material is defined as graphite. Usually extended time and temperature processing is required to form this order, making graphite fibers more expensive. Because the bonding between planes is weak, disorder frequently occurs such that only the two dimensional
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ordering within the layers is present. This material is defined as carbon. With this distinction made, it should be understood that while some differences are implied, there is not a single condition which strictly separates carbon from graphite fibers, and even graphite fibers retain some disorder in their structure.

3.3.3 Fiber Manufacture:

Glass fibers are generally produced using melt spinning techniques. These involve melting the glass composition into a platinum crown which has small holes for the molten glass to flow. Continuous fibers can be drawn out through the holes and wound onto spindles, while short fibers may be produced by spinning the crown, which forces molten glass out through the holes centrifugally. Fibers are cut to length using mechanical means or air jets. Fiber dimension and to some extent properties can be controlled by the process variables such as melt temperature (hence viscosity) and drawing/spinning rate. The temperature window that can be used to produce a melt of suitable viscosity is quite large, making this composition suitable for fiber forming. As fibers are being produced, they are normally treated with sizing and coupling agents. These reduce the effects of fiber- fiber abrasion which can significantly degrade the mechanical strength of the individual fibers. Other treatments may also be used to promote wetting and adherence of the matrix material to the fiber .

Composition
E-Glass is a low alkali glass with a typical nominal composition of SiO2 54wt%, Al2O3 14wt%, CaO+MgThe advantageous properties of E-glass generally outweigh the disadvantages which include:
Low modulus Self abrasiveness if not treated appropriately leading to reduced strength

Relatively low fatigue resistance

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Higher density compared to carbon fibres and organic fibresO 22wt%, B2O3 10wt% and Na2O+K2O less then 2wt%. Some other materials may also be present at impurity levels.

3.3.4 Key Properties:

Properties that have made E-glass so popular in 377iberglass and other glass reinforced composite include: Low cost High production rates High strength High stiffness Relatively low density Non-flammable Resistant to heat Good chemical resistance Relatively insensitive to moisture Able to maintain strength properties over a wide range of conditions Good electrical insulation

3.4 Processing of the Composites Fabrication of the Laminate

E-glass/Epoxy composite laminates were prepared by passing the E-glass fibers of 1200 TEX, through the resin bath of Epoxy and hardener maintaining a constant temperature of about 45 C.The fibers are then wound on a rotating drum with 15 rpm. After complete winding on the drum then it is cut opened and lay on a flat table in the atmospheric condition for about 48 hours to get the
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tackiness. The layers are cut in such a way that the desired fiber direction is obtained. In this experimentation it is decided to prepare the laminates such that the angle between the fibers are15o 30o 45o 60o and 90oas shown in fig-1. The sequence of layup shown in the fig -2. The number of layup depends on the thickness of the laminate required; here it is used 20 layers to obtain the thickness of the laminate about 4mm. All the overlapped layers then compacted between the two parallel flat steel plates with stainless steel spacers of required laminate thickness. The major purpose of lamination is to tailor the directional dependence of strength and stiffness of a composite material to match the loading environment of the structural element laminates are uniquely suited to this objective because the principal material directions of each layer can be oriented according to need. The plates are clamped with nuts and bolts with washers; the clamped setup is then placed in the oven. Maintain the oven temperature of 800 C for 4 hours and 1200 C for next 4 hours so that any entrapped air or volatile gases will be escaped for the first four hours and chemical reaction between the epoxy and hardener will takes place for the next four hours and will lead to permanent set and finally result into a single solid composite laminate. After total curing of 8 hours oven is then switched off so the temperature in the oven may come down to normal temperature. Take out the composite laminate and trim the edges so that the laminate is ready for testing purpose. Winding parameters 17. 18. 19.
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Tension of fibre =1.3 kgs Resin temperature= 45 0c RPM of lathe = 15

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20.

Gap between doctor blade and drum = 1.25 mmThe

parameters are kept constant for two different windings

FILAMENT WINDING SETUP

RESIN BATH

DRUM WINDING

REMOVING LAYUP

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LAYUP PLACED ON TABLE

APPLYING WAXPOL ON PLATES

LAYING UP LAYERS

REMOVING AIR GAP

COMPACTING LAYERS

PLACING IN THE OVEN

3.4.2 CURING PROCESS :

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Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener". The resin consists of monomers or short chain polymers with an epoxide group at either end. Most common epoxy resins are produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A, though the latter may be replaced by similar chemicals. The hardener consists of polyamine monomers, for example Triethylenetetramine (TETA). When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond.

Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily crosslinked, and is thus rigid and strong.The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. So the laminate that is fabricated is put into a Oven . The temperatures are maintained in two cycles. In the first cycle we have to maintain constant temperature of 80C for 4hours and in the next cycle maintain a temperature of 160C for next 4 hours.

AFTER CURING

MARKING

TRIMMING

AFTER TRIMMING

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DRILLING

AFTER DRILLING

Figure 3.6.a specifications of UTM (at CIPET)

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UTM SPECIFICATIONS

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COMPOSITE LAMINATE UNDER TESTING

4.1 Experimental procedure

Quasi-static Indentation tests were performed on INSTRON testing machine. The
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composite laminate of size 150mm x 150mm is placed on a steel supporting frame, with a square opening of size 50mm x 50mm. A similar square opening flat plate is placed ontop of the composite laminate; it is then clamped rigidly with nuts and bolts of 6mm size as shown in fig-3. The clamped setup is placed on the loading frame of testing machine. A spherical stainless steel ball indenter of diameter 8.32mmis used for indentation on the composites laminate. The tests were conducted with the controlled displacement of the indenter (0.2mm / minute). The test data is shown in Table-2.An extensometer is used to measure the displacement of the point just below the indentation location at the bottom side of the composite laminate. A 20kN load cell evaluated the load on each composite laminate. The data obtained during test for each laminate is shown in Table-2. The composite laminate with different fiber angles is indented for a fixed displacement of 5 mm. The damage in the different composite laminate with different fiber angles is shown fig-4. The damage area in each composite laminate is observed with the help of optical light microscope.
S. No. Specifications 1 2 3 4 5 ASTM Present work

Specimen 4 6 mm 4 - 5 mm thickness Indenter 10 16 mm 8.73 mm diameter Cross head 0.2 mm / 1 mm / min displacement min Indenter 5 10 mm 5 mm displacement No of samples 4 4 per test

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF UTM

00/150

00/300

00/450

00/600

00/900

Fig-1: Schematic diagram of five different laminates

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Fig-2: Sequence of angle plies

4.2 COMPOSITE LAMINATES WITHOUT E-GLASS POWDER FRONT SIDE BACK SIDE

0,90

0,60

FRONT SIDE

BACK SIDE

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0,45

0,30

0,15
S. No. Angle (0) Max. Load (KN) Indentation (mm) Spring back (mm)

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1 2 3 4 5

0/15 0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

3.77 4.11 4.69 4.99 5.83

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.86

0.92 1.17 2.50 3.08 3.44

Table - 2: Test results after Indentation.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Load (KN)

15 DEG 30 DEG 45 DEG 60 DEG 90 DEG

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5

Displacement (mm) Graph-1: Shows the load carrying capacity in each case for different indenter displacements of maximum 5mm for all the laminates. It is gradually increasing for the laminates with the fiber angles varying from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

Indentation ()

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-2: Indentation depth is increasing linearly as the fiber angle in laminates is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o),however it is suddenly increasing in the laminates with fiber angle varying from (0o/60o) to (0o/90o).

S. No. 1

Angle (0) 0/15

Front face damage area (mm2) 971

Back face damage area (mm2) 1256

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2 3 4 5

0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

1300 1894 2186 2623

1857 2280 2623 3257

Table-3: Experimental data of damage surface areas on front and back face of the laminates

Front face damage area 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 15 30 45

Back face damage area

60

75

90

105

Graph-3: Damage area is increasing with the increase in fiber angle of the laminates in front face and back face of the laminate; however the damage area back face is more than the front face as seen from the above graph.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Load (KN)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-4: Maximum load taken in each laminate with different fiber angles. The load is increasing linearly as the fiber angle is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

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4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Spring back (mm)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

5: Shows spring back effect is increasing in different laminates as the fiber angles are increasing

0o/15o) to (0o/90o), it shows that as the angle between fibers is increasing the laminate elasticity increasing

Material

Density (mg/m3)

Modulus (G Pa)

Poisons ratio(v)

Tensile strength (G Pa) 3.5

E-glass fiber

2.56

76

0.22

Epoxy resin

1.3

3.6

0.4

0.1

Table-4: Properties of materials

4.3) RATE OF LOADING (0.5mm/min) WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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BACK SIDE

0.5%

1%

1.5

FRONT SIDE
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BACK SIDE
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1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE
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BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE
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(0/15)

BACK SIDE
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GRAPH 1 :

0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1.0 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.92 1.8 1.4 2 3.4 3.1 3.1 3 4.62 4.1 3.5 4 4.85 4.19 3.6 5 4 3.73 3.11

GRAPH 2 :

0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

4
3 2 1 0 0 2

0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 % % % 0 0 0 2 1.7 1.6 3.15 3.2 2.95 4.65 3.72 3.2 5.4 3.12 2.25 3 2.38 1.89

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 3:

0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.1 2.2 1.7 2 3.8 3.6 3.15 3 4.26 4.2 2.91 4 4.5 2.92 2.29 5 3.5 2.32 1.83

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 4: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.15 2.1 1.2 2 3.75 3.5 2.3 3 5.18 4.2 3.4 4 4.2 3.15 2.85 5 2.5 1.9 1.75

GRAPH 5: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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5 4

FORCE (kN)

3 2 1 0 0 2

F 0.5 F1 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.9 1.8 1.7 2 3.1 2.85 2.6 3 3.9 3.8 3.3 4 3 2.8 2.5 5 2.85 2.35 1.7

GRAPH 6 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

0.5 mm/min

3.5 3 2.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

DEPTH mm)

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.42 2.6 2.5 2.1 2

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.38 2.54 2.6 2.4 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 2.67 2.98 2.9 2.55 2.38

ANGLE

GRAPH 7 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

0.5 mm /min

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PROJECTED HEIGHT

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5 %

ANGLE

ANGLE

0 15 30 45 60 90

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 0.5 % 0 2.84 3.2 2.5 2.55 2

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.0 % 0 3.24 3.6 2.7 3.5 2.1

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.5 % 0 3.31 3.76 3.33 3.67 2.6

4.4 1.5mm/min RATE OF LOADING WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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FRONT SIDE

(0/45)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/15)

BACK SIDE

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GRAPH 8: 0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

F F F 0.5% 1 % 1.5% 0 0 0 1.5 2.05 1.35 3.1 3.3 2.75 3.2 4.3 1.95 2.5 3.75 1.65 1.5 3.25 1.31

GRAPH 9:0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5 % 0 0 0 0 1 2.5 2.31 2.09 2 4.72 4.22 3.75 3 5.5 4.5 4.2 4 4.5 3.23 2.85 5 3.7 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 10: 0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 % 0 2.5 4.72 5.5 4.5 3.7

FORCE (kN)

4 3 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 1 0 0 2 DISPLACEMENT 4 (mm) 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 2.31 2.09 4.22 3.75 4.5 4.2 3.23 2.85 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 11: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

F 0.5 % 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2.5 4.2 5.55 4.65 3.25

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 (mm) DISPLACEMENT 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 1.75 1.65 3 2.65 4 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.2 1.8

GRAPH 12: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5 mm/min)

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F 1.0 %

F 1.5 %

6 5

FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 DISPLACEMENT (mm) F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

0 1 2 3 4 5

0 1.8 2.9 4.1 4.85 3.7

0 1.98 3.15 3.9 4.4 3.2

0 1.65 2.5 3.1 2.25 1.6

GRAPH13 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

1.5 mm/min

DEPTH OF INDENTATION mm)

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

0
0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.34 2.45 2.67 2.39 2.5

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.14 2.32 2.6 2.27 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 1.9 2.29 2.31 2 1.8

ANGLE

GRAPH 14 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

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3.5

PROJECTED HEIGHT

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5%

ANGLE

ANGLE PROJECTED PROJECTED PROJECTED HEIGHT HEIGHT HEIGHT 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 15 3 1.41 2.95 30 2.71 3.65 3.05 45 3.19 3.31 3.15 60 3.33 3.32 2.5 90 2.7 2.55 2.1

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Graph 1 (0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 1 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 4mm at 3.6kN. Graph 2 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 2 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 5.4kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN. Graph 3 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 3,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 3.15kN. Graph 4 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) :
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at the

In Graph 4,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.18kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.4kN. Graph 5 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 5,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.9kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.3kN. Graph 6 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 6,Depth of indentation is increasing with increase in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-150 to 0-300 later on there is increase angles 0-300 to 0-900. Graph 7 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 7, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-300 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600 and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing
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at the

in

depth of indentation,but it is decreases with

in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles. Graph 8(0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 8 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of2 mm at 2.75kN. Graph 9 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 9 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN. Graph 10 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 10,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN.
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Graph 11 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 11,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.55kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 2.65kN. Graph 12 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 12,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.1kN. Graph 13 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 13,Depth of indentation is increasing with decrease in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-450, later on there is decrease in depth of indentation from 0-450 to 0-600,but it is increases with angles 0-600 to 0-900. Graph 14 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 14, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-150 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600
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at the

at the

and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles.

REFERENCES
1) Agarwal, B. D and Broutman, L. J, (1990). Analysis and Performance
of Fiber Composites, Second Edition, Jhon Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 2) Robert M. Jones(1999), mechanics of composite materials, second edition Taylor & Francis group , New york London. 3) http://nptel.iitm.ac.in 4) http://www.wikipedia.org/ 5) Rothon R.N, (1999). Mineral fillers in thermoplastics: filler manufacture and characterization. Adv. Polym. Sci. 139, pp. 67-107. 6) http://composite.about.com/ 7) Applied composite materials, An international journal for the science And application of composites materials.

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8) Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, publishes research on Polymers, nano composites and particulate

ABSTRACT

In this work the composite laminates of Epoxy/E-glass fiber hybridizing with and without E- glass powder are prepared for testing. The fabrication of the laminate is done by filament winding (hoop winding) on a drum mandrel mounted on a modified center lathe. The green layup obtained is cut into laminae of the desired orientations and stacked in the predefined way to a required thickness. The stacked laminate is cured at elevated temperatures under a pressure from a pressure plate. The edges of the laminate are trimmed first and it is then cut in to required size. The specimens are then subjected to indentation test on a universal testing machine (UTM) for a fixed indenter depth. An investigative study is conducted into the results obtained from test data. A number of illustrations are shown regarding the damage in the specimens of different fiber orientation and with different percentages of E-glass powder. Also indentation depth, contact radius, spring back effect, and maximum load carrying capacity are studied.
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER :1 INTRODUCTION 1.46 Overview of composites. 1.47 Historical Development/Historical Overview. 1.48 What is composite material. 1.49 Classification of composites. 1.50 Structure of composites. 1.51 Advantages of composites. 1.52 Applications of composites. 1.53 Examples of composite materials. 1.54 Scope of Project. CHAPTER:2 LITERATURE SURVE

PAGE NO:

5 5 8 12 24 25 26 27 29

30

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CHAPTER:3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Hardener. 3.2 Epoxy. 3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials. 3.3.1 Types of fibres. 3.3.2 Mechanical properties of fibres. 3.3.3 Fibre manufacturing. 3.3.4 Key properties. 3.4 Processing of composites. 3.4.1 Curing CHAPTER:4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. 4.1 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates without E-glass powder. 4.2 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 62 57 56 32 32 32 34 35 43 46 47 49 52

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4.3

1.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 71

CHAPTER:5 5.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. 5.2 REFERENCES 80 85

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of composites

The development of composite materials and related design and manufacturing technologies is one of the most important advances in the history of materials. Composites are multifunctional materials having unprecedented mechanical and physical properties that can be tailored to meet the requirements of a particular application. Many composites also exhibit great resistance to high-temperature corrosion and oxidation and wear. These unique characteristics provide the mechanical engineer with design opportunities not possible with conventional monolithic (unreinforced) materials. Composites technology also makes possible the use of an entire class of solid materials, ceramics, in applications for which monolithic versions are unsuited because of their great strength scatter and poor resistance to mechanical and thermal shock. Further, many manufacturing processes for composites are well adapted to the fabrication of large, complex structures, which allows consolidation of parts, reducing manufacturing costs.

1.2 Historical Development / Historical overview: Past: After making and controlling fire and inventing the wheel,
spinning of continuous yarns is probably the most important development of mankind, enabling him to survive outside the tropical
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climate zones and spread across the surface of the Earth. Flexible fabrics made of locally grown and spun fibres as cotton; flax and jute were a big step forward compared to animal skins. More and more natural resources were used, soon resulting in the first composites; straw reinforced walls, and bows (Figure M.1.1.a) and chariots made of glued layers of wood, bone and horn. More durable materials as wood and metal soon replaced these antique composites.

Fig M.1.1.a Composite Korean bow

Present:
Originating from early agricultural societies and being almost forgotten after centuries, a true revival started of using lightweight composite structures for many technical solutions during the second half of the 20th century. After being solely used for their electromagnetic properties (insulators and radar-domes), using composites to improve the structural performance of spacecraft and military aircraft became popular in the last two decades of the previous century. First at any costs, with development of improved materials with increasing costs, nowadays cost

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reduction during manufacturing and operation are the main technology drivers. Latest development is the use of composites to protect man

against fire and impact and a tendency to a more environmental friendly design, leading to the reintroduction of natural fibres in the composite technology. Increasingly nowadays, the success of composites in applications, by volume and by numbers, can be ranked by accessibility and reproducibility of the applied manufacturing techniques. Some examples of use of natural fibers(M.1.1b M.1.1.e)

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Future:
In future, composites will be manufactured even more according to an integrated design process resulting in the optimum construction according to parameters such as shape, mass, strength, stiffness, durability, costs, etc. Newly developed design tools must be able to instantaneously show customers the influence of a design change on each one of these parameters.

1.3 What is Composite Material?

Composite materials are engineering materials made from two or more constituent materials that remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level while forming a single component. There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix
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Properties. The primary functions of the matrix are to transfer stresses between the reinforcing fibers/particles and to protect them from mechanical environmental damage whereas the presence of fibers/particles in a composite improves its mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness etc. The objective is to take advantage of the superior properties of both materials without compromising on the weakness of either. As defined by Agarwal and Broutman composite means material having two or more distinct constituent materials or phases. It is only when the constituent phases have significantly different physical properties and thus the composite properties are noticeably different from the constituent materials

Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural. Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific character of a composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine to give them a specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve the desirable properties. Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the levels at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic. In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz., binding the reinforcement phases in place and deforming

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to distribute the stresses among the constituent materials under an applied force.

reinforcement

The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be conductors or resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending on the purpose for which matrices are chosen. Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and metals have found applications as matrix materials in the designing of structural composites, with commendable success. These materials remain elastic till failure occurs and show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression. Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion characteristics. The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two interphases between each side of the interphase and its adjoint constituent. Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of matrix on properties of reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the selection and fabrication of composites is that the constituents should be chemically inert non-reactive.

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Properties of Matrix Materials:

Naturally fibers and whiskers are of little use unless they are bonded together to take form of structural element that can carry loads. The binder material is usually called a matrix. The purpose of the matrix is manifold support of fibers or whiskers, protection of the fibers or whiskers, stress transfer between broken fibers or whiskers, etc. Typically the matrix is of considerably lower density, stiffness, and strength than fibers or whiskers. However the combination of fibers or whiskers and a matrix can have very high strength and stiffness yet still have low density. Matrix materials can be polymers, metals, ceramics or carbon. Polymers (poly =many and mer = unit or molecule) exist in at least three major forms i.e linear, branched, or cross linked. A linear polymer is merely a chain of mers. A branched polymer consists of a primary chain of mers with other chains that are attached in three dimensions just like tree branches. Finally, a cross linked polymer has large number of three dimensional highly interconnected chains. Linear polymers have the least strength and stiffness, whereas cross linked polymer have most because of their inherently stiffer and stronger internal structure. The three main classes of structural polymers are rubbers, thermoplastics,
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and thermo sets. Rubbers are cross linked polymers that have semi crystalline state well below room temperature. Thermoplastics are polymers that branch, but generally dont cross link very much if at all. Thus, they usually can be repeatedly softened on heating and hardened on cooling. Examples of thermoplastics are nylon, polyethylene, and polysulfone. Thermo sets are polymers that are chemically reacted until almost all molecules are irreversibly cross linked in a three dimensional network. Thus, once an epoxy has set, it cannot be changed in form. Examples of thermo sets include epoxies, phenolics, and polyimides. Other matrix materials include metals that can be made to flow around an in-place fiber system by diffusion bonding or by heating vacuum infiltration. Common examples are shown in fig 1.3.1

a) linear

b)branched

c)cross linked

d)network

figure 1.3.1

1.4 Classification of Composites

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:

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 The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites. The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres. Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling. Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this category. Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.

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1.4.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or Carbon-Carbon Composites

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications. Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins. Thermoplastics have oneor two-dimensional

molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds. Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites.

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Figure 1.4.1 a

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures. Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally. There thermoplastic temperatures. are a few options tend their to loose increase their heat strength resistance at like in

thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the heat resistance. But all composites However, elevated rigidity, redeeming qualities

toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc.

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Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds. Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas.

Figure 1.4.1.b
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and
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dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins. Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of 140C. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is ruled out.

Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in automobile and structural applications. The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75C or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey. Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service at around 200250C .

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1.4.2 According to geometry:

Most composite materials developed thus far have been fabricated to improve mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, and high temperature performance. It is natural to study together the composites that have a common strengthening mechanism. The strengthening mechanism strongly depends on the geometry of the reinforcement. Therefore, it is quite convenient to classify composite materials on the basis of the geometry of a representative unit of reinforcement.

1.4.2.a Fibrous composite

A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension discourages the growth of incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement that might otherwise lead to failure, particularly with brittle matrices. Man-made filaments or fibers of non polymeric materials exhibit much higher strength along their length since large flaws, which may be present in the bulk material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness.Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite. Most composites used in structural applications are multilayered; that is, they consist of

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several layers of fibrous composites. Each layer or lamina is a single layer composite and its orientation is varied according to design. Several identical or different layers are bonded together to form a multilayered composites usable for engineering applications. When the constituent materials in each layer are the same, they are called simply laminates. Hybrid laminates refer to multilayered composites consisting of layers made up of different constituent materials. Reinforcing fibers in a single layer composite may be short or long compared to its overall dimensions. Composites with long fibers are called continuous fiber reinforced composites and those with short fibers, discontinuous fiber reinforced composites. The continuous fibers in single layer composites may be all aligned in one direction to form a unidirectional composite. Such composites are fabricated by laying the fibers parallel and saturating them with resinous material. The bidirectional reinforcement may be provided in a single layer in mutually perpendicular directions as in a woven fabric. The bidirectional reinforcement may be such that the strengths in two perpendicular directions are approximately equal. The orientation of discontinuous fibers cannot be easily controlled in a composite material.

So fibers can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented. In most cases the fibers are assumed to be randomly oriented in the composites. However, in the injection molding of a fiber reinforced polymer, considerable orientation can occur in the flow direction and which a case of preferred oriented fibers in the composites.

1.4.2.b Particulate Composites

As the name itself indicates, the reinforcement is of particle nature (platelets are also included in this class). It may be spherical, cubic,
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tetragonal, a platelet, or of other regular or irregular shape, but it is approximately equiaxed. In general, particles are not very effective in improving fracture resistance but they enhance the stiffness of the composite to a limited extent. Particle fillers are widely used to improve the properties of matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and electrical conductivities, improve performance at elevated temperatures, reduce friction, increase wear and abrasion resistance, improve machinability, increase surface hardness and reduce shrinkage. Also, in case of particulate reinforced composites the particle can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented.

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1.4.3 According to type of matrix material they are classified as:

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

1.4.3.a Metal Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites have many advantages over monolithic metals like higher specific modulus, higher specific strength, better properties at elevated temperatures, and lower coefficient of thermal expansion.
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Because of these attributes metal matrix composites are under consideration for wide range of applications viz. combustion chamber nozzle (in rocket, space shuttle), housings, tubing, cables, heat exchangers, structural members etc

1.4.3.b Ceramic matrix Composites

One of the main objectives in producing ceramic matrix composites is to increase the toughness Naturally it is hoped and indeed often found that there is a concomitant improvement in strength and stiffness of ceramic matrix composites.

1.4.3.c Polymer Matrix Composites

Most commonly used matrix materials are polymeric. The reasons for this are twofold. In general the mechanical properties of polymers are inadequate for many structural purposes. In particular their strength and stiffness are low compared to metals and ceramics. These difficulties are overcome by reinforcing other materials with polymers. Secondly the processing of polymer matrix composites need not involve high pressure and doesnt require high temperature. Also equipments required for manufacturing polymer matrix composites are simpler. For this reason polymer matrix composites developed rapidly and soon became popular for structural applications. Composites are used because overall properties of the composites are superior to those of the individual components for example polymer/ceramic. Composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component but arent as brittle as ceramics.

1.4.4 Classification Based on Reinforcements Introduction to Reinforcements

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with
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other two axes either often circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers.

Figure 1.4.4

Two types of polymer composites are: Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) Particle reinforced polymer (PRP)

1.4.4.a Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Common fiber reinforced composites are composed of fibers and a matrix. Fibers are the reinforcement and the main source of strength while matrix glues all the fibers together in shape and transfers stresses between the reinforcing fibers. The fibers carry the loads along their longitudinal directions. Sometimes, filler might be added to smooth the manufacturing process, impact special properties to the composites, and
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/or reduce the product cost. Common fiber reinforcing agents include asbestos, carbon /graphite fibers, beryllium, beryllium carbide, beryllium oxide, molybdenum, aluminium oxide, glass fibers, polyamide,natural fibers etc. Similarly common matrix materials include epoxy, phenolic, polyester, polyurethane, peek, vinyl ester etc. Among these resin materials, epoxy is widely used for its higher adhesion and less shrinkage property.

1.4.4.b Particle Reinforced Polymer

Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminium and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black. Particles are used to increase the modules of the matrix and to decrease the ductility of the matrix. Particles are also used to reduce the cost of the composites. Reinforcements and matrices can be common, inexpensive materials and are easily processed.

Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators. Some ceramics have special properties; some ceramics are magnetic materials; some are piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics are even superconductors at very low temperatures. Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback: they are brittle. An example of particle reinforced composites is an automobile tire, which has carbon black particles in a matrix of poly-isobutylene elastomeric polymer

1.5 Structure of Composite

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Structure of composite material A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness. Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite

Properties
1) Nature of the constituent material (bonding strength) 2) The geometry of the reinforcement (shape, size) 3) The concentration distribution(vol. fraction of reinforcement) 4) The orientation of the reinforcement(random or preferred) Good adhesion (bonding) between matrix phase and displaced phase provides transfer of load applied to the material to the displaced phase via the interface. Good adhesion is required for achieving high level of mechanical properties of composites. Very small particles less than 0.25 micrometer finely distributed in the matrix impede movement of dislocations and deformation of the material. They have strengthening
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effect. Large dispersed phase particles have low share load applied to the material resulting in increase of stiffness and decrease of ductility. Orientation of reinforcement: Planar:-In the form of 2-D woven fabric. When the fibers are laid parallel, the composite exhibits axistrope. Random or Three Dimensional:-The composite material tends to posses isotropic properties. One Dimensional: - Maximum strength and stiffness are obtained in the direction of fiber.

1.6 Advantages of Composites

Advantages of composites over their conventional counterparts are the ability to meet diverse design requirements with significant weight savings as well as strength-to-weight ratio. Some advantages of composite materials over conventional ones are as follows: Tensile strength of composites is four to six times greater than that of steel or aluminium (depending on the reinforcements).

Improved torsional stiffness and impact properties. Higher fatigue endurance limit (up to 60% of ultimate tensile strength). 30% - 40% lighter for example any particular aluminium structures designed to the same functional requirements. Lower embedded energy compared to other structural metallic materials like steel, aluminium etc. Composites are less noisy while in operation and provide lower vibration transmission than metals. Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored to meet performance needs and complex design requirements. Long life offer excellent fatigue, impact, environmental resistance and reduce maintenance.
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Composites enjoy reduced life cycle cost compared to metals. Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and fire retardancy. Improved appearance with smooth surfaces and readily incorporable integral decorative melamine are other characteristics of composites. Composite parts can eliminate joints / fasteners, providing part simplification and integrated design compared to conventional metallic parts.

1.7 Applications of Composites

Figure 1.7

1.8 EXAMPLES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Fibre reinforced plastics:
Industry Examples Door, elevators Space Shuttle, Space stations Body frames, engine Comments 20-35% Weight savings Great weight savings High stiffness & damage tolerance

Classified by type of fiber:

Aerospace Automotive

Aircraft

Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix)

components

Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP)

Construction Fuel tanks etc.

Chemical

Pipes, Tanks, Pressure vessels Structural & decorative panels,

Corrosion resistance Weight savings, portable.

Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally, "fiberglass")

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Classified by matrix: Thermoplastic Composites Short fiber thermoplastics Long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics Glass mat thermoplastics Continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics Thermoset Composites Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)

Metal matrix composites (MMCs): White cast iron Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix) Metal-intermetallic laminate Ceramic matrix composites: Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers)

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Cermet (ceramic and metal) Concrete Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites Asphalt concrete Dental composite Syntactic foam Mother of Pearl Chobham armour (see composite armour) Engineered wood

Plywood Oriented strand board Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix) Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix) Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles Arborite Formica (plastic)
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1.9 Scope of the project

The basic aim of the present work is to develop and characterize a new class of composites with epoxy as polymer matrix and glass fiber as the reinforcing material. Their physical and mechanical characterization is done. Attempt is made to use TiO2 as filler in these fiber reinforced .polymer matrix composites. Characterization of the resulting TiO2 filled glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite is done. The experimentally measured database of composites has also been predicted. This work is expected to introduce a new class of functional polymer composites suitable for tribological applications.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

This chapter outlines some of the recent reports published in literature on composites of fiber reinforced polymer composites. Polymer composite materials have generated wide interest in various engineering fields, particularly in aerospace applications. Research is underway worldwide to develop newer composites with varied combinations of fibers and fillers so as to make them useable under different operational conditions. The improved performance of polymer composites in engineering applications by the addition of filler materials has shown a
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great promise and so has become a subject of considerable interest. Ceramic filled polymer composites have been the subject of extensive research in last two decades. Various kinds of polymers and polymer matrix composites reinforced with ceramic particles have a wide range of industrial applications such as heaters, electrodes, composites with thermal durability at high temperature etc.

These engineering composites are desired due to their low density, high corrosion resistance consisting of ceramic or metal particles and fiber fillers made of glass are being used these days to dramatically improve the wear resistance even up to three orders of magnitude. The inclusion of inorganic fillers into polymers for commercial applications is primarily aimed at the cost reduction and stiffness improvement. Along with fiber-reinforced composites, the composites made with particulate fillers have been found to perform well in many real operational conditions. It is reported by Bonner that with the inclusion of micro-sized particulates into polymers, a high filler content (typically greater than 20 vol. %) is generally required to bring the above stated positive effects into play. But at the same time, this may also have detrimental effects on some important properties of the matrix polymers such as processability, appearance, density and aging performance. It has also been reported that the fracture surface energies of epoxy and polyester resin and their resistance to crack propagation are relatively low.

But if particulate filler is added to these resins, the particles inhibit crack growth. As the volume fraction of filler is varied, the fracture energy increases up to a critical volume fraction and then decreases again. Srivastava showed that the fracture toughness of epoxy resin could be improved by addition of flyash particles as filler. The fillers also affect
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tensile

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packing

characteristics, size and interfacial bonding. The maximum volumetric packing fraction of filler reflects the size distribution and shapes of the particles. Recently, it has been observed that by incorporating filler particles into the matrix of fibre reinforced composites, synergistic effects may be achieved in the form of higher modulus and reduced material costs, yet accompanied with decreased strength and impact toughness. Polymer composites with both discontinuous and continuous fibre reinforcement possess usually very high specific (i.e. density related) stiffness and strength when measured in plane. Therefore, such composites are frequently used in engineering parts in automobile, aerospace, marine and energetic applications.

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CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the experimental procedures followed for their characterization and tribological evaluation. The raw materials used in this work are 1. E-glass fiber 2. E-Glass powder 3. Epoxy resin

3.1 Hardener:
The hardener used in Epoxy is polyamine. A polyamine is an organic compound having two or more primary amino groups -NH2.This class of compounds includes several synthetic substances that are important feed stocks for the chemical industry, such as ethylene diamine H2N-CH2-CH2-NH2, 1,3-diaminopropane H2N-(CH2)3-NH2, and hex methylenediamine H2N-(CH2)6-NH2. The amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

3.2 Epoxy:
Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener. When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

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The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements.

Resin:
Resin is a natural or synthetic compound which begins in a highly viscous state and hardens with treatment. Typically, resin is soluble in alcohol, but not in water. There are a number of different classes of resin, depending on exact chemical composition and potential uses. Matrix resins bind glass-reinforcing fibers together, protecting them from impact and the environment. Glass fiber properties such as strength dominate in continuously reinforced composites. When glass is used as a discontinuous reinforcement, resin properties dominate and are enhanced by the glass. Polymer matrix resins fall into two categories: thermo set and thermoplastic. The difference is in their chemistry. Thermo set resin is chemically comprised of molecular chains that crosslink during the cure reaction (set off by heat, catalyst, or both) and "set" into a final rigid form. Molecular chains in thermoplastic resin are processed at higher temperatures and remain "plastic," or capable of being reheated and reshaped. While the tradeoffs between thermosets and thermoplastics have been debated extensively, engineers will find that material suppliers will tailor matrix resin formulations best for their application

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3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials:

Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used. Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers, high silica and quartz fibers, alumina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron fibers, aramid fibers and multi phase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified into E-glass, S-glass, A- glass, R-glass etc. There is a greater market and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers. The potential of fibers of graphite, silicon carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific mind due to their applications in advanced composites.

3.3.1Types of fibers 3.3.1.a Glass Fibers

Over 95% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers, as they are inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the plastics with which they are reinforced.
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Their low density, resistance to chemicals, insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics, although the one major disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when subjected to high tensile stress for a long time.. However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time frames. This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is expected to sustain such loads for many months or years continuously. Period of loading, temperature, moisture and other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibers and the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning before the catastrophic failure. But all this can be easily overlooked in view of the fact that the wide range of glass fiber variety lend themselves amicably to fabrication processes like matched die moulding, filament winding lay-up and so on. Glass fibers are available in the form of mats, tapes, cloth, continuous and chopped filaments, rovings and yarns. Addition of chemicals to silica sand while making glass yields different types of glasses.

3.3.1.b Metal Fibers

As reinforcements, metal fibers have many advantages. They are easily produced using several fabrication processes and are more ductile, apart from being not too sensitive to surface damage and possess high strengths and temperature resistance. However, their weight and the tendency to react with each other through alloying mechanisms are major disadvantages. Steel wire is the most extensively used reinforcement in most large-scale metal filament applications. Wire is used for its capacity to enhance the tensile strength of concrete and continuous metal fibers are the reinforcing constituents in metal and ceramic composite materials.

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3.3.1.c Ceramic fibers improve vastly in performance when a fine metal outline is incorporated with refractory ceramics by improving their thermal shock and impact resistance properties. 3.3.1.d Metal wires, of the continuous version, also reinforce plastics like polyethylene and epoxy. Such combinations ensure high strength, light weight and good fatigue resistance. Besides, continuous metal fibers are easily handled, unlike glass fibers. Better flexural properties are observed in some metal fibers reinforced plastic composites which also offer improved strength and weight, than glass fibers. However, their poor tolerance of high temperatures and the resultant steep variation of thermal expansion coefficient with the resins are a discouragement that limits their application.

3.3.1.d Alumina Fibers

Alumina or aluminum oxide fibers, basically developed for use in metal matrices are considered a potential resin-matrix composite reinforcement. It offers good compressive strength rather than tensile strength. It is important property is it is high melting point of about 2000C and the composite can be successfully used at temperatures up to about 1000C. Magnesium and aluminum matrices frequently use alumina fiber reinforced composites as they do not damage the fiber even in the liquid state.

3.3.1.e Boron Fibers

They are basically composites, in which boron is coated on a substance which forms the substrate, usually made of tungsten. Boron-tungsten fibers are obtained by allowing hot tungsten filament through a mixture of gases. Boron is deposited on tungsten and the process is continued until the desired thickness is achieved. The tungsten however remains constant in its thickness. Properties of boron fibers generally change with the diameter, because of the changing ratio of boron to tungsten and the surface defects that change according to size. However, they
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are known for their remarkable stiffness

33and strength. Their strengths often compare with those of glass fibers, but their tensile modulus is high, almost four to five times that of glass. Boron coated carbons are much cheaper to make than boron tungsten fiber. But its low modulus of elasticity often works against it.

3.3.1.f Silicon Carbide Fibers

Silicon carbide can be coated over a few metals and their room temperature tensile strengths and tensile moduli are like those of boron-tungsten. The advantages of silicon carbide-tungsten are several and they are more desirable than uncoated boron tungsten fibers. Elevated temperature performance and the fact that they reported only a 35% loss of strength at 1350C are their best qualities. Silicon carbide-tungsten and silicon carbidecarbon have both been seen to have very high stress-rupture strength at 1100C and 1300C. Uncoated boron-tungsten fibers tend to lose all their strength at temperatures over 680C. Silicon carbide fibers do not react with molten aluminium, unlike uncoated boron and they also withstand high temperatures used in hot-press titanium matrices. However, silicon carbide-tungsten fibers are dense compared to boron- tungsten fibers of the same diameter. They are prone to surface damage and need careful, delicate handling, especially during fabrication of the composite. Further, above 930C, weakening reactions occur between tungsten and silicon carbide, making it difficult to maintain balance in high-temperature matrix formations. Silicon carbide on 'carbon substrates have several advantages, viz. no, reaction at high temperature, being lighter than silicon carbide tungsten and possessing tensile strengths and modulus that is are often better than those of silicon carbide-tungsten and boron fibers.

3.3.1.g Aramid Fibers

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Aramid fibers are made from aromatic polyamides which are long polymeric .chains and aromatic rings. They are structures in which six carbon atoms are bonded to each other and to combinations of hydrogen atoms. In aramid fibers, these rings occur and reoccur to form the fibers. They were initially used to reinforce automobile tires. Since then, they have also found other uses like bullet proof vests. As high strength applications, their use in power boats is not uncommon.

Aramid have high tensile strength, high modulus and low weight. Impact- resistant structures can be produced from aramid. The density of aramid fibers is less than that of glass and graphite fibers. They are fire resistant apart from being high-temperature resistant and also unaffected by organic solvents and fuels. But their resistance in acid and alkaline media is poor. They are supple and allow themselves to be woven into matrices by simple processes. Aramid fibers have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion in the fiber direction and the failure of aramid fibers is unique. When they fail, the fibers break into small fibrils, which are like fibers within the fibers. This unique failure mechanism is responsible for high strength.

3.3.1.h Quartz and Silica Fibers

The glass-types typically contain about 50 to 78% silica. Silica glass is a purer glass fiber that can be made by treating fiberglass in an acid bath, which removes all impurities without affecting the silica. The final product contains 93 to 99% silica. Quartz is even more pure, and quartz fibers are made from natural quartz crystals that contain 99.9% silica, possessing nearly all the properties of pure solid quartz. Ordinary fiberglass, high silica and quartz fibers share several characteristics and can be produced in a range of fiber diameters. Roving or yarns and other forms of fibers can be made from high silica as well as quartz. All matrix materials that accept fiberglass are amenable to high silica and quartz too. They differ from glass in many factors, however, especially in heat-related properties.
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Although quartz crystals are commonly available, pure crystals are hard to come by. On the other hand, high silica comes from the same material as glass fibers and is easily accessible. However, quartz makes up for its rarity with its capacity to" withstand high temperatures, which silica is incapable of. Barring this difference, silica and quartz are similar in other respects. They are highly elastic and can be stretched to 1 % of their length before break point. Both silica and quartz are not affected by acid attacks and are resistant to moisture. Owing to their thermal properties, silica and quartz are the natural choice as fibers in several applications. They have good insulating properties and do not melt at temperatures up to 1600C. In addition, they have low thermal expansion coefficients which make them withstand high temperatures.

3.3.1.i Graphite Fibers

While use of the term carbon for graphite is permissible, there is one basic difference between the two. Elemental analysis of poly-acrylo-nitrile (PAN) base carbon fibers show that they consist of 91 to 94% carbon. But graphite fibers are over 99% carbon. The difference arises from the fact that the fibers are made at different temperatures. PAN-based carbon cloth or fiber is produced at about 1320C, while graphite fibers and cloth are graphitized at 1950 to 3000C. The properties of graphite remain unchanged even at very high temperatures, but its willingness to react readily with most metals at the fabrication stage or during use at very high temperatures is often a stumbling block, as seen in aluminium matrices when carbides are produced at the interface. These carbides react with moisture with disastrous effects on the composite material.

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Graphite fibers are some of the stiffest fibers known. The stiffness of the fiber is as high as the graphite content. But a major drawback is that stiffness and strength are inversely proportional to each other. Forbidding costs make the use of graphite fibers prohibitive. The best glass fibers are far less expensive than the cheapest, lowest quality of graphite, and in PAN-base fibers, other raw materials too are equally expensive. The carbonization and graphitization are time-consuming, apart from demanding excessive energy, materials and close controls throughout the process. Cheaper pitch base fibers are now being developed, with greater performance potential and there are possibilities of the increased use of graphite fibers.

3.3.1.j Multiphase Fibers

Spoolable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually the multi phase variety and they usually comprise materials like boron, silicon and their carbides formed on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or tungsten. They are usually good for high temperature applications, due to their reduced reaction with higher melting temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers. Boron filaments are sought after for structural and intermediate-temperature composites. A poly-phase fiber is a core-sheath fiber consisting of a polycrystalline core.

3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber:

E-Glass or electrical grade glass was originally developed for standoff insulators for electrical wiring. It was later found to have excellent fibre forming capabilities and is now used almost exclusively as the reinforcing phase in the material commonly known as fiber glass.

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. Figure 3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber

3.3.2 Mechanical Properties of fibers

Composite materials are not homogeneous. Their properties are dependent on many factors, the most important of which are the type of fibre, quantity of fibre (as volume fraction) and the configuration of the reinforcement. They are generally completely elastic up to failure and exhibit neither a yield point nor a region of plasticity. They tend to have low strain to failure(less than 3%). The resulting area under the stress/strain curve, which represents the work done to failure, is relatively small when compared to many metals. The properties of composites are dependent on the properties of the fibre and the matrix, the proportion of each and the configuration of the fibres. If all the fibres are aligned in one direction then the composite relatively stiff and strong in that direction, but in the transverse direction it has low modulus and low strength. When a unidirectional composite is tested at a small angle from the fibre axis, there is a considerable reduction in strength. A similar but less significant effect occurs with the tensile modulus, as shown in Figure 3.3.2

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Figure 3.3.2
Theoretical variation in tensile modulus with the angle of load relative to the principal fibre direction (unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced plastic (UD CFRP), fibre volume fraction = 0.5)

Strength and stiffness Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) E glass fibres, which have a modulus of about 70GPa, produce composites with modest moduli. In the case of unidirectional fibres and the highest typical fibre volume fraction of 0.65, a composite has a modulus of about45GPa and strength of around 1300MPa. At right angles to this, in the transverse direction, the modulus approaches that of the resin itself at about4GPa and the strength would be 50100MPa. The unidirectional compo-sites used in the ROBUST Project, manufactured using the vacuum process with prepreg material in an epoxy matrix, had the following properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 36GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 750MPa Elongation at break: 3.1%.

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Bidirectional E glass laminates have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.4 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about 14GPa.Random laminates (e.g. chopped strand mat) have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.2 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about9GPa. The use of S2 or R glass improves the composite modulus to about60GPa for unidirectional and 20GPa for woven fabric (bidirectional) constructions. This is at some monetary disadvantage. They are both more expensive than E glass and they are only available in a fairly limited range of material types and resin compatibilities. Probably the most important virtue of S2 and R glass is their high strength, which is considerably higher than E glass. Carbon and graphite fibers Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) The dominant carbon fibres in current use (typically Toray T700) have a tensile modulus of about 230GPa, a tensile strength of around 5000MPaand a strain-to-failure of 2%. Unidirectional composites produced from them in either an epoxy or vinyl-ester matrix have the following typical properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 155165GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 25003000MPa Elongation at break: 1.21.3% Carbon fibres are available which will give a tensile modulus of about250GPa in a unidirectional composite, comparing very favourably with steel at about 210GPa. However, as this composite is unidirectional, it has extremely low modulus in the transverse direction. The principal attributes of carbon fibre composites are their very high specific stiffness (the ratio of modulus/density), excellent fatigue and environmental resistance. Currently there are various pultruded CFRP plates available commercially for plate bonding applications. The pultruded plates used in the ROBUST Project, as well as the plates manufactured with prepreg materials, possessed a modulus of about 130GPa and a
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strength of 1500MPa.Pultruded plates now available from other sources typically exploit fibers with superior properties such as Toray T700, resulting in composites with the properties shown above. A financial penalty has to be paid for materials exhibiting properties significantly in excess of these; the strain-to-failure of composites made with them will also be reduced significantly. Carbon and graphite have substantial capability as reinforcing fibers, with great flexibility in the properties that can be provided. Primary characteristics for reinforcing fibers in polymer matrix composites are high stiffness and strength. The fibers must maintain these characteristics in hostile environments such as elevated temperatures, exposure to common solvents and fluids, and environmental moisture. To be used as part of a primary structure material it should also be available as continuous fiber. These characteristics and requirements have substantial implications for the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the fiber, which in turn implies processing and acceptance parameters. Interest in carbon fibers for structural materials was initiated in the late 1950s when synthesized rayons in textile form were carbonized to produce carbon fibers for high temperature missile applications. One of the first distinctions to be made is the difference between carbon and graphite fibers, although the terms are frequently used interchangeably. Background information for these differences is contained in the following sections. The primary purpose of making this distinction here is to alert the reader that users may mean different things when referring to graphite versus carbon fibers. Carbon and graphite fibers are both based on graphene (hexagonal) layer networks present in carbon. If the graphene layers or planes stack with three dimensional orders the material is defined as graphite. Usually extended time and temperature processing is required to form this order, making graphite fibers more expensive. Because the bonding between planes is weak, disorder frequently occurs such that only the two dimensional
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ordering within the layers is present. This material is defined as carbon. With this distinction made, it should be understood that while some differences are implied, there is not a single condition which strictly separates carbon from graphite fibers, and even graphite fibers retain some disorder in their structure.

3.3.3 Fiber Manufacture:

Glass fibers are generally produced using melt spinning techniques. These involve melting the glass composition into a platinum crown which has small holes for the molten glass to flow. Continuous fibers can be drawn out through the holes and wound onto spindles, while short fibers may be produced by spinning the crown, which forces molten glass out through the holes centrifugally. Fibers are cut to length using mechanical means or air jets. Fiber dimension and to some extent properties can be controlled by the process variables such as melt temperature (hence viscosity) and drawing/spinning rate. The temperature window that can be used to produce a melt of suitable viscosity is quite large, making this composition suitable for fiber forming. As fibers are being produced, they are normally treated with sizing and coupling agents. These reduce the effects of fiber- fiber abrasion which can significantly degrade the mechanical strength of the individual fibers. Other treatments may also be used to promote wetting and adherence of the matrix material to the fiber .

Composition
E-Glass is a low alkali glass with a typical nominal composition of SiO2 54wt%, Al2O3 14wt%, CaO+MgThe advantageous properties of E-glass generally outweigh the disadvantages which include:
Low modulus Self abrasiveness if not treated appropriately leading to reduced strength

Relatively low fatigue resistance

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Higher density compared to carbon fibres and organic fibresO 22wt%, B2O3 10wt% and Na2O+K2O less then 2wt%. Some other materials may also be present at impurity levels.

3.3.4 Key Properties:

Properties that have made E-glass so popular in 460iberglass and other glass reinforced composite include: Low cost High production rates High strength High stiffness Relatively low density Non-flammable Resistant to heat Good chemical resistance Relatively insensitive to moisture Able to maintain strength properties over a wide range of conditions Good electrical insulation

3.4 Processing of the Composites Fabrication of the Laminate

E-glass/Epoxy composite laminates were prepared by passing the E-glass fibers of 1200 TEX, through the resin bath of Epoxy and hardener maintaining a constant temperature of about 45 C.The fibers are then wound on a rotating drum with 15 rpm. After complete winding on the drum then it is cut opened and lay on a flat table in the atmospheric condition for about 48 hours to get the
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tackiness. The layers are cut in such a way that the desired fiber direction is obtained. In this experimentation it is decided to prepare the laminates such that the angle between the fibers are15o 30o 45o 60o and 90oas shown in fig-1. The sequence of layup shown in the fig -2. The number of layup depends on the thickness of the laminate required; here it is used 20 layers to obtain the thickness of the laminate about 4mm. All the overlapped layers then compacted between the two parallel flat steel plates with stainless steel spacers of required laminate thickness. The major purpose of lamination is to tailor the directional dependence of strength and stiffness of a composite material to match the loading environment of the structural element laminates are uniquely suited to this objective because the principal material directions of each layer can be oriented according to need. The plates are clamped with nuts and bolts with washers; the clamped setup is then placed in the oven. Maintain the oven temperature of 800 C for 4 hours and 1200 C for next 4 hours so that any entrapped air or volatile gases will be escaped for the first four hours and chemical reaction between the epoxy and hardener will takes place for the next four hours and will lead to permanent set and finally result into a single solid composite laminate. After total curing of 8 hours oven is then switched off so the temperature in the oven may come down to normal temperature. Take out the composite laminate and trim the edges so that the laminate is ready for testing purpose. Winding parameters 21. 22. 23.
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Tension of fibre =1.3 kgs Resin temperature= 45 0c RPM of lathe = 15

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24.

Gap between doctor blade and drum = 1.25 mmThe

parameters are kept constant for two different windings

FILAMENT WINDING SETUP

RESIN BATH

DRUM WINDING

REMOVING LAYUP

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LAYUP PLACED ON TABLE

APPLYING WAXPOL ON PLATES

LAYING UP LAYERS

REMOVING AIR GAP

COMPACTING LAYERS

PLACING IN THE OVEN

3.4.2 CURING PROCESS :

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Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener". The resin consists of monomers or short chain polymers with an epoxide group at either end. Most common epoxy resins are produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A, though the latter may be replaced by similar chemicals. The hardener consists of polyamine monomers, for example Triethylenetetramine (TETA). When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond.

Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily crosslinked, and is thus rigid and strong.The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. So the laminate that is fabricated is put into a Oven . The temperatures are maintained in two cycles. In the first cycle we have to maintain constant temperature of 80C for 4hours and in the next cycle maintain a temperature of 160C for next 4 hours.

AFTER CURING

MARKING

TRIMMING

AFTER TRIMMING

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DRILLING

AFTER DRILLING

Figure 3.6.a specifications of UTM (at CIPET)

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UTM SPECIFICATIONS

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COMPOSITE LAMINATE UNDER TESTING

4.1 Experimental procedure

Quasi-static Indentation tests were performed on INSTRON testing machine. The
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composite laminate of size 150mm x 150mm is placed on a steel supporting frame, with a square opening of size 50mm x 50mm. A similar square opening flat plate is placed ontop of the composite laminate; it is then clamped rigidly with nuts and bolts of 6mm size as shown in fig-3. The clamped setup is placed on the loading frame of testing machine. A spherical stainless steel ball indenter of diameter 8.32mmis used for indentation on the composites laminate. The tests were conducted with the controlled displacement of the indenter (0.2mm / minute). The test data is shown in Table-2.An extensometer is used to measure the displacement of the point just below the indentation location at the bottom side of the composite laminate. A 20kN load cell evaluated the load on each composite laminate. The data obtained during test for each laminate is shown in Table-2. The composite laminate with different fiber angles is indented for a fixed displacement of 5 mm. The damage in the different composite laminate with different fiber angles is shown fig-4. The damage area in each composite laminate is observed with the help of optical light microscope.
S. No. Specifications 1 2 3 4 5 ASTM Present work

Specimen 4 6 mm 4 - 5 mm thickness Indenter 10 16 mm 8.73 mm diameter Cross head 0.2 mm / 1 mm / min displacement min Indenter 5 10 mm 5 mm displacement No of samples 4 4 per test

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF UTM

00/150

00/300

00/450

00/600

00/900

Fig-1: Schematic diagram of five different laminates

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Fig-2: Sequence of angle plies

4.2 COMPOSITE LAMINATES WITHOUT E-GLASS POWDER FRONT SIDE BACK SIDE

0,90

0,60

FRONT SIDE

BACK SIDE

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0,45

0,30

0,15
S. No. Angle (0) Max. Load (KN) Indentation (mm) Spring back (mm)

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1 2 3 4 5

0/15 0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

3.77 4.11 4.69 4.99 5.83

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.86

0.92 1.17 2.50 3.08 3.44

Table - 2: Test results after Indentation.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Load (KN)

15 DEG 30 DEG 45 DEG 60 DEG 90 DEG

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5

Displacement (mm) Graph-1: Shows the load carrying capacity in each case for different indenter displacements of maximum 5mm for all the laminates. It is gradually increasing for the laminates with the fiber angles varying from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

Indentation ()

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-2: Indentation depth is increasing linearly as the fiber angle in laminates is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o),however it is suddenly increasing in the laminates with fiber angle varying from (0o/60o) to (0o/90o).

S. No. 1

Angle (0) 0/15

Front face damage area (mm2) 971

Back face damage area (mm2) 1256

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2 3 4 5

0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

1300 1894 2186 2623

1857 2280 2623 3257

Table-3: Experimental data of damage surface areas on front and back face of the laminates

Front face damage area 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 15 30 45

Back face damage area

60

75

90

105

Graph-3: Damage area is increasing with the increase in fiber angle of the laminates in front face and back face of the laminate; however the damage area back face is more than the front face as seen from the above graph.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Load (KN)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-4: Maximum load taken in each laminate with different fiber angles. The load is increasing linearly as the fiber angle is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

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4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Spring back (mm)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

5: Shows spring back effect is increasing in different laminates as the fiber angles are increasing

0o/15o) to (0o/90o), it shows that as the angle between fibers is increasing the laminate elasticity increasing

Material

Density (mg/m3)

Modulus (G Pa)

Poisons ratio(v)

Tensile strength (G Pa) 3.5

E-glass fiber

2.56

76

0.22

Epoxy resin

1.3

3.6

0.4

0.1

Table-4: Properties of materials

4.3) RATE OF LOADING (0.5mm/min) WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

0.5%

1%

1.5

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE
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(0/45)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE
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(0/15)

BACK SIDE
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GRAPH 1 :

0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1.0 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.92 1.8 1.4 2 3.4 3.1 3.1 3 4.62 4.1 3.5 4 4.85 4.19 3.6 5 4 3.73 3.11

GRAPH 2 :

0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

4
3 2 1 0 0 2

0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 % % % 0 0 0 2 1.7 1.6 3.15 3.2 2.95 4.65 3.72 3.2 5.4 3.12 2.25 3 2.38 1.89

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 3:

0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.1 2.2 1.7 2 3.8 3.6 3.15 3 4.26 4.2 2.91 4 4.5 2.92 2.29 5 3.5 2.32 1.83

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 4: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.15 2.1 1.2 2 3.75 3.5 2.3 3 5.18 4.2 3.4 4 4.2 3.15 2.85 5 2.5 1.9 1.75

GRAPH 5: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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5 4

FORCE (kN)

3 2 1 0 0 2

F 0.5 F1 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.9 1.8 1.7 2 3.1 2.85 2.6 3 3.9 3.8 3.3 4 3 2.8 2.5 5 2.85 2.35 1.7

GRAPH 6 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

0.5 mm/min

3.5 3 2.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

DEPTH mm)

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.42 2.6 2.5 2.1 2

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.38 2.54 2.6 2.4 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 2.67 2.98 2.9 2.55 2.38

ANGLE

GRAPH 7 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

0.5 mm /min

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PROJECTED HEIGHT

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5 %

ANGLE

ANGLE

0 15 30 45 60 90

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 0.5 % 0 2.84 3.2 2.5 2.55 2

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.0 % 0 3.24 3.6 2.7 3.5 2.1

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.5 % 0 3.31 3.76 3.33 3.67 2.6

4.4 1.5mm/min RATE OF LOADING WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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FRONT SIDE

(0/45)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/15)

BACK SIDE

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GRAPH 8: 0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

F F F 0.5% 1 % 1.5% 0 0 0 1.5 2.05 1.35 3.1 3.3 2.75 3.2 4.3 1.95 2.5 3.75 1.65 1.5 3.25 1.31

GRAPH 9:0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5 % 0 0 0 0 1 2.5 2.31 2.09 2 4.72 4.22 3.75 3 5.5 4.5 4.2 4 4.5 3.23 2.85 5 3.7 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 10: 0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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6 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 % 0 2.5 4.72 5.5 4.5 3.7

FORCE (kN)

4 3 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 1 0 0 2 DISPLACEMENT 4 (mm) 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 2.31 2.09 4.22 3.75 4.5 4.2 3.23 2.85 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 11: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

F 0.5 % 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2.5 4.2 5.55 4.65 3.25

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 (mm) DISPLACEMENT 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 1.75 1.65 3 2.65 4 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.2 1.8

GRAPH 12: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5 mm/min)

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DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 Page 489 (mm) %

F 1.0 %

F 1.5 %

6 5

FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 DISPLACEMENT (mm) F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

0 1 2 3 4 5

0 1.8 2.9 4.1 4.85 3.7

0 1.98 3.15 3.9 4.4 3.2

0 1.65 2.5 3.1 2.25 1.6

GRAPH13 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

1.5 mm/min

DEPTH OF INDENTATION mm)

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

0
0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.34 2.45 2.67 2.39 2.5

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.14 2.32 2.6 2.27 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 1.9 2.29 2.31 2 1.8

ANGLE

GRAPH 14 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

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3.5

PROJECTED HEIGHT

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5%

ANGLE

ANGLE PROJECTED PROJECTED PROJECTED HEIGHT HEIGHT HEIGHT 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 15 3 1.41 2.95 30 2.71 3.65 3.05 45 3.19 3.31 3.15 60 3.33 3.32 2.5 90 2.7 2.55 2.1

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Graph 1 (0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 1 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 4mm at 3.6kN. Graph 2 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 2 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 5.4kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN. Graph 3 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 3,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 3.15kN. Graph 4 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) :
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at the

In Graph 4,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.18kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.4kN. Graph 5 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 5,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.9kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.3kN. Graph 6 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 6,Depth of indentation is increasing with increase in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-150 to 0-300 later on there is increase angles 0-300 to 0-900. Graph 7 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 7, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-300 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600 and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing
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at the

in

depth of indentation,but it is decreases with

in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles. Graph 8(0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 8 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of2 mm at 2.75kN. Graph 9 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 9 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN. Graph 10 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 10,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN.
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Graph 11 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 11,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.55kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 2.65kN. Graph 12 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 12,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.1kN. Graph 13 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 13,Depth of indentation is increasing with decrease in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-450, later on there is decrease in depth of indentation from 0-450 to 0-600,but it is increases with angles 0-600 to 0-900. Graph 14 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 14, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-150 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600
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at the

at the

and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles.

REFERENCES
1) Agarwal, B. D and Broutman, L. J, (1990). Analysis and Performance
of Fiber Composites, Second Edition, Jhon Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 2) Robert M. Jones(1999), mechanics of composite materials, second edition Taylor & Francis group , New york London. 3) http://nptel.iitm.ac.in 4) http://www.wikipedia.org/ 5) Rothon R.N, (1999). Mineral fillers in thermoplastics: filler manufacture and characterization. Adv. Polym. Sci. 139, pp. 67-107. 6) http://composite.about.com/ 7) Applied composite materials, An international journal for the science And application of composites materials.

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8) Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, publishes research on Polymers, nano composites and particulate

ABSTRACT

In this work the composite laminates of Epoxy/E-glass fiber hybridizing with and without E- glass powder are prepared for testing. The fabrication of the laminate is done by filament winding (hoop winding) on a drum mandrel mounted on a modified center lathe. The green layup obtained is cut into laminae of the desired orientations and stacked in the predefined way to a required thickness. The stacked laminate is cured at elevated temperatures under a pressure from a pressure plate. The edges of the laminate are trimmed first and it is then cut in to required size. The specimens are then subjected to indentation test on a universal testing machine (UTM) for a fixed indenter depth. An investigative study is conducted into the results obtained from test data. A number of illustrations are shown regarding the damage in the specimens of different fiber orientation and with different percentages of E-glass powder. Also indentation depth, contact radius, spring back effect, and maximum load carrying capacity are studied.

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CONTENTS
CHAPTER :1 INTRODUCTION 1.55 Overview of composites. 1.56 Historical Development/Historical Overview. 1.57 What is composite material. 1.58 Classification of composites. 1.59 Structure of composites. 1.60 Advantages of composites. 1.61 Applications of composites. 1.62 Examples of composite materials. 1.63 Scope of Project. CHAPTER:2 LITERATURE SURVE CHAPTER:3

PAGE NO:

5 5 8 12 24 25 26 27 29

30

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MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Hardener. 3.2 Epoxy. 3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials. 3.3.1 Types of fibres. 3.3.2 Mechanical properties of fibres. 3.3.3 Fibre manufacturing. 3.3.4 Key properties. 3.4 Processing of composites. 3.4.1 Curing CHAPTER:4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. 4.1 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates without E-glass powder. 4.2 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 4.3 1.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates 62 57 56

32 32 32 34 35 43 46 47 49 52

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with E-glass powder. CHAPTER:5 5.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. 5.2 REFERENCES

71

80 85

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of composites

The development of composite materials and related design and manufacturing technologies is one of the most important advances in the history of materials. Composites are multifunctional materials having unprecedented mechanical and physical properties that can be tailored to meet the requirements of a particular application. Many composites also exhibit great resistance to high-temperature corrosion and oxidation and wear. These unique characteristics provide the mechanical engineer with design opportunities not possible with conventional monolithic (unreinforced) materials. Composites technology also makes possible the use of an entire class of solid materials, ceramics, in applications for which monolithic versions are unsuited because of their great strength scatter and poor resistance to mechanical and thermal shock. Further, many manufacturing processes for composites are well adapted to the fabrication of large, complex structures, which allows consolidation of parts, reducing manufacturing costs.

1.2 Historical Development / Historical overview: Past: After making and controlling fire and inventing the wheel,
spinning of continuous yarns is probably the most important development of mankind, enabling him to survive outside the tropical climate zones and spread across the surface of the Earth. Flexible fabrics made of locally grown and spun fibres as cotton; flax and jute were a big
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step forward compared to animal skins. More and more natural resources were used, soon resulting in the first composites; straw reinforced walls, and bows (Figure M.1.1.a) and chariots made of glued layers of wood, bone and horn. More durable materials as wood and metal soon replaced these antique composites.

Fig M.1.1.a Composite Korean bow

Present:
Originating from early agricultural societies and being almost forgotten after centuries, a true revival started of using lightweight composite structures for many technical solutions during the second half of the 20th century. After being solely used for their electromagnetic properties (insulators and radar-domes), using composites to improve the structural performance of spacecraft and military aircraft became popular in the last two decades of the previous century. First at any costs, with development of improved materials with increasing costs, nowadays cost reduction during manufacturing and operation are the main technology drivers. Latest development is the use of composites to protect man

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against fire and impact and a tendency to a more environmental friendly design, leading to the reintroduction of natural fibres in the composite technology. Increasingly nowadays, the success of composites in applications, by volume and by numbers, can be ranked by accessibility and reproducibility of the applied manufacturing techniques. Some examples of use of natural fibers(M.1.1b M.1.1.e)

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Future:
In future, composites will be manufactured even more according to an integrated design process resulting in the optimum construction according to parameters such as shape, mass, strength, stiffness, durability, costs, etc. Newly developed design tools must be able to instantaneously show customers the influence of a design change on each one of these parameters.

1.3 What is Composite Material?

Composite materials are engineering materials made from two or more constituent materials that remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level while forming a single component. There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix Properties. The primary functions of the matrix are to transfer stresses between the reinforcing fibers/particles and to protect them from mechanical environmental damage whereas the presence of fibers/particles in a composite improves its mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness etc. The objective is to take advantage of the superior properties of both materials without compromising on the weakness of either. As defined by Agarwal and Broutman composite means material having two or more distinct constituent materials or phases. It is only when the constituent phases have significantly different physical properties and thus the composite properties are noticeably different from the constituent materials
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Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural. Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific character of a composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine to give them a specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve the desirable properties. Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the levels at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic. In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz., binding the reinforcement phases in place and deforming to distribute the stresses among the constituent materials under an applied force. The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be conductors or resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending on the purpose for which matrices are chosen. Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and metals have found applications as matrix materials in the designing of structural composites, with
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reinforcement

commendable success. These materials remain elastic till failure occurs and show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression. Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion characteristics. The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two interphases between each side of the interphase and its adjoint constituent. Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of matrix on properties of reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the selection and fabrication of composites is that the constituents should be chemically inert non-reactive.

Properties of Matrix Materials:

Naturally fibers and whiskers are of little use unless they are bonded together to take form of structural element that can carry loads.

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The binder material is usually called a matrix. The purpose of the matrix is manifold support of fibers or whiskers, protection of the fibers or whiskers, stress transfer between broken fibers or whiskers, etc. Typically the matrix is of considerably lower density, stiffness, and strength than fibers or whiskers. However the combination of fibers or whiskers and a matrix can have very high strength and stiffness yet still have low density. Matrix materials can be polymers, metals, ceramics or carbon. Polymers (poly =many and mer = unit or molecule) exist in at least three major forms i.e linear, branched, or cross linked. A linear polymer is merely a chain of mers. A branched polymer consists of a primary chain of mers with other chains that are attached in three dimensions just like tree branches. Finally, a cross linked polymer has large number of three dimensional highly interconnected chains. Linear polymers have the least strength and stiffness, whereas cross linked polymer have most because of their inherently stiffer and stronger internal structure. The three main classes of structural polymers are rubbers, thermoplastics, and thermo sets. Rubbers are cross linked polymers that have semi crystalline state well below room temperature. Thermoplastics are polymers that branch, but generally dont cross link very much if at all. Thus, they usually can be repeatedly softened on heating and hardened on cooling. Examples of thermoplastics are nylon, polyethylene, and polysulfone. Thermo sets are polymers that are chemically reacted until almost all molecules are irreversibly cross linked in a three dimensional network. Thus, once an epoxy has set, it cannot be changed in form. Examples of thermo sets include epoxies, phenolics, and polyimides. Other matrix materials include metals that can be made to flow around an in-place fiber system by diffusion bonding or by heating vacuum infiltration. Common examples are shown in fig 1.3.1

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a) linear

b)branched

c)cross linked

d)network

figure 1.3.1

1.4 Classification of Composites

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels: The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites. The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres.

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 Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling. Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this category. Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.

1.4.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or Carbon-Carbon Composites

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications. Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are
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most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins. Thermoplastics have oneor two-dimensional

molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds. Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites.

Figure 1.4.1 a

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures.
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Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally. There thermoplastic temperatures. are a few options tend their to loose increase their heat strength resistance at like in

thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the heat resistance. But all composites However, elevated rigidity, redeeming qualities

toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc. Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds. Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas.

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Figure 1.4.1.b
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins. Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of 140C. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is ruled out.

Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in automobile and structural applications.
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The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75C or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey. Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service at around 200250C .

1.4.2 According to geometry:

Most composite materials developed thus far have been fabricated to improve mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, and high temperature performance. It is natural to study together the composites that have a common strengthening mechanism. The strengthening mechanism strongly depends on the geometry of the reinforcement. Therefore, it is quite convenient to classify composite materials on the basis of the geometry of a representative unit of reinforcement.

1.4.2.a Fibrous composite

A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite.

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Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension discourages the growth of incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement that might otherwise lead to failure, particularly with brittle matrices. Man-made filaments or fibers of non polymeric materials exhibit much higher strength along their length since large flaws, which may be present in the bulk material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness.Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite. Most composites used in structural applications are multilayered; that is, they consist of several layers of fibrous composites. Each layer or lamina is a single layer composite and its orientation is varied according to design. Several identical or different layers are bonded together to form a multilayered composites usable for engineering applications. When the constituent materials in each layer are the same, they are called simply laminates. Hybrid laminates refer to multilayered composites consisting of layers made up of different constituent materials. Reinforcing fibers in a single layer composite may be short or long compared to its overall dimensions. Composites with long fibers are called continuous fiber reinforced composites and those with short fibers, discontinuous fiber reinforced composites. The continuous fibers in single layer composites may be all aligned in one direction to form a unidirectional composite. Such composites are fabricated by laying the fibers parallel and saturating them with resinous material. The bidirectional reinforcement may be provided in a single layer in mutually perpendicular directions as in a

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woven fabric. The bidirectional reinforcement may be such that the strengths in two perpendicular directions are approximately equal. The orientation of discontinuous fibers cannot be easily controlled in a composite material.

So fibers can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented. In most cases the fibers are assumed to be randomly oriented in the composites. However, in the injection molding of a fiber reinforced polymer, considerable orientation can occur in the flow direction and which a case of preferred oriented fibers in the composites.

1.4.2.b Particulate Composites

As the name itself indicates, the reinforcement is of particle nature (platelets are also included in this class). It may be spherical, cubic, tetragonal, a platelet, or of other regular or irregular shape, but it is approximately equiaxed. In general, particles are not very effective in improving fracture resistance but they enhance the stiffness of the composite to a limited extent. Particle fillers are widely used to improve the properties of matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and electrical conductivities, improve performance at elevated temperatures, reduce friction, increase wear and abrasion resistance, improve machinability, increase surface hardness and reduce shrinkage. Also, in case of particulate reinforced composites the particle can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented.

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1.4.3 According to type of matrix material they are classified as:

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

1.4.3.a Metal Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites have many advantages over monolithic metals like higher specific modulus, higher specific strength, better properties at elevated temperatures, and lower coefficient of thermal expansion. Because of these attributes metal matrix composites are under consideration for wide range of applications viz. combustion chamber nozzle (in rocket, space shuttle), housings, tubing, cables, heat exchangers, structural members etc

1.4.3.b Ceramic matrix Composites

One of the main objectives in producing ceramic matrix composites is to increase the toughness Naturally it is hoped and indeed often found that there is a concomitant improvement in strength and stiffness of ceramic matrix composites.

1.4.3.c Polymer Matrix Composites

Most commonly used matrix materials are polymeric. The reasons for this are twofold. In general the mechanical properties of polymers are inadequate for many structural purposes. In particular their strength and stiffness are low compared to metals and ceramics. These difficulties are overcome by reinforcing other materials with polymers. Secondly the processing of polymer matrix composites need not involve high pressure
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and doesnt require high temperature. Also equipments required for manufacturing polymer matrix composites are simpler. For this reason polymer matrix composites developed rapidly and soon became popular for structural applications. Composites are used because overall properties of the composites are superior to those of the individual components for example polymer/ceramic. Composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component but arent as brittle as ceramics.

1.4.4 Classification Based on Reinforcements Introduction to Reinforcements

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with other two axes either often circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers.

Figure 1.4.4

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Two types of polymer composites are: Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) Particle reinforced polymer (PRP)

1.4.4.a Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Common fiber reinforced composites are composed of fibers and a matrix. Fibers are the reinforcement and the main source of strength while matrix glues all the fibers together in shape and transfers stresses between the reinforcing fibers. The fibers carry the loads along their longitudinal directions. Sometimes, filler might be added to smooth the manufacturing process, impact special properties to the composites, and /or reduce the product cost. Common fiber reinforcing agents include asbestos, carbon /graphite fibers, beryllium, beryllium carbide, beryllium oxide, molybdenum, aluminium oxide, glass fibers, polyamide,natural fibers etc. Similarly common matrix materials include epoxy, phenolic, polyester, polyurethane, peek, vinyl ester etc. Among these resin materials, epoxy is widely used for its higher adhesion and less shrinkage property.

1.4.4.b Particle Reinforced Polymer

Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminium and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black. Particles are used to increase the modules of the matrix and to decrease the ductility of the matrix. Particles are also used to reduce the cost of the composites. Reinforcements and matrices can be common, inexpensive materials and are easily processed.

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Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators. Some ceramics have special properties; some ceramics are magnetic materials; some are piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics are even superconductors at very low temperatures. Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback: they are brittle. An example of particle reinforced composites is an automobile tire, which has carbon black particles in a matrix of poly-isobutylene elastomeric polymer

1.5 Structure of Composite

Structure of composite material A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness. Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite

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Properties
1) Nature of the constituent material (bonding strength) 2) The geometry of the reinforcement (shape, size) 3) The concentration distribution(vol. fraction of reinforcement) 4) The orientation of the reinforcement(random or preferred) Good adhesion (bonding) between matrix phase and displaced phase provides transfer of load applied to the material to the displaced phase via the interface. Good adhesion is required for achieving high level of mechanical properties of composites. Very small particles less than 0.25 micrometer finely distributed in the matrix impede movement of dislocations and deformation of the material. They have strengthening effect. Large dispersed phase particles have low share load applied to the material resulting in increase of stiffness and decrease of ductility. Orientation of reinforcement: Planar:-In the form of 2-D woven fabric. When the fibers are laid parallel, the composite exhibits axistrope. Random or Three Dimensional:-The composite material tends to posses isotropic properties. One Dimensional: - Maximum strength and stiffness are obtained in the direction of fiber.

1.6 Advantages of Composites

Advantages of composites over their conventional counterparts are the ability to meet diverse design requirements with significant weight savings as well as strength-to-weight ratio. Some advantages of composite materials over conventional ones are as follows: Tensile strength of composites is four to six times greater than that of steel or aluminium (depending on the reinforcements).

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Improved torsional stiffness and impact properties. Higher fatigue endurance limit (up to 60% of ultimate tensile strength). 30% - 40% lighter for example any particular aluminium structures designed to the same functional requirements. Lower embedded energy compared to other structural metallic materials like steel, aluminium etc. Composites are less noisy while in operation and provide lower vibration transmission than metals. Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored to meet performance needs and complex design requirements. Long life offer excellent fatigue, impact, environmental resistance and reduce maintenance. Composites enjoy reduced life cycle cost compared to metals. Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and fire retardancy. Improved appearance with smooth surfaces and readily incorporable integral decorative melamine are other characteristics of composites. Composite parts can eliminate joints / fasteners, providing part simplification and integrated design compared to conventional metallic parts.

1.7 Applications of Composites

Industry Aircraft Aerospace Automotive Examples Door, elevators Space Shuttle, Space stations Body frames, engine Comments 20-35% Weight savings Great weight savings High stiffness & damage tolerance Corrosion resistance Weight savings, portable.

components Chemical Construction Pipes, Tanks, Pressure vessels Structural & decorative panels, Fuel tanks etc.

Figure 1.7

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1.8 EXAMPLES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Fibre reinforced plastics: Classified by type of fiber: Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix) Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP) Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally, "fiberglass") Classified by matrix: Thermoplastic Composites Short fiber thermoplastics Long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics Glass mat thermoplastics Continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics Thermoset Composites Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)

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 Metal matrix composites (MMCs): White cast iron Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix) Metal-intermetallic laminate Ceramic matrix composites: Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers) Cermet (ceramic and metal) Concrete Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites Asphalt concrete Dental composite Syntactic foam Mother of Pearl Chobham armour (see composite armour) Engineered wood

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Plywood Oriented strand board Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix) Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix) Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles Arborite Formica (plastic)

1.9 Scope of the project

The basic aim of the present work is to develop and characterize a new class of composites with epoxy as polymer matrix and glass fiber as the reinforcing material. Their physical and mechanical characterization is done. Attempt is made to use TiO2 as filler in these fiber reinforced .polymer matrix composites. Characterization of the resulting TiO2 filled glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite is done. The experimentally measured database of composites has also been predicted. This work is expected to introduce a new class of functional polymer composites suitable for tribological applications.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

This chapter outlines some of the recent reports published in literature on composites of fiber reinforced polymer composites. Polymer composite materials have generated wide interest in various engineering fields, particularly in aerospace applications. Research is underway worldwide to develop newer composites with varied combinations of fibers and fillers so as to make them useable under different operational conditions. The improved performance of polymer composites in engineering applications by the addition of filler materials has shown a great promise and so has become a subject of considerable interest. Ceramic filled polymer composites have been the subject of extensive research in last two decades. Various kinds of polymers and polymer matrix composites reinforced with ceramic particles have a wide range of industrial applications such as heaters, electrodes, composites with thermal durability at high temperature etc.

These engineering composites are desired due to their low density, high corrosion resistance consisting of ceramic or metal particles and fiber fillers made of glass are being used these days to dramatically improve the wear resistance even up to three orders of magnitude. The inclusion of inorganic fillers into polymers for commercial applications is primarily aimed at the cost reduction and stiffness improvement. Along with fiber-reinforced composites, the composites made with particulate fillers have been found to perform well in many real operational conditions. It is reported by Bonner that with the inclusion of micro-sized particulates into polymers, a high filler content (typically greater than 20 vol. %) is generally required to bring the above stated positive effects into
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play. But at the same time, this may also have detrimental effects on some important properties of the matrix polymers such as processability, appearance, density and aging performance. It has also been reported that the fracture surface energies of epoxy and polyester resin and their resistance to crack propagation are relatively low.

But if particulate filler is added to these resins, the particles inhibit crack growth. As the volume fraction of filler is varied, the fracture energy increases up to a critical volume fraction and then decreases again. Srivastava showed that the fracture toughness of epoxy resin could be improved by addition of flyash particles as filler. The fillers also affect the tensile properties according to their packing characteristics, size and interfacial bonding. The maximum volumetric packing fraction of filler reflects the size distribution and shapes of the particles. Recently, it has been observed that by incorporating filler particles into the matrix of fibre reinforced composites, synergistic effects may be achieved in the form of higher modulus and reduced material costs, yet accompanied with decreased strength and impact toughness. Polymer composites with both discontinuous and continuous fibre reinforcement possess usually very high specific (i.e. density related) stiffness and strength when measured in plane. Therefore, such composites are frequently used in engineering parts in automobile, aerospace, marine and energetic applications.

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CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the experimental procedures followed for their characterization and tribological evaluation. The raw materials used in this work are 1. E-glass fiber 2. E-Glass powder 3. Epoxy resin

3.1 Hardener:
The hardener used in Epoxy is polyamine. A polyamine is an organic compound having two or more primary amino groups -NH2.This class of compounds includes several synthetic substances that are important feed stocks for the chemical industry, such as ethylene diamine H2N-CH2-CH2-NH2, 1,3-diaminopropane H2N-(CH2)3-NH2, and hex methylenediamine H2N-(CH2)6-NH2. The amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

3.2 Epoxy:
Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener. When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

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The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements.

Resin:
Resin is a natural or synthetic compound which begins in a highly viscous state and hardens with treatment. Typically, resin is soluble in alcohol, but not in water. There are a number of different classes of resin, depending on exact chemical composition and potential uses. Matrix resins bind glass-reinforcing fibers together, protecting them from impact and the environment. Glass fiber properties such as strength dominate in continuously reinforced composites. When glass is used as a discontinuous reinforcement, resin properties dominate and are enhanced by the glass. Polymer matrix resins fall into two categories: thermo set and thermoplastic. The difference is in their chemistry. Thermo set resin is chemically comprised of molecular chains that crosslink during the cure reaction (set off by heat, catalyst, or both) and "set" into a final rigid form. Molecular chains in thermoplastic resin are processed at higher temperatures and remain "plastic," or capable of being reheated and reshaped. While the tradeoffs between thermosets and thermoplastics have been debated extensively, engineers will find that material suppliers will tailor matrix resin formulations best for their application

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3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials:

Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used. Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers, high silica and quartz fibers, alumina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron fibers, aramid fibers and multi phase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified into E-glass, S-glass, A- glass, R-glass etc. There is a greater market and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers. The potential of fibers of graphite, silicon carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific mind due to their applications in advanced composites.

3.3.1Types of fibers 3.3.1.a Glass Fibers

Over 95% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers, as they are inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the plastics with which they are reinforced.
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Their low density, resistance to chemicals, insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics, although the one major disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when subjected to high tensile stress for a long time.. However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time frames. This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is expected to sustain such loads for many months or years continuously. Period of loading, temperature, moisture and other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibers and the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning before the catastrophic failure. But all this can be easily overlooked in view of the fact that the wide range of glass fiber variety lend themselves amicably to fabrication processes like matched die moulding, filament winding lay-up and so on. Glass fibers are available in the form of mats, tapes, cloth, continuous and chopped filaments, rovings and yarns. Addition of chemicals to silica sand while making glass yields different types of glasses.

3.3.1.b Metal Fibers

As reinforcements, metal fibers have many advantages. They are easily produced using several fabrication processes and are more ductile, apart from being not too sensitive to surface damage and possess high strengths and temperature resistance. However, their weight and the tendency to react with each other through alloying mechanisms are major disadvantages. Steel wire is the most extensively used reinforcement in most large-scale metal filament applications. Wire is used for its capacity to enhance the tensile strength of concrete and continuous metal fibers are the reinforcing constituents in metal and ceramic composite materials.

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3.3.1.c Ceramic fibers improve vastly in performance when a fine metal outline is incorporated with refractory ceramics by improving their thermal shock and impact resistance properties. 3.3.1.d Metal wires, of the continuous version, also reinforce plastics like polyethylene and epoxy. Such combinations ensure high strength, light weight and good fatigue resistance. Besides, continuous metal fibers are easily handled, unlike glass fibers. Better flexural properties are observed in some metal fibers reinforced plastic composites which also offer improved strength and weight, than glass fibers. However, their poor tolerance of high temperatures and the resultant steep variation of thermal expansion coefficient with the resins are a discouragement that limits their application.

3.3.1.d Alumina Fibers

Alumina or aluminum oxide fibers, basically developed for use in metal matrices are considered a potential resin-matrix composite reinforcement. It offers good compressive strength rather than tensile strength. It is important property is it is high melting point of about 2000C and the composite can be successfully used at temperatures up to about 1000C. Magnesium and aluminum matrices frequently use alumina fiber reinforced composites as they do not damage the fiber even in the liquid state.

3.3.1.e Boron Fibers

They are basically composites, in which boron is coated on a substance which forms the substrate, usually made of tungsten. Boron-tungsten fibers are obtained by allowing hot tungsten filament through a mixture of gases. Boron is deposited on tungsten and the process is continued until the desired thickness is achieved. The tungsten however remains constant in its thickness. Properties of boron fibers generally change with the diameter, because of the changing ratio of boron to tungsten and the surface defects that change according to size. However, they
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are known for their remarkable stiffness

33and strength. Their strengths often compare with those of glass fibers, but their tensile modulus is high, almost four to five times that of glass. Boron coated carbons are much cheaper to make than boron tungsten fiber. But its low modulus of elasticity often works against it.

3.3.1.f Silicon Carbide Fibers

Silicon carbide can be coated over a few metals and their room temperature tensile strengths and tensile moduli are like those of boron-tungsten. The advantages of silicon carbide-tungsten are several and they are more desirable than uncoated boron tungsten fibers. Elevated temperature performance and the fact that they reported only a 35% loss of strength at 1350C are their best qualities. Silicon carbide-tungsten and silicon carbidecarbon have both been seen to have very high stress-rupture strength at 1100C and 1300C. Uncoated boron-tungsten fibers tend to lose all their strength at temperatures over 680C. Silicon carbide fibers do not react with molten aluminium, unlike uncoated boron and they also withstand high temperatures used in hot-press titanium matrices. However, silicon carbide-tungsten fibers are dense compared to boron- tungsten fibers of the same diameter. They are prone to surface damage and need careful, delicate handling, especially during fabrication of the composite. Further, above 930C, weakening reactions occur between tungsten and silicon carbide, making it difficult to maintain balance in high-temperature matrix formations. Silicon carbide on 'carbon substrates have several advantages, viz. no, reaction at high temperature, being lighter than silicon carbide tungsten and possessing tensile strengths and modulus that is are often better than those of silicon carbide-tungsten and boron fibers.

3.3.1.g Aramid Fibers

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Aramid fibers are made from aromatic polyamides which are long polymeric .chains and aromatic rings. They are structures in which six carbon atoms are bonded to each other and to combinations of hydrogen atoms. In aramid fibers, these rings occur and reoccur to form the fibers. They were initially used to reinforce automobile tires. Since then, they have also found other uses like bullet proof vests. As high strength applications, their use in power boats is not uncommon.

Aramid have high tensile strength, high modulus and low weight. Impact- resistant structures can be produced from aramid. The density of aramid fibers is less than that of glass and graphite fibers. They are fire resistant apart from being high-temperature resistant and also unaffected by organic solvents and fuels. But their resistance in acid and alkaline media is poor. They are supple and allow themselves to be woven into matrices by simple processes. Aramid fibers have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion in the fiber direction and the failure of aramid fibers is unique. When they fail, the fibers break into small fibrils, which are like fibers within the fibers. This unique failure mechanism is responsible for high strength.

3.3.1.h Quartz and Silica Fibers

The glass-types typically contain about 50 to 78% silica. Silica glass is a purer glass fiber that can be made by treating fiberglass in an acid bath, which removes all impurities without affecting the silica. The final product contains 93 to 99% silica. Quartz is even more pure, and quartz fibers are made from natural quartz crystals that contain 99.9% silica, possessing nearly all the properties of pure solid quartz. Ordinary fiberglass, high silica and quartz fibers share several characteristics and can be produced in a range of fiber diameters. Roving or yarns and other forms of fibers can be made from high silica as well as quartz. All matrix materials that accept fiberglass are amenable to high silica and quartz too. They differ from glass in many factors, however, especially in heat-related properties.
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Although quartz crystals are commonly available, pure crystals are hard to come by. On the other hand, high silica comes from the same material as glass fibers and is easily accessible. However, quartz makes up for its rarity with its capacity to" withstand high temperatures, which silica is incapable of. Barring this difference, silica and quartz are similar in other respects. They are highly elastic and can be stretched to 1 % of their length before break point. Both silica and quartz are not affected by acid attacks and are resistant to moisture. Owing to their thermal properties, silica and quartz are the natural choice as fibers in several applications. They have good insulating properties and do not melt at temperatures up to 1600C. In addition, they have low thermal expansion coefficients which make them withstand high temperatures.

3.3.1.i Graphite Fibers

While use of the term carbon for graphite is permissible, there is one basic difference between the two. Elemental analysis of poly-acrylo-nitrile (PAN) base carbon fibers show that they consist of 91 to 94% carbon. But graphite fibers are over 99% carbon. The difference arises from the fact that the fibers are made at different temperatures. PAN-based carbon cloth or fiber is produced at about 1320C, while graphite fibers and cloth are graphitized at 1950 to 3000C. The properties of graphite remain unchanged even at very high temperatures, but its willingness to react readily with most metals at the fabrication stage or during use at very high temperatures is often a stumbling block, as seen in aluminium matrices when carbides are produced at the interface. These carbides react with moisture with disastrous effects on the composite material.

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Graphite fibers are some of the stiffest fibers known. The stiffness of the fiber is as high as the graphite content. But a major drawback is that stiffness and strength are inversely proportional to each other. Forbidding costs make the use of graphite fibers prohibitive. The best glass fibers are far less expensive than the cheapest, lowest quality of graphite, and in PAN-base fibers, other raw materials too are equally expensive. The carbonization and graphitization are time-consuming, apart from demanding excessive energy, materials and close controls throughout the process. Cheaper pitch base fibers are now being developed, with greater performance potential and there are possibilities of the increased use of graphite fibers.

3.3.1.j Multiphase Fibers

Spoolable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually the multi phase variety and they usually comprise materials like boron, silicon and their carbides formed on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or tungsten. They are usually good for high temperature applications, due to their reduced reaction with higher melting temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers. Boron filaments are sought after for structural and intermediate-temperature composites. A poly-phase fiber is a core-sheath fiber consisting of a polycrystalline core.

3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber:

E-Glass or electrical grade glass was originally developed for standoff insulators for electrical wiring. It was later found to have excellent fibre forming capabilities and is now used almost exclusively as the reinforcing phase in the material commonly known as fiber glass.

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. Figure 3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber

3.3.2 Mechanical Properties of fibers

Composite materials are not homogeneous. Their properties are dependent on many factors, the most important of which are the type of fibre, quantity of fibre (as volume fraction) and the configuration of the reinforcement. They are generally completely elastic up to failure and exhibit neither a yield point nor a region of plasticity. They tend to have low strain to failure(less than 3%). The resulting area under the stress/strain curve, which represents the work done to failure, is relatively small when compared to many metals. The properties of composites are dependent on the properties of the fibre and the matrix, the proportion of each and the configuration of the fibres. If all the fibres are aligned in one direction then the composite relatively stiff and strong in that direction, but in the transverse direction it has low modulus and low strength. When a unidirectional composite is tested at a small angle from the fibre axis, there is a considerable reduction in strength. A similar but less significant effect occurs with the tensile modulus, as shown in Figure 3.3.2

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Figure 3.3.2
Theoretical variation in tensile modulus with the angle of load relative to the principal fibre direction (unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced plastic (UD CFRP), fibre volume fraction = 0.5)

Strength and stiffness Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) E glass fibres, which have a modulus of about 70GPa, produce composites with modest moduli. In the case of unidirectional fibres and the highest typical fibre volume fraction of 0.65, a composite has a modulus of about45GPa and strength of around 1300MPa. At right angles to this, in the transverse direction, the modulus approaches that of the resin itself at about4GPa and the strength would be 50100MPa. The unidirectional compo-sites used in the ROBUST Project, manufactured using the vacuum process with prepreg material in an epoxy matrix, had the following properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 36GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 750MPa Elongation at break: 3.1%.

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Bidirectional E glass laminates have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.4 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about 14GPa.Random laminates (e.g. chopped strand mat) have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.2 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about9GPa. The use of S2 or R glass improves the composite modulus to about60GPa for unidirectional and 20GPa for woven fabric (bidirectional) constructions. This is at some monetary disadvantage. They are both more expensive than E glass and they are only available in a fairly limited range of material types and resin compatibilities. Probably the most important virtue of S2 and R glass is their high strength, which is considerably higher than E glass. Carbon and graphite fibers Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) The dominant carbon fibres in current use (typically Toray T700) have a tensile modulus of about 230GPa, a tensile strength of around 5000MPaand a strain-to-failure of 2%. Unidirectional composites produced from them in either an epoxy or vinyl-ester matrix have the following typical properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 155165GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 25003000MPa Elongation at break: 1.21.3% Carbon fibres are available which will give a tensile modulus of about250GPa in a unidirectional composite, comparing very favourably with steel at about 210GPa. However, as this composite is unidirectional, it has extremely low modulus in the transverse direction. The principal attributes of carbon fibre composites are their very high specific stiffness (the ratio of modulus/density), excellent fatigue and environmental resistance. Currently there are various pultruded CFRP plates available commercially for plate bonding applications. The pultruded plates used in the ROBUST Project, as well as the plates manufactured with prepreg materials, possessed a modulus of about 130GPa and a
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strength of 1500MPa.Pultruded plates now available from other sources typically exploit fibers with superior properties such as Toray T700, resulting in composites with the properties shown above. A financial penalty has to be paid for materials exhibiting properties significantly in excess of these; the strain-to-failure of composites made with them will also be reduced significantly. Carbon and graphite have substantial capability as reinforcing fibers, with great flexibility in the properties that can be provided. Primary characteristics for reinforcing fibers in polymer matrix composites are high stiffness and strength. The fibers must maintain these characteristics in hostile environments such as elevated temperatures, exposure to common solvents and fluids, and environmental moisture. To be used as part of a primary structure material it should also be available as continuous fiber. These characteristics and requirements have substantial implications for the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the fiber, which in turn implies processing and acceptance parameters. Interest in carbon fibers for structural materials was initiated in the late 1950s when synthesized rayons in textile form were carbonized to produce carbon fibers for high temperature missile applications. One of the first distinctions to be made is the difference between carbon and graphite fibers, although the terms are frequently used interchangeably. Background information for these differences is contained in the following sections. The primary purpose of making this distinction here is to alert the reader that users may mean different things when referring to graphite versus carbon fibers. Carbon and graphite fibers are both based on graphene (hexagonal) layer networks present in carbon. If the graphene layers or planes stack with three dimensional orders the material is defined as graphite. Usually extended time and temperature processing is required to form this order, making graphite fibers more expensive. Because the bonding between planes is weak, disorder frequently occurs such that only the two dimensional
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ordering within the layers is present. This material is defined as carbon. With this distinction made, it should be understood that while some differences are implied, there is not a single condition which strictly separates carbon from graphite fibers, and even graphite fibers retain some disorder in their structure.

3.3.3 Fiber Manufacture:

Glass fibers are generally produced using melt spinning techniques. These involve melting the glass composition into a platinum crown which has small holes for the molten glass to flow. Continuous fibers can be drawn out through the holes and wound onto spindles, while short fibers may be produced by spinning the crown, which forces molten glass out through the holes centrifugally. Fibers are cut to length using mechanical means or air jets. Fiber dimension and to some extent properties can be controlled by the process variables such as melt temperature (hence viscosity) and drawing/spinning rate. The temperature window that can be used to produce a melt of suitable viscosity is quite large, making this composition suitable for fiber forming. As fibers are being produced, they are normally treated with sizing and coupling agents. These reduce the effects of fiber- fiber abrasion which can significantly degrade the mechanical strength of the individual fibers. Other treatments may also be used to promote wetting and adherence of the matrix material to the fiber .

Composition
E-Glass is a low alkali glass with a typical nominal composition of SiO2 54wt%, Al2O3 14wt%, CaO+MgThe advantageous properties of E-glass generally outweigh the disadvantages which include:
Low modulus Self abrasiveness if not treated appropriately leading to reduced strength

Relatively low fatigue resistance

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Higher density compared to carbon fibres and organic fibresO 22wt%, B2O3 10wt% and Na2O+K2O less then 2wt%. Some other materials may also be present at impurity levels.

3.3.4 Key Properties:

Properties that have made E-glass so popular in 542iberglass and other glass reinforced composite include: Low cost High production rates High strength High stiffness Relatively low density Non-flammable Resistant to heat Good chemical resistance Relatively insensitive to moisture Able to maintain strength properties over a wide range of conditions Good electrical insulation

3.4 Processing of the Composites Fabrication of the Laminate

E-glass/Epoxy composite laminates were prepared by passing the E-glass fibers of 1200 TEX, through the resin bath of Epoxy and hardener maintaining a constant temperature of about 45 C.The fibers are then wound on a rotating drum with 15 rpm. After complete winding on the drum then it is cut opened and lay on a flat table in the atmospheric condition for about 48 hours to get the
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tackiness. The layers are cut in such a way that the desired fiber direction is obtained. In this experimentation it is decided to prepare the laminates such that the angle between the fibers are15o 30o 45o 60o and 90oas shown in fig-1. The sequence of layup shown in the fig -2. The number of layup depends on the thickness of the laminate required; here it is used 20 layers to obtain the thickness of the laminate about 4mm. All the overlapped layers then compacted between the two parallel flat steel plates with stainless steel spacers of required laminate thickness. The major purpose of lamination is to tailor the directional dependence of strength and stiffness of a composite material to match the loading environment of the structural element laminates are uniquely suited to this objective because the principal material directions of each layer can be oriented according to need. The plates are clamped with nuts and bolts with washers; the clamped setup is then placed in the oven. Maintain the oven temperature of 800 C for 4 hours and 1200 C for next 4 hours so that any entrapped air or volatile gases will be escaped for the first four hours and chemical reaction between the epoxy and hardener will takes place for the next four hours and will lead to permanent set and finally result into a single solid composite laminate. After total curing of 8 hours oven is then switched off so the temperature in the oven may come down to normal temperature. Take out the composite laminate and trim the edges so that the laminate is ready for testing purpose. Winding parameters 25. 26. 27.
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Tension of fibre =1.3 kgs Resin temperature= 45 0c RPM of lathe = 15

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28.

Gap between doctor blade and drum = 1.25 mmThe

parameters are kept constant for two different windings

FILAMENT WINDING SETUP

RESIN BATH

DRUM WINDING

REMOVING LAYUP

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LAYUP PLACED ON TABLE

APPLYING WAXPOL ON PLATES

LAYING UP LAYERS

REMOVING AIR GAP

COMPACTING LAYERS

PLACING IN THE OVEN

3.4.2 CURING PROCESS :

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Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener". The resin consists of monomers or short chain polymers with an epoxide group at either end. Most common epoxy resins are produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A, though the latter may be replaced by similar chemicals. The hardener consists of polyamine monomers, for example Triethylenetetramine (TETA). When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond.

Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily crosslinked, and is thus rigid and strong.The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. So the laminate that is fabricated is put into a Oven . The temperatures are maintained in two cycles. In the first cycle we have to maintain constant temperature of 80C for 4hours and in the next cycle maintain a temperature of 160C for next 4 hours.

AFTER CURING

MARKING

TRIMMING

AFTER TRIMMING

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DRILLING

AFTER DRILLING

Figure 3.6.a specifications of UTM (at CIPET)

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UTM SPECIFICATIONS

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COMPOSITE LAMINATE UNDER TESTING

4.1 Experimental procedure

Quasi-static Indentation tests were performed on INSTRON testing machine. The
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composite laminate of size 150mm x 150mm is placed on a steel supporting frame, with a square opening of size 50mm x 50mm. A similar square opening flat plate is placed ontop of the composite laminate; it is then clamped rigidly with nuts and bolts of 6mm size as shown in fig-3. The clamped setup is placed on the loading frame of testing machine. A spherical stainless steel ball indenter of diameter 8.32mmis used for indentation on the composites laminate. The tests were conducted with the controlled displacement of the indenter (0.2mm / minute). The test data is shown in Table-2.An extensometer is used to measure the displacement of the point just below the indentation location at the bottom side of the composite laminate. A 20kN load cell evaluated the load on each composite laminate. The data obtained during test for each laminate is shown in Table-2. The composite laminate with different fiber angles is indented for a fixed displacement of 5 mm. The damage in the different composite laminate with different fiber angles is shown fig-4. The damage area in each composite laminate is observed with the help of optical light microscope.
S. No. Specifications 1 2 3 4 5 ASTM Present work

Specimen 4 6 mm 4 - 5 mm thickness Indenter 10 16 mm 8.73 mm diameter Cross head 0.2 mm / 1 mm / min displacement min Indenter 5 10 mm 5 mm displacement No of samples 4 4 per test

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF UTM

00/150

00/300

00/450

00/600

00/900

Fig-1: Schematic diagram of five different laminates

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Fig-2: Sequence of angle plies

4.2 COMPOSITE LAMINATES WITHOUT E-GLASS POWDER FRONT SIDE BACK SIDE

0,90

0,60

FRONT SIDE

BACK SIDE

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0,45

0,30

0,15
S. No. Angle (0) Max. Load (KN) Indentation (mm) Spring back (mm)

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1 2 3 4 5

0/15 0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

3.77 4.11 4.69 4.99 5.83

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.86

0.92 1.17 2.50 3.08 3.44

Table - 2: Test results after Indentation.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Load (KN)

15 DEG 30 DEG 45 DEG 60 DEG 90 DEG

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5

Displacement (mm) Graph-1: Shows the load carrying capacity in each case for different indenter displacements of maximum 5mm for all the laminates. It is gradually increasing for the laminates with the fiber angles varying from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

Indentation ()

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-2: Indentation depth is increasing linearly as the fiber angle in laminates is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o),however it is suddenly increasing in the laminates with fiber angle varying from (0o/60o) to (0o/90o).

S. No. 1

Angle (0) 0/15

Front face damage area (mm2) 971

Back face damage area (mm2) 1256

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2 3 4 5

0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

1300 1894 2186 2623

1857 2280 2623 3257

Table-3: Experimental data of damage surface areas on front and back face of the laminates

Front face damage area 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 15 30 45

Back face damage area

60

75

90

105

Graph-3: Damage area is increasing with the increase in fiber angle of the laminates in front face and back face of the laminate; however the damage area back face is more than the front face as seen from the above graph.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Load (KN)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-4: Maximum load taken in each laminate with different fiber angles. The load is increasing linearly as the fiber angle is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

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4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Spring back (mm)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

5: Shows spring back effect is increasing in different laminates as the fiber angles are increasing

0o/15o) to (0o/90o), it shows that as the angle between fibers is increasing the laminate elasticity increasing

Material

Density (mg/m3)

Modulus (G Pa)

Poisons ratio(v)

Tensile strength (G Pa) 3.5

E-glass fiber

2.56

76

0.22

Epoxy resin

1.3

3.6

0.4

0.1

Table-4: Properties of materials

4.3) RATE OF LOADING (0.5mm/min) WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

0.5%

1%

1.5

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE
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(0/45)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE
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(0/15)

BACK SIDE
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GRAPH 1 :

0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1.0 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.92 1.8 1.4 2 3.4 3.1 3.1 3 4.62 4.1 3.5 4 4.85 4.19 3.6 5 4 3.73 3.11

GRAPH 2 :

0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

4
3 2 1 0 0 2

0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 % % % 0 0 0 2 1.7 1.6 3.15 3.2 2.95 4.65 3.72 3.2 5.4 3.12 2.25 3 2.38 1.89

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 3:

0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.1 2.2 1.7 2 3.8 3.6 3.15 3 4.26 4.2 2.91 4 4.5 2.92 2.29 5 3.5 2.32 1.83

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 4: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.15 2.1 1.2 2 3.75 3.5 2.3 3 5.18 4.2 3.4 4 4.2 3.15 2.85 5 2.5 1.9 1.75

GRAPH 5: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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5 4

FORCE (kN)

3 2 1 0 0 2

F 0.5 F1 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.9 1.8 1.7 2 3.1 2.85 2.6 3 3.9 3.8 3.3 4 3 2.8 2.5 5 2.85 2.35 1.7

GRAPH 6 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

0.5 mm/min

3.5 3 2.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

DEPTH mm)

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.42 2.6 2.5 2.1 2

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.38 2.54 2.6 2.4 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 2.67 2.98 2.9 2.55 2.38

ANGLE

GRAPH 7 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

0.5 mm /min

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PROJECTED HEIGHT

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5 %

ANGLE

ANGLE

0 15 30 45 60 90

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 0.5 % 0 2.84 3.2 2.5 2.55 2

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.0 % 0 3.24 3.6 2.7 3.5 2.1

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.5 % 0 3.31 3.76 3.33 3.67 2.6

4.4 1.5mm/min RATE OF LOADING WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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FRONT SIDE

(0/45)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/15)

BACK SIDE

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GRAPH 8: 0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

F F F 0.5% 1 % 1.5% 0 0 0 1.5 2.05 1.35 3.1 3.3 2.75 3.2 4.3 1.95 2.5 3.75 1.65 1.5 3.25 1.31

GRAPH 9:0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5 % 0 0 0 0 1 2.5 2.31 2.09 2 4.72 4.22 3.75 3 5.5 4.5 4.2 4 4.5 3.23 2.85 5 3.7 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 10: 0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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6 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 % 0 2.5 4.72 5.5 4.5 3.7

FORCE (kN)

4 3 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 1 0 0 2 DISPLACEMENT 4 (mm) 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 2.31 2.09 4.22 3.75 4.5 4.2 3.23 2.85 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 11: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

F 0.5 % 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2.5 4.2 5.55 4.65 3.25

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 (mm) DISPLACEMENT 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 1.75 1.65 3 2.65 4 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.2 1.8

GRAPH 12: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5 mm/min)

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DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 Page 571 (mm) %

F 1.0 %

F 1.5 %

6 5

FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 DISPLACEMENT (mm) F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

0 1 2 3 4 5

0 1.8 2.9 4.1 4.85 3.7

0 1.98 3.15 3.9 4.4 3.2

0 1.65 2.5 3.1 2.25 1.6

GRAPH13 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

1.5 mm/min

DEPTH OF INDENTATION mm)

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

0
0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.34 2.45 2.67 2.39 2.5

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.14 2.32 2.6 2.27 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 1.9 2.29 2.31 2 1.8

ANGLE

GRAPH 14 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

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(1 .5 mm/ min)
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4
3.5

PROJECTED HEIGHT

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5%

ANGLE

ANGLE PROJECTED PROJECTED PROJECTED HEIGHT HEIGHT HEIGHT 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 15 3 1.41 2.95 30 2.71 3.65 3.05 45 3.19 3.31 3.15 60 3.33 3.32 2.5 90 2.7 2.55 2.1

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Graph 1 (0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 1 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 4mm at 3.6kN. Graph 2 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 2 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 5.4kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN. Graph 3 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 3,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 3.15kN. Graph 4 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) :
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at the

In Graph 4,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.18kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.4kN. Graph 5 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 5,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.9kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.3kN. Graph 6 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 6,Depth of indentation is increasing with increase in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-150 to 0-300 later on there is increase angles 0-300 to 0-900. Graph 7 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 7, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-300 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600 and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing
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at the

in

depth of indentation,but it is decreases with

in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles. Graph 8(0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 8 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of2 mm at 2.75kN. Graph 9 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 9 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN. Graph 10 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 10,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN.
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Graph 11 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 11,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.55kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 2.65kN. Graph 12 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 12,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.1kN. Graph 13 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 13,Depth of indentation is increasing with decrease in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-450, later on there is decrease in depth of indentation from 0-450 to 0-600,but it is increases with angles 0-600 to 0-900. Graph 14 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 14, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-150 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600
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at the

at the

and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles.

REFERENCES
1) Agarwal, B. D and Broutman, L. J, (1990). Analysis and Performance
of Fiber Composites, Second Edition, Jhon Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 2) Robert M. Jones(1999), mechanics of composite materials, second edition Taylor & Francis group , New york London. 3) http://nptel.iitm.ac.in 4) http://www.wikipedia.org/ 5) Rothon R.N, (1999). Mineral fillers in thermoplastics: filler manufacture and characterization. Adv. Polym. Sci. 139, pp. 67-107. 6) http://composite.about.com/ 7) Applied composite materials, An international journal for the science And application of composites materials.

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8) Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, publishes research on Polymers, nano composites and particulate

ABSTRACT

In this work the composite laminates of Epoxy/E-glass fiber hybridizing with and without E- glass powder are prepared for testing. The fabrication of the laminate is done by filament winding (hoop winding) on a drum mandrel mounted on a modified center lathe. The green layup obtained is cut into laminae of the desired orientations and stacked in the predefined way to a required thickness. The stacked laminate is cured at elevated temperatures under a pressure from a pressure plate. The edges of the laminate are trimmed first and it is then cut in to required size. The specimens are then subjected to indentation test on a universal testing machine (UTM) for a fixed indenter depth. An investigative study is conducted into the results obtained from test data. A number of illustrations are shown regarding the damage in the specimens of different fiber orientation and with different percentages of E-glass powder. Also indentation depth, contact radius, spring back effect, and maximum load carrying capacity are studied.
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER :1 INTRODUCTION 1.64 Overview of composites. 1.65 Historical Development/Historical Overview. 1.66 What is composite material. 1.67 Classification of composites. 1.68 Structure of composites. 1.69 Advantages of composites. 1.70 Applications of composites. 1.71 Examples of composite materials. 1.72 Scope of Project. CHAPTER:2 LITERATURE SURVE

PAGE NO:

5 5 8 12 24 25 26 27 29

30

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CHAPTER:3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Hardener. 3.2 Epoxy. 3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials. 3.3.1 Types of fibres. 3.3.2 Mechanical properties of fibres. 3.3.3 Fibre manufacturing. 3.3.4 Key properties. 3.4 Processing of composites. 3.4.1 Curing CHAPTER:4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. 4.1 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates without E-glass powder. 4.2 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 62 57 56 32 32 32 34 35 43 46 47 49 52

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4.3

1.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 71

CHAPTER:5 5.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. 5.2 REFERENCES 80 85

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of composites

The development of composite materials and related design and manufacturing technologies is one of the most important advances in the history of materials. Composites are multifunctional materials having unprecedented mechanical and physical properties that can be tailored to meet the requirements of a particular application. Many composites also exhibit great resistance to high-temperature corrosion and oxidation and wear. These unique characteristics provide the mechanical engineer with design opportunities not possible with conventional monolithic (unreinforced) materials. Composites technology also makes possible the use of an entire class of solid materials, ceramics, in applications for which monolithic versions are unsuited because of their great strength scatter and poor resistance to mechanical and thermal shock. Further, many manufacturing processes for composites are well adapted to the fabrication of large, complex structures, which allows consolidation of parts, reducing manufacturing costs.

1.2 Historical Development / Historical overview: Past: After making and controlling fire and inventing the wheel,
spinning of continuous yarns is probably the most important development of mankind, enabling him to survive outside the tropical
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climate zones and spread across the surface of the Earth. Flexible fabrics made of locally grown and spun fibres as cotton; flax and jute were a big step forward compared to animal skins. More and more natural resources were used, soon resulting in the first composites; straw reinforced walls, and bows (Figure M.1.1.a) and chariots made of glued layers of wood, bone and horn. More durable materials as wood and metal soon replaced these antique composites.

Fig M.1.1.a Composite Korean bow

Present:
Originating from early agricultural societies and being almost forgotten after centuries, a true revival started of using lightweight composite structures for many technical solutions during the second half of the 20th century. After being solely used for their electromagnetic properties (insulators and radar-domes), using composites to improve the structural performance of spacecraft and military aircraft became popular in the last two decades of the previous century. First at any costs, with development of improved materials with increasing costs, nowadays cost

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reduction during manufacturing and operation are the main technology drivers. Latest development is the use of composites to protect man

against fire and impact and a tendency to a more environmental friendly design, leading to the reintroduction of natural fibres in the composite technology. Increasingly nowadays, the success of composites in applications, by volume and by numbers, can be ranked by accessibility and reproducibility of the applied manufacturing techniques. Some examples of use of natural fibers(M.1.1b M.1.1.e)

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Future:
In future, composites will be manufactured even more according to an integrated design process resulting in the optimum construction according to parameters such as shape, mass, strength, stiffness, durability, costs, etc. Newly developed design tools must be able to instantaneously show customers the influence of a design change on each one of these parameters.

1.3 What is Composite Material?

Composite materials are engineering materials made from two or more constituent materials that remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level while forming a single component. There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix
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Properties. The primary functions of the matrix are to transfer stresses between the reinforcing fibers/particles and to protect them from mechanical environmental damage whereas the presence of fibers/particles in a composite improves its mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness etc. The objective is to take advantage of the superior properties of both materials without compromising on the weakness of either. As defined by Agarwal and Broutman composite means material having two or more distinct constituent materials or phases. It is only when the constituent phases have significantly different physical properties and thus the composite properties are noticeably different from the constituent materials

Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural. Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific character of a composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine to give them a specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve the desirable properties. Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the levels at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic. In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz., binding the reinforcement phases in place and deforming

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to distribute the stresses among the constituent materials under an applied force.

reinforcement

The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be conductors or resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending on the purpose for which matrices are chosen. Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and metals have found applications as matrix materials in the designing of structural composites, with commendable success. These materials remain elastic till failure occurs and show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression. Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion characteristics. The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two interphases between each side of the interphase and its adjoint constituent. Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of matrix on properties of reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the selection and fabrication of composites is that the constituents should be chemically inert non-reactive.

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Properties of Matrix Materials:

Naturally fibers and whiskers are of little use unless they are bonded together to take form of structural element that can carry loads. The binder material is usually called a matrix. The purpose of the matrix is manifold support of fibers or whiskers, protection of the fibers or whiskers, stress transfer between broken fibers or whiskers, etc. Typically the matrix is of considerably lower density, stiffness, and strength than fibers or whiskers. However the combination of fibers or whiskers and a matrix can have very high strength and stiffness yet still have low density. Matrix materials can be polymers, metals, ceramics or carbon. Polymers (poly =many and mer = unit or molecule) exist in at least three major forms i.e linear, branched, or cross linked. A linear polymer is merely a chain of mers. A branched polymer consists of a primary chain of mers with other chains that are attached in three dimensions just like tree branches. Finally, a cross linked polymer has large number of three dimensional highly interconnected chains. Linear polymers have the least strength and stiffness, whereas cross linked polymer have most because of their inherently stiffer and stronger internal structure. The three main classes of structural polymers are rubbers, thermoplastics,
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and thermo sets. Rubbers are cross linked polymers that have semi crystalline state well below room temperature. Thermoplastics are polymers that branch, but generally dont cross link very much if at all. Thus, they usually can be repeatedly softened on heating and hardened on cooling. Examples of thermoplastics are nylon, polyethylene, and polysulfone. Thermo sets are polymers that are chemically reacted until almost all molecules are irreversibly cross linked in a three dimensional network. Thus, once an epoxy has set, it cannot be changed in form. Examples of thermo sets include epoxies, phenolics, and polyimides. Other matrix materials include metals that can be made to flow around an in-place fiber system by diffusion bonding or by heating vacuum infiltration. Common examples are shown in fig 1.3.1

a) linear

b)branched

c)cross linked

d)network

figure 1.3.1

1.4 Classification of Composites

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:

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 The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites. The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres. Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling. Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this category. Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.

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1.4.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or Carbon-Carbon Composites

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications. Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins. Thermoplastics have oneor two-dimensional

molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds. Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites.

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Figure 1.4.1 a

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures. Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally. There thermoplastic temperatures. are a few options tend their to loose increase their heat strength resistance at like in

thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the heat resistance. But all composites However, elevated rigidity, redeeming qualities

toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc.

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Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds. Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas.

Figure 1.4.1.b
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and
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dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins. Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of 140C. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is ruled out.

Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in automobile and structural applications. The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75C or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey. Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service at around 200250C .

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1.4.2 According to geometry:

Most composite materials developed thus far have been fabricated to improve mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, and high temperature performance. It is natural to study together the composites that have a common strengthening mechanism. The strengthening mechanism strongly depends on the geometry of the reinforcement. Therefore, it is quite convenient to classify composite materials on the basis of the geometry of a representative unit of reinforcement.

1.4.2.a Fibrous composite

A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension discourages the growth of incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement that might otherwise lead to failure, particularly with brittle matrices. Man-made filaments or fibers of non polymeric materials exhibit much higher strength along their length since large flaws, which may be present in the bulk material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness.Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite. Most composites used in structural applications are multilayered; that is, they consist of

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several layers of fibrous composites. Each layer or lamina is a single layer composite and its orientation is varied according to design. Several identical or different layers are bonded together to form a multilayered composites usable for engineering applications. When the constituent materials in each layer are the same, they are called simply laminates. Hybrid laminates refer to multilayered composites consisting of layers made up of different constituent materials. Reinforcing fibers in a single layer composite may be short or long compared to its overall dimensions. Composites with long fibers are called continuous fiber reinforced composites and those with short fibers, discontinuous fiber reinforced composites. The continuous fibers in single layer composites may be all aligned in one direction to form a unidirectional composite. Such composites are fabricated by laying the fibers parallel and saturating them with resinous material. The bidirectional reinforcement may be provided in a single layer in mutually perpendicular directions as in a woven fabric. The bidirectional reinforcement may be such that the strengths in two perpendicular directions are approximately equal. The orientation of discontinuous fibers cannot be easily controlled in a composite material.

So fibers can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented. In most cases the fibers are assumed to be randomly oriented in the composites. However, in the injection molding of a fiber reinforced polymer, considerable orientation can occur in the flow direction and which a case of preferred oriented fibers in the composites.

1.4.2.b Particulate Composites

As the name itself indicates, the reinforcement is of particle nature (platelets are also included in this class). It may be spherical, cubic,
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tetragonal, a platelet, or of other regular or irregular shape, but it is approximately equiaxed. In general, particles are not very effective in improving fracture resistance but they enhance the stiffness of the composite to a limited extent. Particle fillers are widely used to improve the properties of matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and electrical conductivities, improve performance at elevated temperatures, reduce friction, increase wear and abrasion resistance, improve machinability, increase surface hardness and reduce shrinkage. Also, in case of particulate reinforced composites the particle can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented.

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1.4.3 According to type of matrix material they are classified as:

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

1.4.3.a Metal Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites have many advantages over monolithic metals like higher specific modulus, higher specific strength, better properties at elevated temperatures, and lower coefficient of thermal expansion.
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Because of these attributes metal matrix composites are under consideration for wide range of applications viz. combustion chamber nozzle (in rocket, space shuttle), housings, tubing, cables, heat exchangers, structural members etc

1.4.3.b Ceramic matrix Composites

One of the main objectives in producing ceramic matrix composites is to increase the toughness Naturally it is hoped and indeed often found that there is a concomitant improvement in strength and stiffness of ceramic matrix composites.

1.4.3.c Polymer Matrix Composites

Most commonly used matrix materials are polymeric. The reasons for this are twofold. In general the mechanical properties of polymers are inadequate for many structural purposes. In particular their strength and stiffness are low compared to metals and ceramics. These difficulties are overcome by reinforcing other materials with polymers. Secondly the processing of polymer matrix composites need not involve high pressure and doesnt require high temperature. Also equipments required for manufacturing polymer matrix composites are simpler. For this reason polymer matrix composites developed rapidly and soon became popular for structural applications. Composites are used because overall properties of the composites are superior to those of the individual components for example polymer/ceramic. Composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component but arent as brittle as ceramics.

1.4.4 Classification Based on Reinforcements Introduction to Reinforcements

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with
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other two axes either often circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers.

Figure 1.4.4

Two types of polymer composites are: Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) Particle reinforced polymer (PRP)

1.4.4.a Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Common fiber reinforced composites are composed of fibers and a matrix. Fibers are the reinforcement and the main source of strength while matrix glues all the fibers together in shape and transfers stresses between the reinforcing fibers. The fibers carry the loads along their longitudinal directions. Sometimes, filler might be added to smooth the manufacturing process, impact special properties to the composites, and
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/or reduce the product cost. Common fiber reinforcing agents include asbestos, carbon /graphite fibers, beryllium, beryllium carbide, beryllium oxide, molybdenum, aluminium oxide, glass fibers, polyamide,natural fibers etc. Similarly common matrix materials include epoxy, phenolic, polyester, polyurethane, peek, vinyl ester etc. Among these resin materials, epoxy is widely used for its higher adhesion and less shrinkage property.

1.4.4.b Particle Reinforced Polymer

Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminium and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black. Particles are used to increase the modules of the matrix and to decrease the ductility of the matrix. Particles are also used to reduce the cost of the composites. Reinforcements and matrices can be common, inexpensive materials and are easily processed.

Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators. Some ceramics have special properties; some ceramics are magnetic materials; some are piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics are even superconductors at very low temperatures. Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback: they are brittle. An example of particle reinforced composites is an automobile tire, which has carbon black particles in a matrix of poly-isobutylene elastomeric polymer

1.5 Structure of Composite

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Structure of composite material A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness. Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite

Properties
1) Nature of the constituent material (bonding strength) 2) The geometry of the reinforcement (shape, size) 3) The concentration distribution(vol. fraction of reinforcement) 4) The orientation of the reinforcement(random or preferred) Good adhesion (bonding) between matrix phase and displaced phase provides transfer of load applied to the material to the displaced phase via the interface. Good adhesion is required for achieving high level of mechanical properties of composites. Very small particles less than 0.25 micrometer finely distributed in the matrix impede movement of dislocations and deformation of the material. They have strengthening
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effect. Large dispersed phase particles have low share load applied to the material resulting in increase of stiffness and decrease of ductility. Orientation of reinforcement: Planar:-In the form of 2-D woven fabric. When the fibers are laid parallel, the composite exhibits axistrope. Random or Three Dimensional:-The composite material tends to posses isotropic properties. One Dimensional: - Maximum strength and stiffness are obtained in the direction of fiber.

1.6 Advantages of Composites

Advantages of composites over their conventional counterparts are the ability to meet diverse design requirements with significant weight savings as well as strength-to-weight ratio. Some advantages of composite materials over conventional ones are as follows: Tensile strength of composites is four to six times greater than that of steel or aluminium (depending on the reinforcements).

Improved torsional stiffness and impact properties. Higher fatigue endurance limit (up to 60% of ultimate tensile strength). 30% - 40% lighter for example any particular aluminium structures designed to the same functional requirements. Lower embedded energy compared to other structural metallic materials like steel, aluminium etc. Composites are less noisy while in operation and provide lower vibration transmission than metals. Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored to meet performance needs and complex design requirements. Long life offer excellent fatigue, impact, environmental resistance and reduce maintenance.
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Composites enjoy reduced life cycle cost compared to metals. Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and fire retardancy. Improved appearance with smooth surfaces and readily incorporable integral decorative melamine are other characteristics of composites. Composite parts can eliminate joints / fasteners, providing part simplification and integrated design compared to conventional metallic parts.

1.7 Applications of Composites

Figure 1.7

1.8 EXAMPLES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Fibre reinforced plastics:
Industry Examples Door, elevators Space Shuttle, Space stations Body frames, engine Comments 20-35% Weight savings Great weight savings High stiffness & damage tolerance

Classified by type of fiber:

Aerospace Automotive

Aircraft

Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix)

components

Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP)

Construction Fuel tanks etc.

Chemical

Pipes, Tanks, Pressure vessels Structural & decorative panels,

Corrosion resistance Weight savings, portable.

Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally, "fiberglass")

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Classified by matrix: Thermoplastic Composites Short fiber thermoplastics Long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics Glass mat thermoplastics Continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics Thermoset Composites Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)

Metal matrix composites (MMCs): White cast iron Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix) Metal-intermetallic laminate Ceramic matrix composites: Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers)

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Cermet (ceramic and metal) Concrete Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites Asphalt concrete Dental composite Syntactic foam Mother of Pearl Chobham armour (see composite armour) Engineered wood

Plywood Oriented strand board Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix) Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix) Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles Arborite Formica (plastic)
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1.9 Scope of the project

The basic aim of the present work is to develop and characterize a new class of composites with epoxy as polymer matrix and glass fiber as the reinforcing material. Their physical and mechanical characterization is done. Attempt is made to use TiO2 as filler in these fiber reinforced .polymer matrix composites. Characterization of the resulting TiO2 filled glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite is done. The experimentally measured database of composites has also been predicted. This work is expected to introduce a new class of functional polymer composites suitable for tribological applications.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

This chapter outlines some of the recent reports published in literature on composites of fiber reinforced polymer composites. Polymer composite materials have generated wide interest in various engineering fields, particularly in aerospace applications. Research is underway worldwide to develop newer composites with varied combinations of fibers and fillers so as to make them useable under different operational conditions. The improved performance of polymer composites in engineering applications by the addition of filler materials has shown a
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great promise and so has become a subject of considerable interest. Ceramic filled polymer composites have been the subject of extensive research in last two decades. Various kinds of polymers and polymer matrix composites reinforced with ceramic particles have a wide range of industrial applications such as heaters, electrodes, composites with thermal durability at high temperature etc.

These engineering composites are desired due to their low density, high corrosion resistance consisting of ceramic or metal particles and fiber fillers made of glass are being used these days to dramatically improve the wear resistance even up to three orders of magnitude. The inclusion of inorganic fillers into polymers for commercial applications is primarily aimed at the cost reduction and stiffness improvement. Along with fiber-reinforced composites, the composites made with particulate fillers have been found to perform well in many real operational conditions. It is reported by Bonner that with the inclusion of micro-sized particulates into polymers, a high filler content (typically greater than 20 vol. %) is generally required to bring the above stated positive effects into play. But at the same time, this may also have detrimental effects on some important properties of the matrix polymers such as processability, appearance, density and aging performance. It has also been reported that the fracture surface energies of epoxy and polyester resin and their resistance to crack propagation are relatively low.

But if particulate filler is added to these resins, the particles inhibit crack growth. As the volume fraction of filler is varied, the fracture energy increases up to a critical volume fraction and then decreases again. Srivastava showed that the fracture toughness of epoxy resin could be improved by addition of flyash particles as filler. The fillers also affect
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the

tensile

properties

according

to

their
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packing

characteristics, size and interfacial bonding. The maximum volumetric packing fraction of filler reflects the size distribution and shapes of the particles. Recently, it has been observed that by incorporating filler particles into the matrix of fibre reinforced composites, synergistic effects may be achieved in the form of higher modulus and reduced material costs, yet accompanied with decreased strength and impact toughness. Polymer composites with both discontinuous and continuous fibre reinforcement possess usually very high specific (i.e. density related) stiffness and strength when measured in plane. Therefore, such composites are frequently used in engineering parts in automobile, aerospace, marine and energetic applications.

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CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the experimental procedures followed for their characterization and tribological evaluation. The raw materials used in this work are 1. E-glass fiber 2. E-Glass powder 3. Epoxy resin

3.1 Hardener:
The hardener used in Epoxy is polyamine. A polyamine is an organic compound having two or more primary amino groups -NH2.This class of compounds includes several synthetic substances that are important feed stocks for the chemical industry, such as ethylene diamine H2N-CH2-CH2-NH2, 1,3-diaminopropane H2N-(CH2)3-NH2, and hex methylenediamine H2N-(CH2)6-NH2. The amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

3.2 Epoxy:
Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener. When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

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The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements.

Resin:
Resin is a natural or synthetic compound which begins in a highly viscous state and hardens with treatment. Typically, resin is soluble in alcohol, but not in water. There are a number of different classes of resin, depending on exact chemical composition and potential uses. Matrix resins bind glass-reinforcing fibers together, protecting them from impact and the environment. Glass fiber properties such as strength dominate in continuously reinforced composites. When glass is used as a discontinuous reinforcement, resin properties dominate and are enhanced by the glass. Polymer matrix resins fall into two categories: thermo set and thermoplastic. The difference is in their chemistry. Thermo set resin is chemically comprised of molecular chains that crosslink during the cure reaction (set off by heat, catalyst, or both) and "set" into a final rigid form. Molecular chains in thermoplastic resin are processed at higher temperatures and remain "plastic," or capable of being reheated and reshaped. While the tradeoffs between thermosets and thermoplastics have been debated extensively, engineers will find that material suppliers will tailor matrix resin formulations best for their application

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3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials:

Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used. Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers, high silica and quartz fibers, alumina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron fibers, aramid fibers and multi phase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified into E-glass, S-glass, A- glass, R-glass etc. There is a greater market and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers. The potential of fibers of graphite, silicon carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific mind due to their applications in advanced composites.

3.3.1Types of fibers 3.3.1.a Glass Fibers

Over 95% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers, as they are inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the plastics with which they are reinforced.
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Their low density, resistance to chemicals, insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics, although the one major disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when subjected to high tensile stress for a long time.. However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time frames. This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is expected to sustain such loads for many months or years continuously. Period of loading, temperature, moisture and other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibers and the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning before the catastrophic failure. But all this can be easily overlooked in view of the fact that the wide range of glass fiber variety lend themselves amicably to fabrication processes like matched die moulding, filament winding lay-up and so on. Glass fibers are available in the form of mats, tapes, cloth, continuous and chopped filaments, rovings and yarns. Addition of chemicals to silica sand while making glass yields different types of glasses.

3.3.1.b Metal Fibers

As reinforcements, metal fibers have many advantages. They are easily produced using several fabrication processes and are more ductile, apart from being not too sensitive to surface damage and possess high strengths and temperature resistance. However, their weight and the tendency to react with each other through alloying mechanisms are major disadvantages. Steel wire is the most extensively used reinforcement in most large-scale metal filament applications. Wire is used for its capacity to enhance the tensile strength of concrete and continuous metal fibers are the reinforcing constituents in metal and ceramic composite materials.

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3.3.1.c Ceramic fibers improve vastly in performance when a fine metal outline is incorporated with refractory ceramics by improving their thermal shock and impact resistance properties. 3.3.1.d Metal wires, of the continuous version, also reinforce plastics like polyethylene and epoxy. Such combinations ensure high strength, light weight and good fatigue resistance. Besides, continuous metal fibers are easily handled, unlike glass fibers. Better flexural properties are observed in some metal fibers reinforced plastic composites which also offer improved strength and weight, than glass fibers. However, their poor tolerance of high temperatures and the resultant steep variation of thermal expansion coefficient with the resins are a discouragement that limits their application.

3.3.1.d Alumina Fibers

Alumina or aluminum oxide fibers, basically developed for use in metal matrices are considered a potential resin-matrix composite reinforcement. It offers good compressive strength rather than tensile strength. It is important property is it is high melting point of about 2000C and the composite can be successfully used at temperatures up to about 1000C. Magnesium and aluminum matrices frequently use alumina fiber reinforced composites as they do not damage the fiber even in the liquid state.

3.3.1.e Boron Fibers

They are basically composites, in which boron is coated on a substance which forms the substrate, usually made of tungsten. Boron-tungsten fibers are obtained by allowing hot tungsten filament through a mixture of gases. Boron is deposited on tungsten and the process is continued until the desired thickness is achieved. The tungsten however remains constant in its thickness. Properties of boron fibers generally change with the diameter, because of the changing ratio of boron to tungsten and the surface defects that change according to size. However, they
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are known for their remarkable stiffness

33and strength. Their strengths often compare with those of glass fibers, but their tensile modulus is high, almost four to five times that of glass. Boron coated carbons are much cheaper to make than boron tungsten fiber. But its low modulus of elasticity often works against it.

3.3.1.f Silicon Carbide Fibers

Silicon carbide can be coated over a few metals and their room temperature tensile strengths and tensile moduli are like those of boron-tungsten. The advantages of silicon carbide-tungsten are several and they are more desirable than uncoated boron tungsten fibers. Elevated temperature performance and the fact that they reported only a 35% loss of strength at 1350C are their best qualities. Silicon carbide-tungsten and silicon carbidecarbon have both been seen to have very high stress-rupture strength at 1100C and 1300C. Uncoated boron-tungsten fibers tend to lose all their strength at temperatures over 680C. Silicon carbide fibers do not react with molten aluminium, unlike uncoated boron and they also withstand high temperatures used in hot-press titanium matrices. However, silicon carbide-tungsten fibers are dense compared to boron- tungsten fibers of the same diameter. They are prone to surface damage and need careful, delicate handling, especially during fabrication of the composite. Further, above 930C, weakening reactions occur between tungsten and silicon carbide, making it difficult to maintain balance in high-temperature matrix formations. Silicon carbide on 'carbon substrates have several advantages, viz. no, reaction at high temperature, being lighter than silicon carbide tungsten and possessing tensile strengths and modulus that is are often better than those of silicon carbide-tungsten and boron fibers.

3.3.1.g Aramid Fibers

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Aramid fibers are made from aromatic polyamides which are long polymeric .chains and aromatic rings. They are structures in which six carbon atoms are bonded to each other and to combinations of hydrogen atoms. In aramid fibers, these rings occur and reoccur to form the fibers. They were initially used to reinforce automobile tires. Since then, they have also found other uses like bullet proof vests. As high strength applications, their use in power boats is not uncommon.

Aramid have high tensile strength, high modulus and low weight. Impact- resistant structures can be produced from aramid. The density of aramid fibers is less than that of glass and graphite fibers. They are fire resistant apart from being high-temperature resistant and also unaffected by organic solvents and fuels. But their resistance in acid and alkaline media is poor. They are supple and allow themselves to be woven into matrices by simple processes. Aramid fibers have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion in the fiber direction and the failure of aramid fibers is unique. When they fail, the fibers break into small fibrils, which are like fibers within the fibers. This unique failure mechanism is responsible for high strength.

3.3.1.h Quartz and Silica Fibers

The glass-types typically contain about 50 to 78% silica. Silica glass is a purer glass fiber that can be made by treating fiberglass in an acid bath, which removes all impurities without affecting the silica. The final product contains 93 to 99% silica. Quartz is even more pure, and quartz fibers are made from natural quartz crystals that contain 99.9% silica, possessing nearly all the properties of pure solid quartz. Ordinary fiberglass, high silica and quartz fibers share several characteristics and can be produced in a range of fiber diameters. Roving or yarns and other forms of fibers can be made from high silica as well as quartz. All matrix materials that accept fiberglass are amenable to high silica and quartz too. They differ from glass in many factors, however, especially in heat-related properties.
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Although quartz crystals are commonly available, pure crystals are hard to come by. On the other hand, high silica comes from the same material as glass fibers and is easily accessible. However, quartz makes up for its rarity with its capacity to" withstand high temperatures, which silica is incapable of. Barring this difference, silica and quartz are similar in other respects. They are highly elastic and can be stretched to 1 % of their length before break point. Both silica and quartz are not affected by acid attacks and are resistant to moisture. Owing to their thermal properties, silica and quartz are the natural choice as fibers in several applications. They have good insulating properties and do not melt at temperatures up to 1600C. In addition, they have low thermal expansion coefficients which make them withstand high temperatures.

3.3.1.i Graphite Fibers

While use of the term carbon for graphite is permissible, there is one basic difference between the two. Elemental analysis of poly-acrylo-nitrile (PAN) base carbon fibers show that they consist of 91 to 94% carbon. But graphite fibers are over 99% carbon. The difference arises from the fact that the fibers are made at different temperatures. PAN-based carbon cloth or fiber is produced at about 1320C, while graphite fibers and cloth are graphitized at 1950 to 3000C. The properties of graphite remain unchanged even at very high temperatures, but its willingness to react readily with most metals at the fabrication stage or during use at very high temperatures is often a stumbling block, as seen in aluminium matrices when carbides are produced at the interface. These carbides react with moisture with disastrous effects on the composite material.

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Graphite fibers are some of the stiffest fibers known. The stiffness of the fiber is as high as the graphite content. But a major drawback is that stiffness and strength are inversely proportional to each other. Forbidding costs make the use of graphite fibers prohibitive. The best glass fibers are far less expensive than the cheapest, lowest quality of graphite, and in PAN-base fibers, other raw materials too are equally expensive. The carbonization and graphitization are time-consuming, apart from demanding excessive energy, materials and close controls throughout the process. Cheaper pitch base fibers are now being developed, with greater performance potential and there are possibilities of the increased use of graphite fibers.

3.3.1.j Multiphase Fibers

Spoolable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually the multi phase variety and they usually comprise materials like boron, silicon and their carbides formed on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or tungsten. They are usually good for high temperature applications, due to their reduced reaction with higher melting temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers. Boron filaments are sought after for structural and intermediate-temperature composites. A poly-phase fiber is a core-sheath fiber consisting of a polycrystalline core.

3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber:

E-Glass or electrical grade glass was originally developed for standoff insulators for electrical wiring. It was later found to have excellent fibre forming capabilities and is now used almost exclusively as the reinforcing phase in the material commonly known as fiber glass.

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. Figure 3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber

3.3.2 Mechanical Properties of fibers

Composite materials are not homogeneous. Their properties are dependent on many factors, the most important of which are the type of fibre, quantity of fibre (as volume fraction) and the configuration of the reinforcement. They are generally completely elastic up to failure and exhibit neither a yield point nor a region of plasticity. They tend to have low strain to failure(less than 3%). The resulting area under the stress/strain curve, which represents the work done to failure, is relatively small when compared to many metals. The properties of composites are dependent on the properties of the fibre and the matrix, the proportion of each and the configuration of the fibres. If all the fibres are aligned in one direction then the composite relatively stiff and strong in that direction, but in the transverse direction it has low modulus and low strength. When a unidirectional composite is tested at a small angle from the fibre axis, there is a considerable reduction in strength. A similar but less significant effect occurs with the tensile modulus, as shown in Figure 3.3.2

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Figure 3.3.2
Theoretical variation in tensile modulus with the angle of load relative to the principal fibre direction (unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced plastic (UD CFRP), fibre volume fraction = 0.5)

Strength and stiffness Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) E glass fibres, which have a modulus of about 70GPa, produce composites with modest moduli. In the case of unidirectional fibres and the highest typical fibre volume fraction of 0.65, a composite has a modulus of about45GPa and strength of around 1300MPa. At right angles to this, in the transverse direction, the modulus approaches that of the resin itself at about4GPa and the strength would be 50100MPa. The unidirectional compo-sites used in the ROBUST Project, manufactured using the vacuum process with prepreg material in an epoxy matrix, had the following properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 36GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 750MPa Elongation at break: 3.1%.

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Bidirectional E glass laminates have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.4 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about 14GPa.Random laminates (e.g. chopped strand mat) have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.2 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about9GPa. The use of S2 or R glass improves the composite modulus to about60GPa for unidirectional and 20GPa for woven fabric (bidirectional) constructions. This is at some monetary disadvantage. They are both more expensive than E glass and they are only available in a fairly limited range of material types and resin compatibilities. Probably the most important virtue of S2 and R glass is their high strength, which is considerably higher than E glass. Carbon and graphite fibers Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) The dominant carbon fibres in current use (typically Toray T700) have a tensile modulus of about 230GPa, a tensile strength of around 5000MPaand a strain-to-failure of 2%. Unidirectional composites produced from them in either an epoxy or vinyl-ester matrix have the following typical properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 155165GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 25003000MPa Elongation at break: 1.21.3% Carbon fibres are available which will give a tensile modulus of about250GPa in a unidirectional composite, comparing very favourably with steel at about 210GPa. However, as this composite is unidirectional, it has extremely low modulus in the transverse direction. The principal attributes of carbon fibre composites are their very high specific stiffness (the ratio of modulus/density), excellent fatigue and environmental resistance. Currently there are various pultruded CFRP plates available commercially for plate bonding applications. The pultruded plates used in the ROBUST Project, as well as the plates manufactured with prepreg materials, possessed a modulus of about 130GPa and a
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strength of 1500MPa.Pultruded plates now available from other sources typically exploit fibers with superior properties such as Toray T700, resulting in composites with the properties shown above. A financial penalty has to be paid for materials exhibiting properties significantly in excess of these; the strain-to-failure of composites made with them will also be reduced significantly. Carbon and graphite have substantial capability as reinforcing fibers, with great flexibility in the properties that can be provided. Primary characteristics for reinforcing fibers in polymer matrix composites are high stiffness and strength. The fibers must maintain these characteristics in hostile environments such as elevated temperatures, exposure to common solvents and fluids, and environmental moisture. To be used as part of a primary structure material it should also be available as continuous fiber. These characteristics and requirements have substantial implications for the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the fiber, which in turn implies processing and acceptance parameters. Interest in carbon fibers for structural materials was initiated in the late 1950s when synthesized rayons in textile form were carbonized to produce carbon fibers for high temperature missile applications. One of the first distinctions to be made is the difference between carbon and graphite fibers, although the terms are frequently used interchangeably. Background information for these differences is contained in the following sections. The primary purpose of making this distinction here is to alert the reader that users may mean different things when referring to graphite versus carbon fibers. Carbon and graphite fibers are both based on graphene (hexagonal) layer networks present in carbon. If the graphene layers or planes stack with three dimensional orders the material is defined as graphite. Usually extended time and temperature processing is required to form this order, making graphite fibers more expensive. Because the bonding between planes is weak, disorder frequently occurs such that only the two dimensional
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ordering within the layers is present. This material is defined as carbon. With this distinction made, it should be understood that while some differences are implied, there is not a single condition which strictly separates carbon from graphite fibers, and even graphite fibers retain some disorder in their structure.

3.3.3 Fiber Manufacture:

Glass fibers are generally produced using melt spinning techniques. These involve melting the glass composition into a platinum crown which has small holes for the molten glass to flow. Continuous fibers can be drawn out through the holes and wound onto spindles, while short fibers may be produced by spinning the crown, which forces molten glass out through the holes centrifugally. Fibers are cut to length using mechanical means or air jets. Fiber dimension and to some extent properties can be controlled by the process variables such as melt temperature (hence viscosity) and drawing/spinning rate. The temperature window that can be used to produce a melt of suitable viscosity is quite large, making this composition suitable for fiber forming. As fibers are being produced, they are normally treated with sizing and coupling agents. These reduce the effects of fiber- fiber abrasion which can significantly degrade the mechanical strength of the individual fibers. Other treatments may also be used to promote wetting and adherence of the matrix material to the fiber .

Composition
E-Glass is a low alkali glass with a typical nominal composition of SiO2 54wt%, Al2O3 14wt%, CaO+MgThe advantageous properties of E-glass generally outweigh the disadvantages which include:
Low modulus Self abrasiveness if not treated appropriately leading to reduced strength

Relatively low fatigue resistance

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Higher density compared to carbon fibres and organic fibresO 22wt%, B2O3 10wt% and Na2O+K2O less then 2wt%. Some other materials may also be present at impurity levels.

3.3.4 Key Properties:

Properties that have made E-glass so popular in 625iberglass and other glass reinforced composite include: Low cost High production rates High strength High stiffness Relatively low density Non-flammable Resistant to heat Good chemical resistance Relatively insensitive to moisture Able to maintain strength properties over a wide range of conditions Good electrical insulation

3.4 Processing of the Composites Fabrication of the Laminate

E-glass/Epoxy composite laminates were prepared by passing the E-glass fibers of 1200 TEX, through the resin bath of Epoxy and hardener maintaining a constant temperature of about 45 C.The fibers are then wound on a rotating drum with 15 rpm. After complete winding on the drum then it is cut opened and lay on a flat table in the atmospheric condition for about 48 hours to get the
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tackiness. The layers are cut in such a way that the desired fiber direction is obtained. In this experimentation it is decided to prepare the laminates such that the angle between the fibers are15o 30o 45o 60o and 90oas shown in fig-1. The sequence of layup shown in the fig -2. The number of layup depends on the thickness of the laminate required; here it is used 20 layers to obtain the thickness of the laminate about 4mm. All the overlapped layers then compacted between the two parallel flat steel plates with stainless steel spacers of required laminate thickness. The major purpose of lamination is to tailor the directional dependence of strength and stiffness of a composite material to match the loading environment of the structural element laminates are uniquely suited to this objective because the principal material directions of each layer can be oriented according to need. The plates are clamped with nuts and bolts with washers; the clamped setup is then placed in the oven. Maintain the oven temperature of 800 C for 4 hours and 1200 C for next 4 hours so that any entrapped air or volatile gases will be escaped for the first four hours and chemical reaction between the epoxy and hardener will takes place for the next four hours and will lead to permanent set and finally result into a single solid composite laminate. After total curing of 8 hours oven is then switched off so the temperature in the oven may come down to normal temperature. Take out the composite laminate and trim the edges so that the laminate is ready for testing purpose. Winding parameters 29. 30. 31.
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Tension of fibre =1.3 kgs Resin temperature= 45 0c RPM of lathe = 15

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32.

Gap between doctor blade and drum = 1.25 mmThe

parameters are kept constant for two different windings

FILAMENT WINDING SETUP

RESIN BATH

DRUM WINDING

REMOVING LAYUP

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LAYUP PLACED ON TABLE

APPLYING WAXPOL ON PLATES

LAYING UP LAYERS

REMOVING AIR GAP

COMPACTING LAYERS

PLACING IN THE OVEN

3.4.2 CURING PROCESS :

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Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener". The resin consists of monomers or short chain polymers with an epoxide group at either end. Most common epoxy resins are produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A, though the latter may be replaced by similar chemicals. The hardener consists of polyamine monomers, for example Triethylenetetramine (TETA). When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond.

Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily crosslinked, and is thus rigid and strong.The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. So the laminate that is fabricated is put into a Oven . The temperatures are maintained in two cycles. In the first cycle we have to maintain constant temperature of 80C for 4hours and in the next cycle maintain a temperature of 160C for next 4 hours.

AFTER CURING

MARKING

TRIMMING

AFTER TRIMMING

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DRILLING

AFTER DRILLING

Figure 3.6.a specifications of UTM (at CIPET)

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UTM SPECIFICATIONS

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COMPOSITE LAMINATE UNDER TESTING

4.1 Experimental procedure

Quasi-static Indentation tests were performed on INSTRON testing machine. The
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composite laminate of size 150mm x 150mm is placed on a steel supporting frame, with a square opening of size 50mm x 50mm. A similar square opening flat plate is placed ontop of the composite laminate; it is then clamped rigidly with nuts and bolts of 6mm size as shown in fig-3. The clamped setup is placed on the loading frame of testing machine. A spherical stainless steel ball indenter of diameter 8.32mmis used for indentation on the composites laminate. The tests were conducted with the controlled displacement of the indenter (0.2mm / minute). The test data is shown in Table-2.An extensometer is used to measure the displacement of the point just below the indentation location at the bottom side of the composite laminate. A 20kN load cell evaluated the load on each composite laminate. The data obtained during test for each laminate is shown in Table-2. The composite laminate with different fiber angles is indented for a fixed displacement of 5 mm. The damage in the different composite laminate with different fiber angles is shown fig-4. The damage area in each composite laminate is observed with the help of optical light microscope.
S. No. Specifications 1 2 3 4 5 ASTM Present work

Specimen 4 6 mm 4 - 5 mm thickness Indenter 10 16 mm 8.73 mm diameter Cross head 0.2 mm / 1 mm / min displacement min Indenter 5 10 mm 5 mm displacement No of samples 4 4 per test

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF UTM

00/150

00/300

00/450

00/600

00/900

Fig-1: Schematic diagram of five different laminates

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Fig-2: Sequence of angle plies

4.2 COMPOSITE LAMINATES WITHOUT E-GLASS POWDER FRONT SIDE BACK SIDE

0,90

0,60

FRONT SIDE

BACK SIDE

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0,45

0,30

0,15
S. No. Angle (0) Max. Load (KN) Indentation (mm) Spring back (mm)

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1 2 3 4 5

0/15 0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

3.77 4.11 4.69 4.99 5.83

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.86

0.92 1.17 2.50 3.08 3.44

Table - 2: Test results after Indentation.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Load (KN)

15 DEG 30 DEG 45 DEG 60 DEG 90 DEG

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5

Displacement (mm) Graph-1: Shows the load carrying capacity in each case for different indenter displacements of maximum 5mm for all the laminates. It is gradually increasing for the laminates with the fiber angles varying from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

Indentation ()

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-2: Indentation depth is increasing linearly as the fiber angle in laminates is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o),however it is suddenly increasing in the laminates with fiber angle varying from (0o/60o) to (0o/90o).

S. No. 1

Angle (0) 0/15

Front face damage area (mm2) 971

Back face damage area (mm2) 1256

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2 3 4 5

0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

1300 1894 2186 2623

1857 2280 2623 3257

Table-3: Experimental data of damage surface areas on front and back face of the laminates

Front face damage area 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 15 30 45

Back face damage area

60

75

90

105

Graph-3: Damage area is increasing with the increase in fiber angle of the laminates in front face and back face of the laminate; however the damage area back face is more than the front face as seen from the above graph.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Load (KN)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-4: Maximum load taken in each laminate with different fiber angles. The load is increasing linearly as the fiber angle is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

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4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Spring back (mm)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

5: Shows spring back effect is increasing in different laminates as the fiber angles are increasing

0o/15o) to (0o/90o), it shows that as the angle between fibers is increasing the laminate elasticity increasing

Material

Density (mg/m3)

Modulus (G Pa)

Poisons ratio(v)

Tensile strength (G Pa) 3.5

E-glass fiber

2.56

76

0.22

Epoxy resin

1.3

3.6

0.4

0.1

Table-4: Properties of materials

4.3) RATE OF LOADING (0.5mm/min) WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

0.5%

1%

1.5

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE
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(0/45)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE
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(0/15)

BACK SIDE
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GRAPH 1 :

0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1.0 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.92 1.8 1.4 2 3.4 3.1 3.1 3 4.62 4.1 3.5 4 4.85 4.19 3.6 5 4 3.73 3.11

GRAPH 2 :

0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

4
3 2 1 0 0 2

0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 % % % 0 0 0 2 1.7 1.6 3.15 3.2 2.95 4.65 3.72 3.2 5.4 3.12 2.25 3 2.38 1.89

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 3:

0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.1 2.2 1.7 2 3.8 3.6 3.15 3 4.26 4.2 2.91 4 4.5 2.92 2.29 5 3.5 2.32 1.83

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 4: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.15 2.1 1.2 2 3.75 3.5 2.3 3 5.18 4.2 3.4 4 4.2 3.15 2.85 5 2.5 1.9 1.75

GRAPH 5: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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5 4

FORCE (kN)

3 2 1 0 0 2

F 0.5 F1 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.9 1.8 1.7 2 3.1 2.85 2.6 3 3.9 3.8 3.3 4 3 2.8 2.5 5 2.85 2.35 1.7

GRAPH 6 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

0.5 mm/min

3.5 3 2.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

DEPTH mm)

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.42 2.6 2.5 2.1 2

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.38 2.54 2.6 2.4 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 2.67 2.98 2.9 2.55 2.38

ANGLE

GRAPH 7 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

0.5 mm /min

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PROJECTED HEIGHT

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5 %

ANGLE

ANGLE

0 15 30 45 60 90

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 0.5 % 0 2.84 3.2 2.5 2.55 2

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.0 % 0 3.24 3.6 2.7 3.5 2.1

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.5 % 0 3.31 3.76 3.33 3.67 2.6

4.4 1.5mm/min RATE OF LOADING WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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FRONT SIDE

(0/45)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/15)

BACK SIDE

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GRAPH 8: 0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

F F F 0.5% 1 % 1.5% 0 0 0 1.5 2.05 1.35 3.1 3.3 2.75 3.2 4.3 1.95 2.5 3.75 1.65 1.5 3.25 1.31

GRAPH 9:0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5 % 0 0 0 0 1 2.5 2.31 2.09 2 4.72 4.22 3.75 3 5.5 4.5 4.2 4 4.5 3.23 2.85 5 3.7 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 10: 0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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6 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 % 0 2.5 4.72 5.5 4.5 3.7

FORCE (kN)

4 3 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 1 0 0 2 DISPLACEMENT 4 (mm) 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 2.31 2.09 4.22 3.75 4.5 4.2 3.23 2.85 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 11: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

F 0.5 % 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2.5 4.2 5.55 4.65 3.25

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 (mm) DISPLACEMENT 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 1.75 1.65 3 2.65 4 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.2 1.8

GRAPH 12: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5 mm/min)

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DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 Page 654 (mm) %

F 1.0 %

F 1.5 %

6 5

FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 DISPLACEMENT (mm) F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

0 1 2 3 4 5

0 1.8 2.9 4.1 4.85 3.7

0 1.98 3.15 3.9 4.4 3.2

0 1.65 2.5 3.1 2.25 1.6

GRAPH13 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

1.5 mm/min

DEPTH OF INDENTATION mm)

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

0
0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.34 2.45 2.67 2.39 2.5

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.14 2.32 2.6 2.27 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 1.9 2.29 2.31 2 1.8

ANGLE

GRAPH 14 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

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4
3.5

PROJECTED HEIGHT

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5%

ANGLE

ANGLE PROJECTED PROJECTED PROJECTED HEIGHT HEIGHT HEIGHT 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 15 3 1.41 2.95 30 2.71 3.65 3.05 45 3.19 3.31 3.15 60 3.33 3.32 2.5 90 2.7 2.55 2.1

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Graph 1 (0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 1 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 4mm at 3.6kN. Graph 2 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 2 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 5.4kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN. Graph 3 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 3,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 3.15kN. Graph 4 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) :
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at the

In Graph 4,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.18kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.4kN. Graph 5 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 5,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.9kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.3kN. Graph 6 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 6,Depth of indentation is increasing with increase in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-150 to 0-300 later on there is increase angles 0-300 to 0-900. Graph 7 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 7, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-300 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600 and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing
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at the

in

depth of indentation,but it is decreases with

in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles. Graph 8(0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 8 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of2 mm at 2.75kN. Graph 9 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 9 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN. Graph 10 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 10,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN.
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Graph 11 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 11,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.55kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 2.65kN. Graph 12 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 12,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.1kN. Graph 13 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 13,Depth of indentation is increasing with decrease in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-450, later on there is decrease in depth of indentation from 0-450 to 0-600,but it is increases with angles 0-600 to 0-900. Graph 14 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 14, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-150 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600
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at the

at the

and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles.

REFERENCES
1) Agarwal, B. D and Broutman, L. J, (1990). Analysis and Performance
of Fiber Composites, Second Edition, Jhon Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 2) Robert M. Jones(1999), mechanics of composite materials, second edition Taylor & Francis group , New york London. 3) http://nptel.iitm.ac.in 4) http://www.wikipedia.org/ 5) Rothon R.N, (1999). Mineral fillers in thermoplastics: filler manufacture and characterization. Adv. Polym. Sci. 139, pp. 67-107. 6) http://composite.about.com/ 7) Applied composite materials, An international journal for the science And application of composites materials.

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8) Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, publishes research on Polymers, nano composites and particulate

ABSTRACT

In this work the composite laminates of Epoxy/E-glass fiber hybridizing with and without E- glass powder are prepared for testing. The fabrication of the laminate is done by filament winding (hoop winding) on a drum mandrel mounted on a modified center lathe. The green layup obtained is cut into laminae of the desired orientations and stacked in the predefined way to a required thickness. The stacked laminate is cured at elevated temperatures under a pressure from a pressure plate. The edges of the laminate are trimmed first and it is then cut in to required size. The specimens are then subjected to indentation test on a universal testing machine (UTM) for a fixed indenter depth. An investigative study is conducted into the results obtained from test data. A number of illustrations are shown regarding the damage in the specimens of different fiber orientation and with different percentages of E-glass powder. Also indentation depth, contact radius, spring back effect, and maximum load carrying capacity are studied.

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CONTENTS
CHAPTER :1 INTRODUCTION 1.73 Overview of composites. 1.74 Historical Development/Historical Overview. 1.75 What is composite material. 1.76 Classification of composites. 1.77 Structure of composites. 1.78 Advantages of composites. 1.79 Applications of composites. 1.80 Examples of composite materials. 1.81 Scope of Project. CHAPTER:2 LITERATURE SURVE

PAGE NO:

5 5 8 12 24 25 26 27 29

30

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CHAPTER:3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Hardener. 3.2 Epoxy. 3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials. 3.3.1 Types of fibres. 3.3.2 Mechanical properties of fibres. 3.3.3 Fibre manufacturing. 3.3.4 Key properties. 3.4 Processing of composites. 3.4.1 Curing CHAPTER:4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. 4.1 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates without E-glass powder. 4.2 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 62 57 56 32 32 32 34 35 43 46 47 49 52

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4.3

1.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 71

CHAPTER:5 5.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. 5.2 REFERENCES 80 85

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of composites

The development of composite materials and related design and manufacturing technologies is one of the most important advances in the history of materials. Composites are multifunctional materials having unprecedented mechanical and physical properties that can be tailored to meet the requirements of a particular application. Many composites also exhibit great resistance to high-temperature corrosion and oxidation and wear. These unique characteristics provide the mechanical engineer with design opportunities not possible with conventional monolithic (unreinforced) materials. Composites technology also makes possible the use of an entire class of solid materials, ceramics, in applications for which monolithic versions are unsuited because of their great strength scatter and poor resistance to mechanical and thermal shock. Further, many manufacturing processes for composites are well adapted to the fabrication of large, complex structures, which allows consolidation of parts, reducing manufacturing costs.

1.2 Historical Development / Historical overview: Past: After making and controlling fire and inventing the wheel,
spinning of continuous yarns is probably the most important development of mankind, enabling him to survive outside the tropical
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climate zones and spread across the surface of the Earth. Flexible fabrics made of locally grown and spun fibres as cotton; flax and jute were a big step forward compared to animal skins. More and more natural resources were used, soon resulting in the first composites; straw reinforced walls, and bows (Figure M.1.1.a) and chariots made of glued layers of wood, bone and horn. More durable materials as wood and metal soon replaced these antique composites.

Fig M.1.1.a Composite Korean bow

Present:
Originating from early agricultural societies and being almost forgotten after centuries, a true revival started of using lightweight composite structures for many technical solutions during the second half of the 20th century. After being solely used for their electromagnetic properties (insulators and radar-domes), using composites to improve the structural performance of spacecraft and military aircraft became popular in the last two decades of the previous century. First at any costs, with development of improved materials with increasing costs, nowadays cost

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reduction during manufacturing and operation are the main technology drivers. Latest development is the use of composites to protect man

against fire and impact and a tendency to a more environmental friendly design, leading to the reintroduction of natural fibres in the composite technology. Increasingly nowadays, the success of composites in applications, by volume and by numbers, can be ranked by accessibility and reproducibility of the applied manufacturing techniques. Some examples of use of natural fibers(M.1.1b M.1.1.e)

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Future:
In future, composites will be manufactured even more according to an integrated design process resulting in the optimum construction according to parameters such as shape, mass, strength, stiffness, durability, costs, etc. Newly developed design tools must be able to instantaneously show customers the influence of a design change on each one of these parameters.

1.3 What is Composite Material?

Composite materials are engineering materials made from two or more constituent materials that remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level while forming a single component. There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix
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Properties. The primary functions of the matrix are to transfer stresses between the reinforcing fibers/particles and to protect them from mechanical environmental damage whereas the presence of fibers/particles in a composite improves its mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness etc. The objective is to take advantage of the superior properties of both materials without compromising on the weakness of either. As defined by Agarwal and Broutman composite means material having two or more distinct constituent materials or phases. It is only when the constituent phases have significantly different physical properties and thus the composite properties are noticeably different from the constituent materials

Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural. Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific character of a composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine to give them a specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve the desirable properties. Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the levels at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic. In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz., binding the reinforcement phases in place and deforming

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to distribute the stresses among the constituent materials under an applied force.

reinforcement

The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be conductors or resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending on the purpose for which matrices are chosen. Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and metals have found applications as matrix materials in the designing of structural composites, with commendable success. These materials remain elastic till failure occurs and show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression. Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion characteristics. The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two interphases between each side of the interphase and its adjoint constituent. Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of matrix on properties of reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the selection and fabrication of composites is that the constituents should be chemically inert non-reactive.

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Properties of Matrix Materials:

Naturally fibers and whiskers are of little use unless they are bonded together to take form of structural element that can carry loads. The binder material is usually called a matrix. The purpose of the matrix is manifold support of fibers or whiskers, protection of the fibers or whiskers, stress transfer between broken fibers or whiskers, etc. Typically the matrix is of considerably lower density, stiffness, and strength than fibers or whiskers. However the combination of fibers or whiskers and a matrix can have very high strength and stiffness yet still have low density. Matrix materials can be polymers, metals, ceramics or carbon. Polymers (poly =many and mer = unit or molecule) exist in at least three major forms i.e linear, branched, or cross linked. A linear polymer is merely a chain of mers. A branched polymer consists of a primary chain of mers with other chains that are attached in three dimensions just like tree branches. Finally, a cross linked polymer has large number of three dimensional highly interconnected chains. Linear polymers have the least strength and stiffness, whereas cross linked polymer have most because of their inherently stiffer and stronger internal structure. The three main classes of structural polymers are rubbers, thermoplastics,
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and thermo sets. Rubbers are cross linked polymers that have semi crystalline state well below room temperature. Thermoplastics are polymers that branch, but generally dont cross link very much if at all. Thus, they usually can be repeatedly softened on heating and hardened on cooling. Examples of thermoplastics are nylon, polyethylene, and polysulfone. Thermo sets are polymers that are chemically reacted until almost all molecules are irreversibly cross linked in a three dimensional network. Thus, once an epoxy has set, it cannot be changed in form. Examples of thermo sets include epoxies, phenolics, and polyimides. Other matrix materials include metals that can be made to flow around an in-place fiber system by diffusion bonding or by heating vacuum infiltration. Common examples are shown in fig 1.3.1

a) linear

b)branched

c)cross linked

d)network

figure 1.3.1

1.4 Classification of Composites

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:

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 The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites. The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres. Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling. Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this category. Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.

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1.4.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or Carbon-Carbon Composites

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications. Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins. Thermoplastics have oneor two-dimensional

molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds. Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites.

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Figure 1.4.1 a

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures. Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally. There thermoplastic temperatures. are a few options tend their to loose increase their heat strength resistance at like in

thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the heat resistance. But all composites However, elevated rigidity, redeeming qualities

toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc.

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Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds. Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas.

Figure 1.4.1.b
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and
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dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins. Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of 140C. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is ruled out.

Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in automobile and structural applications. The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75C or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey. Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service at around 200250C .

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1.4.2 According to geometry:

Most composite materials developed thus far have been fabricated to improve mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, and high temperature performance. It is natural to study together the composites that have a common strengthening mechanism. The strengthening mechanism strongly depends on the geometry of the reinforcement. Therefore, it is quite convenient to classify composite materials on the basis of the geometry of a representative unit of reinforcement.

1.4.2.a Fibrous composite

A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension discourages the growth of incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement that might otherwise lead to failure, particularly with brittle matrices. Man-made filaments or fibers of non polymeric materials exhibit much higher strength along their length since large flaws, which may be present in the bulk material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness.Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite. Most composites used in structural applications are multilayered; that is, they consist of

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several layers of fibrous composites. Each layer or lamina is a single layer composite and its orientation is varied according to design. Several identical or different layers are bonded together to form a multilayered composites usable for engineering applications. When the constituent materials in each layer are the same, they are called simply laminates. Hybrid laminates refer to multilayered composites consisting of layers made up of different constituent materials. Reinforcing fibers in a single layer composite may be short or long compared to its overall dimensions. Composites with long fibers are called continuous fiber reinforced composites and those with short fibers, discontinuous fiber reinforced composites. The continuous fibers in single layer composites may be all aligned in one direction to form a unidirectional composite. Such composites are fabricated by laying the fibers parallel and saturating them with resinous material. The bidirectional reinforcement may be provided in a single layer in mutually perpendicular directions as in a woven fabric. The bidirectional reinforcement may be such that the strengths in two perpendicular directions are approximately equal. The orientation of discontinuous fibers cannot be easily controlled in a composite material.

So fibers can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented. In most cases the fibers are assumed to be randomly oriented in the composites. However, in the injection molding of a fiber reinforced polymer, considerable orientation can occur in the flow direction and which a case of preferred oriented fibers in the composites.

1.4.2.b Particulate Composites

As the name itself indicates, the reinforcement is of particle nature (platelets are also included in this class). It may be spherical, cubic,
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tetragonal, a platelet, or of other regular or irregular shape, but it is approximately equiaxed. In general, particles are not very effective in improving fracture resistance but they enhance the stiffness of the composite to a limited extent. Particle fillers are widely used to improve the properties of matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and electrical conductivities, improve performance at elevated temperatures, reduce friction, increase wear and abrasion resistance, improve machinability, increase surface hardness and reduce shrinkage. Also, in case of particulate reinforced composites the particle can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented.

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1.4.3 According to type of matrix material they are classified as:

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

1.4.3.a Metal Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites have many advantages over monolithic metals like higher specific modulus, higher specific strength, better properties at elevated temperatures, and lower coefficient of thermal expansion.
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Because of these attributes metal matrix composites are under consideration for wide range of applications viz. combustion chamber nozzle (in rocket, space shuttle), housings, tubing, cables, heat exchangers, structural members etc

1.4.3.b Ceramic matrix Composites

One of the main objectives in producing ceramic matrix composites is to increase the toughness Naturally it is hoped and indeed often found that there is a concomitant improvement in strength and stiffness of ceramic matrix composites.

1.4.3.c Polymer Matrix Composites

Most commonly used matrix materials are polymeric. The reasons for this are twofold. In general the mechanical properties of polymers are inadequate for many structural purposes. In particular their strength and stiffness are low compared to metals and ceramics. These difficulties are overcome by reinforcing other materials with polymers. Secondly the processing of polymer matrix composites need not involve high pressure and doesnt require high temperature. Also equipments required for manufacturing polymer matrix composites are simpler. For this reason polymer matrix composites developed rapidly and soon became popular for structural applications. Composites are used because overall properties of the composites are superior to those of the individual components for example polymer/ceramic. Composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component but arent as brittle as ceramics.

1.4.4 Classification Based on Reinforcements Introduction to Reinforcements

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with
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other two axes either often circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers.

Figure 1.4.4

Two types of polymer composites are: Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) Particle reinforced polymer (PRP)

1.4.4.a Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Common fiber reinforced composites are composed of fibers and a matrix. Fibers are the reinforcement and the main source of strength while matrix glues all the fibers together in shape and transfers stresses between the reinforcing fibers. The fibers carry the loads along their longitudinal directions. Sometimes, filler might be added to smooth the manufacturing process, impact special properties to the composites, and
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/or reduce the product cost. Common fiber reinforcing agents include asbestos, carbon /graphite fibers, beryllium, beryllium carbide, beryllium oxide, molybdenum, aluminium oxide, glass fibers, polyamide,natural fibers etc. Similarly common matrix materials include epoxy, phenolic, polyester, polyurethane, peek, vinyl ester etc. Among these resin materials, epoxy is widely used for its higher adhesion and less shrinkage property.

1.4.4.b Particle Reinforced Polymer

Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminium and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black. Particles are used to increase the modules of the matrix and to decrease the ductility of the matrix. Particles are also used to reduce the cost of the composites. Reinforcements and matrices can be common, inexpensive materials and are easily processed.

Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators. Some ceramics have special properties; some ceramics are magnetic materials; some are piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics are even superconductors at very low temperatures. Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback: they are brittle. An example of particle reinforced composites is an automobile tire, which has carbon black particles in a matrix of poly-isobutylene elastomeric polymer

1.5 Structure of Composite

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Structure of composite material A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness. Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite

Properties
1) Nature of the constituent material (bonding strength) 2) The geometry of the reinforcement (shape, size) 3) The concentration distribution(vol. fraction of reinforcement) 4) The orientation of the reinforcement(random or preferred) Good adhesion (bonding) between matrix phase and displaced phase provides transfer of load applied to the material to the displaced phase via the interface. Good adhesion is required for achieving high level of mechanical properties of composites. Very small particles less than 0.25 micrometer finely distributed in the matrix impede movement of dislocations and deformation of the material. They have strengthening
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effect. Large dispersed phase particles have low share load applied to the material resulting in increase of stiffness and decrease of ductility. Orientation of reinforcement: Planar:-In the form of 2-D woven fabric. When the fibers are laid parallel, the composite exhibits axistrope. Random or Three Dimensional:-The composite material tends to posses isotropic properties. One Dimensional: - Maximum strength and stiffness are obtained in the direction of fiber.

1.6 Advantages of Composites

Advantages of composites over their conventional counterparts are the ability to meet diverse design requirements with significant weight savings as well as strength-to-weight ratio. Some advantages of composite materials over conventional ones are as follows: Tensile strength of composites is four to six times greater than that of steel or aluminium (depending on the reinforcements).

Improved torsional stiffness and impact properties. Higher fatigue endurance limit (up to 60% of ultimate tensile strength). 30% - 40% lighter for example any particular aluminium structures designed to the same functional requirements. Lower embedded energy compared to other structural metallic materials like steel, aluminium etc. Composites are less noisy while in operation and provide lower vibration transmission than metals. Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored to meet performance needs and complex design requirements. Long life offer excellent fatigue, impact, environmental resistance and reduce maintenance.
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Composites enjoy reduced life cycle cost compared to metals. Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and fire retardancy. Improved appearance with smooth surfaces and readily incorporable integral decorative melamine are other characteristics of composites. Composite parts can eliminate joints / fasteners, providing part simplification and integrated design compared to conventional metallic parts.

1.7 Applications of Composites

Figure 1.7

1.8 EXAMPLES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Fibre reinforced plastics:
Industry Examples Door, elevators Space Shuttle, Space stations Body frames, engine Comments 20-35% Weight savings Great weight savings High stiffness & damage tolerance

Classified by type of fiber:

Aerospace Automotive

Aircraft

Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix)

components

Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP)

Construction Fuel tanks etc.

Chemical

Pipes, Tanks, Pressure vessels Structural & decorative panels,

Corrosion resistance Weight savings, portable.

Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally, "fiberglass")

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Classified by matrix: Thermoplastic Composites Short fiber thermoplastics Long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics Glass mat thermoplastics Continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics Thermoset Composites Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)

Metal matrix composites (MMCs): White cast iron Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix) Metal-intermetallic laminate Ceramic matrix composites: Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers)

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Cermet (ceramic and metal) Concrete Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites Asphalt concrete Dental composite Syntactic foam Mother of Pearl Chobham armour (see composite armour) Engineered wood

Plywood Oriented strand board Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix) Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix) Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles Arborite Formica (plastic)
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1.9 Scope of the project

The basic aim of the present work is to develop and characterize a new class of composites with epoxy as polymer matrix and glass fiber as the reinforcing material. Their physical and mechanical characterization is done. Attempt is made to use TiO2 as filler in these fiber reinforced .polymer matrix composites. Characterization of the resulting TiO2 filled glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite is done. The experimentally measured database of composites has also been predicted. This work is expected to introduce a new class of functional polymer composites suitable for tribological applications.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

This chapter outlines some of the recent reports published in literature on composites of fiber reinforced polymer composites. Polymer composite materials have generated wide interest in various engineering fields, particularly in aerospace applications. Research is underway worldwide to develop newer composites with varied combinations of fibers and fillers so as to make them useable under different operational conditions. The improved performance of polymer composites in engineering applications by the addition of filler materials has shown a
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great promise and so has become a subject of considerable interest. Ceramic filled polymer composites have been the subject of extensive research in last two decades. Various kinds of polymers and polymer matrix composites reinforced with ceramic particles have a wide range of industrial applications such as heaters, electrodes, composites with thermal durability at high temperature etc.

These engineering composites are desired due to their low density, high corrosion resistance consisting of ceramic or metal particles and fiber fillers made of glass are being used these days to dramatically improve the wear resistance even up to three orders of magnitude. The inclusion of inorganic fillers into polymers for commercial applications is primarily aimed at the cost reduction and stiffness improvement. Along with fiber-reinforced composites, the composites made with particulate fillers have been found to perform well in many real operational conditions. It is reported by Bonner that with the inclusion of micro-sized particulates into polymers, a high filler content (typically greater than 20 vol. %) is generally required to bring the above stated positive effects into play. But at the same time, this may also have detrimental effects on some important properties of the matrix polymers such as processability, appearance, density and aging performance. It has also been reported that the fracture surface energies of epoxy and polyester resin and their resistance to crack propagation are relatively low.

But if particulate filler is added to these resins, the particles inhibit crack growth. As the volume fraction of filler is varied, the fracture energy increases up to a critical volume fraction and then decreases again. Srivastava showed that the fracture toughness of epoxy resin could be improved by addition of flyash particles as filler. The fillers also affect
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the

tensile

properties

according

to

their
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packing

characteristics, size and interfacial bonding. The maximum volumetric packing fraction of filler reflects the size distribution and shapes of the particles. Recently, it has been observed that by incorporating filler particles into the matrix of fibre reinforced composites, synergistic effects may be achieved in the form of higher modulus and reduced material costs, yet accompanied with decreased strength and impact toughness. Polymer composites with both discontinuous and continuous fibre reinforcement possess usually very high specific (i.e. density related) stiffness and strength when measured in plane. Therefore, such composites are frequently used in engineering parts in automobile, aerospace, marine and energetic applications.

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CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the experimental procedures followed for their characterization and tribological evaluation. The raw materials used in this work are 1. E-glass fiber 2. E-Glass powder 3. Epoxy resin

3.1 Hardener:
The hardener used in Epoxy is polyamine. A polyamine is an organic compound having two or more primary amino groups -NH2.This class of compounds includes several synthetic substances that are important feed stocks for the chemical industry, such as ethylene diamine H2N-CH2-CH2-NH2, 1,3-diaminopropane H2N-(CH2)3-NH2, and hex methylenediamine H2N-(CH2)6-NH2. The amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

3.2 Epoxy:
Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener. When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

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The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements.

Resin:
Resin is a natural or synthetic compound which begins in a highly viscous state and hardens with treatment. Typically, resin is soluble in alcohol, but not in water. There are a number of different classes of resin, depending on exact chemical composition and potential uses. Matrix resins bind glass-reinforcing fibers together, protecting them from impact and the environment. Glass fiber properties such as strength dominate in continuously reinforced composites. When glass is used as a discontinuous reinforcement, resin properties dominate and are enhanced by the glass. Polymer matrix resins fall into two categories: thermo set and thermoplastic. The difference is in their chemistry. Thermo set resin is chemically comprised of molecular chains that crosslink during the cure reaction (set off by heat, catalyst, or both) and "set" into a final rigid form. Molecular chains in thermoplastic resin are processed at higher temperatures and remain "plastic," or capable of being reheated and reshaped. While the tradeoffs between thermosets and thermoplastics have been debated extensively, engineers will find that material suppliers will tailor matrix resin formulations best for their application

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3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials:

Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used. Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers, high silica and quartz fibers, alumina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron fibers, aramid fibers and multi phase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified into E-glass, S-glass, A- glass, R-glass etc. There is a greater market and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers. The potential of fibers of graphite, silicon carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific mind due to their applications in advanced composites.

3.3.1Types of fibers 3.3.1.a Glass Fibers

Over 95% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers, as they are inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the plastics with which they are reinforced.
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Their low density, resistance to chemicals, insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics, although the one major disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when subjected to high tensile stress for a long time.. However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time frames. This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is expected to sustain such loads for many months or years continuously. Period of loading, temperature, moisture and other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibers and the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning before the catastrophic failure. But all this can be easily overlooked in view of the fact that the wide range of glass fiber variety lend themselves amicably to fabrication processes like matched die moulding, filament winding lay-up and so on. Glass fibers are available in the form of mats, tapes, cloth, continuous and chopped filaments, rovings and yarns. Addition of chemicals to silica sand while making glass yields different types of glasses.

3.3.1.b Metal Fibers

As reinforcements, metal fibers have many advantages. They are easily produced using several fabrication processes and are more ductile, apart from being not too sensitive to surface damage and possess high strengths and temperature resistance. However, their weight and the tendency to react with each other through alloying mechanisms are major disadvantages. Steel wire is the most extensively used reinforcement in most large-scale metal filament applications. Wire is used for its capacity to enhance the tensile strength of concrete and continuous metal fibers are the reinforcing constituents in metal and ceramic composite materials.

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3.3.1.c Ceramic fibers improve vastly in performance when a fine metal outline is incorporated with refractory ceramics by improving their thermal shock and impact resistance properties. 3.3.1.d Metal wires, of the continuous version, also reinforce plastics like polyethylene and epoxy. Such combinations ensure high strength, light weight and good fatigue resistance. Besides, continuous metal fibers are easily handled, unlike glass fibers. Better flexural properties are observed in some metal fibers reinforced plastic composites which also offer improved strength and weight, than glass fibers. However, their poor tolerance of high temperatures and the resultant steep variation of thermal expansion coefficient with the resins are a discouragement that limits their application.

3.3.1.d Alumina Fibers

Alumina or aluminum oxide fibers, basically developed for use in metal matrices are considered a potential resin-matrix composite reinforcement. It offers good compressive strength rather than tensile strength. It is important property is it is high melting point of about 2000C and the composite can be successfully used at temperatures up to about 1000C. Magnesium and aluminum matrices frequently use alumina fiber reinforced composites as they do not damage the fiber even in the liquid state.

3.3.1.e Boron Fibers

They are basically composites, in which boron is coated on a substance which forms the substrate, usually made of tungsten. Boron-tungsten fibers are obtained by allowing hot tungsten filament through a mixture of gases. Boron is deposited on tungsten and the process is continued until the desired thickness is achieved. The tungsten however remains constant in its thickness. Properties of boron fibers generally change with the diameter, because of the changing ratio of boron to tungsten and the surface defects that change according to size. However, they
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are known for their remarkable stiffness

33and strength. Their strengths often compare with those of glass fibers, but their tensile modulus is high, almost four to five times that of glass. Boron coated carbons are much cheaper to make than boron tungsten fiber. But its low modulus of elasticity often works against it.

3.3.1.f Silicon Carbide Fibers

Silicon carbide can be coated over a few metals and their room temperature tensile strengths and tensile moduli are like those of boron-tungsten. The advantages of silicon carbide-tungsten are several and they are more desirable than uncoated boron tungsten fibers. Elevated temperature performance and the fact that they reported only a 35% loss of strength at 1350C are their best qualities. Silicon carbide-tungsten and silicon carbidecarbon have both been seen to have very high stress-rupture strength at 1100C and 1300C. Uncoated boron-tungsten fibers tend to lose all their strength at temperatures over 680C. Silicon carbide fibers do not react with molten aluminium, unlike uncoated boron and they also withstand high temperatures used in hot-press titanium matrices. However, silicon carbide-tungsten fibers are dense compared to boron- tungsten fibers of the same diameter. They are prone to surface damage and need careful, delicate handling, especially during fabrication of the composite. Further, above 930C, weakening reactions occur between tungsten and silicon carbide, making it difficult to maintain balance in high-temperature matrix formations. Silicon carbide on 'carbon substrates have several advantages, viz. no, reaction at high temperature, being lighter than silicon carbide tungsten and possessing tensile strengths and modulus that is are often better than those of silicon carbide-tungsten and boron fibers.

3.3.1.g Aramid Fibers

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Aramid fibers are made from aromatic polyamides which are long polymeric .chains and aromatic rings. They are structures in which six carbon atoms are bonded to each other and to combinations of hydrogen atoms. In aramid fibers, these rings occur and reoccur to form the fibers. They were initially used to reinforce automobile tires. Since then, they have also found other uses like bullet proof vests. As high strength applications, their use in power boats is not uncommon.

Aramid have high tensile strength, high modulus and low weight. Impact- resistant structures can be produced from aramid. The density of aramid fibers is less than that of glass and graphite fibers. They are fire resistant apart from being high-temperature resistant and also unaffected by organic solvents and fuels. But their resistance in acid and alkaline media is poor. They are supple and allow themselves to be woven into matrices by simple processes. Aramid fibers have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion in the fiber direction and the failure of aramid fibers is unique. When they fail, the fibers break into small fibrils, which are like fibers within the fibers. This unique failure mechanism is responsible for high strength.

3.3.1.h Quartz and Silica Fibers

The glass-types typically contain about 50 to 78% silica. Silica glass is a purer glass fiber that can be made by treating fiberglass in an acid bath, which removes all impurities without affecting the silica. The final product contains 93 to 99% silica. Quartz is even more pure, and quartz fibers are made from natural quartz crystals that contain 99.9% silica, possessing nearly all the properties of pure solid quartz. Ordinary fiberglass, high silica and quartz fibers share several characteristics and can be produced in a range of fiber diameters. Roving or yarns and other forms of fibers can be made from high silica as well as quartz. All matrix materials that accept fiberglass are amenable to high silica and quartz too. They differ from glass in many factors, however, especially in heat-related properties.
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Although quartz crystals are commonly available, pure crystals are hard to come by. On the other hand, high silica comes from the same material as glass fibers and is easily accessible. However, quartz makes up for its rarity with its capacity to" withstand high temperatures, which silica is incapable of. Barring this difference, silica and quartz are similar in other respects. They are highly elastic and can be stretched to 1 % of their length before break point. Both silica and quartz are not affected by acid attacks and are resistant to moisture. Owing to their thermal properties, silica and quartz are the natural choice as fibers in several applications. They have good insulating properties and do not melt at temperatures up to 1600C. In addition, they have low thermal expansion coefficients which make them withstand high temperatures.

3.3.1.i Graphite Fibers

While use of the term carbon for graphite is permissible, there is one basic difference between the two. Elemental analysis of poly-acrylo-nitrile (PAN) base carbon fibers show that they consist of 91 to 94% carbon. But graphite fibers are over 99% carbon. The difference arises from the fact that the fibers are made at different temperatures. PAN-based carbon cloth or fiber is produced at about 1320C, while graphite fibers and cloth are graphitized at 1950 to 3000C. The properties of graphite remain unchanged even at very high temperatures, but its willingness to react readily with most metals at the fabrication stage or during use at very high temperatures is often a stumbling block, as seen in aluminium matrices when carbides are produced at the interface. These carbides react with moisture with disastrous effects on the composite material.

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Graphite fibers are some of the stiffest fibers known. The stiffness of the fiber is as high as the graphite content. But a major drawback is that stiffness and strength are inversely proportional to each other. Forbidding costs make the use of graphite fibers prohibitive. The best glass fibers are far less expensive than the cheapest, lowest quality of graphite, and in PAN-base fibers, other raw materials too are equally expensive. The carbonization and graphitization are time-consuming, apart from demanding excessive energy, materials and close controls throughout the process. Cheaper pitch base fibers are now being developed, with greater performance potential and there are possibilities of the increased use of graphite fibers.

3.3.1.j Multiphase Fibers

Spoolable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually the multi phase variety and they usually comprise materials like boron, silicon and their carbides formed on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or tungsten. They are usually good for high temperature applications, due to their reduced reaction with higher melting temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers. Boron filaments are sought after for structural and intermediate-temperature composites. A poly-phase fiber is a core-sheath fiber consisting of a polycrystalline core.

3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber:

E-Glass or electrical grade glass was originally developed for standoff insulators for electrical wiring. It was later found to have excellent fibre forming capabilities and is now used almost exclusively as the reinforcing phase in the material commonly known as fiber glass.

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. Figure 3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber

3.3.2 Mechanical Properties of fibers

Composite materials are not homogeneous. Their properties are dependent on many factors, the most important of which are the type of fibre, quantity of fibre (as volume fraction) and the configuration of the reinforcement. They are generally completely elastic up to failure and exhibit neither a yield point nor a region of plasticity. They tend to have low strain to failure(less than 3%). The resulting area under the stress/strain curve, which represents the work done to failure, is relatively small when compared to many metals. The properties of composites are dependent on the properties of the fibre and the matrix, the proportion of each and the configuration of the fibres. If all the fibres are aligned in one direction then the composite relatively stiff and strong in that direction, but in the transverse direction it has low modulus and low strength. When a unidirectional composite is tested at a small angle from the fibre axis, there is a considerable reduction in strength. A similar but less significant effect occurs with the tensile modulus, as shown in Figure 3.3.2

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Figure 3.3.2
Theoretical variation in tensile modulus with the angle of load relative to the principal fibre direction (unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced plastic (UD CFRP), fibre volume fraction = 0.5)

Strength and stiffness Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) E glass fibres, which have a modulus of about 70GPa, produce composites with modest moduli. In the case of unidirectional fibres and the highest typical fibre volume fraction of 0.65, a composite has a modulus of about45GPa and strength of around 1300MPa. At right angles to this, in the transverse direction, the modulus approaches that of the resin itself at about4GPa and the strength would be 50100MPa. The unidirectional compo-sites used in the ROBUST Project, manufactured using the vacuum process with prepreg material in an epoxy matrix, had the following properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 36GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 750MPa Elongation at break: 3.1%.

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Bidirectional E glass laminates have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.4 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about 14GPa.Random laminates (e.g. chopped strand mat) have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.2 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about9GPa. The use of S2 or R glass improves the composite modulus to about60GPa for unidirectional and 20GPa for woven fabric (bidirectional) constructions. This is at some monetary disadvantage. They are both more expensive than E glass and they are only available in a fairly limited range of material types and resin compatibilities. Probably the most important virtue of S2 and R glass is their high strength, which is considerably higher than E glass. Carbon and graphite fibers Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) The dominant carbon fibres in current use (typically Toray T700) have a tensile modulus of about 230GPa, a tensile strength of around 5000MPaand a strain-to-failure of 2%. Unidirectional composites produced from them in either an epoxy or vinyl-ester matrix have the following typical properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 155165GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 25003000MPa Elongation at break: 1.21.3% Carbon fibres are available which will give a tensile modulus of about250GPa in a unidirectional composite, comparing very favourably with steel at about 210GPa. However, as this composite is unidirectional, it has extremely low modulus in the transverse direction. The principal attributes of carbon fibre composites are their very high specific stiffness (the ratio of modulus/density), excellent fatigue and environmental resistance. Currently there are various pultruded CFRP plates available commercially for plate bonding applications. The pultruded plates used in the ROBUST Project, as well as the plates manufactured with prepreg materials, possessed a modulus of about 130GPa and a
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strength of 1500MPa.Pultruded plates now available from other sources typically exploit fibers with superior properties such as Toray T700, resulting in composites with the properties shown above. A financial penalty has to be paid for materials exhibiting properties significantly in excess of these; the strain-to-failure of composites made with them will also be reduced significantly. Carbon and graphite have substantial capability as reinforcing fibers, with great flexibility in the properties that can be provided. Primary characteristics for reinforcing fibers in polymer matrix composites are high stiffness and strength. The fibers must maintain these characteristics in hostile environments such as elevated temperatures, exposure to common solvents and fluids, and environmental moisture. To be used as part of a primary structure material it should also be available as continuous fiber. These characteristics and requirements have substantial implications for the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the fiber, which in turn implies processing and acceptance parameters. Interest in carbon fibers for structural materials was initiated in the late 1950s when synthesized rayons in textile form were carbonized to produce carbon fibers for high temperature missile applications. One of the first distinctions to be made is the difference between carbon and graphite fibers, although the terms are frequently used interchangeably. Background information for these differences is contained in the following sections. The primary purpose of making this distinction here is to alert the reader that users may mean different things when referring to graphite versus carbon fibers. Carbon and graphite fibers are both based on graphene (hexagonal) layer networks present in carbon. If the graphene layers or planes stack with three dimensional orders the material is defined as graphite. Usually extended time and temperature processing is required to form this order, making graphite fibers more expensive. Because the bonding between planes is weak, disorder frequently occurs such that only the two dimensional
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ordering within the layers is present. This material is defined as carbon. With this distinction made, it should be understood that while some differences are implied, there is not a single condition which strictly separates carbon from graphite fibers, and even graphite fibers retain some disorder in their structure.

3.3.3 Fiber Manufacture:

Glass fibers are generally produced using melt spinning techniques. These involve melting the glass composition into a platinum crown which has small holes for the molten glass to flow. Continuous fibers can be drawn out through the holes and wound onto spindles, while short fibers may be produced by spinning the crown, which forces molten glass out through the holes centrifugally. Fibers are cut to length using mechanical means or air jets. Fiber dimension and to some extent properties can be controlled by the process variables such as melt temperature (hence viscosity) and drawing/spinning rate. The temperature window that can be used to produce a melt of suitable viscosity is quite large, making this composition suitable for fiber forming. As fibers are being produced, they are normally treated with sizing and coupling agents. These reduce the effects of fiber- fiber abrasion which can significantly degrade the mechanical strength of the individual fibers. Other treatments may also be used to promote wetting and adherence of the matrix material to the fiber .

Composition
E-Glass is a low alkali glass with a typical nominal composition of SiO2 54wt%, Al2O3 14wt%, CaO+MgThe advantageous properties of E-glass generally outweigh the disadvantages which include:
Low modulus Self abrasiveness if not treated appropriately leading to reduced strength

Relatively low fatigue resistance

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Higher density compared to carbon fibres and organic fibresO 22wt%, B2O3 10wt% and Na2O+K2O less then 2wt%. Some other materials may also be present at impurity levels.

3.3.4 Key Properties:

Properties that have made E-glass so popular in 708iberglass and other glass reinforced composite include: Low cost High production rates High strength High stiffness Relatively low density Non-flammable Resistant to heat Good chemical resistance Relatively insensitive to moisture Able to maintain strength properties over a wide range of conditions Good electrical insulation

3.4 Processing of the Composites Fabrication of the Laminate

E-glass/Epoxy composite laminates were prepared by passing the E-glass fibers of 1200 TEX, through the resin bath of Epoxy and hardener maintaining a constant temperature of about 45 C.The fibers are then wound on a rotating drum with 15 rpm. After complete winding on the drum then it is cut opened and lay on a flat table in the atmospheric condition for about 48 hours to get the
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tackiness. The layers are cut in such a way that the desired fiber direction is obtained. In this experimentation it is decided to prepare the laminates such that the angle between the fibers are15o 30o 45o 60o and 90oas shown in fig-1. The sequence of layup shown in the fig -2. The number of layup depends on the thickness of the laminate required; here it is used 20 layers to obtain the thickness of the laminate about 4mm. All the overlapped layers then compacted between the two parallel flat steel plates with stainless steel spacers of required laminate thickness. The major purpose of lamination is to tailor the directional dependence of strength and stiffness of a composite material to match the loading environment of the structural element laminates are uniquely suited to this objective because the principal material directions of each layer can be oriented according to need. The plates are clamped with nuts and bolts with washers; the clamped setup is then placed in the oven. Maintain the oven temperature of 800 C for 4 hours and 1200 C for next 4 hours so that any entrapped air or volatile gases will be escaped for the first four hours and chemical reaction between the epoxy and hardener will takes place for the next four hours and will lead to permanent set and finally result into a single solid composite laminate. After total curing of 8 hours oven is then switched off so the temperature in the oven may come down to normal temperature. Take out the composite laminate and trim the edges so that the laminate is ready for testing purpose. Winding parameters 33. 34. 35.
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Tension of fibre =1.3 kgs Resin temperature= 45 0c RPM of lathe = 15

Page 709

36.

Gap between doctor blade and drum = 1.25 mmThe

parameters are kept constant for two different windings

FILAMENT WINDING SETUP

RESIN BATH

DRUM WINDING

REMOVING LAYUP

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LAYUP PLACED ON TABLE

APPLYING WAXPOL ON PLATES

LAYING UP LAYERS

REMOVING AIR GAP

COMPACTING LAYERS

PLACING IN THE OVEN

3.4.2 CURING PROCESS :

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Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener". The resin consists of monomers or short chain polymers with an epoxide group at either end. Most common epoxy resins are produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A, though the latter may be replaced by similar chemicals. The hardener consists of polyamine monomers, for example Triethylenetetramine (TETA). When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond.

Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily crosslinked, and is thus rigid and strong.The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. So the laminate that is fabricated is put into a Oven . The temperatures are maintained in two cycles. In the first cycle we have to maintain constant temperature of 80C for 4hours and in the next cycle maintain a temperature of 160C for next 4 hours.

AFTER CURING

MARKING

TRIMMING

AFTER TRIMMING

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DRILLING

AFTER DRILLING

Figure 3.6.a specifications of UTM (at CIPET)

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UTM SPECIFICATIONS

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COMPOSITE LAMINATE UNDER TESTING

4.1 Experimental procedure

Quasi-static Indentation tests were performed on INSTRON testing machine. The
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composite laminate of size 150mm x 150mm is placed on a steel supporting frame, with a square opening of size 50mm x 50mm. A similar square opening flat plate is placed ontop of the composite laminate; it is then clamped rigidly with nuts and bolts of 6mm size as shown in fig-3. The clamped setup is placed on the loading frame of testing machine. A spherical stainless steel ball indenter of diameter 8.32mmis used for indentation on the composites laminate. The tests were conducted with the controlled displacement of the indenter (0.2mm / minute). The test data is shown in Table-2.An extensometer is used to measure the displacement of the point just below the indentation location at the bottom side of the composite laminate. A 20kN load cell evaluated the load on each composite laminate. The data obtained during test for each laminate is shown in Table-2. The composite laminate with different fiber angles is indented for a fixed displacement of 5 mm. The damage in the different composite laminate with different fiber angles is shown fig-4. The damage area in each composite laminate is observed with the help of optical light microscope.
S. No. Specifications 1 2 3 4 5 ASTM Present work

Specimen 4 6 mm 4 - 5 mm thickness Indenter 10 16 mm 8.73 mm diameter Cross head 0.2 mm / 1 mm / min displacement min Indenter 5 10 mm 5 mm displacement No of samples 4 4 per test

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF UTM

00/150

00/300

00/450

00/600

00/900

Fig-1: Schematic diagram of five different laminates

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Fig-2: Sequence of angle plies

4.2 COMPOSITE LAMINATES WITHOUT E-GLASS POWDER FRONT SIDE BACK SIDE

0,90

0,60

FRONT SIDE

BACK SIDE

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0,45

0,30

0,15
S. No. Angle (0) Max. Load (KN) Indentation (mm) Spring back (mm)

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1 2 3 4 5

0/15 0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

3.77 4.11 4.69 4.99 5.83

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.86

0.92 1.17 2.50 3.08 3.44

Table - 2: Test results after Indentation.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Load (KN)

15 DEG 30 DEG 45 DEG 60 DEG 90 DEG

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5

Displacement (mm) Graph-1: Shows the load carrying capacity in each case for different indenter displacements of maximum 5mm for all the laminates. It is gradually increasing for the laminates with the fiber angles varying from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

Indentation ()

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-2: Indentation depth is increasing linearly as the fiber angle in laminates is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o),however it is suddenly increasing in the laminates with fiber angle varying from (0o/60o) to (0o/90o).

S. No. 1

Angle (0) 0/15

Front face damage area (mm2) 971

Back face damage area (mm2) 1256

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2 3 4 5

0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

1300 1894 2186 2623

1857 2280 2623 3257

Table-3: Experimental data of damage surface areas on front and back face of the laminates

Front face damage area 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 15 30 45

Back face damage area

60

75

90

105

Graph-3: Damage area is increasing with the increase in fiber angle of the laminates in front face and back face of the laminate; however the damage area back face is more than the front face as seen from the above graph.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Load (KN)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-4: Maximum load taken in each laminate with different fiber angles. The load is increasing linearly as the fiber angle is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

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4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Spring back (mm)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

5: Shows spring back effect is increasing in different laminates as the fiber angles are increasing

0o/15o) to (0o/90o), it shows that as the angle between fibers is increasing the laminate elasticity increasing

Material

Density (mg/m3)

Modulus (G Pa)

Poisons ratio(v)

Tensile strength (G Pa) 3.5

E-glass fiber

2.56

76

0.22

Epoxy resin

1.3

3.6

0.4

0.1

Table-4: Properties of materials

4.3) RATE OF LOADING (0.5mm/min) WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

0.5%

1%

1.5

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE
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(0/45)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE
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(0/15)

BACK SIDE
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GRAPH 1 :

0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1.0 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.92 1.8 1.4 2 3.4 3.1 3.1 3 4.62 4.1 3.5 4 4.85 4.19 3.6 5 4 3.73 3.11

GRAPH 2 :

0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

4
3 2 1 0 0 2

0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 % % % 0 0 0 2 1.7 1.6 3.15 3.2 2.95 4.65 3.72 3.2 5.4 3.12 2.25 3 2.38 1.89

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 3:

0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.1 2.2 1.7 2 3.8 3.6 3.15 3 4.26 4.2 2.91 4 4.5 2.92 2.29 5 3.5 2.32 1.83

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 4: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.15 2.1 1.2 2 3.75 3.5 2.3 3 5.18 4.2 3.4 4 4.2 3.15 2.85 5 2.5 1.9 1.75

GRAPH 5: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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5 4

FORCE (kN)

3 2 1 0 0 2

F 0.5 F1 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.9 1.8 1.7 2 3.1 2.85 2.6 3 3.9 3.8 3.3 4 3 2.8 2.5 5 2.85 2.35 1.7

GRAPH 6 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

0.5 mm/min

3.5 3 2.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

DEPTH mm)

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.42 2.6 2.5 2.1 2

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.38 2.54 2.6 2.4 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 2.67 2.98 2.9 2.55 2.38

ANGLE

GRAPH 7 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

0.5 mm /min

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PROJECTED HEIGHT

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5 %

ANGLE

ANGLE

0 15 30 45 60 90

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 0.5 % 0 2.84 3.2 2.5 2.55 2

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.0 % 0 3.24 3.6 2.7 3.5 2.1

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.5 % 0 3.31 3.76 3.33 3.67 2.6

4.4 1.5mm/min RATE OF LOADING WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
Page 731

FRONT SIDE

(0/45)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/15)

BACK SIDE

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GRAPH 8: 0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

F F F 0.5% 1 % 1.5% 0 0 0 1.5 2.05 1.35 3.1 3.3 2.75 3.2 4.3 1.95 2.5 3.75 1.65 1.5 3.25 1.31

GRAPH 9:0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5 % 0 0 0 0 1 2.5 2.31 2.09 2 4.72 4.22 3.75 3 5.5 4.5 4.2 4 4.5 3.23 2.85 5 3.7 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 10: 0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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6 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 % 0 2.5 4.72 5.5 4.5 3.7

FORCE (kN)

4 3 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 1 0 0 2 DISPLACEMENT 4 (mm) 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 2.31 2.09 4.22 3.75 4.5 4.2 3.23 2.85 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 11: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

F 0.5 % 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2.5 4.2 5.55 4.65 3.25

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 (mm) DISPLACEMENT 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 1.75 1.65 3 2.65 4 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.2 1.8

GRAPH 12: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5 mm/min)

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DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 Page 737 (mm) %

F 1.0 %

F 1.5 %

6 5

FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 DISPLACEMENT (mm) F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

0 1 2 3 4 5

0 1.8 2.9 4.1 4.85 3.7

0 1.98 3.15 3.9 4.4 3.2

0 1.65 2.5 3.1 2.25 1.6

GRAPH13 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

1.5 mm/min

DEPTH OF INDENTATION mm)

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

0
0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.34 2.45 2.67 2.39 2.5

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.14 2.32 2.6 2.27 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 1.9 2.29 2.31 2 1.8

ANGLE

GRAPH 14 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

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(1 .5 mm/ min)
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4
3.5

PROJECTED HEIGHT

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5%

ANGLE

ANGLE PROJECTED PROJECTED PROJECTED HEIGHT HEIGHT HEIGHT 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 15 3 1.41 2.95 30 2.71 3.65 3.05 45 3.19 3.31 3.15 60 3.33 3.32 2.5 90 2.7 2.55 2.1

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Graph 1 (0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 1 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 4mm at 3.6kN. Graph 2 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 2 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 5.4kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN. Graph 3 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 3,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 3.15kN. Graph 4 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) :
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at the

In Graph 4,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.18kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.4kN. Graph 5 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 5,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.9kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.3kN. Graph 6 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 6,Depth of indentation is increasing with increase in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-150 to 0-300 later on there is increase angles 0-300 to 0-900. Graph 7 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 7, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-300 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600 and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing
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at the

in

depth of indentation,but it is decreases with

in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles. Graph 8(0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 8 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of2 mm at 2.75kN. Graph 9 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 9 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN. Graph 10 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 10,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN.
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Graph 11 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 11,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.55kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 2.65kN. Graph 12 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 12,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.1kN. Graph 13 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 13,Depth of indentation is increasing with decrease in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-450, later on there is decrease in depth of indentation from 0-450 to 0-600,but it is increases with angles 0-600 to 0-900. Graph 14 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 14, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-150 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600
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at the

at the

and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles.

REFERENCES
1) Agarwal, B. D and Broutman, L. J, (1990). Analysis and Performance
of Fiber Composites, Second Edition, Jhon Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 2) Robert M. Jones(1999), mechanics of composite materials, second edition Taylor & Francis group , New york London. 3) http://nptel.iitm.ac.in 4) http://www.wikipedia.org/ 5) Rothon R.N, (1999). Mineral fillers in thermoplastics: filler manufacture and characterization. Adv. Polym. Sci. 139, pp. 67-107. 6) http://composite.about.com/ 7) Applied composite materials, An international journal for the science And application of composites materials.

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8) Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, publishes research on Polymers, nano composites and particulate

ABSTRACT

In this work the composite laminates of Epoxy/E-glass fiber hybridizing with and without E- glass powder are prepared for testing. The fabrication of the laminate is done by filament winding (hoop winding) on a drum mandrel mounted on a modified center lathe. The green layup obtained is cut into laminae of the desired orientations and stacked in the predefined way to a required thickness. The stacked laminate is cured at elevated temperatures under a pressure from a pressure plate. The edges of the laminate are trimmed first and it is then cut in to required size. The specimens are then subjected to indentation test on a universal testing machine (UTM) for a fixed indenter depth. An investigative study is conducted into the results obtained from test data. A number of illustrations are shown regarding the damage in the specimens of different fiber orientation and with different percentages of E-glass powder. Also indentation depth, contact radius, spring back effect, and maximum load carrying capacity are studied.
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER :1 INTRODUCTION 1.82 Overview of composites. 1.83 Historical Development/Historical Overview. 1.84 What is composite material. 1.85 Classification of composites. 1.86 Structure of composites. 1.87 Advantages of composites. 1.88 Applications of composites. 1.89 Examples of composite materials. 1.90 Scope of Project. CHAPTER:2 LITERATURE SURVE

PAGE NO:

5 5 8 12 24 25 26 27 29

30

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CHAPTER:3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Hardener. 3.2 Epoxy. 3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials. 3.3.1 Types of fibres. 3.3.2 Mechanical properties of fibres. 3.3.3 Fibre manufacturing. 3.3.4 Key properties. 3.4 Processing of composites. 3.4.1 Curing CHAPTER:4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. 4.1 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates without E-glass powder. 4.2 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 62 57 56 32 32 32 34 35 43 46 47 49 52

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4.3

1.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 71

CHAPTER:5 5.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. 5.2 REFERENCES 80 85

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of composites

The development of composite materials and related design and manufacturing technologies is one of the most important advances in the history of materials. Composites are multifunctional materials having unprecedented mechanical and physical properties that can be tailored to meet the requirements of a particular application. Many composites also exhibit great resistance to high-temperature corrosion and oxidation and wear. These unique characteristics provide the mechanical engineer with design opportunities not possible with conventional monolithic (unreinforced) materials. Composites technology also makes possible the use of an entire class of solid materials, ceramics, in applications for which monolithic versions are unsuited because of their great strength scatter and poor resistance to mechanical and thermal shock. Further, many manufacturing processes for composites are well adapted to the fabrication of large, complex structures, which allows consolidation of parts, reducing manufacturing costs.

1.2 Historical Development / Historical overview: Past: After making and controlling fire and inventing the wheel,
spinning of continuous yarns is probably the most important development of mankind, enabling him to survive outside the tropical
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climate zones and spread across the surface of the Earth. Flexible fabrics made of locally grown and spun fibres as cotton; flax and jute were a big step forward compared to animal skins. More and more natural resources were used, soon resulting in the first composites; straw reinforced walls, and bows (Figure M.1.1.a) and chariots made of glued layers of wood, bone and horn. More durable materials as wood and metal soon replaced these antique composites.

Fig M.1.1.a Composite Korean bow

Present:
Originating from early agricultural societies and being almost forgotten after centuries, a true revival started of using lightweight composite structures for many technical solutions during the second half of the 20th century. After being solely used for their electromagnetic properties (insulators and radar-domes), using composites to improve the structural performance of spacecraft and military aircraft became popular in the last two decades of the previous century. First at any costs, with development of improved materials with increasing costs, nowadays cost

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reduction during manufacturing and operation are the main technology drivers. Latest development is the use of composites to protect man

against fire and impact and a tendency to a more environmental friendly design, leading to the reintroduction of natural fibres in the composite technology. Increasingly nowadays, the success of composites in applications, by volume and by numbers, can be ranked by accessibility and reproducibility of the applied manufacturing techniques. Some examples of use of natural fibers(M.1.1b M.1.1.e)

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Future:
In future, composites will be manufactured even more according to an integrated design process resulting in the optimum construction according to parameters such as shape, mass, strength, stiffness, durability, costs, etc. Newly developed design tools must be able to instantaneously show customers the influence of a design change on each one of these parameters.

1.3 What is Composite Material?

Composite materials are engineering materials made from two or more constituent materials that remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level while forming a single component. There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix
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Properties. The primary functions of the matrix are to transfer stresses between the reinforcing fibers/particles and to protect them from mechanical environmental damage whereas the presence of fibers/particles in a composite improves its mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness etc. The objective is to take advantage of the superior properties of both materials without compromising on the weakness of either. As defined by Agarwal and Broutman composite means material having two or more distinct constituent materials or phases. It is only when the constituent phases have significantly different physical properties and thus the composite properties are noticeably different from the constituent materials

Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural. Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific character of a composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine to give them a specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve the desirable properties. Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the levels at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic. In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz., binding the reinforcement phases in place and deforming

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to distribute the stresses among the constituent materials under an applied force.

reinforcement

The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be conductors or resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending on the purpose for which matrices are chosen. Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and metals have found applications as matrix materials in the designing of structural composites, with commendable success. These materials remain elastic till failure occurs and show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression. Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion characteristics. The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two interphases between each side of the interphase and its adjoint constituent. Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of matrix on properties of reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the selection and fabrication of composites is that the constituents should be chemically inert non-reactive.

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Properties of Matrix Materials:

Naturally fibers and whiskers are of little use unless they are bonded together to take form of structural element that can carry loads. The binder material is usually called a matrix. The purpose of the matrix is manifold support of fibers or whiskers, protection of the fibers or whiskers, stress transfer between broken fibers or whiskers, etc. Typically the matrix is of considerably lower density, stiffness, and strength than fibers or whiskers. However the combination of fibers or whiskers and a matrix can have very high strength and stiffness yet still have low density. Matrix materials can be polymers, metals, ceramics or carbon. Polymers (poly =many and mer = unit or molecule) exist in at least three major forms i.e linear, branched, or cross linked. A linear polymer is merely a chain of mers. A branched polymer consists of a primary chain of mers with other chains that are attached in three dimensions just like tree branches. Finally, a cross linked polymer has large number of three dimensional highly interconnected chains. Linear polymers have the least strength and stiffness, whereas cross linked polymer have most because of their inherently stiffer and stronger internal structure. The three main classes of structural polymers are rubbers, thermoplastics,
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and thermo sets. Rubbers are cross linked polymers that have semi crystalline state well below room temperature. Thermoplastics are polymers that branch, but generally dont cross link very much if at all. Thus, they usually can be repeatedly softened on heating and hardened on cooling. Examples of thermoplastics are nylon, polyethylene, and polysulfone. Thermo sets are polymers that are chemically reacted until almost all molecules are irreversibly cross linked in a three dimensional network. Thus, once an epoxy has set, it cannot be changed in form. Examples of thermo sets include epoxies, phenolics, and polyimides. Other matrix materials include metals that can be made to flow around an in-place fiber system by diffusion bonding or by heating vacuum infiltration. Common examples are shown in fig 1.3.1

a) linear

b)branched

c)cross linked

d)network

figure 1.3.1

1.4 Classification of Composites

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:

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 The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites. The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres. Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling. Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this category. Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.

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1.4.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or Carbon-Carbon Composites

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications. Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins. Thermoplastics have oneor two-dimensional

molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds. Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites.

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Figure 1.4.1 a

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures. Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally. There thermoplastic temperatures. are a few options tend their to loose increase their heat strength resistance at like in

thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the heat resistance. But all composites However, elevated rigidity, redeeming qualities

toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc.

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Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds. Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas.

Figure 1.4.1.b
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and
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dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins. Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of 140C. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is ruled out.

Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in automobile and structural applications. The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75C or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey. Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service at around 200250C .

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1.4.2 According to geometry:

Most composite materials developed thus far have been fabricated to improve mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, and high temperature performance. It is natural to study together the composites that have a common strengthening mechanism. The strengthening mechanism strongly depends on the geometry of the reinforcement. Therefore, it is quite convenient to classify composite materials on the basis of the geometry of a representative unit of reinforcement.

1.4.2.a Fibrous composite

A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension discourages the growth of incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement that might otherwise lead to failure, particularly with brittle matrices. Man-made filaments or fibers of non polymeric materials exhibit much higher strength along their length since large flaws, which may be present in the bulk material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness.Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite. Most composites used in structural applications are multilayered; that is, they consist of

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several layers of fibrous composites. Each layer or lamina is a single layer composite and its orientation is varied according to design. Several identical or different layers are bonded together to form a multilayered composites usable for engineering applications. When the constituent materials in each layer are the same, they are called simply laminates. Hybrid laminates refer to multilayered composites consisting of layers made up of different constituent materials. Reinforcing fibers in a single layer composite may be short or long compared to its overall dimensions. Composites with long fibers are called continuous fiber reinforced composites and those with short fibers, discontinuous fiber reinforced composites. The continuous fibers in single layer composites may be all aligned in one direction to form a unidirectional composite. Such composites are fabricated by laying the fibers parallel and saturating them with resinous material. The bidirectional reinforcement may be provided in a single layer in mutually perpendicular directions as in a woven fabric. The bidirectional reinforcement may be such that the strengths in two perpendicular directions are approximately equal. The orientation of discontinuous fibers cannot be easily controlled in a composite material.

So fibers can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented. In most cases the fibers are assumed to be randomly oriented in the composites. However, in the injection molding of a fiber reinforced polymer, considerable orientation can occur in the flow direction and which a case of preferred oriented fibers in the composites.

1.4.2.b Particulate Composites

As the name itself indicates, the reinforcement is of particle nature (platelets are also included in this class). It may be spherical, cubic,
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tetragonal, a platelet, or of other regular or irregular shape, but it is approximately equiaxed. In general, particles are not very effective in improving fracture resistance but they enhance the stiffness of the composite to a limited extent. Particle fillers are widely used to improve the properties of matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and electrical conductivities, improve performance at elevated temperatures, reduce friction, increase wear and abrasion resistance, improve machinability, increase surface hardness and reduce shrinkage. Also, in case of particulate reinforced composites the particle can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented.

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1.4.3 According to type of matrix material they are classified as:

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

1.4.3.a Metal Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites have many advantages over monolithic metals like higher specific modulus, higher specific strength, better properties at elevated temperatures, and lower coefficient of thermal expansion.
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Because of these attributes metal matrix composites are under consideration for wide range of applications viz. combustion chamber nozzle (in rocket, space shuttle), housings, tubing, cables, heat exchangers, structural members etc

1.4.3.b Ceramic matrix Composites

One of the main objectives in producing ceramic matrix composites is to increase the toughness Naturally it is hoped and indeed often found that there is a concomitant improvement in strength and stiffness of ceramic matrix composites.

1.4.3.c Polymer Matrix Composites

Most commonly used matrix materials are polymeric. The reasons for this are twofold. In general the mechanical properties of polymers are inadequate for many structural purposes. In particular their strength and stiffness are low compared to metals and ceramics. These difficulties are overcome by reinforcing other materials with polymers. Secondly the processing of polymer matrix composites need not involve high pressure and doesnt require high temperature. Also equipments required for manufacturing polymer matrix composites are simpler. For this reason polymer matrix composites developed rapidly and soon became popular for structural applications. Composites are used because overall properties of the composites are superior to those of the individual components for example polymer/ceramic. Composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component but arent as brittle as ceramics.

1.4.4 Classification Based on Reinforcements Introduction to Reinforcements

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with
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other two axes either often circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers.

Figure 1.4.4

Two types of polymer composites are: Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) Particle reinforced polymer (PRP)

1.4.4.a Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Common fiber reinforced composites are composed of fibers and a matrix. Fibers are the reinforcement and the main source of strength while matrix glues all the fibers together in shape and transfers stresses between the reinforcing fibers. The fibers carry the loads along their longitudinal directions. Sometimes, filler might be added to smooth the manufacturing process, impact special properties to the composites, and
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/or reduce the product cost. Common fiber reinforcing agents include asbestos, carbon /graphite fibers, beryllium, beryllium carbide, beryllium oxide, molybdenum, aluminium oxide, glass fibers, polyamide,natural fibers etc. Similarly common matrix materials include epoxy, phenolic, polyester, polyurethane, peek, vinyl ester etc. Among these resin materials, epoxy is widely used for its higher adhesion and less shrinkage property.

1.4.4.b Particle Reinforced Polymer

Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminium and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black. Particles are used to increase the modules of the matrix and to decrease the ductility of the matrix. Particles are also used to reduce the cost of the composites. Reinforcements and matrices can be common, inexpensive materials and are easily processed.

Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators. Some ceramics have special properties; some ceramics are magnetic materials; some are piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics are even superconductors at very low temperatures. Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback: they are brittle. An example of particle reinforced composites is an automobile tire, which has carbon black particles in a matrix of poly-isobutylene elastomeric polymer

1.5 Structure of Composite

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Structure of composite material A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness. Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite

Properties
1) Nature of the constituent material (bonding strength) 2) The geometry of the reinforcement (shape, size) 3) The concentration distribution(vol. fraction of reinforcement) 4) The orientation of the reinforcement(random or preferred) Good adhesion (bonding) between matrix phase and displaced phase provides transfer of load applied to the material to the displaced phase via the interface. Good adhesion is required for achieving high level of mechanical properties of composites. Very small particles less than 0.25 micrometer finely distributed in the matrix impede movement of dislocations and deformation of the material. They have strengthening
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effect. Large dispersed phase particles have low share load applied to the material resulting in increase of stiffness and decrease of ductility. Orientation of reinforcement: Planar:-In the form of 2-D woven fabric. When the fibers are laid parallel, the composite exhibits axistrope. Random or Three Dimensional:-The composite material tends to posses isotropic properties. One Dimensional: - Maximum strength and stiffness are obtained in the direction of fiber.

1.6 Advantages of Composites

Advantages of composites over their conventional counterparts are the ability to meet diverse design requirements with significant weight savings as well as strength-to-weight ratio. Some advantages of composite materials over conventional ones are as follows: Tensile strength of composites is four to six times greater than that of steel or aluminium (depending on the reinforcements).

Improved torsional stiffness and impact properties. Higher fatigue endurance limit (up to 60% of ultimate tensile strength). 30% - 40% lighter for example any particular aluminium structures designed to the same functional requirements. Lower embedded energy compared to other structural metallic materials like steel, aluminium etc. Composites are less noisy while in operation and provide lower vibration transmission than metals. Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored to meet performance needs and complex design requirements. Long life offer excellent fatigue, impact, environmental resistance and reduce maintenance.
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Composites enjoy reduced life cycle cost compared to metals. Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and fire retardancy. Improved appearance with smooth surfaces and readily incorporable integral decorative melamine are other characteristics of composites. Composite parts can eliminate joints / fasteners, providing part simplification and integrated design compared to conventional metallic parts.

1.7 Applications of Composites

Figure 1.7

1.8 EXAMPLES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Fibre reinforced plastics:
Industry Examples Door, elevators Space Shuttle, Space stations Body frames, engine Comments 20-35% Weight savings Great weight savings High stiffness & damage tolerance

Classified by type of fiber:

Aerospace Automotive

Aircraft

Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix)

components

Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP)

Construction Fuel tanks etc.

Chemical

Pipes, Tanks, Pressure vessels Structural & decorative panels,

Corrosion resistance Weight savings, portable.

Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally, "fiberglass")

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Classified by matrix: Thermoplastic Composites Short fiber thermoplastics Long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics Glass mat thermoplastics Continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics Thermoset Composites Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)

Metal matrix composites (MMCs): White cast iron Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix) Metal-intermetallic laminate Ceramic matrix composites: Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers)

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Cermet (ceramic and metal) Concrete Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites Asphalt concrete Dental composite Syntactic foam Mother of Pearl Chobham armour (see composite armour) Engineered wood

Plywood Oriented strand board Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix) Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix) Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles Arborite Formica (plastic)
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1.9 Scope of the project

The basic aim of the present work is to develop and characterize a new class of composites with epoxy as polymer matrix and glass fiber as the reinforcing material. Their physical and mechanical characterization is done. Attempt is made to use TiO2 as filler in these fiber reinforced .polymer matrix composites. Characterization of the resulting TiO2 filled glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite is done. The experimentally measured database of composites has also been predicted. This work is expected to introduce a new class of functional polymer composites suitable for tribological applications.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

This chapter outlines some of the recent reports published in literature on composites of fiber reinforced polymer composites. Polymer composite materials have generated wide interest in various engineering fields, particularly in aerospace applications. Research is underway worldwide to develop newer composites with varied combinations of fibers and fillers so as to make them useable under different operational conditions. The improved performance of polymer composites in engineering applications by the addition of filler materials has shown a
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great promise and so has become a subject of considerable interest. Ceramic filled polymer composites have been the subject of extensive research in last two decades. Various kinds of polymers and polymer matrix composites reinforced with ceramic particles have a wide range of industrial applications such as heaters, electrodes, composites with thermal durability at high temperature etc.

These engineering composites are desired due to their low density, high corrosion resistance consisting of ceramic or metal particles and fiber fillers made of glass are being used these days to dramatically improve the wear resistance even up to three orders of magnitude. The inclusion of inorganic fillers into polymers for commercial applications is primarily aimed at the cost reduction and stiffness improvement. Along with fiber-reinforced composites, the composites made with particulate fillers have been found to perform well in many real operational conditions. It is reported by Bonner that with the inclusion of micro-sized particulates into polymers, a high filler content (typically greater than 20 vol. %) is generally required to bring the above stated positive effects into play. But at the same time, this may also have detrimental effects on some important properties of the matrix polymers such as processability, appearance, density and aging performance. It has also been reported that the fracture surface energies of epoxy and polyester resin and their resistance to crack propagation are relatively low.

But if particulate filler is added to these resins, the particles inhibit crack growth. As the volume fraction of filler is varied, the fracture energy increases up to a critical volume fraction and then decreases again. Srivastava showed that the fracture toughness of epoxy resin could be improved by addition of flyash particles as filler. The fillers also affect
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the

tensile

properties

according

to

their
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packing

characteristics, size and interfacial bonding. The maximum volumetric packing fraction of filler reflects the size distribution and shapes of the particles. Recently, it has been observed that by incorporating filler particles into the matrix of fibre reinforced composites, synergistic effects may be achieved in the form of higher modulus and reduced material costs, yet accompanied with decreased strength and impact toughness. Polymer composites with both discontinuous and continuous fibre reinforcement possess usually very high specific (i.e. density related) stiffness and strength when measured in plane. Therefore, such composites are frequently used in engineering parts in automobile, aerospace, marine and energetic applications.

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CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the experimental procedures followed for their characterization and tribological evaluation. The raw materials used in this work are 1. E-glass fiber 2. E-Glass powder 3. Epoxy resin

3.1 Hardener:
The hardener used in Epoxy is polyamine. A polyamine is an organic compound having two or more primary amino groups -NH2.This class of compounds includes several synthetic substances that are important feed stocks for the chemical industry, such as ethylene diamine H2N-CH2-CH2-NH2, 1,3-diaminopropane H2N-(CH2)3-NH2, and hex methylenediamine H2N-(CH2)6-NH2. The amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

3.2 Epoxy:
Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener. When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

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The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements.

Resin:
Resin is a natural or synthetic compound which begins in a highly viscous state and hardens with treatment. Typically, resin is soluble in alcohol, but not in water. There are a number of different classes of resin, depending on exact chemical composition and potential uses. Matrix resins bind glass-reinforcing fibers together, protecting them from impact and the environment. Glass fiber properties such as strength dominate in continuously reinforced composites. When glass is used as a discontinuous reinforcement, resin properties dominate and are enhanced by the glass. Polymer matrix resins fall into two categories: thermo set and thermoplastic. The difference is in their chemistry. Thermo set resin is chemically comprised of molecular chains that crosslink during the cure reaction (set off by heat, catalyst, or both) and "set" into a final rigid form. Molecular chains in thermoplastic resin are processed at higher temperatures and remain "plastic," or capable of being reheated and reshaped. While the tradeoffs between thermosets and thermoplastics have been debated extensively, engineers will find that material suppliers will tailor matrix resin formulations best for their application

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3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials:

Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used. Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers, high silica and quartz fibers, alumina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron fibers, aramid fibers and multi phase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified into E-glass, S-glass, A- glass, R-glass etc. There is a greater market and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers. The potential of fibers of graphite, silicon carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific mind due to their applications in advanced composites.

3.3.1Types of fibers 3.3.1.a Glass Fibers

Over 95% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers, as they are inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the plastics with which they are reinforced.
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Their low density, resistance to chemicals, insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics, although the one major disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when subjected to high tensile stress for a long time.. However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time frames. This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is expected to sustain such loads for many months or years continuously. Period of loading, temperature, moisture and other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibers and the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning before the catastrophic failure. But all this can be easily overlooked in view of the fact that the wide range of glass fiber variety lend themselves amicably to fabrication processes like matched die moulding, filament winding lay-up and so on. Glass fibers are available in the form of mats, tapes, cloth, continuous and chopped filaments, rovings and yarns. Addition of chemicals to silica sand while making glass yields different types of glasses.

3.3.1.b Metal Fibers

As reinforcements, metal fibers have many advantages. They are easily produced using several fabrication processes and are more ductile, apart from being not too sensitive to surface damage and possess high strengths and temperature resistance. However, their weight and the tendency to react with each other through alloying mechanisms are major disadvantages. Steel wire is the most extensively used reinforcement in most large-scale metal filament applications. Wire is used for its capacity to enhance the tensile strength of concrete and continuous metal fibers are the reinforcing constituents in metal and ceramic composite materials.

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3.3.1.c Ceramic fibers improve vastly in performance when a fine metal outline is incorporated with refractory ceramics by improving their thermal shock and impact resistance properties. 3.3.1.d Metal wires, of the continuous version, also reinforce plastics like polyethylene and epoxy. Such combinations ensure high strength, light weight and good fatigue resistance. Besides, continuous metal fibers are easily handled, unlike glass fibers. Better flexural properties are observed in some metal fibers reinforced plastic composites which also offer improved strength and weight, than glass fibers. However, their poor tolerance of high temperatures and the resultant steep variation of thermal expansion coefficient with the resins are a discouragement that limits their application.

3.3.1.d Alumina Fibers

Alumina or aluminum oxide fibers, basically developed for use in metal matrices are considered a potential resin-matrix composite reinforcement. It offers good compressive strength rather than tensile strength. It is important property is it is high melting point of about 2000C and the composite can be successfully used at temperatures up to about 1000C. Magnesium and aluminum matrices frequently use alumina fiber reinforced composites as they do not damage the fiber even in the liquid state.

3.3.1.e Boron Fibers

They are basically composites, in which boron is coated on a substance which forms the substrate, usually made of tungsten. Boron-tungsten fibers are obtained by allowing hot tungsten filament through a mixture of gases. Boron is deposited on tungsten and the process is continued until the desired thickness is achieved. The tungsten however remains constant in its thickness. Properties of boron fibers generally change with the diameter, because of the changing ratio of boron to tungsten and the surface defects that change according to size. However, they
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are known for their remarkable stiffness

33and strength. Their strengths often compare with those of glass fibers, but their tensile modulus is high, almost four to five times that of glass. Boron coated carbons are much cheaper to make than boron tungsten fiber. But its low modulus of elasticity often works against it.

3.3.1.f Silicon Carbide Fibers

Silicon carbide can be coated over a few metals and their room temperature tensile strengths and tensile moduli are like those of boron-tungsten. The advantages of silicon carbide-tungsten are several and they are more desirable than uncoated boron tungsten fibers. Elevated temperature performance and the fact that they reported only a 35% loss of strength at 1350C are their best qualities. Silicon carbide-tungsten and silicon carbidecarbon have both been seen to have very high stress-rupture strength at 1100C and 1300C. Uncoated boron-tungsten fibers tend to lose all their strength at temperatures over 680C. Silicon carbide fibers do not react with molten aluminium, unlike uncoated boron and they also withstand high temperatures used in hot-press titanium matrices. However, silicon carbide-tungsten fibers are dense compared to boron- tungsten fibers of the same diameter. They are prone to surface damage and need careful, delicate handling, especially during fabrication of the composite. Further, above 930C, weakening reactions occur between tungsten and silicon carbide, making it difficult to maintain balance in high-temperature matrix formations. Silicon carbide on 'carbon substrates have several advantages, viz. no, reaction at high temperature, being lighter than silicon carbide tungsten and possessing tensile strengths and modulus that is are often better than those of silicon carbide-tungsten and boron fibers.

3.3.1.g Aramid Fibers

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Aramid fibers are made from aromatic polyamides which are long polymeric .chains and aromatic rings. They are structures in which six carbon atoms are bonded to each other and to combinations of hydrogen atoms. In aramid fibers, these rings occur and reoccur to form the fibers. They were initially used to reinforce automobile tires. Since then, they have also found other uses like bullet proof vests. As high strength applications, their use in power boats is not uncommon.

Aramid have high tensile strength, high modulus and low weight. Impact- resistant structures can be produced from aramid. The density of aramid fibers is less than that of glass and graphite fibers. They are fire resistant apart from being high-temperature resistant and also unaffected by organic solvents and fuels. But their resistance in acid and alkaline media is poor. They are supple and allow themselves to be woven into matrices by simple processes. Aramid fibers have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion in the fiber direction and the failure of aramid fibers is unique. When they fail, the fibers break into small fibrils, which are like fibers within the fibers. This unique failure mechanism is responsible for high strength.

3.3.1.h Quartz and Silica Fibers

The glass-types typically contain about 50 to 78% silica. Silica glass is a purer glass fiber that can be made by treating fiberglass in an acid bath, which removes all impurities without affecting the silica. The final product contains 93 to 99% silica. Quartz is even more pure, and quartz fibers are made from natural quartz crystals that contain 99.9% silica, possessing nearly all the properties of pure solid quartz. Ordinary fiberglass, high silica and quartz fibers share several characteristics and can be produced in a range of fiber diameters. Roving or yarns and other forms of fibers can be made from high silica as well as quartz. All matrix materials that accept fiberglass are amenable to high silica and quartz too. They differ from glass in many factors, however, especially in heat-related properties.
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Although quartz crystals are commonly available, pure crystals are hard to come by. On the other hand, high silica comes from the same material as glass fibers and is easily accessible. However, quartz makes up for its rarity with its capacity to" withstand high temperatures, which silica is incapable of. Barring this difference, silica and quartz are similar in other respects. They are highly elastic and can be stretched to 1 % of their length before break point. Both silica and quartz are not affected by acid attacks and are resistant to moisture. Owing to their thermal properties, silica and quartz are the natural choice as fibers in several applications. They have good insulating properties and do not melt at temperatures up to 1600C. In addition, they have low thermal expansion coefficients which make them withstand high temperatures.

3.3.1.i Graphite Fibers

While use of the term carbon for graphite is permissible, there is one basic difference between the two. Elemental analysis of poly-acrylo-nitrile (PAN) base carbon fibers show that they consist of 91 to 94% carbon. But graphite fibers are over 99% carbon. The difference arises from the fact that the fibers are made at different temperatures. PAN-based carbon cloth or fiber is produced at about 1320C, while graphite fibers and cloth are graphitized at 1950 to 3000C. The properties of graphite remain unchanged even at very high temperatures, but its willingness to react readily with most metals at the fabrication stage or during use at very high temperatures is often a stumbling block, as seen in aluminium matrices when carbides are produced at the interface. These carbides react with moisture with disastrous effects on the composite material.

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Graphite fibers are some of the stiffest fibers known. The stiffness of the fiber is as high as the graphite content. But a major drawback is that stiffness and strength are inversely proportional to each other. Forbidding costs make the use of graphite fibers prohibitive. The best glass fibers are far less expensive than the cheapest, lowest quality of graphite, and in PAN-base fibers, other raw materials too are equally expensive. The carbonization and graphitization are time-consuming, apart from demanding excessive energy, materials and close controls throughout the process. Cheaper pitch base fibers are now being developed, with greater performance potential and there are possibilities of the increased use of graphite fibers.

3.3.1.j Multiphase Fibers

Spoolable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually the multi phase variety and they usually comprise materials like boron, silicon and their carbides formed on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or tungsten. They are usually good for high temperature applications, due to their reduced reaction with higher melting temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers. Boron filaments are sought after for structural and intermediate-temperature composites. A poly-phase fiber is a core-sheath fiber consisting of a polycrystalline core.

3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber:

E-Glass or electrical grade glass was originally developed for standoff insulators for electrical wiring. It was later found to have excellent fibre forming capabilities and is now used almost exclusively as the reinforcing phase in the material commonly known as fiber glass.

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. Figure 3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber

3.3.2 Mechanical Properties of fibers

Composite materials are not homogeneous. Their properties are dependent on many factors, the most important of which are the type of fibre, quantity of fibre (as volume fraction) and the configuration of the reinforcement. They are generally completely elastic up to failure and exhibit neither a yield point nor a region of plasticity. They tend to have low strain to failure(less than 3%). The resulting area under the stress/strain curve, which represents the work done to failure, is relatively small when compared to many metals. The properties of composites are dependent on the properties of the fibre and the matrix, the proportion of each and the configuration of the fibres. If all the fibres are aligned in one direction then the composite relatively stiff and strong in that direction, but in the transverse direction it has low modulus and low strength. When a unidirectional composite is tested at a small angle from the fibre axis, there is a considerable reduction in strength. A similar but less significant effect occurs with the tensile modulus, as shown in Figure 3.3.2

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Figure 3.3.2
Theoretical variation in tensile modulus with the angle of load relative to the principal fibre direction (unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced plastic (UD CFRP), fibre volume fraction = 0.5)

Strength and stiffness Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) E glass fibres, which have a modulus of about 70GPa, produce composites with modest moduli. In the case of unidirectional fibres and the highest typical fibre volume fraction of 0.65, a composite has a modulus of about45GPa and strength of around 1300MPa. At right angles to this, in the transverse direction, the modulus approaches that of the resin itself at about4GPa and the strength would be 50100MPa. The unidirectional compo-sites used in the ROBUST Project, manufactured using the vacuum process with prepreg material in an epoxy matrix, had the following properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 36GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 750MPa Elongation at break: 3.1%.

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Bidirectional E glass laminates have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.4 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about 14GPa.Random laminates (e.g. chopped strand mat) have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.2 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about9GPa. The use of S2 or R glass improves the composite modulus to about60GPa for unidirectional and 20GPa for woven fabric (bidirectional) constructions. This is at some monetary disadvantage. They are both more expensive than E glass and they are only available in a fairly limited range of material types and resin compatibilities. Probably the most important virtue of S2 and R glass is their high strength, which is considerably higher than E glass. Carbon and graphite fibers Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) The dominant carbon fibres in current use (typically Toray T700) have a tensile modulus of about 230GPa, a tensile strength of around 5000MPaand a strain-to-failure of 2%. Unidirectional composites produced from them in either an epoxy or vinyl-ester matrix have the following typical properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 155165GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 25003000MPa Elongation at break: 1.21.3% Carbon fibres are available which will give a tensile modulus of about250GPa in a unidirectional composite, comparing very favourably with steel at about 210GPa. However, as this composite is unidirectional, it has extremely low modulus in the transverse direction. The principal attributes of carbon fibre composites are their very high specific stiffness (the ratio of modulus/density), excellent fatigue and environmental resistance. Currently there are various pultruded CFRP plates available commercially for plate bonding applications. The pultruded plates used in the ROBUST Project, as well as the plates manufactured with prepreg materials, possessed a modulus of about 130GPa and a
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strength of 1500MPa.Pultruded plates now available from other sources typically exploit fibers with superior properties such as Toray T700, resulting in composites with the properties shown above. A financial penalty has to be paid for materials exhibiting properties significantly in excess of these; the strain-to-failure of composites made with them will also be reduced significantly. Carbon and graphite have substantial capability as reinforcing fibers, with great flexibility in the properties that can be provided. Primary characteristics for reinforcing fibers in polymer matrix composites are high stiffness and strength. The fibers must maintain these characteristics in hostile environments such as elevated temperatures, exposure to common solvents and fluids, and environmental moisture. To be used as part of a primary structure material it should also be available as continuous fiber. These characteristics and requirements have substantial implications for the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the fiber, which in turn implies processing and acceptance parameters. Interest in carbon fibers for structural materials was initiated in the late 1950s when synthesized rayons in textile form were carbonized to produce carbon fibers for high temperature missile applications. One of the first distinctions to be made is the difference between carbon and graphite fibers, although the terms are frequently used interchangeably. Background information for these differences is contained in the following sections. The primary purpose of making this distinction here is to alert the reader that users may mean different things when referring to graphite versus carbon fibers. Carbon and graphite fibers are both based on graphene (hexagonal) layer networks present in carbon. If the graphene layers or planes stack with three dimensional orders the material is defined as graphite. Usually extended time and temperature processing is required to form this order, making graphite fibers more expensive. Because the bonding between planes is weak, disorder frequently occurs such that only the two dimensional
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ordering within the layers is present. This material is defined as carbon. With this distinction made, it should be understood that while some differences are implied, there is not a single condition which strictly separates carbon from graphite fibers, and even graphite fibers retain some disorder in their structure.

3.3.3 Fiber Manufacture:

Glass fibers are generally produced using melt spinning techniques. These involve melting the glass composition into a platinum crown which has small holes for the molten glass to flow. Continuous fibers can be drawn out through the holes and wound onto spindles, while short fibers may be produced by spinning the crown, which forces molten glass out through the holes centrifugally. Fibers are cut to length using mechanical means or air jets. Fiber dimension and to some extent properties can be controlled by the process variables such as melt temperature (hence viscosity) and drawing/spinning rate. The temperature window that can be used to produce a melt of suitable viscosity is quite large, making this composition suitable for fiber forming. As fibers are being produced, they are normally treated with sizing and coupling agents. These reduce the effects of fiber- fiber abrasion which can significantly degrade the mechanical strength of the individual fibers. Other treatments may also be used to promote wetting and adherence of the matrix material to the fiber .

Composition
E-Glass is a low alkali glass with a typical nominal composition of SiO2 54wt%, Al2O3 14wt%, CaO+MgThe advantageous properties of E-glass generally outweigh the disadvantages which include:
Low modulus Self abrasiveness if not treated appropriately leading to reduced strength

Relatively low fatigue resistance

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Higher density compared to carbon fibres and organic fibresO 22wt%, B2O3 10wt% and Na2O+K2O less then 2wt%. Some other materials may also be present at impurity levels.

3.3.4 Key Properties:

Properties that have made E-glass so popular in 791iberglass and other glass reinforced composite include: Low cost High production rates High strength High stiffness Relatively low density Non-flammable Resistant to heat Good chemical resistance Relatively insensitive to moisture Able to maintain strength properties over a wide range of conditions Good electrical insulation

3.4 Processing of the Composites Fabrication of the Laminate

E-glass/Epoxy composite laminates were prepared by passing the E-glass fibers of 1200 TEX, through the resin bath of Epoxy and hardener maintaining a constant temperature of about 45 C.The fibers are then wound on a rotating drum with 15 rpm. After complete winding on the drum then it is cut opened and lay on a flat table in the atmospheric condition for about 48 hours to get the
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tackiness. The layers are cut in such a way that the desired fiber direction is obtained. In this experimentation it is decided to prepare the laminates such that the angle between the fibers are15o 30o 45o 60o and 90oas shown in fig-1. The sequence of layup shown in the fig -2. The number of layup depends on the thickness of the laminate required; here it is used 20 layers to obtain the thickness of the laminate about 4mm. All the overlapped layers then compacted between the two parallel flat steel plates with stainless steel spacers of required laminate thickness. The major purpose of lamination is to tailor the directional dependence of strength and stiffness of a composite material to match the loading environment of the structural element laminates are uniquely suited to this objective because the principal material directions of each layer can be oriented according to need. The plates are clamped with nuts and bolts with washers; the clamped setup is then placed in the oven. Maintain the oven temperature of 800 C for 4 hours and 1200 C for next 4 hours so that any entrapped air or volatile gases will be escaped for the first four hours and chemical reaction between the epoxy and hardener will takes place for the next four hours and will lead to permanent set and finally result into a single solid composite laminate. After total curing of 8 hours oven is then switched off so the temperature in the oven may come down to normal temperature. Take out the composite laminate and trim the edges so that the laminate is ready for testing purpose. Winding parameters 37. 38. 39.
ME

Tension of fibre =1.3 kgs Resin temperature= 45 0c RPM of lathe = 15

Page 792

40.

Gap between doctor blade and drum = 1.25 mmThe

parameters are kept constant for two different windings

FILAMENT WINDING SETUP

RESIN BATH

DRUM WINDING

REMOVING LAYUP

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LAYUP PLACED ON TABLE

APPLYING WAXPOL ON PLATES

LAYING UP LAYERS

REMOVING AIR GAP

COMPACTING LAYERS

PLACING IN THE OVEN

3.4.2 CURING PROCESS :

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Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener". The resin consists of monomers or short chain polymers with an epoxide group at either end. Most common epoxy resins are produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A, though the latter may be replaced by similar chemicals. The hardener consists of polyamine monomers, for example Triethylenetetramine (TETA). When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond.

Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily crosslinked, and is thus rigid and strong.The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. So the laminate that is fabricated is put into a Oven . The temperatures are maintained in two cycles. In the first cycle we have to maintain constant temperature of 80C for 4hours and in the next cycle maintain a temperature of 160C for next 4 hours.

AFTER CURING

MARKING

TRIMMING

AFTER TRIMMING

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DRILLING

AFTER DRILLING

Figure 3.6.a specifications of UTM (at CIPET)

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UTM SPECIFICATIONS

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COMPOSITE LAMINATE UNDER TESTING

4.1 Experimental procedure

Quasi-static Indentation tests were performed on INSTRON testing machine. The
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composite laminate of size 150mm x 150mm is placed on a steel supporting frame, with a square opening of size 50mm x 50mm. A similar square opening flat plate is placed ontop of the composite laminate; it is then clamped rigidly with nuts and bolts of 6mm size as shown in fig-3. The clamped setup is placed on the loading frame of testing machine. A spherical stainless steel ball indenter of diameter 8.32mmis used for indentation on the composites laminate. The tests were conducted with the controlled displacement of the indenter (0.2mm / minute). The test data is shown in Table-2.An extensometer is used to measure the displacement of the point just below the indentation location at the bottom side of the composite laminate. A 20kN load cell evaluated the load on each composite laminate. The data obtained during test for each laminate is shown in Table-2. The composite laminate with different fiber angles is indented for a fixed displacement of 5 mm. The damage in the different composite laminate with different fiber angles is shown fig-4. The damage area in each composite laminate is observed with the help of optical light microscope.
S. No. Specifications 1 2 3 4 5 ASTM Present work

Specimen 4 6 mm 4 - 5 mm thickness Indenter 10 16 mm 8.73 mm diameter Cross head 0.2 mm / 1 mm / min displacement min Indenter 5 10 mm 5 mm displacement No of samples 4 4 per test

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF UTM

00/150

00/300

00/450

00/600

00/900

Fig-1: Schematic diagram of five different laminates

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Fig-2: Sequence of angle plies

4.2 COMPOSITE LAMINATES WITHOUT E-GLASS POWDER FRONT SIDE BACK SIDE

0,90

0,60

FRONT SIDE

BACK SIDE

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0,45

0,30

0,15
S. No. Angle (0) Max. Load (KN) Indentation (mm) Spring back (mm)

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1 2 3 4 5

0/15 0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

3.77 4.11 4.69 4.99 5.83

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.86

0.92 1.17 2.50 3.08 3.44

Table - 2: Test results after Indentation.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Load (KN)

15 DEG 30 DEG 45 DEG 60 DEG 90 DEG

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5

Displacement (mm) Graph-1: Shows the load carrying capacity in each case for different indenter displacements of maximum 5mm for all the laminates. It is gradually increasing for the laminates with the fiber angles varying from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

Indentation ()

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-2: Indentation depth is increasing linearly as the fiber angle in laminates is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o),however it is suddenly increasing in the laminates with fiber angle varying from (0o/60o) to (0o/90o).

S. No. 1

Angle (0) 0/15

Front face damage area (mm2) 971

Back face damage area (mm2) 1256

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2 3 4 5

0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

1300 1894 2186 2623

1857 2280 2623 3257

Table-3: Experimental data of damage surface areas on front and back face of the laminates

Front face damage area 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 15 30 45

Back face damage area

60

75

90

105

Graph-3: Damage area is increasing with the increase in fiber angle of the laminates in front face and back face of the laminate; however the damage area back face is more than the front face as seen from the above graph.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Load (KN)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-4: Maximum load taken in each laminate with different fiber angles. The load is increasing linearly as the fiber angle is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

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4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Spring back (mm)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

5: Shows spring back effect is increasing in different laminates as the fiber angles are increasing

0o/15o) to (0o/90o), it shows that as the angle between fibers is increasing the laminate elasticity increasing

Material

Density (mg/m3)

Modulus (G Pa)

Poisons ratio(v)

Tensile strength (G Pa) 3.5

E-glass fiber

2.56

76

0.22

Epoxy resin

1.3

3.6

0.4

0.1

Table-4: Properties of materials

4.3) RATE OF LOADING (0.5mm/min) WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

0.5%

1%

1.5

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
Page 805

0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE
ME

(0/45)

BACK SIDE
Page 806

0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE
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(0/15)

BACK SIDE
Page 808

GRAPH 1 :

0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1.0 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.92 1.8 1.4 2 3.4 3.1 3.1 3 4.62 4.1 3.5 4 4.85 4.19 3.6 5 4 3.73 3.11

GRAPH 2 :

0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

4
3 2 1 0 0 2

0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 % % % 0 0 0 2 1.7 1.6 3.15 3.2 2.95 4.65 3.72 3.2 5.4 3.12 2.25 3 2.38 1.89

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 3:

0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.1 2.2 1.7 2 3.8 3.6 3.15 3 4.26 4.2 2.91 4 4.5 2.92 2.29 5 3.5 2.32 1.83

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 4: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.15 2.1 1.2 2 3.75 3.5 2.3 3 5.18 4.2 3.4 4 4.2 3.15 2.85 5 2.5 1.9 1.75

GRAPH 5: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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5 4

FORCE (kN)

3 2 1 0 0 2

F 0.5 F1 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.9 1.8 1.7 2 3.1 2.85 2.6 3 3.9 3.8 3.3 4 3 2.8 2.5 5 2.85 2.35 1.7

GRAPH 6 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

0.5 mm/min

3.5 3 2.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

DEPTH mm)

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.42 2.6 2.5 2.1 2

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.38 2.54 2.6 2.4 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 2.67 2.98 2.9 2.55 2.38

ANGLE

GRAPH 7 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

0.5 mm /min

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PROJECTED HEIGHT

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5 %

ANGLE

ANGLE

0 15 30 45 60 90

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 0.5 % 0 2.84 3.2 2.5 2.55 2

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.0 % 0 3.24 3.6 2.7 3.5 2.1

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.5 % 0 3.31 3.76 3.33 3.67 2.6

4.4 1.5mm/min RATE OF LOADING WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
Page 814

FRONT SIDE

(0/45)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/15)

BACK SIDE

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GRAPH 8: 0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

F F F 0.5% 1 % 1.5% 0 0 0 1.5 2.05 1.35 3.1 3.3 2.75 3.2 4.3 1.95 2.5 3.75 1.65 1.5 3.25 1.31

GRAPH 9:0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5 % 0 0 0 0 1 2.5 2.31 2.09 2 4.72 4.22 3.75 3 5.5 4.5 4.2 4 4.5 3.23 2.85 5 3.7 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 10: 0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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6 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 % 0 2.5 4.72 5.5 4.5 3.7

FORCE (kN)

4 3 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 1 0 0 2 DISPLACEMENT 4 (mm) 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 2.31 2.09 4.22 3.75 4.5 4.2 3.23 2.85 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 11: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

F 0.5 % 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2.5 4.2 5.55 4.65 3.25

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 (mm) DISPLACEMENT 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 1.75 1.65 3 2.65 4 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.2 1.8

GRAPH 12: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5 mm/min)

ME

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 Page 820 (mm) %

F 1.0 %

F 1.5 %

6 5

FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 DISPLACEMENT (mm) F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

0 1 2 3 4 5

0 1.8 2.9 4.1 4.85 3.7

0 1.98 3.15 3.9 4.4 3.2

0 1.65 2.5 3.1 2.25 1.6

GRAPH13 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

1.5 mm/min

DEPTH OF INDENTATION mm)

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

0
0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.34 2.45 2.67 2.39 2.5

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.14 2.32 2.6 2.27 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 1.9 2.29 2.31 2 1.8

ANGLE

GRAPH 14 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

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(1 .5 mm/ min)
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4
3.5

PROJECTED HEIGHT

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5%

ANGLE

ANGLE PROJECTED PROJECTED PROJECTED HEIGHT HEIGHT HEIGHT 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 15 3 1.41 2.95 30 2.71 3.65 3.05 45 3.19 3.31 3.15 60 3.33 3.32 2.5 90 2.7 2.55 2.1

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Graph 1 (0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 1 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 4mm at 3.6kN. Graph 2 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 2 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 5.4kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN. Graph 3 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 3,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 3.15kN. Graph 4 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) :
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at the

In Graph 4,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.18kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.4kN. Graph 5 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 5,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.9kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.3kN. Graph 6 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 6,Depth of indentation is increasing with increase in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-150 to 0-300 later on there is increase angles 0-300 to 0-900. Graph 7 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 7, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-300 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600 and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing
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at the

in

depth of indentation,but it is decreases with

in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles. Graph 8(0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 8 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of2 mm at 2.75kN. Graph 9 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 9 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN. Graph 10 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 10,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN.
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Graph 11 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 11,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.55kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 2.65kN. Graph 12 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 12,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.1kN. Graph 13 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 13,Depth of indentation is increasing with decrease in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-450, later on there is decrease in depth of indentation from 0-450 to 0-600,but it is increases with angles 0-600 to 0-900. Graph 14 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 14, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-150 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600
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at the

at the

and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles.

REFERENCES
1) Agarwal, B. D and Broutman, L. J, (1990). Analysis and Performance
of Fiber Composites, Second Edition, Jhon Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 2) Robert M. Jones(1999), mechanics of composite materials, second edition Taylor & Francis group , New york London. 3) http://nptel.iitm.ac.in 4) http://www.wikipedia.org/ 5) Rothon R.N, (1999). Mineral fillers in thermoplastics: filler manufacture and characterization. Adv. Polym. Sci. 139, pp. 67-107. 6) http://composite.about.com/ 7) Applied composite materials, An international journal for the science And application of composites materials.

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8) Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, publishes research on Polymers, nano composites and particulate

ABSTRACT

In this work the composite laminates of Epoxy/E-glass fiber hybridizing with and without E- glass powder are prepared for testing. The fabrication of the laminate is done by filament winding (hoop winding) on a drum mandrel mounted on a modified center lathe. The green layup obtained is cut into laminae of the desired orientations and stacked in the predefined way to a required thickness. The stacked laminate is cured at elevated temperatures under a pressure from a pressure plate. The edges of the laminate are trimmed first and it is then cut in to required size. The specimens are then subjected to indentation test on a universal testing machine (UTM) for a fixed indenter depth. An investigative study is conducted into the results obtained from test data. A number of illustrations are shown regarding the damage in the specimens of different fiber orientation and with different percentages of E-glass powder. Also indentation depth, contact radius, spring back effect, and maximum load carrying capacity are studied.

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CONTENTS
CHAPTER :1 INTRODUCTION 1.91 Overview of composites. 1.92 Historical Development/Historical Overview. 1.93 What is composite material. 1.94 Classification of composites. 1.95 Structure of composites. 1.96 Advantages of composites. 1.97 Applications of composites. 1.98 Examples of composite materials. 1.99 Scope of Project. CHAPTER:2 LITERATURE SURVE CHAPTER:3

PAGE NO:

5 5 8 12 24 25 26 27 29

30

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MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Hardener. 3.2 Epoxy. 3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials. 3.3.1 Types of fibres. 3.3.2 Mechanical properties of fibres. 3.3.3 Fibre manufacturing. 3.3.4 Key properties. 3.4 Processing of composites. 3.4.1 Curing CHAPTER:4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. 4.1 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates without E-glass powder. 4.2 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 4.3 1.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates 62 57 56

32 32 32 34 35 43 46 47 49 52

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with E-glass powder. CHAPTER:5 5.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. 5.2 REFERENCES

71

80 85

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of composites

The development of composite materials and related design and manufacturing technologies is one of the most important advances in the history of materials. Composites are multifunctional materials having unprecedented mechanical and physical properties that can be tailored to meet the requirements of a particular application. Many composites also exhibit great resistance to high-temperature corrosion and oxidation and wear. These unique characteristics provide the mechanical engineer with design opportunities not possible with conventional monolithic (unreinforced) materials. Composites technology also makes possible the use of an entire class of solid materials, ceramics, in applications for which monolithic versions are unsuited because of their great strength scatter and poor resistance to mechanical and thermal shock. Further, many manufacturing processes for composites are well adapted to the fabrication of large, complex structures, which allows consolidation of parts, reducing manufacturing costs.

1.2 Historical Development / Historical overview: Past: After making and controlling fire and inventing the wheel,
spinning of continuous yarns is probably the most important development of mankind, enabling him to survive outside the tropical climate zones and spread across the surface of the Earth. Flexible fabrics made of locally grown and spun fibres as cotton; flax and jute were a big
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step forward compared to animal skins. More and more natural resources were used, soon resulting in the first composites; straw reinforced walls, and bows (Figure M.1.1.a) and chariots made of glued layers of wood, bone and horn. More durable materials as wood and metal soon replaced these antique composites.

Fig M.1.1.a Composite Korean bow

Present:
Originating from early agricultural societies and being almost forgotten after centuries, a true revival started of using lightweight composite structures for many technical solutions during the second half of the 20th century. After being solely used for their electromagnetic properties (insulators and radar-domes), using composites to improve the structural performance of spacecraft and military aircraft became popular in the last two decades of the previous century. First at any costs, with development of improved materials with increasing costs, nowadays cost reduction during manufacturing and operation are the main technology drivers. Latest development is the use of composites to protect man

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against fire and impact and a tendency to a more environmental friendly design, leading to the reintroduction of natural fibres in the composite technology. Increasingly nowadays, the success of composites in applications, by volume and by numbers, can be ranked by accessibility and reproducibility of the applied manufacturing techniques. Some examples of use of natural fibers(M.1.1b M.1.1.e)

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Future:
In future, composites will be manufactured even more according to an integrated design process resulting in the optimum construction according to parameters such as shape, mass, strength, stiffness, durability, costs, etc. Newly developed design tools must be able to instantaneously show customers the influence of a design change on each one of these parameters.

1.3 What is Composite Material?

Composite materials are engineering materials made from two or more constituent materials that remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level while forming a single component. There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix Properties. The primary functions of the matrix are to transfer stresses between the reinforcing fibers/particles and to protect them from mechanical environmental damage whereas the presence of fibers/particles in a composite improves its mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness etc. The objective is to take advantage of the superior properties of both materials without compromising on the weakness of either. As defined by Agarwal and Broutman composite means material having two or more distinct constituent materials or phases. It is only when the constituent phases have significantly different physical properties and thus the composite properties are noticeably different from the constituent materials
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Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural. Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific character of a composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine to give them a specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve the desirable properties. Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the levels at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic. In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz., binding the reinforcement phases in place and deforming to distribute the stresses among the constituent materials under an applied force. The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be conductors or resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending on the purpose for which matrices are chosen. Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and metals have found applications as matrix materials in the designing of structural composites, with
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reinforcement

commendable success. These materials remain elastic till failure occurs and show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression. Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion characteristics. The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two interphases between each side of the interphase and its adjoint constituent. Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of matrix on properties of reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the selection and fabrication of composites is that the constituents should be chemically inert non-reactive.

Properties of Matrix Materials:

Naturally fibers and whiskers are of little use unless they are bonded together to take form of structural element that can carry loads.

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The binder material is usually called a matrix. The purpose of the matrix is manifold support of fibers or whiskers, protection of the fibers or whiskers, stress transfer between broken fibers or whiskers, etc. Typically the matrix is of considerably lower density, stiffness, and strength than fibers or whiskers. However the combination of fibers or whiskers and a matrix can have very high strength and stiffness yet still have low density. Matrix materials can be polymers, metals, ceramics or carbon. Polymers (poly =many and mer = unit or molecule) exist in at least three major forms i.e linear, branched, or cross linked. A linear polymer is merely a chain of mers. A branched polymer consists of a primary chain of mers with other chains that are attached in three dimensions just like tree branches. Finally, a cross linked polymer has large number of three dimensional highly interconnected chains. Linear polymers have the least strength and stiffness, whereas cross linked polymer have most because of their inherently stiffer and stronger internal structure. The three main classes of structural polymers are rubbers, thermoplastics, and thermo sets. Rubbers are cross linked polymers that have semi crystalline state well below room temperature. Thermoplastics are polymers that branch, but generally dont cross link very much if at all. Thus, they usually can be repeatedly softened on heating and hardened on cooling. Examples of thermoplastics are nylon, polyethylene, and polysulfone. Thermo sets are polymers that are chemically reacted until almost all molecules are irreversibly cross linked in a three dimensional network. Thus, once an epoxy has set, it cannot be changed in form. Examples of thermo sets include epoxies, phenolics, and polyimides. Other matrix materials include metals that can be made to flow around an in-place fiber system by diffusion bonding or by heating vacuum infiltration. Common examples are shown in fig 1.3.1

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a) linear

b)branched

c)cross linked

d)network

figure 1.3.1

1.4 Classification of Composites

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels: The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites. The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres.

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 Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling. Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this category. Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.

1.4.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or Carbon-Carbon Composites

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications. Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are
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most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins. Thermoplastics have oneor two-dimensional

molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds. Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites.

Figure 1.4.1 a

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures.
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Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally. There thermoplastic temperatures. are a few options tend their to loose increase their heat strength resistance at like in

thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the heat resistance. But all composites However, elevated rigidity, redeeming qualities

toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc. Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds. Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas.

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Figure 1.4.1.b
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins. Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of 140C. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is ruled out.

Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in automobile and structural applications.
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The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75C or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey. Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service at around 200250C .

1.4.2 According to geometry:

Most composite materials developed thus far have been fabricated to improve mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, and high temperature performance. It is natural to study together the composites that have a common strengthening mechanism. The strengthening mechanism strongly depends on the geometry of the reinforcement. Therefore, it is quite convenient to classify composite materials on the basis of the geometry of a representative unit of reinforcement.

1.4.2.a Fibrous composite

A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite.

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Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension discourages the growth of incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement that might otherwise lead to failure, particularly with brittle matrices. Man-made filaments or fibers of non polymeric materials exhibit much higher strength along their length since large flaws, which may be present in the bulk material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness.Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite. Most composites used in structural applications are multilayered; that is, they consist of several layers of fibrous composites. Each layer or lamina is a single layer composite and its orientation is varied according to design. Several identical or different layers are bonded together to form a multilayered composites usable for engineering applications. When the constituent materials in each layer are the same, they are called simply laminates. Hybrid laminates refer to multilayered composites consisting of layers made up of different constituent materials. Reinforcing fibers in a single layer composite may be short or long compared to its overall dimensions. Composites with long fibers are called continuous fiber reinforced composites and those with short fibers, discontinuous fiber reinforced composites. The continuous fibers in single layer composites may be all aligned in one direction to form a unidirectional composite. Such composites are fabricated by laying the fibers parallel and saturating them with resinous material. The bidirectional reinforcement may be provided in a single layer in mutually perpendicular directions as in a

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woven fabric. The bidirectional reinforcement may be such that the strengths in two perpendicular directions are approximately equal. The orientation of discontinuous fibers cannot be easily controlled in a composite material.

So fibers can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented. In most cases the fibers are assumed to be randomly oriented in the composites. However, in the injection molding of a fiber reinforced polymer, considerable orientation can occur in the flow direction and which a case of preferred oriented fibers in the composites.

1.4.2.b Particulate Composites

As the name itself indicates, the reinforcement is of particle nature (platelets are also included in this class). It may be spherical, cubic, tetragonal, a platelet, or of other regular or irregular shape, but it is approximately equiaxed. In general, particles are not very effective in improving fracture resistance but they enhance the stiffness of the composite to a limited extent. Particle fillers are widely used to improve the properties of matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and electrical conductivities, improve performance at elevated temperatures, reduce friction, increase wear and abrasion resistance, improve machinability, increase surface hardness and reduce shrinkage. Also, in case of particulate reinforced composites the particle can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented.

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1.4.3 According to type of matrix material they are classified as:

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

1.4.3.a Metal Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites have many advantages over monolithic metals like higher specific modulus, higher specific strength, better properties at elevated temperatures, and lower coefficient of thermal expansion. Because of these attributes metal matrix composites are under consideration for wide range of applications viz. combustion chamber nozzle (in rocket, space shuttle), housings, tubing, cables, heat exchangers, structural members etc

1.4.3.b Ceramic matrix Composites

One of the main objectives in producing ceramic matrix composites is to increase the toughness Naturally it is hoped and indeed often found that there is a concomitant improvement in strength and stiffness of ceramic matrix composites.

1.4.3.c Polymer Matrix Composites

Most commonly used matrix materials are polymeric. The reasons for this are twofold. In general the mechanical properties of polymers are inadequate for many structural purposes. In particular their strength and stiffness are low compared to metals and ceramics. These difficulties are overcome by reinforcing other materials with polymers. Secondly the processing of polymer matrix composites need not involve high pressure
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and doesnt require high temperature. Also equipments required for manufacturing polymer matrix composites are simpler. For this reason polymer matrix composites developed rapidly and soon became popular for structural applications. Composites are used because overall properties of the composites are superior to those of the individual components for example polymer/ceramic. Composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component but arent as brittle as ceramics.

1.4.4 Classification Based on Reinforcements Introduction to Reinforcements

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with other two axes either often circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers.

Figure 1.4.4

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Two types of polymer composites are: Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) Particle reinforced polymer (PRP)

1.4.4.a Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Common fiber reinforced composites are composed of fibers and a matrix. Fibers are the reinforcement and the main source of strength while matrix glues all the fibers together in shape and transfers stresses between the reinforcing fibers. The fibers carry the loads along their longitudinal directions. Sometimes, filler might be added to smooth the manufacturing process, impact special properties to the composites, and /or reduce the product cost. Common fiber reinforcing agents include asbestos, carbon /graphite fibers, beryllium, beryllium carbide, beryllium oxide, molybdenum, aluminium oxide, glass fibers, polyamide,natural fibers etc. Similarly common matrix materials include epoxy, phenolic, polyester, polyurethane, peek, vinyl ester etc. Among these resin materials, epoxy is widely used for its higher adhesion and less shrinkage property.

1.4.4.b Particle Reinforced Polymer

Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminium and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black. Particles are used to increase the modules of the matrix and to decrease the ductility of the matrix. Particles are also used to reduce the cost of the composites. Reinforcements and matrices can be common, inexpensive materials and are easily processed.

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Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators. Some ceramics have special properties; some ceramics are magnetic materials; some are piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics are even superconductors at very low temperatures. Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback: they are brittle. An example of particle reinforced composites is an automobile tire, which has carbon black particles in a matrix of poly-isobutylene elastomeric polymer

1.5 Structure of Composite

Structure of composite material A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness. Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite

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Properties
1) Nature of the constituent material (bonding strength) 2) The geometry of the reinforcement (shape, size) 3) The concentration distribution(vol. fraction of reinforcement) 4) The orientation of the reinforcement(random or preferred) Good adhesion (bonding) between matrix phase and displaced phase provides transfer of load applied to the material to the displaced phase via the interface. Good adhesion is required for achieving high level of mechanical properties of composites. Very small particles less than 0.25 micrometer finely distributed in the matrix impede movement of dislocations and deformation of the material. They have strengthening effect. Large dispersed phase particles have low share load applied to the material resulting in increase of stiffness and decrease of ductility. Orientation of reinforcement: Planar:-In the form of 2-D woven fabric. When the fibers are laid parallel, the composite exhibits axistrope. Random or Three Dimensional:-The composite material tends to posses isotropic properties. One Dimensional: - Maximum strength and stiffness are obtained in the direction of fiber.

1.6 Advantages of Composites

Advantages of composites over their conventional counterparts are the ability to meet diverse design requirements with significant weight savings as well as strength-to-weight ratio. Some advantages of composite materials over conventional ones are as follows: Tensile strength of composites is four to six times greater than that of steel or aluminium (depending on the reinforcements).

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Improved torsional stiffness and impact properties. Higher fatigue endurance limit (up to 60% of ultimate tensile strength). 30% - 40% lighter for example any particular aluminium structures designed to the same functional requirements. Lower embedded energy compared to other structural metallic materials like steel, aluminium etc. Composites are less noisy while in operation and provide lower vibration transmission than metals. Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored to meet performance needs and complex design requirements. Long life offer excellent fatigue, impact, environmental resistance and reduce maintenance. Composites enjoy reduced life cycle cost compared to metals. Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and fire retardancy. Improved appearance with smooth surfaces and readily incorporable integral decorative melamine are other characteristics of composites. Composite parts can eliminate joints / fasteners, providing part simplification and integrated design compared to conventional metallic parts.

1.7 Applications of Composites

Industry Aircraft Aerospace Automotive Examples Door, elevators Space Shuttle, Space stations Body frames, engine Comments 20-35% Weight savings Great weight savings High stiffness & damage tolerance Corrosion resistance Weight savings, portable.

components Chemical Construction Pipes, Tanks, Pressure vessels Structural & decorative panels, Fuel tanks etc.

Figure 1.7

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1.8 EXAMPLES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Fibre reinforced plastics: Classified by type of fiber: Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix) Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP) Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally, "fiberglass") Classified by matrix: Thermoplastic Composites Short fiber thermoplastics Long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics Glass mat thermoplastics Continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics Thermoset Composites Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)

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 Metal matrix composites (MMCs): White cast iron Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix) Metal-intermetallic laminate Ceramic matrix composites: Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers) Cermet (ceramic and metal) Concrete Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites Asphalt concrete Dental composite Syntactic foam Mother of Pearl Chobham armour (see composite armour) Engineered wood

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Plywood Oriented strand board Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix) Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix) Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles Arborite Formica (plastic)

1.9 Scope of the project

The basic aim of the present work is to develop and characterize a new class of composites with epoxy as polymer matrix and glass fiber as the reinforcing material. Their physical and mechanical characterization is done. Attempt is made to use TiO2 as filler in these fiber reinforced .polymer matrix composites. Characterization of the resulting TiO2 filled glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite is done. The experimentally measured database of composites has also been predicted. This work is expected to introduce a new class of functional polymer composites suitable for tribological applications.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

This chapter outlines some of the recent reports published in literature on composites of fiber reinforced polymer composites. Polymer composite materials have generated wide interest in various engineering fields, particularly in aerospace applications. Research is underway worldwide to develop newer composites with varied combinations of fibers and fillers so as to make them useable under different operational conditions. The improved performance of polymer composites in engineering applications by the addition of filler materials has shown a great promise and so has become a subject of considerable interest. Ceramic filled polymer composites have been the subject of extensive research in last two decades. Various kinds of polymers and polymer matrix composites reinforced with ceramic particles have a wide range of industrial applications such as heaters, electrodes, composites with thermal durability at high temperature etc.

These engineering composites are desired due to their low density, high corrosion resistance consisting of ceramic or metal particles and fiber fillers made of glass are being used these days to dramatically improve the wear resistance even up to three orders of magnitude. The inclusion of inorganic fillers into polymers for commercial applications is primarily aimed at the cost reduction and stiffness improvement. Along with fiber-reinforced composites, the composites made with particulate fillers have been found to perform well in many real operational conditions. It is reported by Bonner that with the inclusion of micro-sized particulates into polymers, a high filler content (typically greater than 20 vol. %) is generally required to bring the above stated positive effects into
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play. But at the same time, this may also have detrimental effects on some important properties of the matrix polymers such as processability, appearance, density and aging performance. It has also been reported that the fracture surface energies of epoxy and polyester resin and their resistance to crack propagation are relatively low.

But if particulate filler is added to these resins, the particles inhibit crack growth. As the volume fraction of filler is varied, the fracture energy increases up to a critical volume fraction and then decreases again. Srivastava showed that the fracture toughness of epoxy resin could be improved by addition of flyash particles as filler. The fillers also affect the tensile properties according to their packing characteristics, size and interfacial bonding. The maximum volumetric packing fraction of filler reflects the size distribution and shapes of the particles. Recently, it has been observed that by incorporating filler particles into the matrix of fibre reinforced composites, synergistic effects may be achieved in the form of higher modulus and reduced material costs, yet accompanied with decreased strength and impact toughness. Polymer composites with both discontinuous and continuous fibre reinforcement possess usually very high specific (i.e. density related) stiffness and strength when measured in plane. Therefore, such composites are frequently used in engineering parts in automobile, aerospace, marine and energetic applications.

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CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the experimental procedures followed for their characterization and tribological evaluation. The raw materials used in this work are 1. E-glass fiber 2. E-Glass powder 3. Epoxy resin

3.1 Hardener:
The hardener used in Epoxy is polyamine. A polyamine is an organic compound having two or more primary amino groups -NH2.This class of compounds includes several synthetic substances that are important feed stocks for the chemical industry, such as ethylene diamine H2N-CH2-CH2-NH2, 1,3-diaminopropane H2N-(CH2)3-NH2, and hex methylenediamine H2N-(CH2)6-NH2. The amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

3.2 Epoxy:
Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener. When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

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The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements.

Resin:
Resin is a natural or synthetic compound which begins in a highly viscous state and hardens with treatment. Typically, resin is soluble in alcohol, but not in water. There are a number of different classes of resin, depending on exact chemical composition and potential uses. Matrix resins bind glass-reinforcing fibers together, protecting them from impact and the environment. Glass fiber properties such as strength dominate in continuously reinforced composites. When glass is used as a discontinuous reinforcement, resin properties dominate and are enhanced by the glass. Polymer matrix resins fall into two categories: thermo set and thermoplastic. The difference is in their chemistry. Thermo set resin is chemically comprised of molecular chains that crosslink during the cure reaction (set off by heat, catalyst, or both) and "set" into a final rigid form. Molecular chains in thermoplastic resin are processed at higher temperatures and remain "plastic," or capable of being reheated and reshaped. While the tradeoffs between thermosets and thermoplastics have been debated extensively, engineers will find that material suppliers will tailor matrix resin formulations best for their application

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3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials:

Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used. Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers, high silica and quartz fibers, alumina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron fibers, aramid fibers and multi phase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified into E-glass, S-glass, A- glass, R-glass etc. There is a greater market and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers. The potential of fibers of graphite, silicon carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific mind due to their applications in advanced composites.

3.3.1Types of fibers 3.3.1.a Glass Fibers

Over 95% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers, as they are inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the plastics with which they are reinforced.
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Their low density, resistance to chemicals, insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics, although the one major disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when subjected to high tensile stress for a long time.. However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time frames. This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is expected to sustain such loads for many months or years continuously. Period of loading, temperature, moisture and other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibers and the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning before the catastrophic failure. But all this can be easily overlooked in view of the fact that the wide range of glass fiber variety lend themselves amicably to fabrication processes like matched die moulding, filament winding lay-up and so on. Glass fibers are available in the form of mats, tapes, cloth, continuous and chopped filaments, rovings and yarns. Addition of chemicals to silica sand while making glass yields different types of glasses.

3.3.1.b Metal Fibers

As reinforcements, metal fibers have many advantages. They are easily produced using several fabrication processes and are more ductile, apart from being not too sensitive to surface damage and possess high strengths and temperature resistance. However, their weight and the tendency to react with each other through alloying mechanisms are major disadvantages. Steel wire is the most extensively used reinforcement in most large-scale metal filament applications. Wire is used for its capacity to enhance the tensile strength of concrete and continuous metal fibers are the reinforcing constituents in metal and ceramic composite materials.

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3.3.1.c Ceramic fibers improve vastly in performance when a fine metal outline is incorporated with refractory ceramics by improving their thermal shock and impact resistance properties. 3.3.1.d Metal wires, of the continuous version, also reinforce plastics like polyethylene and epoxy. Such combinations ensure high strength, light weight and good fatigue resistance. Besides, continuous metal fibers are easily handled, unlike glass fibers. Better flexural properties are observed in some metal fibers reinforced plastic composites which also offer improved strength and weight, than glass fibers. However, their poor tolerance of high temperatures and the resultant steep variation of thermal expansion coefficient with the resins are a discouragement that limits their application.

3.3.1.d Alumina Fibers

Alumina or aluminum oxide fibers, basically developed for use in metal matrices are considered a potential resin-matrix composite reinforcement. It offers good compressive strength rather than tensile strength. It is important property is it is high melting point of about 2000C and the composite can be successfully used at temperatures up to about 1000C. Magnesium and aluminum matrices frequently use alumina fiber reinforced composites as they do not damage the fiber even in the liquid state.

3.3.1.e Boron Fibers

They are basically composites, in which boron is coated on a substance which forms the substrate, usually made of tungsten. Boron-tungsten fibers are obtained by allowing hot tungsten filament through a mixture of gases. Boron is deposited on tungsten and the process is continued until the desired thickness is achieved. The tungsten however remains constant in its thickness. Properties of boron fibers generally change with the diameter, because of the changing ratio of boron to tungsten and the surface defects that change according to size. However, they
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are known for their remarkable stiffness

33and strength. Their strengths often compare with those of glass fibers, but their tensile modulus is high, almost four to five times that of glass. Boron coated carbons are much cheaper to make than boron tungsten fiber. But its low modulus of elasticity often works against it.

3.3.1.f Silicon Carbide Fibers

Silicon carbide can be coated over a few metals and their room temperature tensile strengths and tensile moduli are like those of boron-tungsten. The advantages of silicon carbide-tungsten are several and they are more desirable than uncoated boron tungsten fibers. Elevated temperature performance and the fact that they reported only a 35% loss of strength at 1350C are their best qualities. Silicon carbide-tungsten and silicon carbidecarbon have both been seen to have very high stress-rupture strength at 1100C and 1300C. Uncoated boron-tungsten fibers tend to lose all their strength at temperatures over 680C. Silicon carbide fibers do not react with molten aluminium, unlike uncoated boron and they also withstand high temperatures used in hot-press titanium matrices. However, silicon carbide-tungsten fibers are dense compared to boron- tungsten fibers of the same diameter. They are prone to surface damage and need careful, delicate handling, especially during fabrication of the composite. Further, above 930C, weakening reactions occur between tungsten and silicon carbide, making it difficult to maintain balance in high-temperature matrix formations. Silicon carbide on 'carbon substrates have several advantages, viz. no, reaction at high temperature, being lighter than silicon carbide tungsten and possessing tensile strengths and modulus that is are often better than those of silicon carbide-tungsten and boron fibers.

3.3.1.g Aramid Fibers

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Aramid fibers are made from aromatic polyamides which are long polymeric .chains and aromatic rings. They are structures in which six carbon atoms are bonded to each other and to combinations of hydrogen atoms. In aramid fibers, these rings occur and reoccur to form the fibers. They were initially used to reinforce automobile tires. Since then, they have also found other uses like bullet proof vests. As high strength applications, their use in power boats is not uncommon.

Aramid have high tensile strength, high modulus and low weight. Impact- resistant structures can be produced from aramid. The density of aramid fibers is less than that of glass and graphite fibers. They are fire resistant apart from being high-temperature resistant and also unaffected by organic solvents and fuels. But their resistance in acid and alkaline media is poor. They are supple and allow themselves to be woven into matrices by simple processes. Aramid fibers have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion in the fiber direction and the failure of aramid fibers is unique. When they fail, the fibers break into small fibrils, which are like fibers within the fibers. This unique failure mechanism is responsible for high strength.

3.3.1.h Quartz and Silica Fibers

The glass-types typically contain about 50 to 78% silica. Silica glass is a purer glass fiber that can be made by treating fiberglass in an acid bath, which removes all impurities without affecting the silica. The final product contains 93 to 99% silica. Quartz is even more pure, and quartz fibers are made from natural quartz crystals that contain 99.9% silica, possessing nearly all the properties of pure solid quartz. Ordinary fiberglass, high silica and quartz fibers share several characteristics and can be produced in a range of fiber diameters. Roving or yarns and other forms of fibers can be made from high silica as well as quartz. All matrix materials that accept fiberglass are amenable to high silica and quartz too. They differ from glass in many factors, however, especially in heat-related properties.
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Although quartz crystals are commonly available, pure crystals are hard to come by. On the other hand, high silica comes from the same material as glass fibers and is easily accessible. However, quartz makes up for its rarity with its capacity to" withstand high temperatures, which silica is incapable of. Barring this difference, silica and quartz are similar in other respects. They are highly elastic and can be stretched to 1 % of their length before break point. Both silica and quartz are not affected by acid attacks and are resistant to moisture. Owing to their thermal properties, silica and quartz are the natural choice as fibers in several applications. They have good insulating properties and do not melt at temperatures up to 1600C. In addition, they have low thermal expansion coefficients which make them withstand high temperatures.

3.3.1.i Graphite Fibers

While use of the term carbon for graphite is permissible, there is one basic difference between the two. Elemental analysis of poly-acrylo-nitrile (PAN) base carbon fibers show that they consist of 91 to 94% carbon. But graphite fibers are over 99% carbon. The difference arises from the fact that the fibers are made at different temperatures. PAN-based carbon cloth or fiber is produced at about 1320C, while graphite fibers and cloth are graphitized at 1950 to 3000C. The properties of graphite remain unchanged even at very high temperatures, but its willingness to react readily with most metals at the fabrication stage or during use at very high temperatures is often a stumbling block, as seen in aluminium matrices when carbides are produced at the interface. These carbides react with moisture with disastrous effects on the composite material.

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Graphite fibers are some of the stiffest fibers known. The stiffness of the fiber is as high as the graphite content. But a major drawback is that stiffness and strength are inversely proportional to each other. Forbidding costs make the use of graphite fibers prohibitive. The best glass fibers are far less expensive than the cheapest, lowest quality of graphite, and in PAN-base fibers, other raw materials too are equally expensive. The carbonization and graphitization are time-consuming, apart from demanding excessive energy, materials and close controls throughout the process. Cheaper pitch base fibers are now being developed, with greater performance potential and there are possibilities of the increased use of graphite fibers.

3.3.1.j Multiphase Fibers

Spoolable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually the multi phase variety and they usually comprise materials like boron, silicon and their carbides formed on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or tungsten. They are usually good for high temperature applications, due to their reduced reaction with higher melting temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers. Boron filaments are sought after for structural and intermediate-temperature composites. A poly-phase fiber is a core-sheath fiber consisting of a polycrystalline core.

3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber:

E-Glass or electrical grade glass was originally developed for standoff insulators for electrical wiring. It was later found to have excellent fibre forming capabilities and is now used almost exclusively as the reinforcing phase in the material commonly known as fiber glass.

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. Figure 3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber

3.3.2 Mechanical Properties of fibers

Composite materials are not homogeneous. Their properties are dependent on many factors, the most important of which are the type of fibre, quantity of fibre (as volume fraction) and the configuration of the reinforcement. They are generally completely elastic up to failure and exhibit neither a yield point nor a region of plasticity. They tend to have low strain to failure(less than 3%). The resulting area under the stress/strain curve, which represents the work done to failure, is relatively small when compared to many metals. The properties of composites are dependent on the properties of the fibre and the matrix, the proportion of each and the configuration of the fibres. If all the fibres are aligned in one direction then the composite relatively stiff and strong in that direction, but in the transverse direction it has low modulus and low strength. When a unidirectional composite is tested at a small angle from the fibre axis, there is a considerable reduction in strength. A similar but less significant effect occurs with the tensile modulus, as shown in Figure 3.3.2

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Figure 3.3.2
Theoretical variation in tensile modulus with the angle of load relative to the principal fibre direction (unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced plastic (UD CFRP), fibre volume fraction = 0.5)

Strength and stiffness Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) E glass fibres, which have a modulus of about 70GPa, produce composites with modest moduli. In the case of unidirectional fibres and the highest typical fibre volume fraction of 0.65, a composite has a modulus of about45GPa and strength of around 1300MPa. At right angles to this, in the transverse direction, the modulus approaches that of the resin itself at about4GPa and the strength would be 50100MPa. The unidirectional compo-sites used in the ROBUST Project, manufactured using the vacuum process with prepreg material in an epoxy matrix, had the following properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 36GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 750MPa Elongation at break: 3.1%.

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Bidirectional E glass laminates have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.4 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about 14GPa.Random laminates (e.g. chopped strand mat) have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.2 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about9GPa. The use of S2 or R glass improves the composite modulus to about60GPa for unidirectional and 20GPa for woven fabric (bidirectional) constructions. This is at some monetary disadvantage. They are both more expensive than E glass and they are only available in a fairly limited range of material types and resin compatibilities. Probably the most important virtue of S2 and R glass is their high strength, which is considerably higher than E glass. Carbon and graphite fibers Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) The dominant carbon fibres in current use (typically Toray T700) have a tensile modulus of about 230GPa, a tensile strength of around 5000MPaand a strain-to-failure of 2%. Unidirectional composites produced from them in either an epoxy or vinyl-ester matrix have the following typical properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 155165GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 25003000MPa Elongation at break: 1.21.3% Carbon fibres are available which will give a tensile modulus of about250GPa in a unidirectional composite, comparing very favourably with steel at about 210GPa. However, as this composite is unidirectional, it has extremely low modulus in the transverse direction. The principal attributes of carbon fibre composites are their very high specific stiffness (the ratio of modulus/density), excellent fatigue and environmental resistance. Currently there are various pultruded CFRP plates available commercially for plate bonding applications. The pultruded plates used in the ROBUST Project, as well as the plates manufactured with prepreg materials, possessed a modulus of about 130GPa and a
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strength of 1500MPa.Pultruded plates now available from other sources typically exploit fibers with superior properties such as Toray T700, resulting in composites with the properties shown above. A financial penalty has to be paid for materials exhibiting properties significantly in excess of these; the strain-to-failure of composites made with them will also be reduced significantly. Carbon and graphite have substantial capability as reinforcing fibers, with great flexibility in the properties that can be provided. Primary characteristics for reinforcing fibers in polymer matrix composites are high stiffness and strength. The fibers must maintain these characteristics in hostile environments such as elevated temperatures, exposure to common solvents and fluids, and environmental moisture. To be used as part of a primary structure material it should also be available as continuous fiber. These characteristics and requirements have substantial implications for the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the fiber, which in turn implies processing and acceptance parameters. Interest in carbon fibers for structural materials was initiated in the late 1950s when synthesized rayons in textile form were carbonized to produce carbon fibers for high temperature missile applications. One of the first distinctions to be made is the difference between carbon and graphite fibers, although the terms are frequently used interchangeably. Background information for these differences is contained in the following sections. The primary purpose of making this distinction here is to alert the reader that users may mean different things when referring to graphite versus carbon fibers. Carbon and graphite fibers are both based on graphene (hexagonal) layer networks present in carbon. If the graphene layers or planes stack with three dimensional orders the material is defined as graphite. Usually extended time and temperature processing is required to form this order, making graphite fibers more expensive. Because the bonding between planes is weak, disorder frequently occurs such that only the two dimensional
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ordering within the layers is present. This material is defined as carbon. With this distinction made, it should be understood that while some differences are implied, there is not a single condition which strictly separates carbon from graphite fibers, and even graphite fibers retain some disorder in their structure.

3.3.3 Fiber Manufacture:

Glass fibers are generally produced using melt spinning techniques. These involve melting the glass composition into a platinum crown which has small holes for the molten glass to flow. Continuous fibers can be drawn out through the holes and wound onto spindles, while short fibers may be produced by spinning the crown, which forces molten glass out through the holes centrifugally. Fibers are cut to length using mechanical means or air jets. Fiber dimension and to some extent properties can be controlled by the process variables such as melt temperature (hence viscosity) and drawing/spinning rate. The temperature window that can be used to produce a melt of suitable viscosity is quite large, making this composition suitable for fiber forming. As fibers are being produced, they are normally treated with sizing and coupling agents. These reduce the effects of fiber- fiber abrasion which can significantly degrade the mechanical strength of the individual fibers. Other treatments may also be used to promote wetting and adherence of the matrix material to the fiber .

Composition
E-Glass is a low alkali glass with a typical nominal composition of SiO2 54wt%, Al2O3 14wt%, CaO+MgThe advantageous properties of E-glass generally outweigh the disadvantages which include:
Low modulus Self abrasiveness if not treated appropriately leading to reduced strength

Relatively low fatigue resistance

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Higher density compared to carbon fibres and organic fibresO 22wt%, B2O3 10wt% and Na2O+K2O less then 2wt%. Some other materials may also be present at impurity levels.

3.3.4 Key Properties:

Properties that have made E-glass so popular in 873iberglass and other glass reinforced composite include: Low cost High production rates High strength High stiffness Relatively low density Non-flammable Resistant to heat Good chemical resistance Relatively insensitive to moisture Able to maintain strength properties over a wide range of conditions Good electrical insulation

3.4 Processing of the Composites Fabrication of the Laminate

E-glass/Epoxy composite laminates were prepared by passing the E-glass fibers of 1200 TEX, through the resin bath of Epoxy and hardener maintaining a constant temperature of about 45 C.The fibers are then wound on a rotating drum with 15 rpm. After complete winding on the drum then it is cut opened and lay on a flat table in the atmospheric condition for about 48 hours to get the
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tackiness. The layers are cut in such a way that the desired fiber direction is obtained. In this experimentation it is decided to prepare the laminates such that the angle between the fibers are15o 30o 45o 60o and 90oas shown in fig-1. The sequence of layup shown in the fig -2. The number of layup depends on the thickness of the laminate required; here it is used 20 layers to obtain the thickness of the laminate about 4mm. All the overlapped layers then compacted between the two parallel flat steel plates with stainless steel spacers of required laminate thickness. The major purpose of lamination is to tailor the directional dependence of strength and stiffness of a composite material to match the loading environment of the structural element laminates are uniquely suited to this objective because the principal material directions of each layer can be oriented according to need. The plates are clamped with nuts and bolts with washers; the clamped setup is then placed in the oven. Maintain the oven temperature of 800 C for 4 hours and 1200 C for next 4 hours so that any entrapped air or volatile gases will be escaped for the first four hours and chemical reaction between the epoxy and hardener will takes place for the next four hours and will lead to permanent set and finally result into a single solid composite laminate. After total curing of 8 hours oven is then switched off so the temperature in the oven may come down to normal temperature. Take out the composite laminate and trim the edges so that the laminate is ready for testing purpose. Winding parameters 41. 42. 43.
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Tension of fibre =1.3 kgs Resin temperature= 45 0c RPM of lathe = 15

Page 874

44.

Gap between doctor blade and drum = 1.25 mmThe

parameters are kept constant for two different windings

FILAMENT WINDING SETUP

RESIN BATH

DRUM WINDING

REMOVING LAYUP

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LAYUP PLACED ON TABLE

APPLYING WAXPOL ON PLATES

LAYING UP LAYERS

REMOVING AIR GAP

COMPACTING LAYERS

PLACING IN THE OVEN

3.4.2 CURING PROCESS :

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Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener". The resin consists of monomers or short chain polymers with an epoxide group at either end. Most common epoxy resins are produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A, though the latter may be replaced by similar chemicals. The hardener consists of polyamine monomers, for example Triethylenetetramine (TETA). When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond.

Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily crosslinked, and is thus rigid and strong.The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. So the laminate that is fabricated is put into a Oven . The temperatures are maintained in two cycles. In the first cycle we have to maintain constant temperature of 80C for 4hours and in the next cycle maintain a temperature of 160C for next 4 hours.

AFTER CURING

MARKING

TRIMMING

AFTER TRIMMING

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DRILLING

AFTER DRILLING

Figure 3.6.a specifications of UTM (at CIPET)

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UTM SPECIFICATIONS

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COMPOSITE LAMINATE UNDER TESTING

4.1 Experimental procedure

Quasi-static Indentation tests were performed on INSTRON testing machine. The
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composite laminate of size 150mm x 150mm is placed on a steel supporting frame, with a square opening of size 50mm x 50mm. A similar square opening flat plate is placed ontop of the composite laminate; it is then clamped rigidly with nuts and bolts of 6mm size as shown in fig-3. The clamped setup is placed on the loading frame of testing machine. A spherical stainless steel ball indenter of diameter 8.32mmis used for indentation on the composites laminate. The tests were conducted with the controlled displacement of the indenter (0.2mm / minute). The test data is shown in Table-2.An extensometer is used to measure the displacement of the point just below the indentation location at the bottom side of the composite laminate. A 20kN load cell evaluated the load on each composite laminate. The data obtained during test for each laminate is shown in Table-2. The composite laminate with different fiber angles is indented for a fixed displacement of 5 mm. The damage in the different composite laminate with different fiber angles is shown fig-4. The damage area in each composite laminate is observed with the help of optical light microscope.
S. No. Specifications 1 2 3 4 5 ASTM Present work

Specimen 4 6 mm 4 - 5 mm thickness Indenter 10 16 mm 8.73 mm diameter Cross head 0.2 mm / 1 mm / min displacement min Indenter 5 10 mm 5 mm displacement No of samples 4 4 per test

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF UTM

00/150

00/300

00/450

00/600

00/900

Fig-1: Schematic diagram of five different laminates

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Fig-2: Sequence of angle plies

4.2 COMPOSITE LAMINATES WITHOUT E-GLASS POWDER FRONT SIDE BACK SIDE

0,90

0,60

FRONT SIDE

BACK SIDE

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0,45

0,30

0,15
S. No. Angle (0) Max. Load (KN) Indentation (mm) Spring back (mm)

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1 2 3 4 5

0/15 0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

3.77 4.11 4.69 4.99 5.83

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.86

0.92 1.17 2.50 3.08 3.44

Table - 2: Test results after Indentation.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Load (KN)

15 DEG 30 DEG 45 DEG 60 DEG 90 DEG

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5

Displacement (mm) Graph-1: Shows the load carrying capacity in each case for different indenter displacements of maximum 5mm for all the laminates. It is gradually increasing for the laminates with the fiber angles varying from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

Indentation ()

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-2: Indentation depth is increasing linearly as the fiber angle in laminates is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o),however it is suddenly increasing in the laminates with fiber angle varying from (0o/60o) to (0o/90o).

S. No. 1

Angle (0) 0/15

Front face damage area (mm2) 971

Back face damage area (mm2) 1256

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2 3 4 5

0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

1300 1894 2186 2623

1857 2280 2623 3257

Table-3: Experimental data of damage surface areas on front and back face of the laminates

Front face damage area 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 15 30 45

Back face damage area

60

75

90

105

Graph-3: Damage area is increasing with the increase in fiber angle of the laminates in front face and back face of the laminate; however the damage area back face is more than the front face as seen from the above graph.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Load (KN)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-4: Maximum load taken in each laminate with different fiber angles. The load is increasing linearly as the fiber angle is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

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4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Spring back (mm)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

5: Shows spring back effect is increasing in different laminates as the fiber angles are increasing

0o/15o) to (0o/90o), it shows that as the angle between fibers is increasing the laminate elasticity increasing

Material

Density (mg/m3)

Modulus (G Pa)

Poisons ratio(v)

Tensile strength (G Pa) 3.5

E-glass fiber

2.56

76

0.22

Epoxy resin

1.3

3.6

0.4

0.1

Table-4: Properties of materials

4.3) RATE OF LOADING (0.5mm/min) WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

0.5%

1%

1.5

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE
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(0/45)

BACK SIDE
Page 888

0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE
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(0/15)

BACK SIDE
Page 890

GRAPH 1 :

0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1.0 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.92 1.8 1.4 2 3.4 3.1 3.1 3 4.62 4.1 3.5 4 4.85 4.19 3.6 5 4 3.73 3.11

GRAPH 2 :

0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

4
3 2 1 0 0 2

0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 % % % 0 0 0 2 1.7 1.6 3.15 3.2 2.95 4.65 3.72 3.2 5.4 3.12 2.25 3 2.38 1.89

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 3:

0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.1 2.2 1.7 2 3.8 3.6 3.15 3 4.26 4.2 2.91 4 4.5 2.92 2.29 5 3.5 2.32 1.83

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 4: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.15 2.1 1.2 2 3.75 3.5 2.3 3 5.18 4.2 3.4 4 4.2 3.15 2.85 5 2.5 1.9 1.75

GRAPH 5: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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5 4

FORCE (kN)

3 2 1 0 0 2

F 0.5 F1 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.9 1.8 1.7 2 3.1 2.85 2.6 3 3.9 3.8 3.3 4 3 2.8 2.5 5 2.85 2.35 1.7

GRAPH 6 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

0.5 mm/min

3.5 3 2.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

DEPTH mm)

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.42 2.6 2.5 2.1 2

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.38 2.54 2.6 2.4 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 2.67 2.98 2.9 2.55 2.38

ANGLE

GRAPH 7 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

0.5 mm /min

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PROJECTED HEIGHT

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5 %

ANGLE

ANGLE

0 15 30 45 60 90

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 0.5 % 0 2.84 3.2 2.5 2.55 2

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.0 % 0 3.24 3.6 2.7 3.5 2.1

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.5 % 0 3.31 3.76 3.33 3.67 2.6

4.4 1.5mm/min RATE OF LOADING WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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FRONT SIDE

(0/45)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/15)

BACK SIDE

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GRAPH 8: 0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

F F F 0.5% 1 % 1.5% 0 0 0 1.5 2.05 1.35 3.1 3.3 2.75 3.2 4.3 1.95 2.5 3.75 1.65 1.5 3.25 1.31

GRAPH 9:0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5 % 0 0 0 0 1 2.5 2.31 2.09 2 4.72 4.22 3.75 3 5.5 4.5 4.2 4 4.5 3.23 2.85 5 3.7 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 10: 0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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6 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 % 0 2.5 4.72 5.5 4.5 3.7

FORCE (kN)

4 3 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 1 0 0 2 DISPLACEMENT 4 (mm) 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 2.31 2.09 4.22 3.75 4.5 4.2 3.23 2.85 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 11: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

F 0.5 % 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2.5 4.2 5.55 4.65 3.25

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 (mm) DISPLACEMENT 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 1.75 1.65 3 2.65 4 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.2 1.8

GRAPH 12: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5 mm/min)

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DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 Page 902 (mm) %

F 1.0 %

F 1.5 %

6 5

FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 DISPLACEMENT (mm) F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

0 1 2 3 4 5

0 1.8 2.9 4.1 4.85 3.7

0 1.98 3.15 3.9 4.4 3.2

0 1.65 2.5 3.1 2.25 1.6

GRAPH13 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

1.5 mm/min

DEPTH OF INDENTATION mm)

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

0
0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.34 2.45 2.67 2.39 2.5

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.14 2.32 2.6 2.27 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 1.9 2.29 2.31 2 1.8

ANGLE

GRAPH 14 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

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4
3.5

PROJECTED HEIGHT

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5%

ANGLE

ANGLE PROJECTED PROJECTED PROJECTED HEIGHT HEIGHT HEIGHT 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 15 3 1.41 2.95 30 2.71 3.65 3.05 45 3.19 3.31 3.15 60 3.33 3.32 2.5 90 2.7 2.55 2.1

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Graph 1 (0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 1 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 4mm at 3.6kN. Graph 2 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 2 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 5.4kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN. Graph 3 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 3,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 3.15kN. Graph 4 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) :
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at the

In Graph 4,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.18kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.4kN. Graph 5 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 5,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.9kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.3kN. Graph 6 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 6,Depth of indentation is increasing with increase in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-150 to 0-300 later on there is increase angles 0-300 to 0-900. Graph 7 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 7, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-300 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600 and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing
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at the

in

depth of indentation,but it is decreases with

in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles. Graph 8(0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 8 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of2 mm at 2.75kN. Graph 9 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 9 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN. Graph 10 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 10,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN.
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Graph 11 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 11,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.55kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 2.65kN. Graph 12 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 12,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.1kN. Graph 13 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 13,Depth of indentation is increasing with decrease in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-450, later on there is decrease in depth of indentation from 0-450 to 0-600,but it is increases with angles 0-600 to 0-900. Graph 14 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 14, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-150 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600
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at the

at the

and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles.

REFERENCES
1) Agarwal, B. D and Broutman, L. J, (1990). Analysis and Performance
of Fiber Composites, Second Edition, Jhon Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 2) Robert M. Jones(1999), mechanics of composite materials, second edition Taylor & Francis group , New york London. 3) http://nptel.iitm.ac.in 4) http://www.wikipedia.org/ 5) Rothon R.N, (1999). Mineral fillers in thermoplastics: filler manufacture and characterization. Adv. Polym. Sci. 139, pp. 67-107. 6) http://composite.about.com/ 7) Applied composite materials, An international journal for the science And application of composites materials.

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8) Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, publishes research on Polymers, nano composites and particulate

ABSTRACT

In this work the composite laminates of Epoxy/E-glass fiber hybridizing with and without E- glass powder are prepared for testing. The fabrication of the laminate is done by filament winding (hoop winding) on a drum mandrel mounted on a modified center lathe. The green layup obtained is cut into laminae of the desired orientations and stacked in the predefined way to a required thickness. The stacked laminate is cured at elevated temperatures under a pressure from a pressure plate. The edges of the laminate are trimmed first and it is then cut in to required size. The specimens are then subjected to indentation test on a universal testing machine (UTM) for a fixed indenter depth. An investigative study is conducted into the results obtained from test data. A number of illustrations are shown regarding the damage in the specimens of different fiber orientation and with different percentages of E-glass powder. Also indentation depth, contact radius, spring back effect, and maximum load carrying capacity are studied.
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER :1 INTRODUCTION 1.100 Overview of composites. 1.101 Historical Development/Historical Overview. 1.102 What is composite material. 1.103 Classification of composites. 1.104 Structure of composites. 1.105 Advantages of composites. 1.106 Applications of composites. 1.107 Examples of composite materials. 1.108 Scope of Project. CHAPTER:2 LITERATURE SURVE

PAGE NO:

5 5 8 12 24 25 26 27 29

30

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CHAPTER:3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Hardener. 3.2 Epoxy. 3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials. 3.3.1 Types of fibres. 3.3.2 Mechanical properties of fibres. 3.3.3 Fibre manufacturing. 3.3.4 Key properties. 3.4 Processing of composites. 3.4.1 Curing CHAPTER:4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. 4.1 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates without E-glass powder. 4.2 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 62 57 56 32 32 32 34 35 43 46 47 49 52

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4.3

1.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 71

CHAPTER:5 5.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. 5.2 REFERENCES 80 85

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of composites

The development of composite materials and related design and manufacturing technologies is one of the most important advances in the history of materials. Composites are multifunctional materials having unprecedented mechanical and physical properties that can be tailored to meet the requirements of a particular application. Many composites also exhibit great resistance to high-temperature corrosion and oxidation and wear. These unique characteristics provide the mechanical engineer with design opportunities not possible with conventional monolithic (unreinforced) materials. Composites technology also makes possible the use of an entire class of solid materials, ceramics, in applications for which monolithic versions are unsuited because of their great strength scatter and poor resistance to mechanical and thermal shock. Further, many manufacturing processes for composites are well adapted to the fabrication of large, complex structures, which allows consolidation of parts, reducing manufacturing costs.

1.2 Historical Development / Historical overview: Past: After making and controlling fire and inventing the wheel,
spinning of continuous yarns is probably the most important development of mankind, enabling him to survive outside the tropical
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climate zones and spread across the surface of the Earth. Flexible fabrics made of locally grown and spun fibres as cotton; flax and jute were a big step forward compared to animal skins. More and more natural resources were used, soon resulting in the first composites; straw reinforced walls, and bows (Figure M.1.1.a) and chariots made of glued layers of wood, bone and horn. More durable materials as wood and metal soon replaced these antique composites.

Fig M.1.1.a Composite Korean bow

Present:
Originating from early agricultural societies and being almost forgotten after centuries, a true revival started of using lightweight composite structures for many technical solutions during the second half of the 20th century. After being solely used for their electromagnetic properties (insulators and radar-domes), using composites to improve the structural performance of spacecraft and military aircraft became popular in the last two decades of the previous century. First at any costs, with development of improved materials with increasing costs, nowadays cost

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reduction during manufacturing and operation are the main technology drivers. Latest development is the use of composites to protect man

against fire and impact and a tendency to a more environmental friendly design, leading to the reintroduction of natural fibres in the composite technology. Increasingly nowadays, the success of composites in applications, by volume and by numbers, can be ranked by accessibility and reproducibility of the applied manufacturing techniques. Some examples of use of natural fibers(M.1.1b M.1.1.e)

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Future:
In future, composites will be manufactured even more according to an integrated design process resulting in the optimum construction according to parameters such as shape, mass, strength, stiffness, durability, costs, etc. Newly developed design tools must be able to instantaneously show customers the influence of a design change on each one of these parameters.

1.3 What is Composite Material?

Composite materials are engineering materials made from two or more constituent materials that remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level while forming a single component. There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix
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Properties. The primary functions of the matrix are to transfer stresses between the reinforcing fibers/particles and to protect them from mechanical environmental damage whereas the presence of fibers/particles in a composite improves its mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness etc. The objective is to take advantage of the superior properties of both materials without compromising on the weakness of either. As defined by Agarwal and Broutman composite means material having two or more distinct constituent materials or phases. It is only when the constituent phases have significantly different physical properties and thus the composite properties are noticeably different from the constituent materials

Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural. Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific character of a composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine to give them a specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve the desirable properties. Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the levels at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic. In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz., binding the reinforcement phases in place and deforming

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to distribute the stresses among the constituent materials under an applied force.

reinforcement

The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be conductors or resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending on the purpose for which matrices are chosen. Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and metals have found applications as matrix materials in the designing of structural composites, with commendable success. These materials remain elastic till failure occurs and show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression. Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion characteristics. The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two interphases between each side of the interphase and its adjoint constituent. Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of matrix on properties of reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the selection and fabrication of composites is that the constituents should be chemically inert non-reactive.

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Properties of Matrix Materials:

Naturally fibers and whiskers are of little use unless they are bonded together to take form of structural element that can carry loads. The binder material is usually called a matrix. The purpose of the matrix is manifold support of fibers or whiskers, protection of the fibers or whiskers, stress transfer between broken fibers or whiskers, etc. Typically the matrix is of considerably lower density, stiffness, and strength than fibers or whiskers. However the combination of fibers or whiskers and a matrix can have very high strength and stiffness yet still have low density. Matrix materials can be polymers, metals, ceramics or carbon. Polymers (poly =many and mer = unit or molecule) exist in at least three major forms i.e linear, branched, or cross linked. A linear polymer is merely a chain of mers. A branched polymer consists of a primary chain of mers with other chains that are attached in three dimensions just like tree branches. Finally, a cross linked polymer has large number of three dimensional highly interconnected chains. Linear polymers have the least strength and stiffness, whereas cross linked polymer have most because of their inherently stiffer and stronger internal structure. The three main classes of structural polymers are rubbers, thermoplastics,
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and thermo sets. Rubbers are cross linked polymers that have semi crystalline state well below room temperature. Thermoplastics are polymers that branch, but generally dont cross link very much if at all. Thus, they usually can be repeatedly softened on heating and hardened on cooling. Examples of thermoplastics are nylon, polyethylene, and polysulfone. Thermo sets are polymers that are chemically reacted until almost all molecules are irreversibly cross linked in a three dimensional network. Thus, once an epoxy has set, it cannot be changed in form. Examples of thermo sets include epoxies, phenolics, and polyimides. Other matrix materials include metals that can be made to flow around an in-place fiber system by diffusion bonding or by heating vacuum infiltration. Common examples are shown in fig 1.3.1

a) linear

b)branched

c)cross linked

d)network

figure 1.3.1

1.4 Classification of Composites

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:

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 The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites. The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres. Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling. Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this category. Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.

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1.4.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or Carbon-Carbon Composites

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications. Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins. Thermoplastics have oneor two-dimensional

molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds. Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites.

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Figure 1.4.1 a

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures. Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally. There thermoplastic temperatures. are a few options tend their to loose increase their heat strength resistance at like in

thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the heat resistance. But all composites However, elevated rigidity, redeeming qualities

toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc.

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Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds. Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas.

Figure 1.4.1.b
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and
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dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins. Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of 140C. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is ruled out.

Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in automobile and structural applications. The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75C or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey. Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service at around 200250C .

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1.4.2 According to geometry:

Most composite materials developed thus far have been fabricated to improve mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, and high temperature performance. It is natural to study together the composites that have a common strengthening mechanism. The strengthening mechanism strongly depends on the geometry of the reinforcement. Therefore, it is quite convenient to classify composite materials on the basis of the geometry of a representative unit of reinforcement.

1.4.2.a Fibrous composite

A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension discourages the growth of incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement that might otherwise lead to failure, particularly with brittle matrices. Man-made filaments or fibers of non polymeric materials exhibit much higher strength along their length since large flaws, which may be present in the bulk material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness.Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite. Most composites used in structural applications are multilayered; that is, they consist of

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several layers of fibrous composites. Each layer or lamina is a single layer composite and its orientation is varied according to design. Several identical or different layers are bonded together to form a multilayered composites usable for engineering applications. When the constituent materials in each layer are the same, they are called simply laminates. Hybrid laminates refer to multilayered composites consisting of layers made up of different constituent materials. Reinforcing fibers in a single layer composite may be short or long compared to its overall dimensions. Composites with long fibers are called continuous fiber reinforced composites and those with short fibers, discontinuous fiber reinforced composites. The continuous fibers in single layer composites may be all aligned in one direction to form a unidirectional composite. Such composites are fabricated by laying the fibers parallel and saturating them with resinous material. The bidirectional reinforcement may be provided in a single layer in mutually perpendicular directions as in a woven fabric. The bidirectional reinforcement may be such that the strengths in two perpendicular directions are approximately equal. The orientation of discontinuous fibers cannot be easily controlled in a composite material.

So fibers can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented. In most cases the fibers are assumed to be randomly oriented in the composites. However, in the injection molding of a fiber reinforced polymer, considerable orientation can occur in the flow direction and which a case of preferred oriented fibers in the composites.

1.4.2.b Particulate Composites

As the name itself indicates, the reinforcement is of particle nature (platelets are also included in this class). It may be spherical, cubic,
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tetragonal, a platelet, or of other regular or irregular shape, but it is approximately equiaxed. In general, particles are not very effective in improving fracture resistance but they enhance the stiffness of the composite to a limited extent. Particle fillers are widely used to improve the properties of matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and electrical conductivities, improve performance at elevated temperatures, reduce friction, increase wear and abrasion resistance, improve machinability, increase surface hardness and reduce shrinkage. Also, in case of particulate reinforced composites the particle can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented.

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1.4.3 According to type of matrix material they are classified as:

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

1.4.3.a Metal Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites have many advantages over monolithic metals like higher specific modulus, higher specific strength, better properties at elevated temperatures, and lower coefficient of thermal expansion.
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Because of these attributes metal matrix composites are under consideration for wide range of applications viz. combustion chamber nozzle (in rocket, space shuttle), housings, tubing, cables, heat exchangers, structural members etc

1.4.3.b Ceramic matrix Composites

One of the main objectives in producing ceramic matrix composites is to increase the toughness Naturally it is hoped and indeed often found that there is a concomitant improvement in strength and stiffness of ceramic matrix composites.

1.4.3.c Polymer Matrix Composites

Most commonly used matrix materials are polymeric. The reasons for this are twofold. In general the mechanical properties of polymers are inadequate for many structural purposes. In particular their strength and stiffness are low compared to metals and ceramics. These difficulties are overcome by reinforcing other materials with polymers. Secondly the processing of polymer matrix composites need not involve high pressure and doesnt require high temperature. Also equipments required for manufacturing polymer matrix composites are simpler. For this reason polymer matrix composites developed rapidly and soon became popular for structural applications. Composites are used because overall properties of the composites are superior to those of the individual components for example polymer/ceramic. Composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component but arent as brittle as ceramics.

1.4.4 Classification Based on Reinforcements Introduction to Reinforcements

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with
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other two axes either often circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers.

Figure 1.4.4

Two types of polymer composites are: Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) Particle reinforced polymer (PRP)

1.4.4.a Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Common fiber reinforced composites are composed of fibers and a matrix. Fibers are the reinforcement and the main source of strength while matrix glues all the fibers together in shape and transfers stresses between the reinforcing fibers. The fibers carry the loads along their longitudinal directions. Sometimes, filler might be added to smooth the manufacturing process, impact special properties to the composites, and
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/or reduce the product cost. Common fiber reinforcing agents include asbestos, carbon /graphite fibers, beryllium, beryllium carbide, beryllium oxide, molybdenum, aluminium oxide, glass fibers, polyamide,natural fibers etc. Similarly common matrix materials include epoxy, phenolic, polyester, polyurethane, peek, vinyl ester etc. Among these resin materials, epoxy is widely used for its higher adhesion and less shrinkage property.

1.4.4.b Particle Reinforced Polymer

Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminium and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black. Particles are used to increase the modules of the matrix and to decrease the ductility of the matrix. Particles are also used to reduce the cost of the composites. Reinforcements and matrices can be common, inexpensive materials and are easily processed.

Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators. Some ceramics have special properties; some ceramics are magnetic materials; some are piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics are even superconductors at very low temperatures. Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback: they are brittle. An example of particle reinforced composites is an automobile tire, which has carbon black particles in a matrix of poly-isobutylene elastomeric polymer

1.5 Structure of Composite

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Structure of composite material A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness. Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite

Properties
1) Nature of the constituent material (bonding strength) 2) The geometry of the reinforcement (shape, size) 3) The concentration distribution(vol. fraction of reinforcement) 4) The orientation of the reinforcement(random or preferred) Good adhesion (bonding) between matrix phase and displaced phase provides transfer of load applied to the material to the displaced phase via the interface. Good adhesion is required for achieving high level of mechanical properties of composites. Very small particles less than 0.25 micrometer finely distributed in the matrix impede movement of dislocations and deformation of the material. They have strengthening
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effect. Large dispersed phase particles have low share load applied to the material resulting in increase of stiffness and decrease of ductility. Orientation of reinforcement: Planar:-In the form of 2-D woven fabric. When the fibers are laid parallel, the composite exhibits axistrope. Random or Three Dimensional:-The composite material tends to posses isotropic properties. One Dimensional: - Maximum strength and stiffness are obtained in the direction of fiber.

1.6 Advantages of Composites

Advantages of composites over their conventional counterparts are the ability to meet diverse design requirements with significant weight savings as well as strength-to-weight ratio. Some advantages of composite materials over conventional ones are as follows: Tensile strength of composites is four to six times greater than that of steel or aluminium (depending on the reinforcements).

Improved torsional stiffness and impact properties. Higher fatigue endurance limit (up to 60% of ultimate tensile strength). 30% - 40% lighter for example any particular aluminium structures designed to the same functional requirements. Lower embedded energy compared to other structural metallic materials like steel, aluminium etc. Composites are less noisy while in operation and provide lower vibration transmission than metals. Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored to meet performance needs and complex design requirements. Long life offer excellent fatigue, impact, environmental resistance and reduce maintenance.
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Composites enjoy reduced life cycle cost compared to metals. Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and fire retardancy. Improved appearance with smooth surfaces and readily incorporable integral decorative melamine are other characteristics of composites. Composite parts can eliminate joints / fasteners, providing part simplification and integrated design compared to conventional metallic parts.

1.7 Applications of Composites

Figure 1.7

1.8 EXAMPLES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Fibre reinforced plastics:
Industry Examples Door, elevators Space Shuttle, Space stations Body frames, engine Comments 20-35% Weight savings Great weight savings High stiffness & damage tolerance

Classified by type of fiber:

Aerospace Automotive

Aircraft

Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix)

components

Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP)

Construction Fuel tanks etc.

Chemical

Pipes, Tanks, Pressure vessels Structural & decorative panels,

Corrosion resistance Weight savings, portable.

Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally, "fiberglass")

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Classified by matrix: Thermoplastic Composites Short fiber thermoplastics Long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics Glass mat thermoplastics Continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics Thermoset Composites Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)

Metal matrix composites (MMCs): White cast iron Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix) Metal-intermetallic laminate Ceramic matrix composites: Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers)

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Cermet (ceramic and metal) Concrete Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites Asphalt concrete Dental composite Syntactic foam Mother of Pearl Chobham armour (see composite armour) Engineered wood

Plywood Oriented strand board Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix) Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix) Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles Arborite Formica (plastic)
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1.9 Scope of the project

The basic aim of the present work is to develop and characterize a new class of composites with epoxy as polymer matrix and glass fiber as the reinforcing material. Their physical and mechanical characterization is done. Attempt is made to use TiO2 as filler in these fiber reinforced .polymer matrix composites. Characterization of the resulting TiO2 filled glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite is done. The experimentally measured database of composites has also been predicted. This work is expected to introduce a new class of functional polymer composites suitable for tribological applications.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

This chapter outlines some of the recent reports published in literature on composites of fiber reinforced polymer composites. Polymer composite materials have generated wide interest in various engineering fields, particularly in aerospace applications. Research is underway worldwide to develop newer composites with varied combinations of fibers and fillers so as to make them useable under different operational conditions. The improved performance of polymer composites in engineering applications by the addition of filler materials has shown a
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great promise and so has become a subject of considerable interest. Ceramic filled polymer composites have been the subject of extensive research in last two decades. Various kinds of polymers and polymer matrix composites reinforced with ceramic particles have a wide range of industrial applications such as heaters, electrodes, composites with thermal durability at high temperature etc.

These engineering composites are desired due to their low density, high corrosion resistance consisting of ceramic or metal particles and fiber fillers made of glass are being used these days to dramatically improve the wear resistance even up to three orders of magnitude. The inclusion of inorganic fillers into polymers for commercial applications is primarily aimed at the cost reduction and stiffness improvement. Along with fiber-reinforced composites, the composites made with particulate fillers have been found to perform well in many real operational conditions. It is reported by Bonner that with the inclusion of micro-sized particulates into polymers, a high filler content (typically greater than 20 vol. %) is generally required to bring the above stated positive effects into play. But at the same time, this may also have detrimental effects on some important properties of the matrix polymers such as processability, appearance, density and aging performance. It has also been reported that the fracture surface energies of epoxy and polyester resin and their resistance to crack propagation are relatively low.

But if particulate filler is added to these resins, the particles inhibit crack growth. As the volume fraction of filler is varied, the fracture energy increases up to a critical volume fraction and then decreases again. Srivastava showed that the fracture toughness of epoxy resin could be improved by addition of flyash particles as filler. The fillers also affect
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the

tensile

properties

according

to

their
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packing

characteristics, size and interfacial bonding. The maximum volumetric packing fraction of filler reflects the size distribution and shapes of the particles. Recently, it has been observed that by incorporating filler particles into the matrix of fibre reinforced composites, synergistic effects may be achieved in the form of higher modulus and reduced material costs, yet accompanied with decreased strength and impact toughness. Polymer composites with both discontinuous and continuous fibre reinforcement possess usually very high specific (i.e. density related) stiffness and strength when measured in plane. Therefore, such composites are frequently used in engineering parts in automobile, aerospace, marine and energetic applications.

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CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the experimental procedures followed for their characterization and tribological evaluation. The raw materials used in this work are 1. E-glass fiber 2. E-Glass powder 3. Epoxy resin

3.1 Hardener:
The hardener used in Epoxy is polyamine. A polyamine is an organic compound having two or more primary amino groups -NH2.This class of compounds includes several synthetic substances that are important feed stocks for the chemical industry, such as ethylene diamine H2N-CH2-CH2-NH2, 1,3-diaminopropane H2N-(CH2)3-NH2, and hex methylenediamine H2N-(CH2)6-NH2. The amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

3.2 Epoxy:
Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener. When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

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The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements.

Resin:
Resin is a natural or synthetic compound which begins in a highly viscous state and hardens with treatment. Typically, resin is soluble in alcohol, but not in water. There are a number of different classes of resin, depending on exact chemical composition and potential uses. Matrix resins bind glass-reinforcing fibers together, protecting them from impact and the environment. Glass fiber properties such as strength dominate in continuously reinforced composites. When glass is used as a discontinuous reinforcement, resin properties dominate and are enhanced by the glass. Polymer matrix resins fall into two categories: thermo set and thermoplastic. The difference is in their chemistry. Thermo set resin is chemically comprised of molecular chains that crosslink during the cure reaction (set off by heat, catalyst, or both) and "set" into a final rigid form. Molecular chains in thermoplastic resin are processed at higher temperatures and remain "plastic," or capable of being reheated and reshaped. While the tradeoffs between thermosets and thermoplastics have been debated extensively, engineers will find that material suppliers will tailor matrix resin formulations best for their application

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3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials:

Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used. Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers, high silica and quartz fibers, alumina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron fibers, aramid fibers and multi phase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified into E-glass, S-glass, A- glass, R-glass etc. There is a greater market and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers. The potential of fibers of graphite, silicon carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific mind due to their applications in advanced composites.

3.3.1Types of fibers 3.3.1.a Glass Fibers

Over 95% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers, as they are inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the plastics with which they are reinforced.
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Their low density, resistance to chemicals, insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics, although the one major disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when subjected to high tensile stress for a long time.. However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time frames. This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is expected to sustain such loads for many months or years continuously. Period of loading, temperature, moisture and other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibers and the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning before the catastrophic failure. But all this can be easily overlooked in view of the fact that the wide range of glass fiber variety lend themselves amicably to fabrication processes like matched die moulding, filament winding lay-up and so on. Glass fibers are available in the form of mats, tapes, cloth, continuous and chopped filaments, rovings and yarns. Addition of chemicals to silica sand while making glass yields different types of glasses.

3.3.1.b Metal Fibers

As reinforcements, metal fibers have many advantages. They are easily produced using several fabrication processes and are more ductile, apart from being not too sensitive to surface damage and possess high strengths and temperature resistance. However, their weight and the tendency to react with each other through alloying mechanisms are major disadvantages. Steel wire is the most extensively used reinforcement in most large-scale metal filament applications. Wire is used for its capacity to enhance the tensile strength of concrete and continuous metal fibers are the reinforcing constituents in metal and ceramic composite materials.

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3.3.1.c Ceramic fibers improve vastly in performance when a fine metal outline is incorporated with refractory ceramics by improving their thermal shock and impact resistance properties. 3.3.1.d Metal wires, of the continuous version, also reinforce plastics like polyethylene and epoxy. Such combinations ensure high strength, light weight and good fatigue resistance. Besides, continuous metal fibers are easily handled, unlike glass fibers. Better flexural properties are observed in some metal fibers reinforced plastic composites which also offer improved strength and weight, than glass fibers. However, their poor tolerance of high temperatures and the resultant steep variation of thermal expansion coefficient with the resins are a discouragement that limits their application.

3.3.1.d Alumina Fibers

Alumina or aluminum oxide fibers, basically developed for use in metal matrices are considered a potential resin-matrix composite reinforcement. It offers good compressive strength rather than tensile strength. It is important property is it is high melting point of about 2000C and the composite can be successfully used at temperatures up to about 1000C. Magnesium and aluminum matrices frequently use alumina fiber reinforced composites as they do not damage the fiber even in the liquid state.

3.3.1.e Boron Fibers

They are basically composites, in which boron is coated on a substance which forms the substrate, usually made of tungsten. Boron-tungsten fibers are obtained by allowing hot tungsten filament through a mixture of gases. Boron is deposited on tungsten and the process is continued until the desired thickness is achieved. The tungsten however remains constant in its thickness. Properties of boron fibers generally change with the diameter, because of the changing ratio of boron to tungsten and the surface defects that change according to size. However, they
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are known for their remarkable stiffness

33and strength. Their strengths often compare with those of glass fibers, but their tensile modulus is high, almost four to five times that of glass. Boron coated carbons are much cheaper to make than boron tungsten fiber. But its low modulus of elasticity often works against it.

3.3.1.f Silicon Carbide Fibers

Silicon carbide can be coated over a few metals and their room temperature tensile strengths and tensile moduli are like those of boron-tungsten. The advantages of silicon carbide-tungsten are several and they are more desirable than uncoated boron tungsten fibers. Elevated temperature performance and the fact that they reported only a 35% loss of strength at 1350C are their best qualities. Silicon carbide-tungsten and silicon carbidecarbon have both been seen to have very high stress-rupture strength at 1100C and 1300C. Uncoated boron-tungsten fibers tend to lose all their strength at temperatures over 680C. Silicon carbide fibers do not react with molten aluminium, unlike uncoated boron and they also withstand high temperatures used in hot-press titanium matrices. However, silicon carbide-tungsten fibers are dense compared to boron- tungsten fibers of the same diameter. They are prone to surface damage and need careful, delicate handling, especially during fabrication of the composite. Further, above 930C, weakening reactions occur between tungsten and silicon carbide, making it difficult to maintain balance in high-temperature matrix formations. Silicon carbide on 'carbon substrates have several advantages, viz. no, reaction at high temperature, being lighter than silicon carbide tungsten and possessing tensile strengths and modulus that is are often better than those of silicon carbide-tungsten and boron fibers.

3.3.1.g Aramid Fibers

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Aramid fibers are made from aromatic polyamides which are long polymeric .chains and aromatic rings. They are structures in which six carbon atoms are bonded to each other and to combinations of hydrogen atoms. In aramid fibers, these rings occur and reoccur to form the fibers. They were initially used to reinforce automobile tires. Since then, they have also found other uses like bullet proof vests. As high strength applications, their use in power boats is not uncommon.

Aramid have high tensile strength, high modulus and low weight. Impact- resistant structures can be produced from aramid. The density of aramid fibers is less than that of glass and graphite fibers. They are fire resistant apart from being high-temperature resistant and also unaffected by organic solvents and fuels. But their resistance in acid and alkaline media is poor. They are supple and allow themselves to be woven into matrices by simple processes. Aramid fibers have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion in the fiber direction and the failure of aramid fibers is unique. When they fail, the fibers break into small fibrils, which are like fibers within the fibers. This unique failure mechanism is responsible for high strength.

3.3.1.h Quartz and Silica Fibers

The glass-types typically contain about 50 to 78% silica. Silica glass is a purer glass fiber that can be made by treating fiberglass in an acid bath, which removes all impurities without affecting the silica. The final product contains 93 to 99% silica. Quartz is even more pure, and quartz fibers are made from natural quartz crystals that contain 99.9% silica, possessing nearly all the properties of pure solid quartz. Ordinary fiberglass, high silica and quartz fibers share several characteristics and can be produced in a range of fiber diameters. Roving or yarns and other forms of fibers can be made from high silica as well as quartz. All matrix materials that accept fiberglass are amenable to high silica and quartz too. They differ from glass in many factors, however, especially in heat-related properties.
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Although quartz crystals are commonly available, pure crystals are hard to come by. On the other hand, high silica comes from the same material as glass fibers and is easily accessible. However, quartz makes up for its rarity with its capacity to" withstand high temperatures, which silica is incapable of. Barring this difference, silica and quartz are similar in other respects. They are highly elastic and can be stretched to 1 % of their length before break point. Both silica and quartz are not affected by acid attacks and are resistant to moisture. Owing to their thermal properties, silica and quartz are the natural choice as fibers in several applications. They have good insulating properties and do not melt at temperatures up to 1600C. In addition, they have low thermal expansion coefficients which make them withstand high temperatures.

3.3.1.i Graphite Fibers

While use of the term carbon for graphite is permissible, there is one basic difference between the two. Elemental analysis of poly-acrylo-nitrile (PAN) base carbon fibers show that they consist of 91 to 94% carbon. But graphite fibers are over 99% carbon. The difference arises from the fact that the fibers are made at different temperatures. PAN-based carbon cloth or fiber is produced at about 1320C, while graphite fibers and cloth are graphitized at 1950 to 3000C. The properties of graphite remain unchanged even at very high temperatures, but its willingness to react readily with most metals at the fabrication stage or during use at very high temperatures is often a stumbling block, as seen in aluminium matrices when carbides are produced at the interface. These carbides react with moisture with disastrous effects on the composite material.

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Graphite fibers are some of the stiffest fibers known. The stiffness of the fiber is as high as the graphite content. But a major drawback is that stiffness and strength are inversely proportional to each other. Forbidding costs make the use of graphite fibers prohibitive. The best glass fibers are far less expensive than the cheapest, lowest quality of graphite, and in PAN-base fibers, other raw materials too are equally expensive. The carbonization and graphitization are time-consuming, apart from demanding excessive energy, materials and close controls throughout the process. Cheaper pitch base fibers are now being developed, with greater performance potential and there are possibilities of the increased use of graphite fibers.

3.3.1.j Multiphase Fibers

Spoolable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually the multi phase variety and they usually comprise materials like boron, silicon and their carbides formed on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or tungsten. They are usually good for high temperature applications, due to their reduced reaction with higher melting temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers. Boron filaments are sought after for structural and intermediate-temperature composites. A poly-phase fiber is a core-sheath fiber consisting of a polycrystalline core.

3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber:

E-Glass or electrical grade glass was originally developed for standoff insulators for electrical wiring. It was later found to have excellent fibre forming capabilities and is now used almost exclusively as the reinforcing phase in the material commonly known as fiber glass.

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. Figure 3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber

3.3.2 Mechanical Properties of fibers

Composite materials are not homogeneous. Their properties are dependent on many factors, the most important of which are the type of fibre, quantity of fibre (as volume fraction) and the configuration of the reinforcement. They are generally completely elastic up to failure and exhibit neither a yield point nor a region of plasticity. They tend to have low strain to failure(less than 3%). The resulting area under the stress/strain curve, which represents the work done to failure, is relatively small when compared to many metals. The properties of composites are dependent on the properties of the fibre and the matrix, the proportion of each and the configuration of the fibres. If all the fibres are aligned in one direction then the composite relatively stiff and strong in that direction, but in the transverse direction it has low modulus and low strength. When a unidirectional composite is tested at a small angle from the fibre axis, there is a considerable reduction in strength. A similar but less significant effect occurs with the tensile modulus, as shown in Figure 3.3.2

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Figure 3.3.2
Theoretical variation in tensile modulus with the angle of load relative to the principal fibre direction (unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced plastic (UD CFRP), fibre volume fraction = 0.5)

Strength and stiffness Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) E glass fibres, which have a modulus of about 70GPa, produce composites with modest moduli. In the case of unidirectional fibres and the highest typical fibre volume fraction of 0.65, a composite has a modulus of about45GPa and strength of around 1300MPa. At right angles to this, in the transverse direction, the modulus approaches that of the resin itself at about4GPa and the strength would be 50100MPa. The unidirectional compo-sites used in the ROBUST Project, manufactured using the vacuum process with prepreg material in an epoxy matrix, had the following properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 36GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 750MPa Elongation at break: 3.1%.

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Bidirectional E glass laminates have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.4 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about 14GPa.Random laminates (e.g. chopped strand mat) have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.2 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about9GPa. The use of S2 or R glass improves the composite modulus to about60GPa for unidirectional and 20GPa for woven fabric (bidirectional) constructions. This is at some monetary disadvantage. They are both more expensive than E glass and they are only available in a fairly limited range of material types and resin compatibilities. Probably the most important virtue of S2 and R glass is their high strength, which is considerably higher than E glass. Carbon and graphite fibers Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) The dominant carbon fibres in current use (typically Toray T700) have a tensile modulus of about 230GPa, a tensile strength of around 5000MPaand a strain-to-failure of 2%. Unidirectional composites produced from them in either an epoxy or vinyl-ester matrix have the following typical properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 155165GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 25003000MPa Elongation at break: 1.21.3% Carbon fibres are available which will give a tensile modulus of about250GPa in a unidirectional composite, comparing very favourably with steel at about 210GPa. However, as this composite is unidirectional, it has extremely low modulus in the transverse direction. The principal attributes of carbon fibre composites are their very high specific stiffness (the ratio of modulus/density), excellent fatigue and environmental resistance. Currently there are various pultruded CFRP plates available commercially for plate bonding applications. The pultruded plates used in the ROBUST Project, as well as the plates manufactured with prepreg materials, possessed a modulus of about 130GPa and a
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strength of 1500MPa.Pultruded plates now available from other sources typically exploit fibers with superior properties such as Toray T700, resulting in composites with the properties shown above. A financial penalty has to be paid for materials exhibiting properties significantly in excess of these; the strain-to-failure of composites made with them will also be reduced significantly. Carbon and graphite have substantial capability as reinforcing fibers, with great flexibility in the properties that can be provided. Primary characteristics for reinforcing fibers in polymer matrix composites are high stiffness and strength. The fibers must maintain these characteristics in hostile environments such as elevated temperatures, exposure to common solvents and fluids, and environmental moisture. To be used as part of a primary structure material it should also be available as continuous fiber. These characteristics and requirements have substantial implications for the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the fiber, which in turn implies processing and acceptance parameters. Interest in carbon fibers for structural materials was initiated in the late 1950s when synthesized rayons in textile form were carbonized to produce carbon fibers for high temperature missile applications. One of the first distinctions to be made is the difference between carbon and graphite fibers, although the terms are frequently used interchangeably. Background information for these differences is contained in the following sections. The primary purpose of making this distinction here is to alert the reader that users may mean different things when referring to graphite versus carbon fibers. Carbon and graphite fibers are both based on graphene (hexagonal) layer networks present in carbon. If the graphene layers or planes stack with three dimensional orders the material is defined as graphite. Usually extended time and temperature processing is required to form this order, making graphite fibers more expensive. Because the bonding between planes is weak, disorder frequently occurs such that only the two dimensional
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ordering within the layers is present. This material is defined as carbon. With this distinction made, it should be understood that while some differences are implied, there is not a single condition which strictly separates carbon from graphite fibers, and even graphite fibers retain some disorder in their structure.

3.3.3 Fiber Manufacture:

Glass fibers are generally produced using melt spinning techniques. These involve melting the glass composition into a platinum crown which has small holes for the molten glass to flow. Continuous fibers can be drawn out through the holes and wound onto spindles, while short fibers may be produced by spinning the crown, which forces molten glass out through the holes centrifugally. Fibers are cut to length using mechanical means or air jets. Fiber dimension and to some extent properties can be controlled by the process variables such as melt temperature (hence viscosity) and drawing/spinning rate. The temperature window that can be used to produce a melt of suitable viscosity is quite large, making this composition suitable for fiber forming. As fibers are being produced, they are normally treated with sizing and coupling agents. These reduce the effects of fiber- fiber abrasion which can significantly degrade the mechanical strength of the individual fibers. Other treatments may also be used to promote wetting and adherence of the matrix material to the fiber .

Composition
E-Glass is a low alkali glass with a typical nominal composition of SiO2 54wt%, Al2O3 14wt%, CaO+MgThe advantageous properties of E-glass generally outweigh the disadvantages which include:
Low modulus Self abrasiveness if not treated appropriately leading to reduced strength

Relatively low fatigue resistance

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Higher density compared to carbon fibres and organic fibresO 22wt%, B2O3 10wt% and Na2O+K2O less then 2wt%. Some other materials may also be present at impurity levels.

3.3.4 Key Properties:

Properties that have made E-glass so popular in 956iberglass and other glass reinforced composite include: Low cost High production rates High strength High stiffness Relatively low density Non-flammable Resistant to heat Good chemical resistance Relatively insensitive to moisture Able to maintain strength properties over a wide range of conditions Good electrical insulation

3.4 Processing of the Composites Fabrication of the Laminate

E-glass/Epoxy composite laminates were prepared by passing the E-glass fibers of 1200 TEX, through the resin bath of Epoxy and hardener maintaining a constant temperature of about 45 C.The fibers are then wound on a rotating drum with 15 rpm. After complete winding on the drum then it is cut opened and lay on a flat table in the atmospheric condition for about 48 hours to get the
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tackiness. The layers are cut in such a way that the desired fiber direction is obtained. In this experimentation it is decided to prepare the laminates such that the angle between the fibers are15o 30o 45o 60o and 90oas shown in fig-1. The sequence of layup shown in the fig -2. The number of layup depends on the thickness of the laminate required; here it is used 20 layers to obtain the thickness of the laminate about 4mm. All the overlapped layers then compacted between the two parallel flat steel plates with stainless steel spacers of required laminate thickness. The major purpose of lamination is to tailor the directional dependence of strength and stiffness of a composite material to match the loading environment of the structural element laminates are uniquely suited to this objective because the principal material directions of each layer can be oriented according to need. The plates are clamped with nuts and bolts with washers; the clamped setup is then placed in the oven. Maintain the oven temperature of 800 C for 4 hours and 1200 C for next 4 hours so that any entrapped air or volatile gases will be escaped for the first four hours and chemical reaction between the epoxy and hardener will takes place for the next four hours and will lead to permanent set and finally result into a single solid composite laminate. After total curing of 8 hours oven is then switched off so the temperature in the oven may come down to normal temperature. Take out the composite laminate and trim the edges so that the laminate is ready for testing purpose. Winding parameters 45. 46. 47.
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Tension of fibre =1.3 kgs Resin temperature= 45 0c RPM of lathe = 15

Page 957

48.

Gap between doctor blade and drum = 1.25 mmThe

parameters are kept constant for two different windings

FILAMENT WINDING SETUP

RESIN BATH

DRUM WINDING

REMOVING LAYUP

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LAYUP PLACED ON TABLE

APPLYING WAXPOL ON PLATES

LAYING UP LAYERS

REMOVING AIR GAP

COMPACTING LAYERS

PLACING IN THE OVEN

3.4.2 CURING PROCESS :

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Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener". The resin consists of monomers or short chain polymers with an epoxide group at either end. Most common epoxy resins are produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A, though the latter may be replaced by similar chemicals. The hardener consists of polyamine monomers, for example Triethylenetetramine (TETA). When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond.

Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily crosslinked, and is thus rigid and strong.The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. So the laminate that is fabricated is put into a Oven . The temperatures are maintained in two cycles. In the first cycle we have to maintain constant temperature of 80C for 4hours and in the next cycle maintain a temperature of 160C for next 4 hours.

AFTER CURING

MARKING

TRIMMING

AFTER TRIMMING

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DRILLING

AFTER DRILLING

Figure 3.6.a specifications of UTM (at CIPET)

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UTM SPECIFICATIONS

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COMPOSITE LAMINATE UNDER TESTING

4.1 Experimental procedure

Quasi-static Indentation tests were performed on INSTRON testing machine. The
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composite laminate of size 150mm x 150mm is placed on a steel supporting frame, with a square opening of size 50mm x 50mm. A similar square opening flat plate is placed ontop of the composite laminate; it is then clamped rigidly with nuts and bolts of 6mm size as shown in fig-3. The clamped setup is placed on the loading frame of testing machine. A spherical stainless steel ball indenter of diameter 8.32mmis used for indentation on the composites laminate. The tests were conducted with the controlled displacement of the indenter (0.2mm / minute). The test data is shown in Table-2.An extensometer is used to measure the displacement of the point just below the indentation location at the bottom side of the composite laminate. A 20kN load cell evaluated the load on each composite laminate. The data obtained during test for each laminate is shown in Table-2. The composite laminate with different fiber angles is indented for a fixed displacement of 5 mm. The damage in the different composite laminate with different fiber angles is shown fig-4. The damage area in each composite laminate is observed with the help of optical light microscope.
S. No. Specifications 1 2 3 4 5 ASTM Present work

Specimen 4 6 mm 4 - 5 mm thickness Indenter 10 16 mm 8.73 mm diameter Cross head 0.2 mm / 1 mm / min displacement min Indenter 5 10 mm 5 mm displacement No of samples 4 4 per test

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF UTM

00/150

00/300

00/450

00/600

00/900

Fig-1: Schematic diagram of five different laminates

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Fig-2: Sequence of angle plies

4.2 COMPOSITE LAMINATES WITHOUT E-GLASS POWDER FRONT SIDE BACK SIDE

0,90

0,60

FRONT SIDE

BACK SIDE

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0,45

0,30

0,15
S. No. Angle (0) Max. Load (KN) Indentation (mm) Spring back (mm)

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1 2 3 4 5

0/15 0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

3.77 4.11 4.69 4.99 5.83

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.86

0.92 1.17 2.50 3.08 3.44

Table - 2: Test results after Indentation.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Load (KN)

15 DEG 30 DEG 45 DEG 60 DEG 90 DEG

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5

Displacement (mm) Graph-1: Shows the load carrying capacity in each case for different indenter displacements of maximum 5mm for all the laminates. It is gradually increasing for the laminates with the fiber angles varying from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

Indentation ()

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-2: Indentation depth is increasing linearly as the fiber angle in laminates is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o),however it is suddenly increasing in the laminates with fiber angle varying from (0o/60o) to (0o/90o).

S. No. 1

Angle (0) 0/15

Front face damage area (mm2) 971

Back face damage area (mm2) 1256

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2 3 4 5

0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

1300 1894 2186 2623

1857 2280 2623 3257

Table-3: Experimental data of damage surface areas on front and back face of the laminates

Front face damage area 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 15 30 45

Back face damage area

60

75

90

105

Graph-3: Damage area is increasing with the increase in fiber angle of the laminates in front face and back face of the laminate; however the damage area back face is more than the front face as seen from the above graph.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Load (KN)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-4: Maximum load taken in each laminate with different fiber angles. The load is increasing linearly as the fiber angle is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

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4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Spring back (mm)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

5: Shows spring back effect is increasing in different laminates as the fiber angles are increasing

0o/15o) to (0o/90o), it shows that as the angle between fibers is increasing the laminate elasticity increasing

Material

Density (mg/m3)

Modulus (G Pa)

Poisons ratio(v)

Tensile strength (G Pa) 3.5

E-glass fiber

2.56

76

0.22

Epoxy resin

1.3

3.6

0.4

0.1

Table-4: Properties of materials

4.3) RATE OF LOADING (0.5mm/min) WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

0.5%

1%

1.5

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE
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(0/45)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE
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(0/15)

BACK SIDE
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GRAPH 1 :

0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1.0 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.92 1.8 1.4 2 3.4 3.1 3.1 3 4.62 4.1 3.5 4 4.85 4.19 3.6 5 4 3.73 3.11

GRAPH 2 :

0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

4
3 2 1 0 0 2

0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 % % % 0 0 0 2 1.7 1.6 3.15 3.2 2.95 4.65 3.72 3.2 5.4 3.12 2.25 3 2.38 1.89

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 3:

0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.1 2.2 1.7 2 3.8 3.6 3.15 3 4.26 4.2 2.91 4 4.5 2.92 2.29 5 3.5 2.32 1.83

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 4: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.15 2.1 1.2 2 3.75 3.5 2.3 3 5.18 4.2 3.4 4 4.2 3.15 2.85 5 2.5 1.9 1.75

GRAPH 5: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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5 4

FORCE (kN)

3 2 1 0 0 2

F 0.5 F1 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.9 1.8 1.7 2 3.1 2.85 2.6 3 3.9 3.8 3.3 4 3 2.8 2.5 5 2.85 2.35 1.7

GRAPH 6 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

0.5 mm/min

3.5 3 2.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

DEPTH mm)

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.42 2.6 2.5 2.1 2

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.38 2.54 2.6 2.4 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 2.67 2.98 2.9 2.55 2.38

ANGLE

GRAPH 7 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

0.5 mm /min

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PROJECTED HEIGHT

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5 %

ANGLE

ANGLE

0 15 30 45 60 90

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 0.5 % 0 2.84 3.2 2.5 2.55 2

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.0 % 0 3.24 3.6 2.7 3.5 2.1

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.5 % 0 3.31 3.76 3.33 3.67 2.6

4.4 1.5mm/min RATE OF LOADING WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
Page 979

FRONT SIDE

(0/45)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/15)

BACK SIDE

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GRAPH 8: 0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

F F F 0.5% 1 % 1.5% 0 0 0 1.5 2.05 1.35 3.1 3.3 2.75 3.2 4.3 1.95 2.5 3.75 1.65 1.5 3.25 1.31

GRAPH 9:0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5 % 0 0 0 0 1 2.5 2.31 2.09 2 4.72 4.22 3.75 3 5.5 4.5 4.2 4 4.5 3.23 2.85 5 3.7 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 10: 0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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6 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 % 0 2.5 4.72 5.5 4.5 3.7

FORCE (kN)

4 3 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 1 0 0 2 DISPLACEMENT 4 (mm) 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 2.31 2.09 4.22 3.75 4.5 4.2 3.23 2.85 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 11: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

F 0.5 % 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2.5 4.2 5.55 4.65 3.25

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 (mm) DISPLACEMENT 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 1.75 1.65 3 2.65 4 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.2 1.8

GRAPH 12: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5 mm/min)

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DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 Page 985 (mm) %

F 1.0 %

F 1.5 %

6 5

FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 DISPLACEMENT (mm) F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

0 1 2 3 4 5

0 1.8 2.9 4.1 4.85 3.7

0 1.98 3.15 3.9 4.4 3.2

0 1.65 2.5 3.1 2.25 1.6

GRAPH13 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

1.5 mm/min

DEPTH OF INDENTATION mm)

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

0
0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.34 2.45 2.67 2.39 2.5

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.14 2.32 2.6 2.27 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 1.9 2.29 2.31 2 1.8

ANGLE

GRAPH 14 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

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(1 .5 mm/ min)
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4
3.5

PROJECTED HEIGHT

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5%

ANGLE

ANGLE PROJECTED PROJECTED PROJECTED HEIGHT HEIGHT HEIGHT 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 15 3 1.41 2.95 30 2.71 3.65 3.05 45 3.19 3.31 3.15 60 3.33 3.32 2.5 90 2.7 2.55 2.1

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Graph 1 (0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 1 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 4mm at 3.6kN. Graph 2 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 2 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 5.4kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN. Graph 3 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 3,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 3.15kN. Graph 4 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) :
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at the

In Graph 4,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.18kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.4kN. Graph 5 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 5,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.9kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.3kN. Graph 6 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 6,Depth of indentation is increasing with increase in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-150 to 0-300 later on there is increase angles 0-300 to 0-900. Graph 7 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 7, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-300 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600 and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing
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at the

in

depth of indentation,but it is decreases with

in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles. Graph 8(0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 8 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of2 mm at 2.75kN. Graph 9 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 9 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN. Graph 10 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 10,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN.
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Graph 11 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 11,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.55kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 2.65kN. Graph 12 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 12,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.1kN. Graph 13 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 13,Depth of indentation is increasing with decrease in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-450, later on there is decrease in depth of indentation from 0-450 to 0-600,but it is increases with angles 0-600 to 0-900. Graph 14 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 14, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-150 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600
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at the

at the

and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles.

REFERENCES
1) Agarwal, B. D and Broutman, L. J, (1990). Analysis and Performance
of Fiber Composites, Second Edition, Jhon Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 2) Robert M. Jones(1999), mechanics of composite materials, second edition Taylor & Francis group , New york London. 3) http://nptel.iitm.ac.in 4) http://www.wikipedia.org/ 5) Rothon R.N, (1999). Mineral fillers in thermoplastics: filler manufacture and characterization. Adv. Polym. Sci. 139, pp. 67-107. 6) http://composite.about.com/ 7) Applied composite materials, An international journal for the science And application of composites materials.

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8) Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, publishes research on Polymers, nano composites and particulate

ABSTRACT

In this work the composite laminates of Epoxy/E-glass fiber hybridizing with and without E- glass powder are prepared for testing. The fabrication of the laminate is done by filament winding (hoop winding) on a drum mandrel mounted on a modified center lathe. The green layup obtained is cut into laminae of the desired orientations and stacked in the predefined way to a required thickness. The stacked laminate is cured at elevated temperatures under a pressure from a pressure plate. The edges of the laminate are trimmed first and it is then cut in to required size. The specimens are then subjected to indentation test on a universal testing machine (UTM) for a fixed indenter depth. An investigative study is conducted into the results obtained from test data. A number of illustrations are shown regarding the damage in the specimens of different fiber orientation and with different percentages of E-glass powder. Also indentation depth, contact radius, spring back effect, and maximum load carrying capacity are studied.

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CONTENTS
CHAPTER :1 INTRODUCTION 1.109 Overview of composites. 1.110 Historical Development/Historical Overview. 1.111 What is composite material. 1.112 Classification of composites. 1.113 Structure of composites. 1.114 Advantages of composites. 1.115 Applications of composites. 1.116 Examples of composite materials. 1.117 Scope of Project. CHAPTER:2 LITERATURE SURVE

PAGE NO:

5 5 8 12 24 25 26 27 29

30

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CHAPTER:3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Hardener. 3.2 Epoxy. 3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials. 3.3.1 Types of fibres. 3.3.2 Mechanical properties of fibres. 3.3.3 Fibre manufacturing. 3.3.4 Key properties. 3.4 Processing of composites. 3.4.1 Curing CHAPTER:4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. 4.1 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates without E-glass powder. 4.2 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 62 57 56 32 32 32 34 35 43 46 47 49 52

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4.3

1.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 71

CHAPTER:5 5.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. 5.2 REFERENCES 80 85

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of composites

The development of composite materials and related design and manufacturing technologies is one of the most important advances in the history of materials. Composites are multifunctional materials having unprecedented mechanical and physical properties that can be tailored to meet the requirements of a particular application. Many composites also exhibit great resistance to high-temperature corrosion and oxidation and wear. These unique characteristics provide the mechanical engineer with design opportunities not possible with conventional monolithic (unreinforced) materials. Composites technology also makes possible the use of an entire class of solid materials, ceramics, in applications for which monolithic versions are unsuited because of their great strength scatter and poor resistance to mechanical and thermal shock. Further, many manufacturing processes for composites are well adapted to the fabrication of large, complex structures, which allows consolidation of parts, reducing manufacturing costs.

1.2 Historical Development / Historical overview: Past: After making and controlling fire and inventing the wheel,
spinning of continuous yarns is probably the most important development of mankind, enabling him to survive outside the tropical
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climate zones and spread across the surface of the Earth. Flexible fabrics made of locally grown and spun fibres as cotton; flax and jute were a big step forward compared to animal skins. More and more natural resources were used, soon resulting in the first composites; straw reinforced walls, and bows (Figure M.1.1.a) and chariots made of glued layers of wood, bone and horn. More durable materials as wood and metal soon replaced these antique composites.

Fig M.1.1.a Composite Korean bow

Present:
Originating from early agricultural societies and being almost forgotten after centuries, a true revival started of using lightweight composite structures for many technical solutions during the second half of the 20th century. After being solely used for their electromagnetic properties (insulators and radar-domes), using composites to improve the structural performance of spacecraft and military aircraft became popular in the last two decades of the previous century. First at any costs, with development of improved materials with increasing costs, nowadays cost

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reduction during manufacturing and operation are the main technology drivers. Latest development is the use of composites to protect man

against fire and impact and a tendency to a more environmental friendly design, leading to the reintroduction of natural fibres in the composite technology. Increasingly nowadays, the success of composites in applications, by volume and by numbers, can be ranked by accessibility and reproducibility of the applied manufacturing techniques. Some examples of use of natural fibers(M.1.1b M.1.1.e)

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Future:
In future, composites will be manufactured even more according to an integrated design process resulting in the optimum construction according to parameters such as shape, mass, strength, stiffness, durability, costs, etc. Newly developed design tools must be able to instantaneously show customers the influence of a design change on each one of these parameters.

1.3 What is Composite Material?

Composite materials are engineering materials made from two or more constituent materials that remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level while forming a single component. There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix
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Properties. The primary functions of the matrix are to transfer stresses between the reinforcing fibers/particles and to protect them from mechanical environmental damage whereas the presence of fibers/particles in a composite improves its mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness etc. The objective is to take advantage of the superior properties of both materials without compromising on the weakness of either. As defined by Agarwal and Broutman composite means material having two or more distinct constituent materials or phases. It is only when the constituent phases have significantly different physical properties and thus the composite properties are noticeably different from the constituent materials

Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural. Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific character of a composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine to give them a specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve the desirable properties. Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the levels at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic. In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz., binding the reinforcement phases in place and deforming

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to distribute the stresses among the constituent materials under an applied force.

reinforcement

The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be conductors or resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending on the purpose for which matrices are chosen. Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and metals have found applications as matrix materials in the designing of structural composites, with commendable success. These materials remain elastic till failure occurs and show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression. Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion characteristics. The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two interphases between each side of the interphase and its adjoint constituent. Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of matrix on properties of reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the selection and fabrication of composites is that the constituents should be chemically inert non-reactive.

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Properties of Matrix Materials:

Naturally fibers and whiskers are of little use unless they are bonded together to take form of structural element that can carry loads. The binder material is usually called a matrix. The purpose of the matrix is manifold support of fibers or whiskers, protection of the fibers or whiskers, stress transfer between broken fibers or whiskers, etc. Typically the matrix is of considerably lower density, stiffness, and strength than fibers or whiskers. However the combination of fibers or whiskers and a matrix can have very high strength and stiffness yet still have low density. Matrix materials can be polymers, metals, ceramics or carbon. Polymers (poly =many and mer = unit or molecule) exist in at least three major forms i.e linear, branched, or cross linked. A linear polymer is merely a chain of mers. A branched polymer consists of a primary chain of mers with other chains that are attached in three dimensions just like tree branches. Finally, a cross linked polymer has large number of three dimensional highly interconnected chains. Linear polymers have the least strength and stiffness, whereas cross linked polymer have most because of their inherently stiffer and stronger internal structure. The three main classes of structural polymers are rubbers, thermoplastics,
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and thermo sets. Rubbers are cross linked polymers that have semi crystalline state well below room temperature. Thermoplastics are polymers that branch, but generally dont cross link very much if at all. Thus, they usually can be repeatedly softened on heating and hardened on cooling. Examples of thermoplastics are nylon, polyethylene, and polysulfone. Thermo sets are polymers that are chemically reacted until almost all molecules are irreversibly cross linked in a three dimensional network. Thus, once an epoxy has set, it cannot be changed in form. Examples of thermo sets include epoxies, phenolics, and polyimides. Other matrix materials include metals that can be made to flow around an in-place fiber system by diffusion bonding or by heating vacuum infiltration. Common examples are shown in fig 1.3.1

a) linear

b)branched

c)cross linked

d)network

figure 1.3.1

1.4 Classification of Composites

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:

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 The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites. The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres. Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling. Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this category. Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.

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1.4.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or Carbon-Carbon Composites

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications. Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins. Thermoplastics have oneor two-dimensional

molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds. Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites.

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Figure 1.4.1 a

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures. Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally. There thermoplastic temperatures. are a few options tend their to loose increase their heat strength resistance at like in

thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the heat resistance. But all composites However, elevated rigidity, redeeming qualities

toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc.

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Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds. Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas.

Figure 1.4.1.b
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and
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dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins. Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of 140C. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is ruled out.

Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in automobile and structural applications. The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75C or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey. Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service at around 200250C .

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1.4.2 According to geometry:

Most composite materials developed thus far have been fabricated to improve mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, and high temperature performance. It is natural to study together the composites that have a common strengthening mechanism. The strengthening mechanism strongly depends on the geometry of the reinforcement. Therefore, it is quite convenient to classify composite materials on the basis of the geometry of a representative unit of reinforcement.

1.4.2.a Fibrous composite

A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension discourages the growth of incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement that might otherwise lead to failure, particularly with brittle matrices. Man-made filaments or fibers of non polymeric materials exhibit much higher strength along their length since large flaws, which may be present in the bulk material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness.Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite. Most composites used in structural applications are multilayered; that is, they consist of

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several layers of fibrous composites. Each layer or lamina is a single layer composite and its orientation is varied according to design. Several identical or different layers are bonded together to form a multilayered composites usable for engineering applications. When the constituent materials in each layer are the same, they are called simply laminates. Hybrid laminates refer to multilayered composites consisting of layers made up of different constituent materials. Reinforcing fibers in a single layer composite may be short or long compared to its overall dimensions. Composites with long fibers are called continuous fiber reinforced composites and those with short fibers, discontinuous fiber reinforced composites. The continuous fibers in single layer composites may be all aligned in one direction to form a unidirectional composite. Such composites are fabricated by laying the fibers parallel and saturating them with resinous material. The bidirectional reinforcement may be provided in a single layer in mutually perpendicular directions as in a woven fabric. The bidirectional reinforcement may be such that the strengths in two perpendicular directions are approximately equal. The orientation of discontinuous fibers cannot be easily controlled in a composite material.

So fibers can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented. In most cases the fibers are assumed to be randomly oriented in the composites. However, in the injection molding of a fiber reinforced polymer, considerable orientation can occur in the flow direction and which a case of preferred oriented fibers in the composites.

1.4.2.b Particulate Composites

As the name itself indicates, the reinforcement is of particle nature (platelets are also included in this class). It may be spherical, cubic,
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tetragonal, a platelet, or of other regular or irregular shape, but it is approximately equiaxed. In general, particles are not very effective in improving fracture resistance but they enhance the stiffness of the composite to a limited extent. Particle fillers are widely used to improve the properties of matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and electrical conductivities, improve performance at elevated temperatures, reduce friction, increase wear and abrasion resistance, improve machinability, increase surface hardness and reduce shrinkage. Also, in case of particulate reinforced composites the particle can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented.

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1.4.3 According to type of matrix material they are classified as:

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

1.4.3.a Metal Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites have many advantages over monolithic metals like higher specific modulus, higher specific strength, better properties at elevated temperatures, and lower coefficient of thermal expansion.
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Because of these attributes metal matrix composites are under consideration for wide range of applications viz. combustion chamber nozzle (in rocket, space shuttle), housings, tubing, cables, heat exchangers, structural members etc

1.4.3.b Ceramic matrix Composites

One of the main objectives in producing ceramic matrix composites is to increase the toughness Naturally it is hoped and indeed often found that there is a concomitant improvement in strength and stiffness of ceramic matrix composites.

1.4.3.c Polymer Matrix Composites

Most commonly used matrix materials are polymeric. The reasons for this are twofold. In general the mechanical properties of polymers are inadequate for many structural purposes. In particular their strength and stiffness are low compared to metals and ceramics. These difficulties are overcome by reinforcing other materials with polymers. Secondly the processing of polymer matrix composites need not involve high pressure and doesnt require high temperature. Also equipments required for manufacturing polymer matrix composites are simpler. For this reason polymer matrix composites developed rapidly and soon became popular for structural applications. Composites are used because overall properties of the composites are superior to those of the individual components for example polymer/ceramic. Composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component but arent as brittle as ceramics.

1.4.4 Classification Based on Reinforcements Introduction to Reinforcements

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with
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other two axes either often circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers.

Figure 1.4.4

Two types of polymer composites are: Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) Particle reinforced polymer (PRP)

1.4.4.a Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Common fiber reinforced composites are composed of fibers and a matrix. Fibers are the reinforcement and the main source of strength while matrix glues all the fibers together in shape and transfers stresses between the reinforcing fibers. The fibers carry the loads along their longitudinal directions. Sometimes, filler might be added to smooth the manufacturing process, impact special properties to the composites, and
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/or reduce the product cost. Common fiber reinforcing agents include asbestos, carbon /graphite fibers, beryllium, beryllium carbide, beryllium oxide, molybdenum, aluminium oxide, glass fibers, polyamide,natural fibers etc. Similarly common matrix materials include epoxy, phenolic, polyester, polyurethane, peek, vinyl ester etc. Among these resin materials, epoxy is widely used for its higher adhesion and less shrinkage property.

1.4.4.b Particle Reinforced Polymer

Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminium and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black. Particles are used to increase the modules of the matrix and to decrease the ductility of the matrix. Particles are also used to reduce the cost of the composites. Reinforcements and matrices can be common, inexpensive materials and are easily processed.

Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators. Some ceramics have special properties; some ceramics are magnetic materials; some are piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics are even superconductors at very low temperatures. Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback: they are brittle. An example of particle reinforced composites is an automobile tire, which has carbon black particles in a matrix of poly-isobutylene elastomeric polymer

1.5 Structure of Composite

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Structure of composite material A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness. Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite

Properties
1) Nature of the constituent material (bonding strength) 2) The geometry of the reinforcement (shape, size) 3) The concentration distribution(vol. fraction of reinforcement) 4) The orientation of the reinforcement(random or preferred) Good adhesion (bonding) between matrix phase and displaced phase provides transfer of load applied to the material to the displaced phase via the interface. Good adhesion is required for achieving high level of mechanical properties of composites. Very small particles less than 0.25 micrometer finely distributed in the matrix impede movement of dislocations and deformation of the material. They have strengthening
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effect. Large dispersed phase particles have low share load applied to the material resulting in increase of stiffness and decrease of ductility. Orientation of reinforcement: Planar:-In the form of 2-D woven fabric. When the fibers are laid parallel, the composite exhibits axistrope. Random or Three Dimensional:-The composite material tends to posses isotropic properties. One Dimensional: - Maximum strength and stiffness are obtained in the direction of fiber.

1.6 Advantages of Composites

Advantages of composites over their conventional counterparts are the ability to meet diverse design requirements with significant weight savings as well as strength-to-weight ratio. Some advantages of composite materials over conventional ones are as follows: Tensile strength of composites is four to six times greater than that of steel or aluminium (depending on the reinforcements).

Improved torsional stiffness and impact properties. Higher fatigue endurance limit (up to 60% of ultimate tensile strength). 30% - 40% lighter for example any particular aluminium structures designed to the same functional requirements. Lower embedded energy compared to other structural metallic materials like steel, aluminium etc. Composites are less noisy while in operation and provide lower vibration transmission than metals. Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored to meet performance needs and complex design requirements. Long life offer excellent fatigue, impact, environmental resistance and reduce maintenance.
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Composites enjoy reduced life cycle cost compared to metals. Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and fire retardancy. Improved appearance with smooth surfaces and readily incorporable integral decorative melamine are other characteristics of composites. Composite parts can eliminate joints / fasteners, providing part simplification and integrated design compared to conventional metallic parts.

1.7 Applications of Composites

Figure 1.7

1.8 EXAMPLES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Fibre reinforced plastics:
Industry Examples Door, elevators Space Shuttle, Space stations Body frames, engine Comments 20-35% Weight savings Great weight savings High stiffness & damage tolerance

Classified by type of fiber:

Aerospace Automotive

Aircraft

Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix)

components

Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP)

Construction Fuel tanks etc.

Chemical

Pipes, Tanks, Pressure vessels Structural & decorative panels,

Corrosion resistance Weight savings, portable.

Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally, "fiberglass")

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Classified by matrix: Thermoplastic Composites Short fiber thermoplastics Long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics Glass mat thermoplastics Continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics Thermoset Composites Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)

Metal matrix composites (MMCs): White cast iron Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix) Metal-intermetallic laminate Ceramic matrix composites: Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers)

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Cermet (ceramic and metal) Concrete Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites Asphalt concrete Dental composite Syntactic foam Mother of Pearl Chobham armour (see composite armour) Engineered wood

Plywood Oriented strand board Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix) Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix) Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles Arborite Formica (plastic)
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1.9 Scope of the project

The basic aim of the present work is to develop and characterize a new class of composites with epoxy as polymer matrix and glass fiber as the reinforcing material. Their physical and mechanical characterization is done. Attempt is made to use TiO2 as filler in these fiber reinforced .polymer matrix composites. Characterization of the resulting TiO2 filled glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite is done. The experimentally measured database of composites has also been predicted. This work is expected to introduce a new class of functional polymer composites suitable for tribological applications.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

This chapter outlines some of the recent reports published in literature on composites of fiber reinforced polymer composites. Polymer composite materials have generated wide interest in various engineering fields, particularly in aerospace applications. Research is underway worldwide to develop newer composites with varied combinations of fibers and fillers so as to make them useable under different operational conditions. The improved performance of polymer composites in engineering applications by the addition of filler materials has shown a
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great promise and so has become a subject of considerable interest. Ceramic filled polymer composites have been the subject of extensive research in last two decades. Various kinds of polymers and polymer matrix composites reinforced with ceramic particles have a wide range of industrial applications such as heaters, electrodes, composites with thermal durability at high temperature etc.

These engineering composites are desired due to their low density, high corrosion resistance consisting of ceramic or metal particles and fiber fillers made of glass are being used these days to dramatically improve the wear resistance even up to three orders of magnitude. The inclusion of inorganic fillers into polymers for commercial applications is primarily aimed at the cost reduction and stiffness improvement. Along with fiber-reinforced composites, the composites made with particulate fillers have been found to perform well in many real operational conditions. It is reported by Bonner that with the inclusion of micro-sized particulates into polymers, a high filler content (typically greater than 20 vol. %) is generally required to bring the above stated positive effects into play. But at the same time, this may also have detrimental effects on some important properties of the matrix polymers such as processability, appearance, density and aging performance. It has also been reported that the fracture surface energies of epoxy and polyester resin and their resistance to crack propagation are relatively low.

But if particulate filler is added to these resins, the particles inhibit crack growth. As the volume fraction of filler is varied, the fracture energy increases up to a critical volume fraction and then decreases again. Srivastava showed that the fracture toughness of epoxy resin could be improved by addition of flyash particles as filler. The fillers also
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affect

the

tensile

properties

according

to

their
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packing

characteristics, size and interfacial bonding. The maximum volumetric packing fraction of filler reflects the size distribution and shapes of the particles. Recently, it has been observed that by incorporating filler particles into the matrix of fibre reinforced composites, synergistic effects may be achieved in the form of higher modulus and reduced material costs, yet accompanied with decreased strength and impact toughness. Polymer composites with both discontinuous and continuous fibre reinforcement possess usually very high specific (i.e. density related) stiffness and strength when measured in plane. Therefore, such composites are frequently used in engineering parts in automobile, aerospace, marine and energetic applications.

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CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the experimental procedures followed for their characterization and tribological evaluation. The raw materials used in this work are 1. E-glass fiber 2. E-Glass powder 3. Epoxy resin

3.1 Hardener:
The hardener used in Epoxy is polyamine. A polyamine is an organic compound having two or more primary amino groups -NH2.This class of compounds includes several synthetic substances that are important feed stocks for the chemical industry, such as ethylene diamine H2N-CH2-CH2-NH2, 1,3-diaminopropane H2N-(CH2)3-NH2, and hex methylenediamine H2N-(CH2)6-NH2. The amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

3.2 Epoxy:
Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener. When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

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The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements.

Resin:
Resin is a natural or synthetic compound which begins in a highly viscous state and hardens with treatment. Typically, resin is soluble in alcohol, but not in water. There are a number of different classes of resin, depending on exact chemical composition and potential uses. Matrix resins bind glass-reinforcing fibers together, protecting them from impact and the environment. Glass fiber properties such as strength dominate in continuously reinforced composites. When glass is used as a discontinuous reinforcement, resin properties dominate and are enhanced by the glass. Polymer matrix resins fall into two categories: thermo set and thermoplastic. The difference is in their chemistry. Thermo set resin is chemically comprised of molecular chains that crosslink during the cure reaction (set off by heat, catalyst, or both) and "set" into a final rigid form. Molecular chains in thermoplastic resin are processed at higher temperatures and remain "plastic," or capable of being reheated and reshaped. While the tradeoffs between thermosets and thermoplastics have been debated extensively, engineers will find that material suppliers will tailor matrix resin formulations best for their application

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3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials:

Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used. Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers, high silica and quartz fibers, alumina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron fibers, aramid fibers and multi phase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified into E-glass, S-glass, A- glass, R-glass etc. There is a greater market and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers. The potential of fibers of graphite, silicon carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific mind due to their applications in advanced composites.

3.3.1Types of fibers 3.3.1.a Glass Fibers

Over 95% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers, as they are inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the plastics with which they are reinforced.
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Their low density, resistance to chemicals, insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics, although the one major disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when subjected to high tensile stress for a long time.. However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time frames. This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is expected to sustain such loads for many months or years continuously. Period of loading, temperature, moisture and other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibers and the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning before the catastrophic failure. But all this can be easily overlooked in view of the fact that the wide range of glass fiber variety lend themselves amicably to fabrication processes like matched die moulding, filament winding lay-up and so on. Glass fibers are available in the form of mats, tapes, cloth, continuous and chopped filaments, rovings and yarns. Addition of chemicals to silica sand while making glass yields different types of glasses.

3.3.1.b Metal Fibers

As reinforcements, metal fibers have many advantages. They are easily produced using several fabrication processes and are more ductile, apart from being not too sensitive to surface damage and possess high strengths and temperature resistance. However, their weight and the tendency to react with each other through alloying mechanisms are major disadvantages. Steel wire is the most extensively used reinforcement in most large-scale metal filament applications. Wire is used for its capacity to enhance the tensile strength of concrete and continuous metal fibers are the reinforcing constituents in metal and ceramic composite materials.

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3.3.1.c Ceramic fibers improve vastly in performance when a fine metal outline is incorporated with refractory ceramics by improving their thermal shock and impact resistance properties. 3.3.1.d Metal wires, of the continuous version, also reinforce plastics like polyethylene and epoxy. Such combinations ensure high strength, light weight and good fatigue resistance. Besides, continuous metal fibers are easily handled, unlike glass fibers. Better flexural properties are observed in some metal fibers reinforced plastic composites which also offer improved strength and weight, than glass fibers. However, their poor tolerance of high temperatures and the resultant steep variation of thermal expansion coefficient with the resins are a discouragement that limits their application.

3.3.1.d Alumina Fibers

Alumina or aluminum oxide fibers, basically developed for use in metal matrices are considered a potential resin-matrix composite reinforcement. It offers good compressive strength rather than tensile strength. It is important property is it is high melting point of about 2000C and the composite can be successfully used at temperatures up to about 1000C. Magnesium and aluminum matrices frequently use alumina fiber reinforced composites as they do not damage the fiber even in the liquid state.

3.3.1.e Boron Fibers

They are basically composites, in which boron is coated on a substance which forms the substrate, usually made of tungsten. Boron-tungsten fibers are obtained by allowing hot tungsten filament through a mixture of gases. Boron is deposited on tungsten and the process is continued until the desired thickness is achieved. The tungsten however remains constant in its thickness. Properties of boron fibers generally change with the diameter, because of the changing ratio of boron to tungsten and the surface defects that change according to size. However, they
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are known for their remarkable stiffness

33and strength. Their strengths often compare with those of glass fibers, but their tensile modulus is high, almost four to five times that of glass. Boron coated carbons are much cheaper to make than boron tungsten fiber. But its low modulus of elasticity often works against it.

3.3.1.f Silicon Carbide Fibers

Silicon carbide can be coated over a few metals and their room temperature tensile strengths and tensile moduli are like those of boron-tungsten. The advantages of silicon carbide-tungsten are several and they are more desirable than uncoated boron tungsten fibers. Elevated temperature performance and the fact that they reported only a 35% loss of strength at 1350C are their best qualities. Silicon carbide-tungsten and silicon carbidecarbon have both been seen to have very high stress-rupture strength at 1100C and 1300C. Uncoated boron-tungsten fibers tend to lose all their strength at temperatures over 680C. Silicon carbide fibers do not react with molten aluminium, unlike uncoated boron and they also withstand high temperatures used in hot-press titanium matrices. However, silicon carbide-tungsten fibers are dense compared to boron- tungsten fibers of the same diameter. They are prone to surface damage and need careful, delicate handling, especially during fabrication of the composite. Further, above 930C, weakening reactions occur between tungsten and silicon carbide, making it difficult to maintain balance in high-temperature matrix formations. Silicon carbide on 'carbon substrates have several advantages, viz. no, reaction at high temperature, being lighter than silicon carbide tungsten and possessing tensile strengths and modulus that is are often better than those of silicon carbide-tungsten and boron fibers.

3.3.1.g Aramid Fibers

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Aramid fibers are made from aromatic polyamides which are long polymeric .chains and aromatic rings. They are structures in which six carbon atoms are bonded to each other and to combinations of hydrogen atoms. In aramid fibers, these rings occur and reoccur to form the fibers. They were initially used to reinforce automobile tires. Since then, they have also found other uses like bullet proof vests. As high strength applications, their use in power boats is not uncommon.

Aramid have high tensile strength, high modulus and low weight. Impact- resistant structures can be produced from aramid. The density of aramid fibers is less than that of glass and graphite fibers. They are fire resistant apart from being high-temperature resistant and also unaffected by organic solvents and fuels. But their resistance in acid and alkaline media is poor. They are supple and allow themselves to be woven into matrices by simple processes. Aramid fibers have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion in the fiber direction and the failure of aramid fibers is unique. When they fail, the fibers break into small fibrils, which are like fibers within the fibers. This unique failure mechanism is responsible for high strength.

3.3.1.h Quartz and Silica Fibers

The glass-types typically contain about 50 to 78% silica. Silica glass is a purer glass fiber that can be made by treating fiberglass in an acid bath, which removes all impurities without affecting the silica. The final product contains 93 to 99% silica. Quartz is even more pure, and quartz fibers are made from natural quartz crystals that contain 99.9% silica, possessing nearly all the properties of pure solid quartz. Ordinary fiberglass, high silica and quartz fibers share several characteristics and can be produced in a range of fiber diameters. Roving or yarns and other forms of fibers can be made from high silica as well as quartz. All matrix materials that accept fiberglass are amenable to high silica and quartz too. They differ from glass in many factors, however, especially in heat-related properties.
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Although quartz crystals are commonly available, pure crystals are hard to come by. On the other hand, high silica comes from the same material as glass fibers and is easily accessible. However, quartz makes up for its rarity with its capacity to" withstand high temperatures, which silica is incapable of. Barring this difference, silica and quartz are similar in other respects. They are highly elastic and can be stretched to 1 % of their length before break point. Both silica and quartz are not affected by acid attacks and are resistant to moisture. Owing to their thermal properties, silica and quartz are the natural choice as fibers in several applications. They have good insulating properties and do not melt at temperatures up to 1600C. In addition, they have low thermal expansion coefficients which make them withstand high temperatures.

3.3.1.i Graphite Fibers

While use of the term carbon for graphite is permissible, there is one basic difference between the two. Elemental analysis of poly-acrylo-nitrile (PAN) base carbon fibers show that they consist of 91 to 94% carbon. But graphite fibers are over 99% carbon. The difference arises from the fact that the fibers are made at different temperatures. PAN-based carbon cloth or fiber is produced at about 1320C, while graphite fibers and cloth are graphitized at 1950 to 3000C. The properties of graphite remain unchanged even at very high temperatures, but its willingness to react readily with most metals at the fabrication stage or during use at very high temperatures is often a stumbling block, as seen in aluminium matrices when carbides are produced at the interface. These carbides react with moisture with disastrous effects on the composite material.

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Graphite fibers are some of the stiffest fibers known. The stiffness of the fiber is as high as the graphite content. But a major drawback is that stiffness and strength are inversely proportional to each other. Forbidding costs make the use of graphite fibers prohibitive. The best glass fibers are far less expensive than the cheapest, lowest quality of graphite, and in PAN-base fibers, other raw materials too are equally expensive. The carbonization and graphitization are time-consuming, apart from demanding excessive energy, materials and close controls throughout the process. Cheaper pitch base fibers are now being developed, with greater performance potential and there are possibilities of the increased use of graphite fibers.

3.3.1.j Multiphase Fibers

Spoolable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually the multi phase variety and they usually comprise materials like boron, silicon and their carbides formed on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or tungsten. They are usually good for high temperature applications, due to their reduced reaction with higher melting temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers. Boron filaments are sought after for structural and intermediate-temperature composites. A poly-phase fiber is a core-sheath fiber consisting of a polycrystalline core.

3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber:

E-Glass or electrical grade glass was originally developed for standoff insulators for electrical wiring. It was later found to have excellent fibre forming capabilities and is now used almost exclusively as the reinforcing phase in the material commonly known as fiber glass.

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Page 1033

. Figure 3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber

3.3.2 Mechanical Properties of fibers

Composite materials are not homogeneous. Their properties are dependent on many factors, the most important of which are the type of fibre, quantity of fibre (as volume fraction) and the configuration of the reinforcement. They are generally completely elastic up to failure and exhibit neither a yield point nor a region of plasticity. They tend to have low strain to failure(less than 3%). The resulting area under the stress/strain curve, which represents the work done to failure, is relatively small when compared to many metals. The properties of composites are dependent on the properties of the fibre and the matrix, the proportion of each and the configuration of the fibres. If all the fibres are aligned in one direction then the composite relatively stiff and strong in that direction, but in the transverse direction it has low modulus and low strength. When a unidirectional composite is tested at a small angle from the fibre axis, there is a considerable reduction in strength. A similar but less significant effect occurs with the tensile modulus, as shown in Figure 3.3.2

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Page 1034

Figure 3.3.2
Theoretical variation in tensile modulus with the angle of load relative to the principal fibre direction (unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced plastic (UD CFRP), fibre volume fraction = 0.5)

Strength and stiffness Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) E glass fibres, which have a modulus of about 70GPa, produce composites with modest moduli. In the case of unidirectional fibres and the highest typical fibre volume fraction of 0.65, a composite has a modulus of about45GPa and strength of around 1300MPa. At right angles to this, in the transverse direction, the modulus approaches that of the resin itself at about4GPa and the strength would be 50100MPa. The unidirectional compo-sites used in the ROBUST Project, manufactured using the vacuum process with prepreg material in an epoxy matrix, had the following properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 36GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 750MPa Elongation at break: 3.1%.

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Page 1035

Bidirectional E glass laminates have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.4 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about 14GPa.Random laminates (e.g. chopped strand mat) have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.2 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about9GPa. The use of S2 or R glass improves the composite modulus to about60GPa for unidirectional and 20GPa for woven fabric (bidirectional) constructions. This is at some monetary disadvantage. They are both more expensive than E glass and they are only available in a fairly limited range of material types and resin compatibilities. Probably the most important virtue of S2 and R glass is their high strength, which is considerably higher than E glass. Carbon and graphite fibers Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) The dominant carbon fibres in current use (typically Toray T700) have a tensile modulus of about 230GPa, a tensile strength of around 5000MPaand a strain-to-failure of 2%. Unidirectional composites produced from them in either an epoxy or vinyl-ester matrix have the following typical properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 155165GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 25003000MPa Elongation at break: 1.21.3% Carbon fibres are available which will give a tensile modulus of about250GPa in a unidirectional composite, comparing very favourably with steel at about 210GPa. However, as this composite is unidirectional, it has extremely low modulus in the transverse direction. The principal attributes of carbon fibre composites are their very high specific stiffness (the ratio of modulus/density), excellent fatigue and environmental resistance. Currently there are various pultruded CFRP plates available commercially for plate bonding applications. The pultruded plates used in the ROBUST Project, as well as the plates manufactured with prepreg materials, possessed a modulus of about 130GPa and a
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strength of 1500MPa.Pultruded plates now available from other sources typically exploit fibers with superior properties such as Toray T700, resulting in composites with the properties shown above. A financial penalty has to be paid for materials exhibiting properties significantly in excess of these; the strain-to-failure of composites made with them will also be reduced significantly. Carbon and graphite have substantial capability as reinforcing fibers, with great flexibility in the properties that can be provided. Primary characteristics for reinforcing fibers in polymer matrix composites are high stiffness and strength. The fibers must maintain these characteristics in hostile environments such as elevated temperatures, exposure to common solvents and fluids, and environmental moisture. To be used as part of a primary structure material it should also be available as continuous fiber. These characteristics and requirements have substantial implications for the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the fiber, which in turn implies processing and acceptance parameters. Interest in carbon fibers for structural materials was initiated in the late 1950s when synthesized rayons in textile form were carbonized to produce carbon fibers for high temperature missile applications. One of the first distinctions to be made is the difference between carbon and graphite fibers, although the terms are frequently used interchangeably. Background information for these differences is contained in the following sections. The primary purpose of making this distinction here is to alert the reader that users may mean different things when referring to graphite versus carbon fibers. Carbon and graphite fibers are both based on graphene (hexagonal) layer networks present in carbon. If the graphene layers or planes stack with three dimensional orders the material is defined as graphite. Usually extended time and temperature processing is required to form this order, making graphite fibers more expensive. Because the bonding between planes is weak, disorder frequently occurs such that only the two dimensional
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ordering within the layers is present. This material is defined as carbon. With this distinction made, it should be understood that while some differences are implied, there is not a single condition which strictly separates carbon from graphite fibers, and even graphite fibers retain some disorder in their structure.

3.3.3 Fiber Manufacture:

Glass fibers are generally produced using melt spinning techniques. These involve melting the glass composition into a platinum crown which has small holes for the molten glass to flow. Continuous fibers can be drawn out through the holes and wound onto spindles, while short fibers may be produced by spinning the crown, which forces molten glass out through the holes centrifugally. Fibers are cut to length using mechanical means or air jets. Fiber dimension and to some extent properties can be controlled by the process variables such as melt temperature (hence viscosity) and drawing/spinning rate. The temperature window that can be used to produce a melt of suitable viscosity is quite large, making this composition suitable for fiber forming. As fibers are being produced, they are normally treated with sizing and coupling agents. These reduce the effects of fiber- fiber abrasion which can significantly degrade the mechanical strength of the individual fibers. Other treatments may also be used to promote wetting and adherence of the matrix material to the fiber .

Composition
E-Glass is a low alkali glass with a typical nominal composition of SiO2 54wt%, Al2O3 14wt%, CaO+MgThe advantageous properties of E-glass generally outweigh the disadvantages which include:
Low modulus Self abrasiveness if not treated appropriately leading to reduced strength

Relatively low fatigue resistance

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Higher density compared to carbon fibres and organic fibresO 22wt%, B2O3 10wt% and Na2O+K2O less then 2wt%. Some other materials may also be present at impurity levels.

3.3.4 Key Properties:

Properties that have made E-glass so popular in 1039iberglass and other glass reinforced composite include: Low cost High production rates High strength High stiffness Relatively low density Non-flammable Resistant to heat Good chemical resistance Relatively insensitive to moisture Able to maintain strength properties over a wide range of conditions Good electrical insulation

3.4 Processing of the Composites Fabrication of the Laminate

E-glass/Epoxy composite laminates were prepared by passing the E-glass fibers of 1200 TEX, through the resin bath of Epoxy and hardener maintaining a constant temperature of about 45 C.The fibers are then wound on a rotating drum with 15 rpm. After complete winding on the drum then it is cut opened and lay on a flat table in the atmospheric condition for about 48 hours to get the
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tackiness. The layers are cut in such a way that the desired fiber direction is obtained. In this experimentation it is decided to prepare the laminates such that the angle between the fibers are15o 30o 45o 60o and 90oas shown in fig-1. The sequence of layup shown in the fig -2. The number of layup depends on the thickness of the laminate required; here it is used 20 layers to obtain the thickness of the laminate about 4mm. All the overlapped layers then compacted between the two parallel flat steel plates with stainless steel spacers of required laminate thickness. The major purpose of lamination is to tailor the directional dependence of strength and stiffness of a composite material to match the loading environment of the structural element laminates are uniquely suited to this objective because the principal material directions of each layer can be oriented according to need. The plates are clamped with nuts and bolts with washers; the clamped setup is then placed in the oven. Maintain the oven temperature of 800 C for 4 hours and 1200 C for next 4 hours so that any entrapped air or volatile gases will be escaped for the first four hours and chemical reaction between the epoxy and hardener will takes place for the next four hours and will lead to permanent set and finally result into a single solid composite laminate. After total curing of 8 hours oven is then switched off so the temperature in the oven may come down to normal temperature. Take out the composite laminate and trim the edges so that the laminate is ready for testing purpose. Winding parameters 49. 50. 51.
ME

Tension of fibre =1.3 kgs Resin temperature= 45 0c RPM of lathe = 15

Page 1040

52.

Gap between doctor blade and drum = 1.25 mmThe

parameters are kept constant for two different windings

FILAMENT WINDING SETUP

RESIN BATH

DRUM WINDING

REMOVING LAYUP

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LAYUP PLACED ON TABLE

APPLYING WAXPOL ON PLATES

LAYING UP LAYERS

REMOVING AIR GAP

COMPACTING LAYERS

PLACING IN THE OVEN

3.4.2 CURING PROCESS :

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Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener". The resin consists of monomers or short chain polymers with an epoxide group at either end. Most common epoxy resins are produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A, though the latter may be replaced by similar chemicals. The hardener consists of polyamine monomers, for example Triethylenetetramine (TETA). When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond.

Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily crosslinked, and is thus rigid and strong.The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. So the laminate that is fabricated is put into a Oven . The temperatures are maintained in two cycles. In the first cycle we have to maintain constant temperature of 80C for 4hours and in the next cycle maintain a temperature of 160C for next 4 hours.

AFTER CURING

MARKING

TRIMMING

AFTER TRIMMING

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Page 1043

DRILLING

AFTER DRILLING

Figure 3.6.a specifications of UTM (at CIPET)

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Page 1044

UTM SPECIFICATIONS

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Page 1045

COMPOSITE LAMINATE UNDER TESTING

4.1 Experimental procedure

Quasi-static Indentation tests were performed on INSTRON testing machine. The
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composite laminate of size 150mm x 150mm is placed on a steel supporting frame, with a square opening of size 50mm x 50mm. A similar square opening flat plate is placed ontop of the composite laminate; it is then clamped rigidly with nuts and bolts of 6mm size as shown in fig-3. The clamped setup is placed on the loading frame of testing machine. A spherical stainless steel ball indenter of diameter 8.32mmis used for indentation on the composites laminate. The tests were conducted with the controlled displacement of the indenter (0.2mm / minute). The test data is shown in Table-2.An extensometer is used to measure the displacement of the point just below the indentation location at the bottom side of the composite laminate. A 20kN load cell evaluated the load on each composite laminate. The data obtained during test for each laminate is shown in Table-2. The composite laminate with different fiber angles is indented for a fixed displacement of 5 mm. The damage in the different composite laminate with different fiber angles is shown fig-4. The damage area in each composite laminate is observed with the help of optical light microscope.
S. No. Specifications 1 2 3 4 5 ASTM Present work

Specimen 4 6 mm 4 - 5 mm thickness Indenter 10 16 mm 8.73 mm diameter Cross head 0.2 mm / 1 mm / min displacement min Indenter 5 10 mm 5 mm displacement No of samples 4 4 per test

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF UTM

00/150

00/300

00/450

00/600

00/900

Fig-1: Schematic diagram of five different laminates

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Fig-2: Sequence of angle plies

4.2 COMPOSITE LAMINATES WITHOUT E-GLASS POWDER FRONT SIDE BACK SIDE

0,90

0,60

FRONT SIDE

BACK SIDE

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Page 1048

0,45

0,30

0,15
S. No. Angle (0) Max. Load (KN) Indentation (mm) Spring back (mm)

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1 2 3 4 5

0/15 0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

3.77 4.11 4.69 4.99 5.83

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.86

0.92 1.17 2.50 3.08 3.44

Table - 2: Test results after Indentation.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Load (KN)

15 DEG 30 DEG 45 DEG 60 DEG 90 DEG

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5

Displacement (mm) Graph-1: Shows the load carrying capacity in each case for different indenter displacements of maximum 5mm for all the laminates. It is gradually increasing for the laminates with the fiber angles varying from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

Indentation ()

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-2: Indentation depth is increasing linearly as the fiber angle in laminates is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o),however it is suddenly increasing in the laminates with fiber angle varying from (0o/60o) to (0o/90o).

S. No. 1

Angle (0) 0/15

Front face damage area (mm2) 971

Back face damage area (mm2) 1256

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2 3 4 5

0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

1300 1894 2186 2623

1857 2280 2623 3257

Table-3: Experimental data of damage surface areas on front and back face of the laminates

Front face damage area 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 15 30 45

Back face damage area

60

75

90

105

Graph-3: Damage area is increasing with the increase in fiber angle of the laminates in front face and back face of the laminate; however the damage area back face is more than the front face as seen from the above graph.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Load (KN)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-4: Maximum load taken in each laminate with different fiber angles. The load is increasing linearly as the fiber angle is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

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4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Spring back (mm)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

5: Shows spring back effect is increasing in different laminates as the fiber angles are increasing

0o/15o) to (0o/90o), it shows that as the angle between fibers is increasing the laminate elasticity increasing

Material

Density (mg/m3)

Modulus (G Pa)

Poisons ratio(v)

Tensile strength (G Pa) 3.5

E-glass fiber

2.56

76

0.22

Epoxy resin

1.3

3.6

0.4

0.1

Table-4: Properties of materials

4.3) RATE OF LOADING (0.5mm/min) WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

0.5%

1%

1.5

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
Page 1053

0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE
ME

(0/45)

BACK SIDE
Page 1054

0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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Page 1055

FRONT SIDE
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(0/15)

BACK SIDE
Page 1056

GRAPH 1 :

0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1.0 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.92 1.8 1.4 2 3.4 3.1 3.1 3 4.62 4.1 3.5 4 4.85 4.19 3.6 5 4 3.73 3.11

GRAPH 2 :

0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

4
3 2 1 0 0 2

0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 % % % 0 0 0 2 1.7 1.6 3.15 3.2 2.95 4.65 3.72 3.2 5.4 3.12 2.25 3 2.38 1.89

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 3:

0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.1 2.2 1.7 2 3.8 3.6 3.15 3 4.26 4.2 2.91 4 4.5 2.92 2.29 5 3.5 2.32 1.83

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 4: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.15 2.1 1.2 2 3.75 3.5 2.3 3 5.18 4.2 3.4 4 4.2 3.15 2.85 5 2.5 1.9 1.75

GRAPH 5: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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5 4

FORCE (kN)

3 2 1 0 0 2

F 0.5 F1 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.9 1.8 1.7 2 3.1 2.85 2.6 3 3.9 3.8 3.3 4 3 2.8 2.5 5 2.85 2.35 1.7

GRAPH 6 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

0.5 mm/min

3.5 3 2.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

DEPTH mm)

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.42 2.6 2.5 2.1 2

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.38 2.54 2.6 2.4 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 2.67 2.98 2.9 2.55 2.38

ANGLE

GRAPH 7 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

0.5 mm /min

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PROJECTED HEIGHT

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5 %

ANGLE

ANGLE

0 15 30 45 60 90

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 0.5 % 0 2.84 3.2 2.5 2.55 2

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.0 % 0 3.24 3.6 2.7 3.5 2.1

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.5 % 0 3.31 3.76 3.33 3.67 2.6

4.4 1.5mm/min RATE OF LOADING WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
Page 1062

FRONT SIDE

(0/45)

BACK SIDE

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Page 1063

FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/15)

BACK SIDE

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GRAPH 8: 0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

F F F 0.5% 1 % 1.5% 0 0 0 1.5 2.05 1.35 3.1 3.3 2.75 3.2 4.3 1.95 2.5 3.75 1.65 1.5 3.25 1.31

GRAPH 9:0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5 % 0 0 0 0 1 2.5 2.31 2.09 2 4.72 4.22 3.75 3 5.5 4.5 4.2 4 4.5 3.23 2.85 5 3.7 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 10: 0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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6 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 % 0 2.5 4.72 5.5 4.5 3.7

FORCE (kN)

4 3 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 1 0 0 2 DISPLACEMENT 4 (mm) 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 2.31 2.09 4.22 3.75 4.5 4.2 3.23 2.85 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 11: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

F 0.5 % 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2.5 4.2 5.55 4.65 3.25

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 (mm) DISPLACEMENT 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 1.75 1.65 3 2.65 4 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.2 1.8

GRAPH 12: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5 mm/min)

ME

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 Page 1068 (mm) %

F 1.0 %

F 1.5 %

6 5

FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 DISPLACEMENT (mm) F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

0 1 2 3 4 5

0 1.8 2.9 4.1 4.85 3.7

0 1.98 3.15 3.9 4.4 3.2

0 1.65 2.5 3.1 2.25 1.6

GRAPH13 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

1.5 mm/min

DEPTH OF INDENTATION mm)

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

0
0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.34 2.45 2.67 2.39 2.5

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.14 2.32 2.6 2.27 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 1.9 2.29 2.31 2 1.8

ANGLE

GRAPH 14 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

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(1 .5 mm/ min)
Page 1069

4
3.5

PROJECTED HEIGHT

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5%

ANGLE

ANGLE PROJECTED PROJECTED PROJECTED HEIGHT HEIGHT HEIGHT 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 15 3 1.41 2.95 30 2.71 3.65 3.05 45 3.19 3.31 3.15 60 3.33 3.32 2.5 90 2.7 2.55 2.1

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Graph 1 (0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 1 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 4mm at 3.6kN. Graph 2 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 2 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 5.4kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN. Graph 3 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 3,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 3.15kN. Graph 4 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) :
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at the

In Graph 4,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.18kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.4kN. Graph 5 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 5,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.9kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.3kN. Graph 6 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 6,Depth of indentation is increasing with increase in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-150 to 0-300 later on there is increase angles 0-300 to 0-900. Graph 7 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 7, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-300 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600 and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing
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at the

in

depth of indentation,but it is decreases with

in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles. Graph 8(0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 8 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of2 mm at 2.75kN. Graph 9 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 9 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN. Graph 10 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 10,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN.
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Graph 11 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 11,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.55kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 2.65kN. Graph 12 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 12,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.1kN. Graph 13 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 13,Depth of indentation is increasing with decrease in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-450, later on there is decrease in depth of indentation from 0-450 to 0-600,but it is increases with angles 0-600 to 0-900. Graph 14 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 14, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-150 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600
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at the

at the

and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles.

REFERENCES
1) Agarwal, B. D and Broutman, L. J, (1990). Analysis and Performance
of Fiber Composites, Second Edition, Jhon Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 2) Robert M. Jones(1999), mechanics of composite materials, second edition Taylor & Francis group , New york London. 3) http://nptel.iitm.ac.in 4) http://www.wikipedia.org/ 5) Rothon R.N, (1999). Mineral fillers in thermoplastics: filler manufacture and characterization. Adv. Polym. Sci. 139, pp. 67-107. 6) http://composite.about.com/ 7) Applied composite materials, An international journal for the science And application of composites materials.

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8) Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, publishes research on Polymers, nano composites and particulate

ABSTRACT

In this work the composite laminates of Epoxy/E-glass fiber hybridizing with and without E- glass powder are prepared for testing. The fabrication of the laminate is done by filament winding (hoop winding) on a drum mandrel mounted on a modified center lathe. The green layup obtained is cut into laminae of the desired orientations and stacked in the predefined way to a required thickness. The stacked laminate is cured at elevated temperatures under a pressure from a pressure plate. The edges of the laminate are trimmed first and it is then cut in to required size. The specimens are then subjected to indentation test on a universal testing machine (UTM) for a fixed indenter depth. An investigative study is conducted into the results obtained from test data. A number of illustrations are shown regarding the damage in the specimens of different fiber orientation and with different percentages of E-glass powder. Also indentation depth, contact radius, spring back effect, and maximum load carrying capacity are studied.
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER :1 INTRODUCTION 1.118 Overview of composites. 1.119 Historical Development/Historical Overview. 1.120 What is composite material. 1.121 Classification of composites. 1.122 Structure of composites. 1.123 Advantages of composites. 1.124 Applications of composites. 1.125 Examples of composite materials. 1.126 Scope of Project. CHAPTER:2 LITERATURE SURVE

PAGE NO:

5 5 8 12 24 25 26 27 29

30

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CHAPTER:3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Hardener. 3.2 Epoxy. 3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials. 3.3.1 Types of fibres. 3.3.2 Mechanical properties of fibres. 3.3.3 Fibre manufacturing. 3.3.4 Key properties. 3.4 Processing of composites. 3.4.1 Curing CHAPTER:4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. 4.1 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates without E-glass powder. 4.2 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 62 57 56 32 32 32 34 35 43 46 47 49 52

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4.3

1.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 71

CHAPTER:5 5.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. 5.2 REFERENCES 80 85

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of composites

The development of composite materials and related design and manufacturing technologies is one of the most important advances in the history of materials. Composites are multifunctional materials having unprecedented mechanical and physical properties that can be tailored to meet the requirements of a particular application. Many composites also exhibit great resistance to high-temperature corrosion and oxidation and wear. These unique characteristics provide the mechanical engineer with design opportunities not possible with conventional monolithic (unreinforced) materials. Composites technology also makes possible the use of an entire class of solid materials, ceramics, in applications for which monolithic versions are unsuited because of their great strength scatter and poor resistance to mechanical and thermal shock. Further, many manufacturing processes for composites are well adapted to the fabrication of large, complex structures, which allows consolidation of parts, reducing manufacturing costs.

1.2 Historical Development / Historical overview: Past: After making and controlling fire and inventing the wheel,
spinning of continuous yarns is probably the most important development of mankind, enabling him to survive outside the tropical
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climate zones and spread across the surface of the Earth. Flexible fabrics made of locally grown and spun fibres as cotton; flax and jute were a big step forward compared to animal skins. More and more natural resources were used, soon resulting in the first composites; straw reinforced walls, and bows (Figure M.1.1.a) and chariots made of glued layers of wood, bone and horn. More durable materials as wood and metal soon replaced these antique composites.

Fig M.1.1.a Composite Korean bow

Present:
Originating from early agricultural societies and being almost forgotten after centuries, a true revival started of using lightweight composite structures for many technical solutions during the second half of the 20th century. After being solely used for their electromagnetic properties (insulators and radar-domes), using composites to improve the structural performance of spacecraft and military aircraft became popular in the last two decades of the previous century. First at any costs, with development of improved materials with increasing costs, nowadays cost

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reduction during manufacturing and operation are the main technology drivers. Latest development is the use of composites to protect man

against fire and impact and a tendency to a more environmental friendly design, leading to the reintroduction of natural fibres in the composite technology. Increasingly nowadays, the success of composites in applications, by volume and by numbers, can be ranked by accessibility and reproducibility of the applied manufacturing techniques. Some examples of use of natural fibers(M.1.1b M.1.1.e)

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Future:
In future, composites will be manufactured even more according to an integrated design process resulting in the optimum construction according to parameters such as shape, mass, strength, stiffness, durability, costs, etc. Newly developed design tools must be able to instantaneously show customers the influence of a design change on each one of these parameters.

1.3 What is Composite Material?

Composite materials are engineering materials made from two or more constituent materials that remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level while forming a single component. There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix
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Properties. The primary functions of the matrix are to transfer stresses between the reinforcing fibers/particles and to protect them from mechanical environmental damage whereas the presence of fibers/particles in a composite improves its mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness etc. The objective is to take advantage of the superior properties of both materials without compromising on the weakness of either. As defined by Agarwal and Broutman composite means material having two or more distinct constituent materials or phases. It is only when the constituent phases have significantly different physical properties and thus the composite properties are noticeably different from the constituent materials

Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural. Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific character of a composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine to give them a specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve the desirable properties. Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the levels at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic. In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz., binding the reinforcement phases in place and deforming

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to distribute the stresses among the constituent materials under an applied force.

reinforcement

The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be conductors or resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending on the purpose for which matrices are chosen. Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and metals have found applications as matrix materials in the designing of structural composites, with commendable success. These materials remain elastic till failure occurs and show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression. Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion characteristics. The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two interphases between each side of the interphase and its adjoint constituent. Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of matrix on properties of reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the selection and fabrication of composites is that the constituents should be chemically inert non-reactive.

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Properties of Matrix Materials:

Naturally fibers and whiskers are of little use unless they are bonded together to take form of structural element that can carry loads. The binder material is usually called a matrix. The purpose of the matrix is manifold support of fibers or whiskers, protection of the fibers or whiskers, stress transfer between broken fibers or whiskers, etc. Typically the matrix is of considerably lower density, stiffness, and strength than fibers or whiskers. However the combination of fibers or whiskers and a matrix can have very high strength and stiffness yet still have low density. Matrix materials can be polymers, metals, ceramics or carbon. Polymers (poly =many and mer = unit or molecule) exist in at least three major forms i.e linear, branched, or cross linked. A linear polymer is merely a chain of mers. A branched polymer consists of a primary chain of mers with other chains that are attached in three dimensions just like tree branches. Finally, a cross linked polymer has large number of three dimensional highly interconnected chains. Linear polymers have the least strength and stiffness, whereas cross linked polymer have most because of their inherently stiffer and stronger internal structure. The three main classes of structural polymers are rubbers, thermoplastics,
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and thermo sets. Rubbers are cross linked polymers that have semi crystalline state well below room temperature. Thermoplastics are polymers that branch, but generally dont cross link very much if at all. Thus, they usually can be repeatedly softened on heating and hardened on cooling. Examples of thermoplastics are nylon, polyethylene, and polysulfone. Thermo sets are polymers that are chemically reacted until almost all molecules are irreversibly cross linked in a three dimensional network. Thus, once an epoxy has set, it cannot be changed in form. Examples of thermo sets include epoxies, phenolics, and polyimides. Other matrix materials include metals that can be made to flow around an in-place fiber system by diffusion bonding or by heating vacuum infiltration. Common examples are shown in fig 1.3.1

a) linear

b)branched

c)cross linked

d)network

figure 1.3.1

1.4 Classification of Composites

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:

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 The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites. The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres. Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling. Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this category. Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.

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1.4.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or Carbon-Carbon Composites

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications. Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins. Thermoplastics have oneor two-dimensional

molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds. Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites.

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Figure 1.4.1 a

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures. Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally. There thermoplastic temperatures. are a few options tend their to loose increase their heat strength resistance at like in

thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the heat resistance. But all composites However, elevated rigidity, redeeming qualities

toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc.

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Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds. Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas.

Figure 1.4.1.b
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and
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dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins. Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of 140C. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is ruled out.

Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in automobile and structural applications. The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75C or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey. Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service at around 200250C .

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1.4.2 According to geometry:

Most composite materials developed thus far have been fabricated to improve mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, and high temperature performance. It is natural to study together the composites that have a common strengthening mechanism. The strengthening mechanism strongly depends on the geometry of the reinforcement. Therefore, it is quite convenient to classify composite materials on the basis of the geometry of a representative unit of reinforcement.

1.4.2.a Fibrous composite

A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension discourages the growth of incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement that might otherwise lead to failure, particularly with brittle matrices. Man-made filaments or fibers of non polymeric materials exhibit much higher strength along their length since large flaws, which may be present in the bulk material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness.Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite. Most composites used in structural applications are multilayered; that is, they consist of

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several layers of fibrous composites. Each layer or lamina is a single layer composite and its orientation is varied according to design. Several identical or different layers are bonded together to form a multilayered composites usable for engineering applications. When the constituent materials in each layer are the same, they are called simply laminates. Hybrid laminates refer to multilayered composites consisting of layers made up of different constituent materials. Reinforcing fibers in a single layer composite may be short or long compared to its overall dimensions. Composites with long fibers are called continuous fiber reinforced composites and those with short fibers, discontinuous fiber reinforced composites. The continuous fibers in single layer composites may be all aligned in one direction to form a unidirectional composite. Such composites are fabricated by laying the fibers parallel and saturating them with resinous material. The bidirectional reinforcement may be provided in a single layer in mutually perpendicular directions as in a woven fabric. The bidirectional reinforcement may be such that the strengths in two perpendicular directions are approximately equal. The orientation of discontinuous fibers cannot be easily controlled in a composite material.

So fibers can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented. In most cases the fibers are assumed to be randomly oriented in the composites. However, in the injection molding of a fiber reinforced polymer, considerable orientation can occur in the flow direction and which a case of preferred oriented fibers in the composites.

1.4.2.b Particulate Composites

As the name itself indicates, the reinforcement is of particle nature (platelets are also included in this class). It may be spherical, cubic,
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tetragonal, a platelet, or of other regular or irregular shape, but it is approximately equiaxed. In general, particles are not very effective in improving fracture resistance but they enhance the stiffness of the composite to a limited extent. Particle fillers are widely used to improve the properties of matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and electrical conductivities, improve performance at elevated temperatures, reduce friction, increase wear and abrasion resistance, improve machinability, increase surface hardness and reduce shrinkage. Also, in case of particulate reinforced composites the particle can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented.

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1.4.3 According to type of matrix material they are classified as:

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

1.4.3.a Metal Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites have many advantages over monolithic metals like higher specific modulus, higher specific strength, better properties at elevated temperatures, and lower coefficient of thermal expansion.
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Because of these attributes metal matrix composites are under consideration for wide range of applications viz. combustion chamber nozzle (in rocket, space shuttle), housings, tubing, cables, heat exchangers, structural members etc

1.4.3.b Ceramic matrix Composites

One of the main objectives in producing ceramic matrix composites is to increase the toughness Naturally it is hoped and indeed often found that there is a concomitant improvement in strength and stiffness of ceramic matrix composites.

1.4.3.c Polymer Matrix Composites

Most commonly used matrix materials are polymeric. The reasons for this are twofold. In general the mechanical properties of polymers are inadequate for many structural purposes. In particular their strength and stiffness are low compared to metals and ceramics. These difficulties are overcome by reinforcing other materials with polymers. Secondly the processing of polymer matrix composites need not involve high pressure and doesnt require high temperature. Also equipments required for manufacturing polymer matrix composites are simpler. For this reason polymer matrix composites developed rapidly and soon became popular for structural applications. Composites are used because overall properties of the composites are superior to those of the individual components for example polymer/ceramic. Composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component but arent as brittle as ceramics.

1.4.4 Classification Based on Reinforcements Introduction to Reinforcements

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with
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other two axes either often circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers.

Figure 1.4.4

Two types of polymer composites are: Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) Particle reinforced polymer (PRP)

1.4.4.a Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Common fiber reinforced composites are composed of fibers and a matrix. Fibers are the reinforcement and the main source of strength while matrix glues all the fibers together in shape and transfers stresses between the reinforcing fibers. The fibers carry the loads along their longitudinal directions. Sometimes, filler might be added to smooth the manufacturing process, impact special properties to the composites, and
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/or reduce the product cost. Common fiber reinforcing agents include asbestos, carbon /graphite fibers, beryllium, beryllium carbide, beryllium oxide, molybdenum, aluminium oxide, glass fibers, polyamide,natural fibers etc. Similarly common matrix materials include epoxy, phenolic, polyester, polyurethane, peek, vinyl ester etc. Among these resin materials, epoxy is widely used for its higher adhesion and less shrinkage property.

1.4.4.b Particle Reinforced Polymer

Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminium and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black. Particles are used to increase the modules of the matrix and to decrease the ductility of the matrix. Particles are also used to reduce the cost of the composites. Reinforcements and matrices can be common, inexpensive materials and are easily processed.

Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators. Some ceramics have special properties; some ceramics are magnetic materials; some are piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics are even superconductors at very low temperatures. Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback: they are brittle. An example of particle reinforced composites is an automobile tire, which has carbon black particles in a matrix of poly-isobutylene elastomeric polymer

1.5 Structure of Composite

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Structure of composite material A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness. Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite

Properties
1) Nature of the constituent material (bonding strength) 2) The geometry of the reinforcement (shape, size) 3) The concentration distribution(vol. fraction of reinforcement) 4) The orientation of the reinforcement(random or preferred) Good adhesion (bonding) between matrix phase and displaced phase provides transfer of load applied to the material to the displaced phase via the interface. Good adhesion is required for achieving high level of mechanical properties of composites. Very small particles less than 0.25 micrometer finely distributed in the matrix impede movement of dislocations and deformation of the material. They have strengthening
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effect. Large dispersed phase particles have low share load applied to the material resulting in increase of stiffness and decrease of ductility. Orientation of reinforcement: Planar:-In the form of 2-D woven fabric. When the fibers are laid parallel, the composite exhibits axistrope. Random or Three Dimensional:-The composite material tends to posses isotropic properties. One Dimensional: - Maximum strength and stiffness are obtained in the direction of fiber.

1.6 Advantages of Composites

Advantages of composites over their conventional counterparts are the ability to meet diverse design requirements with significant weight savings as well as strength-to-weight ratio. Some advantages of composite materials over conventional ones are as follows: Tensile strength of composites is four to six times greater than that of steel or aluminium (depending on the reinforcements).

Improved torsional stiffness and impact properties. Higher fatigue endurance limit (up to 60% of ultimate tensile strength). 30% - 40% lighter for example any particular aluminium structures designed to the same functional requirements. Lower embedded energy compared to other structural metallic materials like steel, aluminium etc. Composites are less noisy while in operation and provide lower vibration transmission than metals. Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored to meet performance needs and complex design requirements. Long life offer excellent fatigue, impact, environmental resistance and reduce maintenance.
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Composites enjoy reduced life cycle cost compared to metals. Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and fire retardancy. Improved appearance with smooth surfaces and readily incorporable integral decorative melamine are other characteristics of composites. Composite parts can eliminate joints / fasteners, providing part simplification and integrated design compared to conventional metallic parts.

1.7 Applications of Composites

Figure 1.7

1.8 EXAMPLES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Fibre reinforced plastics:
Industry Examples Door, elevators Space Shuttle, Space stations Body frames, engine Comments 20-35% Weight savings Great weight savings High stiffness & damage tolerance

Classified by type of fiber:

Aerospace Automotive

Aircraft

Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix)

components

Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP)

Construction Fuel tanks etc.

Chemical

Pipes, Tanks, Pressure vessels Structural & decorative panels,

Corrosion resistance Weight savings, portable.

Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally, "fiberglass")

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Classified by matrix: Thermoplastic Composites Short fiber thermoplastics Long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics Glass mat thermoplastics Continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics Thermoset Composites Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)

Metal matrix composites (MMCs): White cast iron Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix) Metal-intermetallic laminate Ceramic matrix composites: Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers)

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Cermet (ceramic and metal) Concrete Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites Asphalt concrete Dental composite Syntactic foam Mother of Pearl Chobham armour (see composite armour) Engineered wood

Plywood Oriented strand board Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix) Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix) Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles Arborite Formica (plastic)
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1.9 Scope of the project

The basic aim of the present work is to develop and characterize a new class of composites with epoxy as polymer matrix and glass fiber as the reinforcing material. Their physical and mechanical characterization is done. Attempt is made to use TiO2 as filler in these fiber reinforced .polymer matrix composites. Characterization of the resulting TiO2 filled glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite is done. The experimentally measured database of composites has also been predicted. This work is expected to introduce a new class of functional polymer composites suitable for tribological applications.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

This chapter outlines some of the recent reports published in literature on composites of fiber reinforced polymer composites. Polymer composite materials have generated wide interest in various engineering fields, particularly in aerospace applications. Research is underway worldwide to develop newer composites with varied combinations of fibers and fillers so as to make them useable under different operational conditions. The improved performance of polymer composites in engineering applications by the addition of filler materials has shown a
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great promise and so has become a subject of considerable interest. Ceramic filled polymer composites have been the subject of extensive research in last two decades. Various kinds of polymers and polymer matrix composites reinforced with ceramic particles have a wide range of industrial applications such as heaters, electrodes, composites with thermal durability at high temperature etc.

These engineering composites are desired due to their low density, high corrosion resistance consisting of ceramic or metal particles and fiber fillers made of glass are being used these days to dramatically improve the wear resistance even up to three orders of magnitude. The inclusion of inorganic fillers into polymers for commercial applications is primarily aimed at the cost reduction and stiffness improvement. Along with fiber-reinforced composites, the composites made with particulate fillers have been found to perform well in many real operational conditions. It is reported by Bonner that with the inclusion of micro-sized particulates into polymers, a high filler content (typically greater than 20 vol. %) is generally required to bring the above stated positive effects into play. But at the same time, this may also have detrimental effects on some important properties of the matrix polymers such as processability, appearance, density and aging performance. It has also been reported that the fracture surface energies of epoxy and polyester resin and their resistance to crack propagation are relatively low.

But if particulate filler is added to these resins, the particles inhibit crack growth. As the volume fraction of filler is varied, the fracture energy increases up to a critical volume fraction and then decreases again. Srivastava showed that the fracture toughness of epoxy resin could be improved by addition of flyash particles as filler. The fillers also
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affect

the

tensile

properties

according

to

their
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packing

characteristics, size and interfacial bonding. The maximum volumetric packing fraction of filler reflects the size distribution and shapes of the particles. Recently, it has been observed that by incorporating filler particles into the matrix of fibre reinforced composites, synergistic effects may be achieved in the form of higher modulus and reduced material costs, yet accompanied with decreased strength and impact toughness. Polymer composites with both discontinuous and continuous fibre reinforcement possess usually very high specific (i.e. density related) stiffness and strength when measured in plane. Therefore, such composites are frequently used in engineering parts in automobile, aerospace, marine and energetic applications.

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CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the experimental procedures followed for their characterization and tribological evaluation. The raw materials used in this work are 1. E-glass fiber 2. E-Glass powder 3. Epoxy resin

3.1 Hardener:
The hardener used in Epoxy is polyamine. A polyamine is an organic compound having two or more primary amino groups -NH2.This class of compounds includes several synthetic substances that are important feed stocks for the chemical industry, such as ethylene diamine H2N-CH2-CH2-NH2, 1,3-diaminopropane H2N-(CH2)3-NH2, and hex methylenediamine H2N-(CH2)6-NH2. The amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

3.2 Epoxy:
Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener. When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

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The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements.

Resin:
Resin is a natural or synthetic compound which begins in a highly viscous state and hardens with treatment. Typically, resin is soluble in alcohol, but not in water. There are a number of different classes of resin, depending on exact chemical composition and potential uses. Matrix resins bind glass-reinforcing fibers together, protecting them from impact and the environment. Glass fiber properties such as strength dominate in continuously reinforced composites. When glass is used as a discontinuous reinforcement, resin properties dominate and are enhanced by the glass. Polymer matrix resins fall into two categories: thermo set and thermoplastic. The difference is in their chemistry. Thermo set resin is chemically comprised of molecular chains that crosslink during the cure reaction (set off by heat, catalyst, or both) and "set" into a final rigid form. Molecular chains in thermoplastic resin are processed at higher temperatures and remain "plastic," or capable of being reheated and reshaped. While the tradeoffs between thermosets and thermoplastics have been debated extensively, engineers will find that material suppliers will tailor matrix resin formulations best for their application

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3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials:

Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used. Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers, high silica and quartz fibers, alumina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron fibers, aramid fibers and multi phase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified into E-glass, S-glass, A- glass, R-glass etc. There is a greater market and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers. The potential of fibers of graphite, silicon carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific mind due to their applications in advanced composites.

3.3.1Types of fibers 3.3.1.a Glass Fibers

Over 95% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers, as they are inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the plastics with which they are reinforced.
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Their low density, resistance to chemicals, insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics, although the one major disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when subjected to high tensile stress for a long time.. However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time frames. This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is expected to sustain such loads for many months or years continuously. Period of loading, temperature, moisture and other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibers and the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning before the catastrophic failure. But all this can be easily overlooked in view of the fact that the wide range of glass fiber variety lend themselves amicably to fabrication processes like matched die moulding, filament winding lay-up and so on. Glass fibers are available in the form of mats, tapes, cloth, continuous and chopped filaments, rovings and yarns. Addition of chemicals to silica sand while making glass yields different types of glasses.

3.3.1.b Metal Fibers

As reinforcements, metal fibers have many advantages. They are easily produced using several fabrication processes and are more ductile, apart from being not too sensitive to surface damage and possess high strengths and temperature resistance. However, their weight and the tendency to react with each other through alloying mechanisms are major disadvantages. Steel wire is the most extensively used reinforcement in most large-scale metal filament applications. Wire is used for its capacity to enhance the tensile strength of concrete and continuous metal fibers are the reinforcing constituents in metal and ceramic composite materials.

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3.3.1.c Ceramic fibers improve vastly in performance when a fine metal outline is incorporated with refractory ceramics by improving their thermal shock and impact resistance properties. 3.3.1.d Metal wires, of the continuous version, also reinforce plastics like polyethylene and epoxy. Such combinations ensure high strength, light weight and good fatigue resistance. Besides, continuous metal fibers are easily handled, unlike glass fibers. Better flexural properties are observed in some metal fibers reinforced plastic composites which also offer improved strength and weight, than glass fibers. However, their poor tolerance of high temperatures and the resultant steep variation of thermal expansion coefficient with the resins are a discouragement that limits their application.

3.3.1.d Alumina Fibers

Alumina or aluminum oxide fibers, basically developed for use in metal matrices are considered a potential resin-matrix composite reinforcement. It offers good compressive strength rather than tensile strength. It is important property is it is high melting point of about 2000C and the composite can be successfully used at temperatures up to about 1000C. Magnesium and aluminum matrices frequently use alumina fiber reinforced composites as they do not damage the fiber even in the liquid state.

3.3.1.e Boron Fibers

They are basically composites, in which boron is coated on a substance which forms the substrate, usually made of tungsten. Boron-tungsten fibers are obtained by allowing hot tungsten filament through a mixture of gases. Boron is deposited on tungsten and the process is continued until the desired thickness is achieved. The tungsten however remains constant in its thickness. Properties of boron fibers generally change with the diameter, because of the changing ratio of boron to tungsten and the surface defects that change according to size. However, they
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are known for their remarkable stiffness

33and strength. Their strengths often compare with those of glass fibers, but their tensile modulus is high, almost four to five times that of glass. Boron coated carbons are much cheaper to make than boron tungsten fiber. But its low modulus of elasticity often works against it.

3.3.1.f Silicon Carbide Fibers

Silicon carbide can be coated over a few metals and their room temperature tensile strengths and tensile moduli are like those of boron-tungsten. The advantages of silicon carbide-tungsten are several and they are more desirable than uncoated boron tungsten fibers. Elevated temperature performance and the fact that they reported only a 35% loss of strength at 1350C are their best qualities. Silicon carbide-tungsten and silicon carbidecarbon have both been seen to have very high stress-rupture strength at 1100C and 1300C. Uncoated boron-tungsten fibers tend to lose all their strength at temperatures over 680C. Silicon carbide fibers do not react with molten aluminium, unlike uncoated boron and they also withstand high temperatures used in hot-press titanium matrices. However, silicon carbide-tungsten fibers are dense compared to boron- tungsten fibers of the same diameter. They are prone to surface damage and need careful, delicate handling, especially during fabrication of the composite. Further, above 930C, weakening reactions occur between tungsten and silicon carbide, making it difficult to maintain balance in high-temperature matrix formations. Silicon carbide on 'carbon substrates have several advantages, viz. no, reaction at high temperature, being lighter than silicon carbide tungsten and possessing tensile strengths and modulus that is are often better than those of silicon carbide-tungsten and boron fibers.

3.3.1.g Aramid Fibers

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Aramid fibers are made from aromatic polyamides which are long polymeric .chains and aromatic rings. They are structures in which six carbon atoms are bonded to each other and to combinations of hydrogen atoms. In aramid fibers, these rings occur and reoccur to form the fibers. They were initially used to reinforce automobile tires. Since then, they have also found other uses like bullet proof vests. As high strength applications, their use in power boats is not uncommon.

Aramid have high tensile strength, high modulus and low weight. Impact- resistant structures can be produced from aramid. The density of aramid fibers is less than that of glass and graphite fibers. They are fire resistant apart from being high-temperature resistant and also unaffected by organic solvents and fuels. But their resistance in acid and alkaline media is poor. They are supple and allow themselves to be woven into matrices by simple processes. Aramid fibers have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion in the fiber direction and the failure of aramid fibers is unique. When they fail, the fibers break into small fibrils, which are like fibers within the fibers. This unique failure mechanism is responsible for high strength.

3.3.1.h Quartz and Silica Fibers

The glass-types typically contain about 50 to 78% silica. Silica glass is a purer glass fiber that can be made by treating fiberglass in an acid bath, which removes all impurities without affecting the silica. The final product contains 93 to 99% silica. Quartz is even more pure, and quartz fibers are made from natural quartz crystals that contain 99.9% silica, possessing nearly all the properties of pure solid quartz. Ordinary fiberglass, high silica and quartz fibers share several characteristics and can be produced in a range of fiber diameters. Roving or yarns and other forms of fibers can be made from high silica as well as quartz. All matrix materials that accept fiberglass are amenable to high silica and quartz too. They differ from glass in many factors, however, especially in heat-related properties.
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Although quartz crystals are commonly available, pure crystals are hard to come by. On the other hand, high silica comes from the same material as glass fibers and is easily accessible. However, quartz makes up for its rarity with its capacity to" withstand high temperatures, which silica is incapable of. Barring this difference, silica and quartz are similar in other respects. They are highly elastic and can be stretched to 1 % of their length before break point. Both silica and quartz are not affected by acid attacks and are resistant to moisture. Owing to their thermal properties, silica and quartz are the natural choice as fibers in several applications. They have good insulating properties and do not melt at temperatures up to 1600C. In addition, they have low thermal expansion coefficients which make them withstand high temperatures.

3.3.1.i Graphite Fibers

While use of the term carbon for graphite is permissible, there is one basic difference between the two. Elemental analysis of poly-acrylo-nitrile (PAN) base carbon fibers show that they consist of 91 to 94% carbon. But graphite fibers are over 99% carbon. The difference arises from the fact that the fibers are made at different temperatures. PAN-based carbon cloth or fiber is produced at about 1320C, while graphite fibers and cloth are graphitized at 1950 to 3000C. The properties of graphite remain unchanged even at very high temperatures, but its willingness to react readily with most metals at the fabrication stage or during use at very high temperatures is often a stumbling block, as seen in aluminium matrices when carbides are produced at the interface. These carbides react with moisture with disastrous effects on the composite material.

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Graphite fibers are some of the stiffest fibers known. The stiffness of the fiber is as high as the graphite content. But a major drawback is that stiffness and strength are inversely proportional to each other. Forbidding costs make the use of graphite fibers prohibitive. The best glass fibers are far less expensive than the cheapest, lowest quality of graphite, and in PAN-base fibers, other raw materials too are equally expensive. The carbonization and graphitization are time-consuming, apart from demanding excessive energy, materials and close controls throughout the process. Cheaper pitch base fibers are now being developed, with greater performance potential and there are possibilities of the increased use of graphite fibers.

3.3.1.j Multiphase Fibers

Spoolable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually the multi phase variety and they usually comprise materials like boron, silicon and their carbides formed on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or tungsten. They are usually good for high temperature applications, due to their reduced reaction with higher melting temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers. Boron filaments are sought after for structural and intermediate-temperature composites. A poly-phase fiber is a core-sheath fiber consisting of a polycrystalline core.

3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber:

E-Glass or electrical grade glass was originally developed for standoff insulators for electrical wiring. It was later found to have excellent fibre forming capabilities and is now used almost exclusively as the reinforcing phase in the material commonly known as fiber glass.

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. Figure 3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber

3.3.2 Mechanical Properties of fibers

Composite materials are not homogeneous. Their properties are dependent on many factors, the most important of which are the type of fibre, quantity of fibre (as volume fraction) and the configuration of the reinforcement. They are generally completely elastic up to failure and exhibit neither a yield point nor a region of plasticity. They tend to have low strain to failure(less than 3%). The resulting area under the stress/strain curve, which represents the work done to failure, is relatively small when compared to many metals. The properties of composites are dependent on the properties of the fibre and the matrix, the proportion of each and the configuration of the fibres. If all the fibres are aligned in one direction then the composite relatively stiff and strong in that direction, but in the transverse direction it has low modulus and low strength. When a unidirectional composite is tested at a small angle from the fibre axis, there is a considerable reduction in strength. A similar but less significant effect occurs with the tensile modulus, as shown in Figure 3.3.2

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Figure 3.3.2
Theoretical variation in tensile modulus with the angle of load relative to the principal fibre direction (unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced plastic (UD CFRP), fibre volume fraction = 0.5)

Strength and stiffness Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) E glass fibres, which have a modulus of about 70GPa, produce composites with modest moduli. In the case of unidirectional fibres and the highest typical fibre volume fraction of 0.65, a composite has a modulus of about45GPa and strength of around 1300MPa. At right angles to this, in the transverse direction, the modulus approaches that of the resin itself at about4GPa and the strength would be 50100MPa. The unidirectional compo-sites used in the ROBUST Project, manufactured using the vacuum process with prepreg material in an epoxy matrix, had the following properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 36GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 750MPa Elongation at break: 3.1%.

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Bidirectional E glass laminates have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.4 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about 14GPa.Random laminates (e.g. chopped strand mat) have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.2 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about9GPa. The use of S2 or R glass improves the composite modulus to about60GPa for unidirectional and 20GPa for woven fabric (bidirectional) constructions. This is at some monetary disadvantage. They are both more expensive than E glass and they are only available in a fairly limited range of material types and resin compatibilities. Probably the most important virtue of S2 and R glass is their high strength, which is considerably higher than E glass. Carbon and graphite fibers Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) The dominant carbon fibres in current use (typically Toray T700) have a tensile modulus of about 230GPa, a tensile strength of around 5000MPaand a strain-to-failure of 2%. Unidirectional composites produced from them in either an epoxy or vinyl-ester matrix have the following typical properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 155165GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 25003000MPa Elongation at break: 1.21.3% Carbon fibres are available which will give a tensile modulus of about250GPa in a unidirectional composite, comparing very favourably with steel at about 210GPa. However, as this composite is unidirectional, it has extremely low modulus in the transverse direction. The principal attributes of carbon fibre composites are their very high specific stiffness (the ratio of modulus/density), excellent fatigue and environmental resistance. Currently there are various pultruded CFRP plates available commercially for plate bonding applications. The pultruded plates used in the ROBUST Project, as well as the plates manufactured with prepreg materials, possessed a modulus of about 130GPa and a
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strength of 1500MPa.Pultruded plates now available from other sources typically exploit fibers with superior properties such as Toray T700, resulting in composites with the properties shown above. A financial penalty has to be paid for materials exhibiting properties significantly in excess of these; the strain-to-failure of composites made with them will also be reduced significantly. Carbon and graphite have substantial capability as reinforcing fibers, with great flexibility in the properties that can be provided. Primary characteristics for reinforcing fibers in polymer matrix composites are high stiffness and strength. The fibers must maintain these characteristics in hostile environments such as elevated temperatures, exposure to common solvents and fluids, and environmental moisture. To be used as part of a primary structure material it should also be available as continuous fiber. These characteristics and requirements have substantial implications for the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the fiber, which in turn implies processing and acceptance parameters. Interest in carbon fibers for structural materials was initiated in the late 1950s when synthesized rayons in textile form were carbonized to produce carbon fibers for high temperature missile applications. One of the first distinctions to be made is the difference between carbon and graphite fibers, although the terms are frequently used interchangeably. Background information for these differences is contained in the following sections. The primary purpose of making this distinction here is to alert the reader that users may mean different things when referring to graphite versus carbon fibers. Carbon and graphite fibers are both based on graphene (hexagonal) layer networks present in carbon. If the graphene layers or planes stack with three dimensional orders the material is defined as graphite. Usually extended time and temperature processing is required to form this order, making graphite fibers more expensive. Because the bonding between planes is weak, disorder frequently occurs such that only the two dimensional
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ordering within the layers is present. This material is defined as carbon. With this distinction made, it should be understood that while some differences are implied, there is not a single condition which strictly separates carbon from graphite fibers, and even graphite fibers retain some disorder in their structure.

3.3.3 Fiber Manufacture:

Glass fibers are generally produced using melt spinning techniques. These involve melting the glass composition into a platinum crown which has small holes for the molten glass to flow. Continuous fibers can be drawn out through the holes and wound onto spindles, while short fibers may be produced by spinning the crown, which forces molten glass out through the holes centrifugally. Fibers are cut to length using mechanical means or air jets. Fiber dimension and to some extent properties can be controlled by the process variables such as melt temperature (hence viscosity) and drawing/spinning rate. The temperature window that can be used to produce a melt of suitable viscosity is quite large, making this composition suitable for fiber forming. As fibers are being produced, they are normally treated with sizing and coupling agents. These reduce the effects of fiber- fiber abrasion which can significantly degrade the mechanical strength of the individual fibers. Other treatments may also be used to promote wetting and adherence of the matrix material to the fiber .

Composition
E-Glass is a low alkali glass with a typical nominal composition of SiO2 54wt%, Al2O3 14wt%, CaO+MgThe advantageous properties of E-glass generally outweigh the disadvantages which include:
Low modulus Self abrasiveness if not treated appropriately leading to reduced strength

Relatively low fatigue resistance

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Higher density compared to carbon fibres and organic fibresO 22wt%, B2O3 10wt% and Na2O+K2O less then 2wt%. Some other materials may also be present at impurity levels.

3.3.4 Key Properties:

Properties that have made E-glass so popular in 1122iberglass and other glass reinforced composite include: Low cost High production rates High strength High stiffness Relatively low density Non-flammable Resistant to heat Good chemical resistance Relatively insensitive to moisture Able to maintain strength properties over a wide range of conditions Good electrical insulation

3.4 Processing of the Composites Fabrication of the Laminate

E-glass/Epoxy composite laminates were prepared by passing the E-glass fibers of 1200 TEX, through the resin bath of Epoxy and hardener maintaining a constant temperature of about 45 C.The fibers are then wound on a rotating drum with 15 rpm. After complete winding on the drum then it is cut opened and lay on a flat table in the atmospheric condition for about 48 hours to get the
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tackiness. The layers are cut in such a way that the desired fiber direction is obtained. In this experimentation it is decided to prepare the laminates such that the angle between the fibers are15o 30o 45o 60o and 90oas shown in fig-1. The sequence of layup shown in the fig -2. The number of layup depends on the thickness of the laminate required; here it is used 20 layers to obtain the thickness of the laminate about 4mm. All the overlapped layers then compacted between the two parallel flat steel plates with stainless steel spacers of required laminate thickness. The major purpose of lamination is to tailor the directional dependence of strength and stiffness of a composite material to match the loading environment of the structural element laminates are uniquely suited to this objective because the principal material directions of each layer can be oriented according to need. The plates are clamped with nuts and bolts with washers; the clamped setup is then placed in the oven. Maintain the oven temperature of 800 C for 4 hours and 1200 C for next 4 hours so that any entrapped air or volatile gases will be escaped for the first four hours and chemical reaction between the epoxy and hardener will takes place for the next four hours and will lead to permanent set and finally result into a single solid composite laminate. After total curing of 8 hours oven is then switched off so the temperature in the oven may come down to normal temperature. Take out the composite laminate and trim the edges so that the laminate is ready for testing purpose. Winding parameters 53. 54. 55.
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Tension of fibre =1.3 kgs Resin temperature= 45 0c RPM of lathe = 15

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56.

Gap between doctor blade and drum = 1.25 mmThe

parameters are kept constant for two different windings

FILAMENT WINDING SETUP

RESIN BATH

DRUM WINDING

REMOVING LAYUP

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LAYUP PLACED ON TABLE

APPLYING WAXPOL ON PLATES

LAYING UP LAYERS

REMOVING AIR GAP

COMPACTING LAYERS

PLACING IN THE OVEN

3.4.2 CURING PROCESS :

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Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener". The resin consists of monomers or short chain polymers with an epoxide group at either end. Most common epoxy resins are produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A, though the latter may be replaced by similar chemicals. The hardener consists of polyamine monomers, for example Triethylenetetramine (TETA). When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond.

Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily crosslinked, and is thus rigid and strong.The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. So the laminate that is fabricated is put into a Oven . The temperatures are maintained in two cycles. In the first cycle we have to maintain constant temperature of 80C for 4hours and in the next cycle maintain a temperature of 160C for next 4 hours.

AFTER CURING

MARKING

TRIMMING

AFTER TRIMMING

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DRILLING

AFTER DRILLING

Figure 3.6.a specifications of UTM (at CIPET)

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UTM SPECIFICATIONS

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COMPOSITE LAMINATE UNDER TESTING

4.1 Experimental procedure

Quasi-static Indentation tests were performed on INSTRON testing machine. The
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composite laminate of size 150mm x 150mm is placed on a steel supporting frame, with a square opening of size 50mm x 50mm. A similar square opening flat plate is placed ontop of the composite laminate; it is then clamped rigidly with nuts and bolts of 6mm size as shown in fig-3. The clamped setup is placed on the loading frame of testing machine. A spherical stainless steel ball indenter of diameter 8.32mmis used for indentation on the composites laminate. The tests were conducted with the controlled displacement of the indenter (0.2mm / minute). The test data is shown in Table-2.An extensometer is used to measure the displacement of the point just below the indentation location at the bottom side of the composite laminate. A 20kN load cell evaluated the load on each composite laminate. The data obtained during test for each laminate is shown in Table-2. The composite laminate with different fiber angles is indented for a fixed displacement of 5 mm. The damage in the different composite laminate with different fiber angles is shown fig-4. The damage area in each composite laminate is observed with the help of optical light microscope.
S. No. Specifications 1 2 3 4 5 ASTM Present work

Specimen 4 6 mm 4 - 5 mm thickness Indenter 10 16 mm 8.73 mm diameter Cross head 0.2 mm / 1 mm / min displacement min Indenter 5 10 mm 5 mm displacement No of samples 4 4 per test

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF UTM

00/150

00/300

00/450

00/600

00/900

Fig-1: Schematic diagram of five different laminates

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Fig-2: Sequence of angle plies

4.2 COMPOSITE LAMINATES WITHOUT E-GLASS POWDER FRONT SIDE BACK SIDE

0,90

0,60

FRONT SIDE

BACK SIDE

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0,45

0,30

0,15
S. No. Angle (0) Max. Load (KN) Indentation (mm) Spring back (mm)

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1 2 3 4 5

0/15 0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

3.77 4.11 4.69 4.99 5.83

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.86

0.92 1.17 2.50 3.08 3.44

Table - 2: Test results after Indentation.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Load (KN)

15 DEG 30 DEG 45 DEG 60 DEG 90 DEG

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5

Displacement (mm) Graph-1: Shows the load carrying capacity in each case for different indenter displacements of maximum 5mm for all the laminates. It is gradually increasing for the laminates with the fiber angles varying from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

Indentation ()

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-2: Indentation depth is increasing linearly as the fiber angle in laminates is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o),however it is suddenly increasing in the laminates with fiber angle varying from (0o/60o) to (0o/90o).

S. No. 1

Angle (0) 0/15

Front face damage area (mm2) 971

Back face damage area (mm2) 1256

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2 3 4 5

0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

1300 1894 2186 2623

1857 2280 2623 3257

Table-3: Experimental data of damage surface areas on front and back face of the laminates

Front face damage area 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 15 30 45

Back face damage area

60

75

90

105

Graph-3: Damage area is increasing with the increase in fiber angle of the laminates in front face and back face of the laminate; however the damage area back face is more than the front face as seen from the above graph.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Load (KN)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-4: Maximum load taken in each laminate with different fiber angles. The load is increasing linearly as the fiber angle is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

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4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Spring back (mm)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

5: Shows spring back effect is increasing in different laminates as the fiber angles are increasing

0o/15o) to (0o/90o), it shows that as the angle between fibers is increasing the laminate elasticity increasing

Material

Density (mg/m3)

Modulus (G Pa)

Poisons ratio(v)

Tensile strength (G Pa) 3.5

E-glass fiber

2.56

76

0.22

Epoxy resin

1.3

3.6

0.4

0.1

Table-4: Properties of materials

4.3) RATE OF LOADING (0.5mm/min) WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

0.5%

1%

1.5

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE
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(0/45)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE
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(0/15)

BACK SIDE
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GRAPH 1 :

0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1.0 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.92 1.8 1.4 2 3.4 3.1 3.1 3 4.62 4.1 3.5 4 4.85 4.19 3.6 5 4 3.73 3.11

GRAPH 2 :

0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

4
3 2 1 0 0 2

0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 % % % 0 0 0 2 1.7 1.6 3.15 3.2 2.95 4.65 3.72 3.2 5.4 3.12 2.25 3 2.38 1.89

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 3:

0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.1 2.2 1.7 2 3.8 3.6 3.15 3 4.26 4.2 2.91 4 4.5 2.92 2.29 5 3.5 2.32 1.83

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 4: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.15 2.1 1.2 2 3.75 3.5 2.3 3 5.18 4.2 3.4 4 4.2 3.15 2.85 5 2.5 1.9 1.75

GRAPH 5: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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5 4

FORCE (kN)

3 2 1 0 0 2

F 0.5 F1 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.9 1.8 1.7 2 3.1 2.85 2.6 3 3.9 3.8 3.3 4 3 2.8 2.5 5 2.85 2.35 1.7

GRAPH 6 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

0.5 mm/min

3.5 3 2.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

DEPTH mm)

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.42 2.6 2.5 2.1 2

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.38 2.54 2.6 2.4 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 2.67 2.98 2.9 2.55 2.38

ANGLE

GRAPH 7 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

0.5 mm /min

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PROJECTED HEIGHT

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5 %

ANGLE

ANGLE

0 15 30 45 60 90

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 0.5 % 0 2.84 3.2 2.5 2.55 2

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.0 % 0 3.24 3.6 2.7 3.5 2.1

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.5 % 0 3.31 3.76 3.33 3.67 2.6

4.4 1.5mm/min RATE OF LOADING WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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FRONT SIDE

(0/45)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/15)

BACK SIDE

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GRAPH 8: 0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

F F F 0.5% 1 % 1.5% 0 0 0 1.5 2.05 1.35 3.1 3.3 2.75 3.2 4.3 1.95 2.5 3.75 1.65 1.5 3.25 1.31

GRAPH 9:0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5 % 0 0 0 0 1 2.5 2.31 2.09 2 4.72 4.22 3.75 3 5.5 4.5 4.2 4 4.5 3.23 2.85 5 3.7 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 10: 0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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6 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 % 0 2.5 4.72 5.5 4.5 3.7

FORCE (kN)

4 3 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 1 0 0 2 DISPLACEMENT 4 (mm) 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 2.31 2.09 4.22 3.75 4.5 4.2 3.23 2.85 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 11: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

F 0.5 % 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2.5 4.2 5.55 4.65 3.25

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 (mm) DISPLACEMENT 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 1.75 1.65 3 2.65 4 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.2 1.8

GRAPH 12: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5 mm/min)

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F 1.0 %

F 1.5 %

6 5

FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 DISPLACEMENT (mm) F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

0 1 2 3 4 5

0 1.8 2.9 4.1 4.85 3.7

0 1.98 3.15 3.9 4.4 3.2

0 1.65 2.5 3.1 2.25 1.6

GRAPH13 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

1.5 mm/min

DEPTH OF INDENTATION mm)

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

0
0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.34 2.45 2.67 2.39 2.5

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.14 2.32 2.6 2.27 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 1.9 2.29 2.31 2 1.8

ANGLE

GRAPH 14 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

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4
3.5

PROJECTED HEIGHT

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5%

ANGLE

ANGLE PROJECTED PROJECTED PROJECTED HEIGHT HEIGHT HEIGHT 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 15 3 1.41 2.95 30 2.71 3.65 3.05 45 3.19 3.31 3.15 60 3.33 3.32 2.5 90 2.7 2.55 2.1

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Graph 1 (0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 1 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 4mm at 3.6kN. Graph 2 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 2 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 5.4kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN. Graph 3 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 3,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 3.15kN. Graph 4 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) :
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at the

In Graph 4,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.18kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.4kN. Graph 5 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 5,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.9kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.3kN. Graph 6 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 6,Depth of indentation is increasing with increase in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-150 to 0-300 later on there is increase angles 0-300 to 0-900. Graph 7 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 7, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-300 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600 and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing
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at the

in

depth of indentation,but it is decreases with

in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles. Graph 8(0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 8 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of2 mm at 2.75kN. Graph 9 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 9 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN. Graph 10 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 10,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN.
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Graph 11 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 11,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.55kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 2.65kN. Graph 12 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 12,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.1kN. Graph 13 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 13,Depth of indentation is increasing with decrease in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-450, later on there is decrease in depth of indentation from 0-450 to 0-600,but it is increases with angles 0-600 to 0-900. Graph 14 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 14, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-150 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600
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at the

at the

and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles.

REFERENCES
1) Agarwal, B. D and Broutman, L. J, (1990). Analysis and Performance
of Fiber Composites, Second Edition, Jhon Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 2) Robert M. Jones(1999), mechanics of composite materials, second edition Taylor & Francis group , New york London. 3) http://nptel.iitm.ac.in 4) http://www.wikipedia.org/ 5) Rothon R.N, (1999). Mineral fillers in thermoplastics: filler manufacture and characterization. Adv. Polym. Sci. 139, pp. 67-107. 6) http://composite.about.com/ 7) Applied composite materials, An international journal for the science And application of composites materials.

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8) Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, publishes research on Polymers, nano composites and particulate

ABSTRACT

In this work the composite laminates of Epoxy/E-glass fiber hybridizing with and without E- glass powder are prepared for testing. The fabrication of the laminate is done by filament winding (hoop winding) on a drum mandrel mounted on a modified center lathe. The green layup obtained is cut into laminae of the desired orientations and stacked in the predefined way to a required thickness. The stacked laminate is cured at elevated temperatures under a pressure from a pressure plate. The edges of the laminate are trimmed first and it is then cut in to required size. The specimens are then subjected to indentation test on a universal testing machine (UTM) for a fixed indenter depth. An investigative study is conducted into the results obtained from test data. A number of illustrations are shown regarding the damage in the specimens of different fiber orientation and with different percentages of E-glass powder. Also indentation depth, contact radius, spring back effect, and maximum load carrying capacity are studied.

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CONTENTS
CHAPTER :1 INTRODUCTION 1.127 Overview of composites. 1.128 Historical Development/Historical Overview. 1.129 What is composite material. 1.130 Classification of composites. 1.131 Structure of composites. 1.132 Advantages of composites. 1.133 Applications of composites. 1.134 Examples of composite materials. 1.135 Scope of Project. CHAPTER:2 LITERATURE SURVE CHAPTER:3

PAGE NO:

5 5 8 12 24 25 26 27 29

30

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MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Hardener. 3.2 Epoxy. 3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials. 3.3.1 Types of fibres. 3.3.2 Mechanical properties of fibres. 3.3.3 Fibre manufacturing. 3.3.4 Key properties. 3.4 Processing of composites. 3.4.1 Curing CHAPTER:4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. 4.1 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates without E-glass powder. 4.2 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 4.3 1.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates 62 57 56

32 32 32 34 35 43 46 47 49 52

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with E-glass powder. CHAPTER:5 5.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. 5.2 REFERENCES

71

80 85

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of composites

The development of composite materials and related design and manufacturing technologies is one of the most important advances in the history of materials. Composites are multifunctional materials having unprecedented mechanical and physical properties that can be tailored to meet the requirements of a particular application. Many composites also exhibit great resistance to high-temperature corrosion and oxidation and wear. These unique characteristics provide the mechanical engineer with design opportunities not possible with conventional monolithic (unreinforced) materials. Composites technology also makes possible the use of an entire class of solid materials, ceramics, in applications for which monolithic versions are unsuited because of their great strength scatter and poor resistance to mechanical and thermal shock. Further, many manufacturing processes for composites are well adapted to the fabrication of large, complex structures, which allows consolidation of parts, reducing manufacturing costs.

1.2 Historical Development / Historical overview: Past: After making and controlling fire and inventing the wheel,
spinning of continuous yarns is probably the most important development of mankind, enabling him to survive outside the tropical climate zones and spread across the surface of the Earth. Flexible fabrics made of locally grown and spun fibres as cotton; flax and jute were a big
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step forward compared to animal skins. More and more natural resources were used, soon resulting in the first composites; straw reinforced walls, and bows (Figure M.1.1.a) and chariots made of glued layers of wood, bone and horn. More durable materials as wood and metal soon replaced these antique composites.

Fig M.1.1.a Composite Korean bow

Present:
Originating from early agricultural societies and being almost forgotten after centuries, a true revival started of using lightweight composite structures for many technical solutions during the second half of the 20th century. After being solely used for their electromagnetic properties (insulators and radar-domes), using composites to improve the structural performance of spacecraft and military aircraft became popular in the last two decades of the previous century. First at any costs, with development of improved materials with increasing costs, nowadays cost reduction during manufacturing and operation are the main technology drivers. Latest development is the use of composites to protect man

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against fire and impact and a tendency to a more environmental friendly design, leading to the reintroduction of natural fibres in the composite technology. Increasingly nowadays, the success of composites in applications, by volume and by numbers, can be ranked by accessibility and reproducibility of the applied manufacturing techniques. Some examples of use of natural fibers(M.1.1b M.1.1.e)

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Future:
In future, composites will be manufactured even more according to an integrated design process resulting in the optimum construction according to parameters such as shape, mass, strength, stiffness, durability, costs, etc. Newly developed design tools must be able to instantaneously show customers the influence of a design change on each one of these parameters.

1.3 What is Composite Material?

Composite materials are engineering materials made from two or more constituent materials that remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level while forming a single component. There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix Properties. The primary functions of the matrix are to transfer stresses between the reinforcing fibers/particles and to protect them from mechanical environmental damage whereas the presence of fibers/particles in a composite improves its mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness etc. The objective is to take advantage of the superior properties of both materials without compromising on the weakness of either. As defined by Agarwal and Broutman composite means material having two or more distinct constituent materials or phases. It is only when the constituent phases have significantly different physical properties and thus the composite properties are noticeably different from the constituent materials
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Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural. Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific character of a composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine to give them a specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve the desirable properties. Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the levels at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic. In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz., binding the reinforcement phases in place and deforming to distribute the stresses among the constituent materials under an applied force. The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be conductors or resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending on the purpose for which matrices are chosen. Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and metals have found applications as matrix materials in the designing of structural composites, with
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reinforcement

commendable success. These materials remain elastic till failure occurs and show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression. Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion characteristics. The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two interphases between each side of the interphase and its adjoint constituent. Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of matrix on properties of reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the selection and fabrication of composites is that the constituents should be chemically inert non-reactive.

Properties of Matrix Materials:

Naturally fibers and whiskers are of little use unless they are bonded together to take form of structural element that can carry loads.

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The binder material is usually called a matrix. The purpose of the matrix is manifold support of fibers or whiskers, protection of the fibers or whiskers, stress transfer between broken fibers or whiskers, etc. Typically the matrix is of considerably lower density, stiffness, and strength than fibers or whiskers. However the combination of fibers or whiskers and a matrix can have very high strength and stiffness yet still have low density. Matrix materials can be polymers, metals, ceramics or carbon. Polymers (poly =many and mer = unit or molecule) exist in at least three major forms i.e linear, branched, or cross linked. A linear polymer is merely a chain of mers. A branched polymer consists of a primary chain of mers with other chains that are attached in three dimensions just like tree branches. Finally, a cross linked polymer has large number of three dimensional highly interconnected chains. Linear polymers have the least strength and stiffness, whereas cross linked polymer have most because of their inherently stiffer and stronger internal structure. The three main classes of structural polymers are rubbers, thermoplastics, and thermo sets. Rubbers are cross linked polymers that have semi crystalline state well below room temperature. Thermoplastics are polymers that branch, but generally dont cross link very much if at all. Thus, they usually can be repeatedly softened on heating and hardened on cooling. Examples of thermoplastics are nylon, polyethylene, and polysulfone. Thermo sets are polymers that are chemically reacted until almost all molecules are irreversibly cross linked in a three dimensional network. Thus, once an epoxy has set, it cannot be changed in form. Examples of thermo sets include epoxies, phenolics, and polyimides. Other matrix materials include metals that can be made to flow around an in-place fiber system by diffusion bonding or by heating vacuum infiltration. Common examples are shown in fig 1.3.1

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a) linear

b)branched

c)cross linked

d)network

figure 1.3.1

1.4 Classification of Composites

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels: The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites. The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres.

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 Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling. Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this category. Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.

1.4.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or Carbon-Carbon Composites

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications. Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are
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most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins. Thermoplastics have oneor two-dimensional

molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds. Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites.

Figure 1.4.1 a

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures.
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Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally. There thermoplastic temperatures. are a few options tend their to loose increase their heat strength resistance at like in

thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the heat resistance. But all composites However, elevated rigidity, redeeming qualities

toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc. Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds. Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas.

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Figure 1.4.1.b
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins. Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of 140C. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is ruled out.

Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in automobile and structural applications.
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The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75C or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey. Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service at around 200250C .

1.4.2 According to geometry:

Most composite materials developed thus far have been fabricated to improve mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, and high temperature performance. It is natural to study together the composites that have a common strengthening mechanism. The strengthening mechanism strongly depends on the geometry of the reinforcement. Therefore, it is quite convenient to classify composite materials on the basis of the geometry of a representative unit of reinforcement.

1.4.2.a Fibrous composite

A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite.

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Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension discourages the growth of incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement that might otherwise lead to failure, particularly with brittle matrices. Man-made filaments or fibers of non polymeric materials exhibit much higher strength along their length since large flaws, which may be present in the bulk material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness.Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite. Most composites used in structural applications are multilayered; that is, they consist of several layers of fibrous composites. Each layer or lamina is a single layer composite and its orientation is varied according to design. Several identical or different layers are bonded together to form a multilayered composites usable for engineering applications. When the constituent materials in each layer are the same, they are called simply laminates. Hybrid laminates refer to multilayered composites consisting of layers made up of different constituent materials. Reinforcing fibers in a single layer composite may be short or long compared to its overall dimensions. Composites with long fibers are called continuous fiber reinforced composites and those with short fibers, discontinuous fiber reinforced composites. The continuous fibers in single layer composites may be all aligned in one direction to form a unidirectional composite. Such composites are fabricated by laying the fibers parallel and saturating them with resinous material. The bidirectional reinforcement may be provided in a single layer in mutually perpendicular directions as in a

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woven fabric. The bidirectional reinforcement may be such that the strengths in two perpendicular directions are approximately equal. The orientation of discontinuous fibers cannot be easily controlled in a composite material.

So fibers can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented. In most cases the fibers are assumed to be randomly oriented in the composites. However, in the injection molding of a fiber reinforced polymer, considerable orientation can occur in the flow direction and which a case of preferred oriented fibers in the composites.

1.4.2.b Particulate Composites

As the name itself indicates, the reinforcement is of particle nature (platelets are also included in this class). It may be spherical, cubic, tetragonal, a platelet, or of other regular or irregular shape, but it is approximately equiaxed. In general, particles are not very effective in improving fracture resistance but they enhance the stiffness of the composite to a limited extent. Particle fillers are widely used to improve the properties of matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and electrical conductivities, improve performance at elevated temperatures, reduce friction, increase wear and abrasion resistance, improve machinability, increase surface hardness and reduce shrinkage. Also, in case of particulate reinforced composites the particle can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented.

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1.4.3 According to type of matrix material they are classified as:

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

1.4.3.a Metal Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites have many advantages over monolithic metals like higher specific modulus, higher specific strength, better properties at elevated temperatures, and lower coefficient of thermal expansion. Because of these attributes metal matrix composites are under consideration for wide range of applications viz. combustion chamber nozzle (in rocket, space shuttle), housings, tubing, cables, heat exchangers, structural members etc

1.4.3.b Ceramic matrix Composites

One of the main objectives in producing ceramic matrix composites is to increase the toughness Naturally it is hoped and indeed often found that there is a concomitant improvement in strength and stiffness of ceramic matrix composites.

1.4.3.c Polymer Matrix Composites

Most commonly used matrix materials are polymeric. The reasons for this are twofold. In general the mechanical properties of polymers are inadequate for many structural purposes. In particular their strength and stiffness are low compared to metals and ceramics. These difficulties are overcome by reinforcing other materials with polymers. Secondly the processing of polymer matrix composites need not involve high pressure
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and doesnt require high temperature. Also equipments required for manufacturing polymer matrix composites are simpler. For this reason polymer matrix composites developed rapidly and soon became popular for structural applications. Composites are used because overall properties of the composites are superior to those of the individual components for example polymer/ceramic. Composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component but arent as brittle as ceramics.

1.4.4 Classification Based on Reinforcements Introduction to Reinforcements

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with other two axes either often circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers.

Figure 1.4.4

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Two types of polymer composites are: Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) Particle reinforced polymer (PRP)

1.4.4.a Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Common fiber reinforced composites are composed of fibers and a matrix. Fibers are the reinforcement and the main source of strength while matrix glues all the fibers together in shape and transfers stresses between the reinforcing fibers. The fibers carry the loads along their longitudinal directions. Sometimes, filler might be added to smooth the manufacturing process, impact special properties to the composites, and /or reduce the product cost. Common fiber reinforcing agents include asbestos, carbon /graphite fibers, beryllium, beryllium carbide, beryllium oxide, molybdenum, aluminium oxide, glass fibers, polyamide,natural fibers etc. Similarly common matrix materials include epoxy, phenolic, polyester, polyurethane, peek, vinyl ester etc. Among these resin materials, epoxy is widely used for its higher adhesion and less shrinkage property.

1.4.4.b Particle Reinforced Polymer

Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminium and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black. Particles are used to increase the modules of the matrix and to decrease the ductility of the matrix. Particles are also used to reduce the cost of the composites. Reinforcements and matrices can be common, inexpensive materials and are easily processed.

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Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators. Some ceramics have special properties; some ceramics are magnetic materials; some are piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics are even superconductors at very low temperatures. Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback: they are brittle. An example of particle reinforced composites is an automobile tire, which has carbon black particles in a matrix of poly-isobutylene elastomeric polymer

1.5 Structure of Composite

Structure of composite material A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness. Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite

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Properties
1) Nature of the constituent material (bonding strength) 2) The geometry of the reinforcement (shape, size) 3) The concentration distribution(vol. fraction of reinforcement) 4) The orientation of the reinforcement(random or preferred) Good adhesion (bonding) between matrix phase and displaced phase provides transfer of load applied to the material to the displaced phase via the interface. Good adhesion is required for achieving high level of mechanical properties of composites. Very small particles less than 0.25 micrometer finely distributed in the matrix impede movement of dislocations and deformation of the material. They have strengthening effect. Large dispersed phase particles have low share load applied to the material resulting in increase of stiffness and decrease of ductility. Orientation of reinforcement: Planar:-In the form of 2-D woven fabric. When the fibers are laid parallel, the composite exhibits axistrope. Random or Three Dimensional:-The composite material tends to posses isotropic properties. One Dimensional: - Maximum strength and stiffness are obtained in the direction of fiber.

1.6 Advantages of Composites

Advantages of composites over their conventional counterparts are the ability to meet diverse design requirements with significant weight savings as well as strength-to-weight ratio. Some advantages of composite materials over conventional ones are as follows: Tensile strength of composites is four to six times greater than that of steel or aluminium (depending on the reinforcements).

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Improved torsional stiffness and impact properties. Higher fatigue endurance limit (up to 60% of ultimate tensile strength). 30% - 40% lighter for example any particular aluminium structures designed to the same functional requirements. Lower embedded energy compared to other structural metallic materials like steel, aluminium etc. Composites are less noisy while in operation and provide lower vibration transmission than metals. Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored to meet performance needs and complex design requirements. Long life offer excellent fatigue, impact, environmental resistance and reduce maintenance. Composites enjoy reduced life cycle cost compared to metals. Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and fire retardancy. Improved appearance with smooth surfaces and readily incorporable integral decorative melamine are other characteristics of composites. Composite parts can eliminate joints / fasteners, providing part simplification and integrated design compared to conventional metallic parts.

1.7 Applications of Composites

Industry Aircraft Aerospace Automotive Examples Door, elevators Space Shuttle, Space stations Body frames, engine Comments 20-35% Weight savings Great weight savings High stiffness & damage tolerance Corrosion resistance Weight savings, portable.

components Chemical Construction Pipes, Tanks, Pressure vessels Structural & decorative panels, Fuel tanks etc.

Figure 1.7

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1.8 EXAMPLES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Fibre reinforced plastics: Classified by type of fiber: Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix) Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP) Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally, "fiberglass") Classified by matrix: Thermoplastic Composites Short fiber thermoplastics Long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics Glass mat thermoplastics Continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics Thermoset Composites Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)

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 Metal matrix composites (MMCs): White cast iron Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix) Metal-intermetallic laminate Ceramic matrix composites: Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers) Cermet (ceramic and metal) Concrete Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites Asphalt concrete Dental composite Syntactic foam Mother of Pearl Chobham armour (see composite armour) Engineered wood

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Plywood Oriented strand board Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix) Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix) Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles Arborite Formica (plastic)

1.9 Scope of the project

The basic aim of the present work is to develop and characterize a new class of composites with epoxy as polymer matrix and glass fiber as the reinforcing material. Their physical and mechanical characterization is done. Attempt is made to use TiO2 as filler in these fiber reinforced .polymer matrix composites. Characterization of the resulting TiO2 filled glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite is done. The experimentally measured database of composites has also been predicted. This work is expected to introduce a new class of functional polymer composites suitable for tribological applications.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

This chapter outlines some of the recent reports published in literature on composites of fiber reinforced polymer composites. Polymer composite materials have generated wide interest in various engineering fields, particularly in aerospace applications. Research is underway worldwide to develop newer composites with varied combinations of fibers and fillers so as to make them useable under different operational conditions. The improved performance of polymer composites in engineering applications by the addition of filler materials has shown a great promise and so has become a subject of considerable interest. Ceramic filled polymer composites have been the subject of extensive research in last two decades. Various kinds of polymers and polymer matrix composites reinforced with ceramic particles have a wide range of industrial applications such as heaters, electrodes, composites with thermal durability at high temperature etc.

These engineering composites are desired due to their low density, high corrosion resistance consisting of ceramic or metal particles and fiber fillers made of glass are being used these days to dramatically improve the wear resistance even up to three orders of magnitude. The inclusion of inorganic fillers into polymers for commercial applications is primarily aimed at the cost reduction and stiffness improvement. Along with fiber-reinforced composites, the composites made with particulate fillers have been found to perform well in many real operational conditions. It is reported by Bonner that with the inclusion of micro-sized particulates into polymers, a high filler content (typically greater than 20 vol. %) is generally required to bring the above stated positive effects into
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play. But at the same time, this may also have detrimental effects on some important properties of the matrix polymers such as processability, appearance, density and aging performance. It has also been reported that the fracture surface energies of epoxy and polyester resin and their resistance to crack propagation are relatively low.

But if particulate filler is added to these resins, the particles inhibit crack growth. As the volume fraction of filler is varied, the fracture energy increases up to a critical volume fraction and then decreases again. Srivastava showed that the fracture toughness of epoxy resin could be improved by addition of flyash particles as filler. The fillers also affect the tensile properties according to their packing characteristics, size and interfacial bonding. The maximum volumetric packing fraction of filler reflects the size distribution and shapes of the particles. Recently, it has been observed that by incorporating filler particles into the matrix of fibre reinforced composites, synergistic effects may be achieved in the form of higher modulus and reduced material costs, yet accompanied with decreased strength and impact toughness. Polymer composites with both discontinuous and continuous fibre reinforcement possess usually very high specific (i.e. density related) stiffness and strength when measured in plane. Therefore, such composites are frequently used in engineering parts in automobile, aerospace, marine and energetic applications.

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CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the experimental procedures followed for their characterization and tribological evaluation. The raw materials used in this work are 1. E-glass fiber 2. E-Glass powder 3. Epoxy resin

3.1 Hardener:
The hardener used in Epoxy is polyamine. A polyamine is an organic compound having two or more primary amino groups -NH2.This class of compounds includes several synthetic substances that are important feed stocks for the chemical industry, such as ethylene diamine H2N-CH2-CH2-NH2, 1,3-diaminopropane H2N-(CH2)3-NH2, and hex methylenediamine H2N-(CH2)6-NH2. The amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

3.2 Epoxy:
Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener. When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

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The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements.

Resin:
Resin is a natural or synthetic compound which begins in a highly viscous state and hardens with treatment. Typically, resin is soluble in alcohol, but not in water. There are a number of different classes of resin, depending on exact chemical composition and potential uses. Matrix resins bind glass-reinforcing fibers together, protecting them from impact and the environment. Glass fiber properties such as strength dominate in continuously reinforced composites. When glass is used as a discontinuous reinforcement, resin properties dominate and are enhanced by the glass. Polymer matrix resins fall into two categories: thermo set and thermoplastic. The difference is in their chemistry. Thermo set resin is chemically comprised of molecular chains that crosslink during the cure reaction (set off by heat, catalyst, or both) and "set" into a final rigid form. Molecular chains in thermoplastic resin are processed at higher temperatures and remain "plastic," or capable of being reheated and reshaped. While the tradeoffs between thermosets and thermoplastics have been debated extensively, engineers will find that material suppliers will tailor matrix resin formulations best for their application

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3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials:

Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used. Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers, high silica and quartz fibers, alumina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron fibers, aramid fibers and multi phase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified into E-glass, S-glass, A- glass, R-glass etc. There is a greater market and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers. The potential of fibers of graphite, silicon carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific mind due to their applications in advanced composites.

3.3.1Types of fibers 3.3.1.a Glass Fibers

Over 95% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers, as they are inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the plastics with which they are reinforced.
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Their low density, resistance to chemicals, insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics, although the one major disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when subjected to high tensile stress for a long time.. However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time frames. This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is expected to sustain such loads for many months or years continuously. Period of loading, temperature, moisture and other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibers and the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning before the catastrophic failure. But all this can be easily overlooked in view of the fact that the wide range of glass fiber variety lend themselves amicably to fabrication processes like matched die moulding, filament winding lay-up and so on. Glass fibers are available in the form of mats, tapes, cloth, continuous and chopped filaments, rovings and yarns. Addition of chemicals to silica sand while making glass yields different types of glasses.

3.3.1.b Metal Fibers

As reinforcements, metal fibers have many advantages. They are easily produced using several fabrication processes and are more ductile, apart from being not too sensitive to surface damage and possess high strengths and temperature resistance. However, their weight and the tendency to react with each other through alloying mechanisms are major disadvantages. Steel wire is the most extensively used reinforcement in most large-scale metal filament applications. Wire is used for its capacity to enhance the tensile strength of concrete and continuous metal fibers are the reinforcing constituents in metal and ceramic composite materials.

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3.3.1.c Ceramic fibers improve vastly in performance when a fine metal outline is incorporated with refractory ceramics by improving their thermal shock and impact resistance properties. 3.3.1.d Metal wires, of the continuous version, also reinforce plastics like polyethylene and epoxy. Such combinations ensure high strength, light weight and good fatigue resistance. Besides, continuous metal fibers are easily handled, unlike glass fibers. Better flexural properties are observed in some metal fibers reinforced plastic composites which also offer improved strength and weight, than glass fibers. However, their poor tolerance of high temperatures and the resultant steep variation of thermal expansion coefficient with the resins are a discouragement that limits their application.

3.3.1.d Alumina Fibers

Alumina or aluminum oxide fibers, basically developed for use in metal matrices are considered a potential resin-matrix composite reinforcement. It offers good compressive strength rather than tensile strength. It is important property is it is high melting point of about 2000C and the composite can be successfully used at temperatures up to about 1000C. Magnesium and aluminum matrices frequently use alumina fiber reinforced composites as they do not damage the fiber even in the liquid state.

3.3.1.e Boron Fibers

They are basically composites, in which boron is coated on a substance which forms the substrate, usually made of tungsten. Boron-tungsten fibers are obtained by allowing hot tungsten filament through a mixture of gases. Boron is deposited on tungsten and the process is continued until the desired thickness is achieved. The tungsten however remains constant in its thickness. Properties of boron fibers generally change with the diameter, because of the changing ratio of boron to tungsten and the surface defects that change according to size. However, they
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are known for their remarkable stiffness

33and strength. Their strengths often compare with those of glass fibers, but their tensile modulus is high, almost four to five times that of glass. Boron coated carbons are much cheaper to make than boron tungsten fiber. But its low modulus of elasticity often works against it.

3.3.1.f Silicon Carbide Fibers

Silicon carbide can be coated over a few metals and their room temperature tensile strengths and tensile moduli are like those of boron-tungsten. The advantages of silicon carbide-tungsten are several and they are more desirable than uncoated boron tungsten fibers. Elevated temperature performance and the fact that they reported only a 35% loss of strength at 1350C are their best qualities. Silicon carbide-tungsten and silicon carbidecarbon have both been seen to have very high stress-rupture strength at 1100C and 1300C. Uncoated boron-tungsten fibers tend to lose all their strength at temperatures over 680C. Silicon carbide fibers do not react with molten aluminium, unlike uncoated boron and they also withstand high temperatures used in hot-press titanium matrices. However, silicon carbide-tungsten fibers are dense compared to boron- tungsten fibers of the same diameter. They are prone to surface damage and need careful, delicate handling, especially during fabrication of the composite. Further, above 930C, weakening reactions occur between tungsten and silicon carbide, making it difficult to maintain balance in high-temperature matrix formations. Silicon carbide on 'carbon substrates have several advantages, viz. no, reaction at high temperature, being lighter than silicon carbide tungsten and possessing tensile strengths and modulus that is are often better than those of silicon carbide-tungsten and boron fibers.

3.3.1.g Aramid Fibers

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Aramid fibers are made from aromatic polyamides which are long polymeric .chains and aromatic rings. They are structures in which six carbon atoms are bonded to each other and to combinations of hydrogen atoms. In aramid fibers, these rings occur and reoccur to form the fibers. They were initially used to reinforce automobile tires. Since then, they have also found other uses like bullet proof vests. As high strength applications, their use in power boats is not uncommon.

Aramid have high tensile strength, high modulus and low weight. Impact- resistant structures can be produced from aramid. The density of aramid fibers is less than that of glass and graphite fibers. They are fire resistant apart from being high-temperature resistant and also unaffected by organic solvents and fuels. But their resistance in acid and alkaline media is poor. They are supple and allow themselves to be woven into matrices by simple processes. Aramid fibers have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion in the fiber direction and the failure of aramid fibers is unique. When they fail, the fibers break into small fibrils, which are like fibers within the fibers. This unique failure mechanism is responsible for high strength.

3.3.1.h Quartz and Silica Fibers

The glass-types typically contain about 50 to 78% silica. Silica glass is a purer glass fiber that can be made by treating fiberglass in an acid bath, which removes all impurities without affecting the silica. The final product contains 93 to 99% silica. Quartz is even more pure, and quartz fibers are made from natural quartz crystals that contain 99.9% silica, possessing nearly all the properties of pure solid quartz. Ordinary fiberglass, high silica and quartz fibers share several characteristics and can be produced in a range of fiber diameters. Roving or yarns and other forms of fibers can be made from high silica as well as quartz. All matrix materials that accept fiberglass are amenable to high silica and quartz too. They differ from glass in many factors, however, especially in heat-related properties.
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Although quartz crystals are commonly available, pure crystals are hard to come by. On the other hand, high silica comes from the same material as glass fibers and is easily accessible. However, quartz makes up for its rarity with its capacity to" withstand high temperatures, which silica is incapable of. Barring this difference, silica and quartz are similar in other respects. They are highly elastic and can be stretched to 1 % of their length before break point. Both silica and quartz are not affected by acid attacks and are resistant to moisture. Owing to their thermal properties, silica and quartz are the natural choice as fibers in several applications. They have good insulating properties and do not melt at temperatures up to 1600C. In addition, they have low thermal expansion coefficients which make them withstand high temperatures.

3.3.1.i Graphite Fibers

While use of the term carbon for graphite is permissible, there is one basic difference between the two. Elemental analysis of poly-acrylo-nitrile (PAN) base carbon fibers show that they consist of 91 to 94% carbon. But graphite fibers are over 99% carbon. The difference arises from the fact that the fibers are made at different temperatures. PAN-based carbon cloth or fiber is produced at about 1320C, while graphite fibers and cloth are graphitized at 1950 to 3000C. The properties of graphite remain unchanged even at very high temperatures, but its willingness to react readily with most metals at the fabrication stage or during use at very high temperatures is often a stumbling block, as seen in aluminium matrices when carbides are produced at the interface. These carbides react with moisture with disastrous effects on the composite material.

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Graphite fibers are some of the stiffest fibers known. The stiffness of the fiber is as high as the graphite content. But a major drawback is that stiffness and strength are inversely proportional to each other. Forbidding costs make the use of graphite fibers prohibitive. The best glass fibers are far less expensive than the cheapest, lowest quality of graphite, and in PAN-base fibers, other raw materials too are equally expensive. The carbonization and graphitization are time-consuming, apart from demanding excessive energy, materials and close controls throughout the process. Cheaper pitch base fibers are now being developed, with greater performance potential and there are possibilities of the increased use of graphite fibers.

3.3.1.j Multiphase Fibers

Spoolable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually the multi phase variety and they usually comprise materials like boron, silicon and their carbides formed on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or tungsten. They are usually good for high temperature applications, due to their reduced reaction with higher melting temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers. Boron filaments are sought after for structural and intermediate-temperature composites. A poly-phase fiber is a core-sheath fiber consisting of a polycrystalline core.

3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber:

E-Glass or electrical grade glass was originally developed for standoff insulators for electrical wiring. It was later found to have excellent fibre forming capabilities and is now used almost exclusively as the reinforcing phase in the material commonly known as fiber glass.

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. Figure 3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber

3.3.2 Mechanical Properties of fibers

Composite materials are not homogeneous. Their properties are dependent on many factors, the most important of which are the type of fibre, quantity of fibre (as volume fraction) and the configuration of the reinforcement. They are generally completely elastic up to failure and exhibit neither a yield point nor a region of plasticity. They tend to have low strain to failure(less than 3%). The resulting area under the stress/strain curve, which represents the work done to failure, is relatively small when compared to many metals. The properties of composites are dependent on the properties of the fibre and the matrix, the proportion of each and the configuration of the fibres. If all the fibres are aligned in one direction then the composite relatively stiff and strong in that direction, but in the transverse direction it has low modulus and low strength. When a unidirectional composite is tested at a small angle from the fibre axis, there is a considerable reduction in strength. A similar but less significant effect occurs with the tensile modulus, as shown in Figure 3.3.2

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Figure 3.3.2
Theoretical variation in tensile modulus with the angle of load relative to the principal fibre direction (unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced plastic (UD CFRP), fibre volume fraction = 0.5)

Strength and stiffness Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) E glass fibres, which have a modulus of about 70GPa, produce composites with modest moduli. In the case of unidirectional fibres and the highest typical fibre volume fraction of 0.65, a composite has a modulus of about45GPa and strength of around 1300MPa. At right angles to this, in the transverse direction, the modulus approaches that of the resin itself at about4GPa and the strength would be 50100MPa. The unidirectional compo-sites used in the ROBUST Project, manufactured using the vacuum process with prepreg material in an epoxy matrix, had the following properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 36GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 750MPa Elongation at break: 3.1%.

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Bidirectional E glass laminates have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.4 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about 14GPa.Random laminates (e.g. chopped strand mat) have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.2 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about9GPa. The use of S2 or R glass improves the composite modulus to about60GPa for unidirectional and 20GPa for woven fabric (bidirectional) constructions. This is at some monetary disadvantage. They are both more expensive than E glass and they are only available in a fairly limited range of material types and resin compatibilities. Probably the most important virtue of S2 and R glass is their high strength, which is considerably higher than E glass. Carbon and graphite fibers Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) The dominant carbon fibres in current use (typically Toray T700) have a tensile modulus of about 230GPa, a tensile strength of around 5000MPaand a strain-to-failure of 2%. Unidirectional composites produced from them in either an epoxy or vinyl-ester matrix have the following typical properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 155165GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 25003000MPa Elongation at break: 1.21.3% Carbon fibres are available which will give a tensile modulus of about250GPa in a unidirectional composite, comparing very favourably with steel at about 210GPa. However, as this composite is unidirectional, it has extremely low modulus in the transverse direction. The principal attributes of carbon fibre composites are their very high specific stiffness (the ratio of modulus/density), excellent fatigue and environmental resistance. Currently there are various pultruded CFRP plates available commercially for plate bonding applications. The pultruded plates used in the ROBUST Project, as well as the plates manufactured with prepreg materials, possessed a modulus of about 130GPa and a
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strength of 1500MPa.Pultruded plates now available from other sources typically exploit fibers with superior properties such as Toray T700, resulting in composites with the properties shown above. A financial penalty has to be paid for materials exhibiting properties significantly in excess of these; the strain-to-failure of composites made with them will also be reduced significantly. Carbon and graphite have substantial capability as reinforcing fibers, with great flexibility in the properties that can be provided. Primary characteristics for reinforcing fibers in polymer matrix composites are high stiffness and strength. The fibers must maintain these characteristics in hostile environments such as elevated temperatures, exposure to common solvents and fluids, and environmental moisture. To be used as part of a primary structure material it should also be available as continuous fiber. These characteristics and requirements have substantial implications for the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the fiber, which in turn implies processing and acceptance parameters. Interest in carbon fibers for structural materials was initiated in the late 1950s when synthesized rayons in textile form were carbonized to produce carbon fibers for high temperature missile applications. One of the first distinctions to be made is the difference between carbon and graphite fibers, although the terms are frequently used interchangeably. Background information for these differences is contained in the following sections. The primary purpose of making this distinction here is to alert the reader that users may mean different things when referring to graphite versus carbon fibers. Carbon and graphite fibers are both based on graphene (hexagonal) layer networks present in carbon. If the graphene layers or planes stack with three dimensional orders the material is defined as graphite. Usually extended time and temperature processing is required to form this order, making graphite fibers more expensive. Because the bonding between planes is weak, disorder frequently occurs such that only the two dimensional
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ordering within the layers is present. This material is defined as carbon. With this distinction made, it should be understood that while some differences are implied, there is not a single condition which strictly separates carbon from graphite fibers, and even graphite fibers retain some disorder in their structure.

3.3.3 Fiber Manufacture:

Glass fibers are generally produced using melt spinning techniques. These involve melting the glass composition into a platinum crown which has small holes for the molten glass to flow. Continuous fibers can be drawn out through the holes and wound onto spindles, while short fibers may be produced by spinning the crown, which forces molten glass out through the holes centrifugally. Fibers are cut to length using mechanical means or air jets. Fiber dimension and to some extent properties can be controlled by the process variables such as melt temperature (hence viscosity) and drawing/spinning rate. The temperature window that can be used to produce a melt of suitable viscosity is quite large, making this composition suitable for fiber forming. As fibers are being produced, they are normally treated with sizing and coupling agents. These reduce the effects of fiber- fiber abrasion which can significantly degrade the mechanical strength of the individual fibers. Other treatments may also be used to promote wetting and adherence of the matrix material to the fiber .

Composition
E-Glass is a low alkali glass with a typical nominal composition of SiO2 54wt%, Al2O3 14wt%, CaO+MgThe advantageous properties of E-glass generally outweigh the disadvantages which include:
Low modulus Self abrasiveness if not treated appropriately leading to reduced strength

Relatively low fatigue resistance

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Higher density compared to carbon fibres and organic fibresO 22wt%, B2O3 10wt% and Na2O+K2O less then 2wt%. Some other materials may also be present at impurity levels.

3.3.4 Key Properties:

Properties that have made E-glass so popular in 1204iberglass and other glass reinforced composite include: Low cost High production rates High strength High stiffness Relatively low density Non-flammable Resistant to heat Good chemical resistance Relatively insensitive to moisture Able to maintain strength properties over a wide range of conditions Good electrical insulation

3.4 Processing of the Composites Fabrication of the Laminate

E-glass/Epoxy composite laminates were prepared by passing the E-glass fibers of 1200 TEX, through the resin bath of Epoxy and hardener maintaining a constant temperature of about 45 C.The fibers are then wound on a rotating drum with 15 rpm. After complete winding on the drum then it is cut opened and lay on a flat table in the atmospheric condition for about 48 hours to get the
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tackiness. The layers are cut in such a way that the desired fiber direction is obtained. In this experimentation it is decided to prepare the laminates such that the angle between the fibers are15o 30o 45o 60o and 90oas shown in fig-1. The sequence of layup shown in the fig -2. The number of layup depends on the thickness of the laminate required; here it is used 20 layers to obtain the thickness of the laminate about 4mm. All the overlapped layers then compacted between the two parallel flat steel plates with stainless steel spacers of required laminate thickness. The major purpose of lamination is to tailor the directional dependence of strength and stiffness of a composite material to match the loading environment of the structural element laminates are uniquely suited to this objective because the principal material directions of each layer can be oriented according to need. The plates are clamped with nuts and bolts with washers; the clamped setup is then placed in the oven. Maintain the oven temperature of 800 C for 4 hours and 1200 C for next 4 hours so that any entrapped air or volatile gases will be escaped for the first four hours and chemical reaction between the epoxy and hardener will takes place for the next four hours and will lead to permanent set and finally result into a single solid composite laminate. After total curing of 8 hours oven is then switched off so the temperature in the oven may come down to normal temperature. Take out the composite laminate and trim the edges so that the laminate is ready for testing purpose. Winding parameters 57. 58. 59.
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Tension of fibre =1.3 kgs Resin temperature= 45 0c RPM of lathe = 15

Page 1205

60.

Gap between doctor blade and drum = 1.25 mmThe

parameters are kept constant for two different windings

FILAMENT WINDING SETUP

RESIN BATH

DRUM WINDING

REMOVING LAYUP

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LAYUP PLACED ON TABLE

APPLYING WAXPOL ON PLATES

LAYING UP LAYERS

REMOVING AIR GAP

COMPACTING LAYERS

PLACING IN THE OVEN

3.4.2 CURING PROCESS :

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Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener". The resin consists of monomers or short chain polymers with an epoxide group at either end. Most common epoxy resins are produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A, though the latter may be replaced by similar chemicals. The hardener consists of polyamine monomers, for example Triethylenetetramine (TETA). When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond.

Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily crosslinked, and is thus rigid and strong.The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. So the laminate that is fabricated is put into a Oven . The temperatures are maintained in two cycles. In the first cycle we have to maintain constant temperature of 80C for 4hours and in the next cycle maintain a temperature of 160C for next 4 hours.

AFTER CURING

MARKING

TRIMMING

AFTER TRIMMING

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DRILLING

AFTER DRILLING

Figure 3.6.a specifications of UTM (at CIPET)

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UTM SPECIFICATIONS

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COMPOSITE LAMINATE UNDER TESTING

4.1 Experimental procedure

Quasi-static Indentation tests were performed on INSTRON testing machine. The
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composite laminate of size 150mm x 150mm is placed on a steel supporting frame, with a square opening of size 50mm x 50mm. A similar square opening flat plate is placed ontop of the composite laminate; it is then clamped rigidly with nuts and bolts of 6mm size as shown in fig-3. The clamped setup is placed on the loading frame of testing machine. A spherical stainless steel ball indenter of diameter 8.32mmis used for indentation on the composites laminate. The tests were conducted with the controlled displacement of the indenter (0.2mm / minute). The test data is shown in Table-2.An extensometer is used to measure the displacement of the point just below the indentation location at the bottom side of the composite laminate. A 20kN load cell evaluated the load on each composite laminate. The data obtained during test for each laminate is shown in Table-2. The composite laminate with different fiber angles is indented for a fixed displacement of 5 mm. The damage in the different composite laminate with different fiber angles is shown fig-4. The damage area in each composite laminate is observed with the help of optical light microscope.
S. No. Specifications 1 2 3 4 5 ASTM Present work

Specimen 4 6 mm 4 - 5 mm thickness Indenter 10 16 mm 8.73 mm diameter Cross head 0.2 mm / 1 mm / min displacement min Indenter 5 10 mm 5 mm displacement No of samples 4 4 per test

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF UTM

00/150

00/300

00/450

00/600

00/900

Fig-1: Schematic diagram of five different laminates

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Fig-2: Sequence of angle plies

4.2 COMPOSITE LAMINATES WITHOUT E-GLASS POWDER FRONT SIDE BACK SIDE

0,90

0,60

FRONT SIDE

BACK SIDE

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0,45

0,30

0,15
S. No. Angle (0) Max. Load (KN) Indentation (mm) Spring back (mm)

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1 2 3 4 5

0/15 0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

3.77 4.11 4.69 4.99 5.83

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.86

0.92 1.17 2.50 3.08 3.44

Table - 2: Test results after Indentation.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Load (KN)

15 DEG 30 DEG 45 DEG 60 DEG 90 DEG

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5

Displacement (mm) Graph-1: Shows the load carrying capacity in each case for different indenter displacements of maximum 5mm for all the laminates. It is gradually increasing for the laminates with the fiber angles varying from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

Indentation ()

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-2: Indentation depth is increasing linearly as the fiber angle in laminates is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o),however it is suddenly increasing in the laminates with fiber angle varying from (0o/60o) to (0o/90o).

S. No. 1

Angle (0) 0/15

Front face damage area (mm2) 971

Back face damage area (mm2) 1256

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2 3 4 5

0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

1300 1894 2186 2623

1857 2280 2623 3257

Table-3: Experimental data of damage surface areas on front and back face of the laminates

Front face damage area 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 15 30 45

Back face damage area

60

75

90

105

Graph-3: Damage area is increasing with the increase in fiber angle of the laminates in front face and back face of the laminate; however the damage area back face is more than the front face as seen from the above graph.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Load (KN)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-4: Maximum load taken in each laminate with different fiber angles. The load is increasing linearly as the fiber angle is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

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4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Spring back (mm)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

5: Shows spring back effect is increasing in different laminates as the fiber angles are increasing

0o/15o) to (0o/90o), it shows that as the angle between fibers is increasing the laminate elasticity increasing

Material

Density (mg/m3)

Modulus (G Pa)

Poisons ratio(v)

Tensile strength (G Pa) 3.5

E-glass fiber

2.56

76

0.22

Epoxy resin

1.3

3.6

0.4

0.1

Table-4: Properties of materials

4.3) RATE OF LOADING (0.5mm/min) WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

0.5%

1%

1.5

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE
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(0/45)

BACK SIDE
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0.5%

1%

1.5%

FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE
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(0/15)

BACK SIDE
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GRAPH 1 :

0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1.0 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.92 1.8 1.4 2 3.4 3.1 3.1 3 4.62 4.1 3.5 4 4.85 4.19 3.6 5 4 3.73 3.11

GRAPH 2 :

0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

4
3 2 1 0 0 2

0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 % % % 0 0 0 2 1.7 1.6 3.15 3.2 2.95 4.65 3.72 3.2 5.4 3.12 2.25 3 2.38 1.89

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 3:

0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.1 2.2 1.7 2 3.8 3.6 3.15 3 4.26 4.2 2.91 4 4.5 2.92 2.29 5 3.5 2.32 1.83

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 4: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.15 2.1 1.2 2 3.75 3.5 2.3 3 5.18 4.2 3.4 4 4.2 3.15 2.85 5 2.5 1.9 1.75

GRAPH 5: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

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5 4

FORCE (kN)

3 2 1 0 0 2

F 0.5 F1 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.9 1.8 1.7 2 3.1 2.85 2.6 3 3.9 3.8 3.3 4 3 2.8 2.5 5 2.85 2.35 1.7

GRAPH 6 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

0.5 mm/min

3.5 3 2.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

DEPTH mm)

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.42 2.6 2.5 2.1 2

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.38 2.54 2.6 2.4 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 2.67 2.98 2.9 2.55 2.38

ANGLE

GRAPH 7 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

0.5 mm /min

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PROJECTED HEIGHT

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5 %

ANGLE

ANGLE

0 15 30 45 60 90

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 0.5 % 0 2.84 3.2 2.5 2.55 2

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.0 % 0 3.24 3.6 2.7 3.5 2.1

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.5 % 0 3.31 3.76 3.33 3.67 2.6

4.4 1.5mm/min RATE OF LOADING WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

FRONT SIDE
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(0/60)

BACK SIDE
Page 1227

FRONT SIDE

(0/45)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/15)

BACK SIDE

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GRAPH 8: 0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

F F F 0.5% 1 % 1.5% 0 0 0 1.5 2.05 1.35 3.1 3.3 2.75 3.2 4.3 1.95 2.5 3.75 1.65 1.5 3.25 1.31

GRAPH 9:0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5 % 0 0 0 0 1 2.5 2.31 2.09 2 4.72 4.22 3.75 3 5.5 4.5 4.2 4 4.5 3.23 2.85 5 3.7 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 10: 0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

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6 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 % 0 2.5 4.72 5.5 4.5 3.7

FORCE (kN)

4 3 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 1 0 0 2 DISPLACEMENT 4 (mm) 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 2.31 2.09 4.22 3.75 4.5 4.2 3.23 2.85 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 11: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

F 0.5 % 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2.5 4.2 5.55 4.65 3.25

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 (mm) DISPLACEMENT 6

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 1.75 1.65 3 2.65 4 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.2 1.8

GRAPH 12: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5 mm/min)

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DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 Page 1233 (mm) %

F 1.0 %

F 1.5 %

6 5

FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 DISPLACEMENT (mm) F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

0 1 2 3 4 5

0 1.8 2.9 4.1 4.85 3.7

0 1.98 3.15 3.9 4.4 3.2

0 1.65 2.5 3.1 2.25 1.6

GRAPH13 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

1.5 mm/min

DEPTH OF INDENTATION mm)

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

0
0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.34 2.45 2.67 2.39 2.5

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.14 2.32 2.6 2.27 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 1.9 2.29 2.31 2 1.8

ANGLE

GRAPH 14 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

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4
3.5

PROJECTED HEIGHT

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5%

ANGLE

ANGLE PROJECTED PROJECTED PROJECTED HEIGHT HEIGHT HEIGHT 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 15 3 1.41 2.95 30 2.71 3.65 3.05 45 3.19 3.31 3.15 60 3.33 3.32 2.5 90 2.7 2.55 2.1

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Graph 1 (0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 1 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 4mm at 3.6kN. Graph 2 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 2 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 5.4kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN. Graph 3 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 3,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 3.15kN. Graph 4 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) :
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at the

In Graph 4,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.18kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.4kN. Graph 5 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 5,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.9kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.3kN. Graph 6 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 6,Depth of indentation is increasing with increase in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-150 to 0-300 later on there is increase angles 0-300 to 0-900. Graph 7 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 7, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-300 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600 and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing
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at the

in

depth of indentation,but it is decreases with

in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles. Graph 8(0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 8 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of2 mm at 2.75kN. Graph 9 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 9 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN. Graph 10 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 10,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN.
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Graph 11 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 11,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.55kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 2.65kN. Graph 12 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 12,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.1kN. Graph 13 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 13,Depth of indentation is increasing with decrease in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-450, later on there is decrease in depth of indentation from 0-450 to 0-600,but it is increases with angles 0-600 to 0-900. Graph 14 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 14, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0-150 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600
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at the

at the

and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles.

REFERENCES
1) Agarwal, B. D and Broutman, L. J, (1990). Analysis and Performance
of Fiber Composites, Second Edition, Jhon Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 2) Robert M. Jones(1999), mechanics of composite materials, second edition Taylor & Francis group , New york London. 3) http://nptel.iitm.ac.in 4) http://www.wikipedia.org/ 5) Rothon R.N, (1999). Mineral fillers in thermoplastics: filler manufacture and characterization. Adv. Polym. Sci. 139, pp. 67-107. 6) http://composite.about.com/ 7) Applied composite materials, An international journal for the science And application of composites materials.

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8) Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, publishes research on Polymers, nano composites and particulate

ABSTRACT

In this work the composite laminates of Epoxy/E-glass fiber hybridizing with and without E- glass powder are prepared for testing. The fabrication of the laminate is done by filament winding (hoop winding) on a drum mandrel mounted on a modified center lathe. The green layup obtained is cut into laminae of the desired orientations and stacked in the predefined way to a required thickness. The stacked laminate is cured at elevated temperatures under a pressure from a pressure plate. The edges of the laminate are trimmed first and it is then cut in to required size. The specimens are then subjected to indentation test on a universal testing machine (UTM) for a fixed indenter depth. An investigative study is conducted into the results obtained from test data. A number of illustrations are shown regarding the damage in the specimens of different fiber orientation and with different percentages of E-glass powder. Also indentation depth, contact radius, spring back effect, and maximum load carrying capacity are studied.
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER :1 INTRODUCTION 1.136 Overview of composites. 1.137 Historical Development/Historical Overview. 1.138 What is composite material. 1.139 Classification of composites. 1.140 Structure of composites. 1.141 Advantages of composites. 1.142 Applications of composites. 1.143 Examples of composite materials. 1.144 Scope of Project. CHAPTER:2 LITERATURE SURVE

PAGE NO:

5 5 8 12 24 25 26 27 29

30

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CHAPTER:3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Hardener. 3.2 Epoxy. 3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials. 3.3.1 Types of fibres. 3.3.2 Mechanical properties of fibres. 3.3.3 Fibre manufacturing. 3.3.4 Key properties. 3.4 Processing of composites. 3.4.1 Curing CHAPTER:4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. 4.1 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates without E-glass powder. 4.2 0.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 62 57 56 32 32 32 34 35 43 46 47 49 52

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4.3

1.5 mm/min rate of loading on composite laminates with E-glass powder. 71

CHAPTER:5 5.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. 5.2 REFERENCES 80 85

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of composites

The development of composite materials and related design and manufacturing technologies is one of the most important advances in the history of materials. Composites are multifunctional materials having unprecedented mechanical and physical properties that can be tailored to meet the requirements of a particular application. Many composites also exhibit great resistance to high-temperature corrosion and oxidation and wear. These unique characteristics provide the mechanical engineer with design opportunities not possible with conventional monolithic (unreinforced) materials. Composites technology also makes possible the use of an entire class of solid materials, ceramics, in applications for which monolithic versions are unsuited because of their great strength scatter and poor resistance to mechanical and thermal shock. Further, many manufacturing processes for composites are well adapted to the fabrication of large, complex structures, which allows consolidation of parts, reducing manufacturing costs.

1.2 Historical Development / Historical overview: Past: After making and controlling fire and inventing the wheel,
spinning of continuous yarns is probably the most important development of mankind, enabling him to survive outside the tropical
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climate zones and spread across the surface of the Earth. Flexible fabrics made of locally grown and spun fibres as cotton; flax and jute were a big step forward compared to animal skins. More and more natural resources were used, soon resulting in the first composites; straw reinforced walls, and bows (Figure M.1.1.a) and chariots made of glued layers of wood, bone and horn. More durable materials as wood and metal soon replaced these antique composites.

Fig M.1.1.a Composite Korean bow

Present:
Originating from early agricultural societies and being almost forgotten after centuries, a true revival started of using lightweight composite structures for many technical solutions during the second half of the 20th century. After being solely used for their electromagnetic properties (insulators and radar-domes), using composites to improve the structural performance of spacecraft and military aircraft became popular in the last two decades of the previous century. First at any costs, with development of improved materials with increasing costs, nowadays cost

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reduction during manufacturing and operation are the main technology drivers. Latest development is the use of composites to protect man

against fire and impact and a tendency to a more environmental friendly design, leading to the reintroduction of natural fibres in the composite technology. Increasingly nowadays, the success of composites in applications, by volume and by numbers, can be ranked by accessibility and reproducibility of the applied manufacturing techniques. Some examples of use of natural fibers(M.1.1b M.1.1.e)

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Future:
In future, composites will be manufactured even more according to an integrated design process resulting in the optimum construction according to parameters such as shape, mass, strength, stiffness, durability, costs, etc. Newly developed design tools must be able to instantaneously show customers the influence of a design change on each one of these parameters.

1.3 What is Composite Material?

Composite materials are engineering materials made from two or more constituent materials that remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level while forming a single component. There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix
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Properties. The primary functions of the matrix are to transfer stresses between the reinforcing fibers/particles and to protect them from mechanical environmental damage whereas the presence of fibers/particles in a composite improves its mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness etc. The objective is to take advantage of the superior properties of both materials without compromising on the weakness of either. As defined by Agarwal and Broutman composite means material having two or more distinct constituent materials or phases. It is only when the constituent phases have significantly different physical properties and thus the composite properties are noticeably different from the constituent materials

Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural. Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific character of a composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine to give them a specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve the desirable properties. Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear determination can be really made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the levels at which differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic. In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz., binding the reinforcement phases in place and deforming

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to distribute the stresses among the constituent materials under an applied force.

reinforcement

The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be conductors or resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending on the purpose for which matrices are chosen. Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and metals have found applications as matrix materials in the designing of structural composites, with commendable success. These materials remain elastic till failure occurs and show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression. Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion characteristics. The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two interphases between each side of the interphase and its adjoint constituent. Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of matrix on properties of reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the selection and fabrication of composites is that the constituents should be chemically inert non-reactive.

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Properties of Matrix Materials:

Naturally fibers and whiskers are of little use unless they are bonded together to take form of structural element that can carry loads. The binder material is usually called a matrix. The purpose of the matrix is manifold support of fibers or whiskers, protection of the fibers or whiskers, stress transfer between broken fibers or whiskers, etc. Typically the matrix is of considerably lower density, stiffness, and strength than fibers or whiskers. However the combination of fibers or whiskers and a matrix can have very high strength and stiffness yet still have low density. Matrix materials can be polymers, metals, ceramics or carbon. Polymers (poly =many and mer = unit or molecule) exist in at least three major forms i.e linear, branched, or cross linked. A linear polymer is merely a chain of mers. A branched polymer consists of a primary chain of mers with other chains that are attached in three dimensions just like tree branches. Finally, a cross linked polymer has large number of three dimensional highly interconnected chains. Linear polymers have the least strength and stiffness, whereas cross linked polymer have most because of their inherently stiffer and stronger internal structure. The three main classes of structural polymers are rubbers, thermoplastics,
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and thermo sets. Rubbers are cross linked polymers that have semi crystalline state well below room temperature. Thermoplastics are polymers that branch, but generally dont cross link very much if at all. Thus, they usually can be repeatedly softened on heating and hardened on cooling. Examples of thermoplastics are nylon, polyethylene, and polysulfone. Thermo sets are polymers that are chemically reacted until almost all molecules are irreversibly cross linked in a three dimensional network. Thus, once an epoxy has set, it cannot be changed in form. Examples of thermo sets include epoxies, phenolics, and polyimides. Other matrix materials include metals that can be made to flow around an in-place fiber system by diffusion bonding or by heating vacuum infiltration. Common examples are shown in fig 1.3.1

a) linear

b)branched

c)cross linked

d)network

figure 1.3.1

1.4 Classification of Composites

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:

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 The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites. The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing discontinuous or continuous fibres. Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling. Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this category. Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.

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1.4.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or Carbon-Carbon Composites

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications. Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins. Thermoplastics have oneor two-dimensional

molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds. Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites.

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Figure 1.4.1 a

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and cooling the structures. Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding processes, they can be aligned directionally. There thermoplastic temperatures. are a few options tend their to loose increase their heat strength resistance at like in

thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the heat resistance. But all composites However, elevated rigidity, redeeming qualities

toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc.

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Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating to be moulded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome moulding compounds. Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas.

Figure 1.4.1.b
Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and
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dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins. Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of 140C. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is ruled out.

Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in automobile and structural applications. The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75C or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey. Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service at around 200250C .

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1.4.2 According to geometry:

Most composite materials developed thus far have been fabricated to improve mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, and high temperature performance. It is natural to study together the composites that have a common strengthening mechanism. The strengthening mechanism strongly depends on the geometry of the reinforcement. Therefore, it is quite convenient to classify composite materials on the basis of the geometry of a representative unit of reinforcement.

1.4.2.a Fibrous composite

A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension discourages the growth of incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement that might otherwise lead to failure, particularly with brittle matrices. Man-made filaments or fibers of non polymeric materials exhibit much higher strength along their length since large flaws, which may be present in the bulk material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness.Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite. Most composites used in structural applications are multilayered; that is, they consist of

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several layers of fibrous composites. Each layer or lamina is a single layer composite and its orientation is varied according to design. Several identical or different layers are bonded together to form a multilayered composites usable for engineering applications. When the constituent materials in each layer are the same, they are called simply laminates. Hybrid laminates refer to multilayered composites consisting of layers made up of different constituent materials. Reinforcing fibers in a single layer composite may be short or long compared to its overall dimensions. Composites with long fibers are called continuous fiber reinforced composites and those with short fibers, discontinuous fiber reinforced composites. The continuous fibers in single layer composites may be all aligned in one direction to form a unidirectional composite. Such composites are fabricated by laying the fibers parallel and saturating them with resinous material. The bidirectional reinforcement may be provided in a single layer in mutually perpendicular directions as in a woven fabric. The bidirectional reinforcement may be such that the strengths in two perpendicular directions are approximately equal. The orientation of discontinuous fibers cannot be easily controlled in a composite material.

So fibers can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented. In most cases the fibers are assumed to be randomly oriented in the composites. However, in the injection molding of a fiber reinforced polymer, considerable orientation can occur in the flow direction and which a case of preferred oriented fibers in the composites.

1.4.2.b Particulate Composites

As the name itself indicates, the reinforcement is of particle nature (platelets are also included in this class). It may be spherical, cubic,
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tetragonal, a platelet, or of other regular or irregular shape, but it is approximately equiaxed. In general, particles are not very effective in improving fracture resistance but they enhance the stiffness of the composite to a limited extent. Particle fillers are widely used to improve the properties of matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and electrical conductivities, improve performance at elevated temperatures, reduce friction, increase wear and abrasion resistance, improve machinability, increase surface hardness and reduce shrinkage. Also, in case of particulate reinforced composites the particle can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented.

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1.4.3 According to type of matrix material they are classified as:

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

1.4.3.a Metal Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites have many advantages over monolithic metals like higher specific modulus, higher specific strength, better properties at elevated temperatures, and lower coefficient of thermal expansion.
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Because of these attributes metal matrix composites are under consideration for wide range of applications viz. combustion chamber nozzle (in rocket, space shuttle), housings, tubing, cables, heat exchangers, structural members etc

1.4.3.b Ceramic matrix Composites

One of the main objectives in producing ceramic matrix composites is to increase the toughness Naturally it is hoped and indeed often found that there is a concomitant improvement in strength and stiffness of ceramic matrix composites.

1.4.3.c Polymer Matrix Composites

Most commonly used matrix materials are polymeric. The reasons for this are twofold. In general the mechanical properties of polymers are inadequate for many structural purposes. In particular their strength and stiffness are low compared to metals and ceramics. These difficulties are overcome by reinforcing other materials with polymers. Secondly the processing of polymer matrix composites need not involve high pressure and doesnt require high temperature. Also equipments required for manufacturing polymer matrix composites are simpler. For this reason polymer matrix composites developed rapidly and soon became popular for structural applications. Composites are used because overall properties of the composites are superior to those of the individual components for example polymer/ceramic. Composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component but arent as brittle as ceramics.

1.4.4 Classification Based on Reinforcements Introduction to Reinforcements

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with
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other two axes either often circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers.

Figure 1.4.4

Two types of polymer composites are: Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) Particle reinforced polymer (PRP)

1.4.4.a Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Common fiber reinforced composites are composed of fibers and a matrix. Fibers are the reinforcement and the main source of strength while matrix glues all the fibers together in shape and transfers stresses between the reinforcing fibers. The fibers carry the loads along their longitudinal directions. Sometimes, filler might be added to smooth the manufacturing process, impact special properties to the composites, and
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/or reduce the product cost. Common fiber reinforcing agents include asbestos, carbon /graphite fibers, beryllium, beryllium carbide, beryllium oxide, molybdenum, aluminium oxide, glass fibers, polyamide,natural fibers etc. Similarly common matrix materials include epoxy, phenolic, polyester, polyurethane, peek, vinyl ester etc. Among these resin materials, epoxy is widely used for its higher adhesion and less shrinkage property.

1.4.4.b Particle Reinforced Polymer

Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminium and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black. Particles are used to increase the modules of the matrix and to decrease the ductility of the matrix. Particles are also used to reduce the cost of the composites. Reinforcements and matrices can be common, inexpensive materials and are easily processed.

Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators. Some ceramics have special properties; some ceramics are magnetic materials; some are piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics are even superconductors at very low temperatures. Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback: they are brittle. An example of particle reinforced composites is an automobile tire, which has carbon black particles in a matrix of poly-isobutylene elastomeric polymer

1.5 Structure of Composite

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Structure of composite material A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fiber. In the case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high strength and stiffness. Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and experimental properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire laminate may be considered a single layer composite

Properties
1) Nature of the constituent material (bonding strength) 2) The geometry of the reinforcement (shape, size) 3) The concentration distribution(vol. fraction of reinforcement) 4) The orientation of the reinforcement(random or preferred) Good adhesion (bonding) between matrix phase and displaced phase provides transfer of load applied to the material to the displaced phase via the interface. Good adhesion is required for achieving high level of mechanical properties of composites. Very small particles less than 0.25 micrometer finely distributed in the matrix impede movement of dislocations and deformation of the material. They have strengthening
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effect. Large dispersed phase particles have low share load applied to the material resulting in increase of stiffness and decrease of ductility. Orientation of reinforcement: Planar:-In the form of 2-D woven fabric. When the fibers are laid parallel, the composite exhibits axistrope. Random or Three Dimensional:-The composite material tends to posses isotropic properties. One Dimensional: - Maximum strength and stiffness are obtained in the direction of fiber.

1.6 Advantages of Composites

Advantages of composites over their conventional counterparts are the ability to meet diverse design requirements with significant weight savings as well as strength-to-weight ratio. Some advantages of composite materials over conventional ones are as follows: Tensile strength of composites is four to six times greater than that of steel or aluminium (depending on the reinforcements).

Improved torsional stiffness and impact properties. Higher fatigue endurance limit (up to 60% of ultimate tensile strength). 30% - 40% lighter for example any particular aluminium structures designed to the same functional requirements. Lower embedded energy compared to other structural metallic materials like steel, aluminium etc. Composites are less noisy while in operation and provide lower vibration transmission than metals. Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored to meet performance needs and complex design requirements. Long life offer excellent fatigue, impact, environmental resistance and reduce maintenance.
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Composites enjoy reduced life cycle cost compared to metals. Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and fire retardancy. Improved appearance with smooth surfaces and readily incorporable integral decorative melamine are other characteristics of composites. Composite parts can eliminate joints / fasteners, providing part simplification and integrated design compared to conventional metallic parts.

1.7 Applications of Composites

Figure 1.7

1.8 EXAMPLES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Fibre reinforced plastics:
Industry Examples Door, elevators Space Shuttle, Space stations Body frames, engine Comments 20-35% Weight savings Great weight savings High stiffness & damage tolerance

Classified by type of fiber:

Aerospace Automotive

Aircraft

Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix)

components

Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP)

Construction Fuel tanks etc.

Chemical

Pipes, Tanks, Pressure vessels Structural & decorative panels,

Corrosion resistance Weight savings, portable.

Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally, "fiberglass")

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Classified by matrix: Thermoplastic Composites Short fiber thermoplastics Long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics Glass mat thermoplastics Continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics Thermoset Composites Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)

Metal matrix composites (MMCs): White cast iron Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix) Metal-intermetallic laminate Ceramic matrix composites: Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers)

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Cermet (ceramic and metal) Concrete Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites Asphalt concrete Dental composite Syntactic foam Mother of Pearl Chobham armour (see composite armour) Engineered wood

Plywood Oriented strand board Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix) Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix) Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles Arborite Formica (plastic)
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1.9 Scope of the project

The basic aim of the present work is to develop and characterize a new class of composites with epoxy as polymer matrix and glass fiber as the reinforcing material. Their physical and mechanical characterization is done. Attempt is made to use TiO2 as filler in these fiber reinforced .polymer matrix composites. Characterization of the resulting TiO2 filled glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite is done. The experimentally measured database of composites has also been predicted. This work is expected to introduce a new class of functional polymer composites suitable for tribological applications.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

This chapter outlines some of the recent reports published in literature on composites of fiber reinforced polymer composites. Polymer composite materials have generated wide interest in various engineering fields, particularly in aerospace applications. Research is underway worldwide to develop newer composites with varied combinations of fibers and fillers so as to make them useable under different operational conditions. The improved performance of polymer composites in engineering applications by the addition of filler materials has shown a
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great promise and so has become a subject of considerable interest. Ceramic filled polymer composites have been the subject of extensive research in last two decades. Various kinds of polymers and polymer matrix composites reinforced with ceramic particles have a wide range of industrial applications such as heaters, electrodes, composites with thermal durability at high temperature etc.

These engineering composites are desired due to their low density, high corrosion resistance consisting of ceramic or metal particles and fiber fillers made of glass are being used these days to dramatically improve the wear resistance even up to three orders of magnitude. The inclusion of inorganic fillers into polymers for commercial applications is primarily aimed at the cost reduction and stiffness improvement. Along with fiber-reinforced composites, the composites made with particulate fillers have been found to perform well in many real operational conditions. It is reported by Bonner that with the inclusion of micro-sized particulates into polymers, a high filler content (typically greater than 20 vol. %) is generally required to bring the above stated positive effects into play. But at the same time, this may also have detrimental effects on some important properties of the matrix polymers such as processability, appearance, density and aging performance. It has also been reported that the fracture surface energies of epoxy and polyester resin and their resistance to crack propagation are relatively low.

But if particulate filler is added to these resins, the particles inhibit crack growth. As the volume fraction of filler is varied, the fracture energy increases up to a critical volume fraction and then decreases again. Srivastava showed that the fracture toughness of epoxy resin could be improved by addition of flyash particles as filler. The fillers also
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affect

the

tensile

properties

according

to

their
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packing

characteristics, size and interfacial bonding. The maximum volumetric packing fraction of filler reflects the size distribution and shapes of the particles. Recently, it has been observed that by incorporating filler particles into the matrix of fibre reinforced composites, synergistic effects may be achieved in the form of higher modulus and reduced material costs, yet accompanied with decreased strength and impact toughness. Polymer composites with both discontinuous and continuous fibre reinforcement possess usually very high specific (i.e. density related) stiffness and strength when measured in plane. Therefore, such composites are frequently used in engineering parts in automobile, aerospace, marine and energetic applications.

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CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the experimental procedures followed for their characterization and tribological evaluation. The raw materials used in this work are 1. E-glass fiber 2. E-Glass powder 3. Epoxy resin

3.1 Hardener:
The hardener used in Epoxy is polyamine. A polyamine is an organic compound having two or more primary amino groups -NH2.This class of compounds includes several synthetic substances that are important feed stocks for the chemical industry, such as ethylene diamine H2N-CH2-CH2-NH2, 1,3-diaminopropane H2N-(CH2)3-NH2, and hex methylenediamine H2N-(CH2)6NH2. The amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent

bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.

3.2 Epoxy:
Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener. When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond. Each NH group can react with
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an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong. The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements.

Resin:
Resin is a natural or synthetic compound which begins in a highly viscous state and hardens with treatment. Typically, resin is soluble in alcohol, but not in water. There are a number of different classes of resin, depending on exact chemical composition and potential uses. Matrix resins bind glass-reinforcing fibers together, protecting them from impact and the environment. Glass fiber properties such as strength dominate in continuously reinforced composites. When glass is used as a discontinuous reinforcement, resin properties dominate and are enhanced by the glass. Polymer matrix resins fall into two categories: thermo set and thermoplastic. The difference is in their chemistry. Thermo set resin is chemically comprised of molecular chains that crosslink during the cure reaction (set off by heat, catalyst, or both) and "set" into a final rigid form. Molecular chains in thermoplastic resin are processed at higher temperatures
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and remain "plastic," or capable of being reheated and reshaped. While the tradeoffs between thermosets and thermoplastics have been debated extensively, engineers will find that material suppliers will tailor matrix resin formulations best for their application

3.3 Fibres/Reinforcement materials:

Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used. Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers, high silica and quartz fibers, alumina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron fibers, aramid fibers and multi phase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified into E-glass, S-glass, Aglass, R-glass etc. There is a greater market and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers. The potential of fibers of graphite, silicon carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific mind due to their applications in advanced composites.

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3.3.1Types of fibers 3.3.1.a Glass Fibers

Over 95% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers, as they are inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the plastics with which they are reinforced. Their low density, resistance to chemicals, insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics, although the one major disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when subjected to high tensile stress for a long time.. However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time frames. This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is expected to sustain such loads for many months or years continuously. Period of loading, temperature, moisture and other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibers and the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning before the catastrophic failure. But all this can be easily overlooked in view of the fact that the wide range of glass fiber variety lend themselves amicably to fabrication processes like matched die moulding, filament winding lay-up and so on. Glass fibers are available in the form of mats, tapes, cloth, continuous and chopped filaments, rovings and yarns. Addition of chemicals to silica sand while making glass yields different types of glasses.

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3.3.1.b Metal Fibers

As reinforcements, metal fibers have many advantages. They are easily produced using several fabrication processes and are more ductile, apart from being not too sensitive to surface damage and possess high strengths and temperature resistance. However, their weight and the tendency to react with each other through alloying mechanisms are major disadvantages. Steel wire is the most extensively used reinforcement in most large-scale metal filament applications. Wire is used for its capacity to enhance the tensile strength of concrete and continuous metal fibers are the reinforcing constituents in metal and ceramic composite materials. 3.3.1.c Ceramic fibers improve vastly in performance when a fine metal outline is incorporated with refractory ceramics by improving their thermal shock and impact resistance properties. 3.3.1.d Metal wires, of the continuous version, also reinforce plastics like polyethylene and epoxy. Such combinations ensure high strength, light weight and good fatigue resistance. Besides, continuous metal fibers are easily handled, unlike glass fibers. Better flexural properties are observed in some metal fibers reinforced plastic composites which also offer improved strength and weight, than glass fibers. However, their poor tolerance of high temperatures and the resultant steep variation of thermal expansion coefficient with the resins are a discouragement that limits their application.

3.3.1.d Alumina Fibers

Alumina or aluminum oxide fibers, basically developed for use in metal matrices are considered a potential resin-matrix composite reinforcement. It offers
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good compressive strength rather than tensile strength. It is important property is it is high melting point of about 2000C and the composite can be successfully used at temperatures up to about 1000C. Magnesium and aluminum matrices frequently use alumina fiber reinforced composites as they do not damage the fiber even in the liquid state.

3.3.1.e Boron Fibers

They are basically composites, in which boron is coated on a substance which forms the substrate, usually made of tungsten. Boron-tungsten fibers are obtained by allowing hot tungsten filament through a mixture of gases. Boron is deposited on tungsten and the process is continued until the desired thickness is achieved. The tungsten however remains constant in its thickness. Properties of boron fibers generally change with the diameter, because of the changing ratio of boron to tungsten and the surface defects that change according to size. However, they are known for their remarkable stiffness

33and strength. Their strengths often compare with those of glass fibers, but their tensile modulus is high, almost four to five times that of glass. Boron coated carbons are much cheaper to make than boron tungsten fiber. But its low modulus of elasticity often works against it.

3.3.1.f Silicon Carbide Fibers

Silicon carbide can be coated over a few metals and their room temperature tensile strengths and tensile moduli are like those of borontungsten. The advantages of silicon carbide-tungsten are several and they are more desirable than uncoated boron tungsten fibers. Elevated temperature performance and the fact that they reported only a 35% loss of strength at
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1350C are their best qualities. Silicon carbide-tungsten and silicon carbidecarbon have both been seen to have very high stress-rupture strength at 1100C and 1300C. Uncoated boron-tungsten fibers tend to lose all their strength at temperatures over 680C. Silicon carbide fibers do not react with molten aluminium, unlike uncoated boron and they also withstand high temperatures used in hot-press titanium matrices. However, silicon carbide-tungsten fibers are dense compared to borontungsten fibers of the same diameter. They are prone to surface damage and need careful, delicate handling, especially during fabrication of the composite. Further, above 930C, weakening reactions occur between tungsten and silicon carbide, making it difficult to maintain balance in high-temperature matrix formations. Silicon carbide on 'carbon substrates have several advantages, viz. no, reaction at high temperature, being lighter than silicon carbide tungsten and possessing tensile strengths and modulus that is are often better than those of silicon carbide-tungsten and boron fibers.

3.3.1.g Aramid Fibers

Aramid fibers are made from aromatic polyamides which are long polymeric .chains and aromatic rings. They are structures in which six carbon atoms are bonded to each other and to combinations of hydrogen atoms. In aramid fibers, these rings occur and reoccur to form the fibers. They were initially used to reinforce automobile tires. Since then, they have also found other uses like bullet proof vests. As high strength applications, their use in power boats is not uncommon.

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Aramid have high tensile strength, high modulus and low weight. Impact- resistant structures can be produced from aramid. The density of aramid fibers is less than that of glass and graphite fibers. They are fire resistant apart from being high-temperature resistant and also unaffected by organic solvents and fuels. But their resistance in acid and alkaline media is poor. They are supple and allow themselves to be woven into matrices by simple processes. Aramid fibers have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion in the fiber direction and the failure of aramid fibers is unique. When they fail, the fibers break into small fibrils, which are like fibers within the fibers. This unique failure mechanism is responsible for high strength.

3.3.1.h Quartz and Silica Fibers

The glass-types typically contain about 50 to 78% silica. Silica glass is a purer glass fiber that can be made by treating fiberglass in an acid bath, which removes all impurities without affecting the silica. The final product contains 93 to 99% silica. Quartz is even more pure, and quartz fibers are made from natural quartz crystals that contain 99.9% silica, possessing nearly all the properties of pure solid quartz. Ordinary fiberglass, high silica and quartz fibers share several characteristics and can be produced in a range of fiber diameters. Roving or yarns and other forms of fibers can be made from high silica as well as quartz. All matrix materials that accept fiberglass are amenable to high silica and quartz too. They differ from glass in many factors, however, especially in heat-related properties. Although quartz crystals are commonly available, pure crystals are hard to come by. On the other hand, high silica comes from the same material as glass fibers and is easily accessible. However, quartz makes up for its rarity with its capacity to" withstand high temperatures, which silica is incapable of.
1280 ME Page

Barring this difference, silica and quartz are similar in other respects. They are highly elastic and can be stretched to 1 % of their length before break point. Both silica and quartz are not affected by acid attacks and are resistant to moisture. Owing to their thermal properties, silica and quartz are the natural choice as fibers in several applications. They have good insulating properties and do not melt at temperatures up to 1600C. In addition, they have low thermal expansion coefficients which make them withstand high temperatures.

3.3.1.i Graphite Fibers

While use of the term carbon for graphite is permissible, there is one basic difference between the two. Elemental analysis of poly-acrylo-nitrile (PAN) base carbon fibers show that they consist of 91 to 94% carbon. But graphite fibers are over 99% carbon. The difference arises from the fact that the fibers are made at different temperatures. PAN-based carbon cloth or fiber is produced at about 1320C, while graphite fibers and cloth are graphitized at 1950 to 3000C. The properties of graphite remain unchanged even at very high temperatures, but its willingness to react readily with most metals at the fabrication stage or during use at very high temperatures is often a stumbling block, as seen in aluminium matrices when carbides are produced at the interface. These carbides react with moisture with disastrous effects on the composite material.

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Graphite fibers are some of the stiffest fibers known. The stiffness of the fiber is as high as the graphite content. But a major drawback is that stiffness and strength are inversely proportional to each other. Forbidding costs make the use of graphite fibers prohibitive. The best glass fibers are far less expensive than the cheapest, lowest quality of graphite, and in PAN-base fibers, other raw materials too are equally expensive. The carbonization and graphitization are time-consuming, apart from demanding excessive energy, materials and close controls throughout the process. Cheaper pitch base fibers are now being developed, with greater performance potential and there are possibilities of the increased use of graphite fibers.

3.3.1.j Multiphase Fibers

Spoolable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually the multi phase variety and they usually comprise materials like boron, silicon and their carbides formed on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or tungsten. They are usually good for high temperature applications, due to their reduced reaction with higher melting temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers. Boron filaments are sought after for structural and intermediate-temperature composites. A poly-phase fiber is a core-sheath fiber consisting of a poly-crystalline core.

3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber:

E-Glass or electrical grade glass was originally developed for standoff insulators for electrical wiring. It was later found to have excellent fibre forming capabilities and is now used almost exclusively as the reinforcing phase in the material commonly known as fiber glass.

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. Figure 3.3.1.k E-Glass fiber

3.3.2 Mechanical Properties of fibers

Composite quantity of materials (as are not homogeneous. and the Their properties of are the

dependent on many factors, the most important of which are the type of fibre, fibre volume fraction) configuration reinforcement. They are generally completely elastic up to failure and exhibit neither a yield point nor a region of plasticity. They tend to have low strain to failure(less than 3%). The resulting area under the stress/strain curve, which represents the work done to failure, is relatively small when compared to many metals. The properties of composites are dependent on the properties of the fibre and the matrix, the proportion of each and the configuration of the fibres. If all the fibres are aligned in one direction then the composite relatively stiff and strong in that direction, but in the transverse direction it has low modulus and low strength. When a unidirectional composite is tested at a small angle from the fibre axis, there is a considerable reduction in strength. A similar but less significant effect occurs with the tensile modulus, as shown in Figure 3.3.2

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Figure 3.3.2
Theoretical variation in tensile modulus with the angle of load relative to the principal fibre direction (unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced plastic (UD CFRP), fibre volume fraction = 0.5)

Strength and stiffness Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) E glass fibres, which have a modulus of about 70GPa, produce composites with modest moduli. In the case of unidirectional fibres and the highest typical fibre volume fraction of 0.65, a composite has a modulus of about45GPa and strength of around 1300MPa. At right angles to this, in the transverse direction, the modulus approaches that of the resin itself at about4GPa and the strength would be 50100MPa. The unidirectional composites used in the ROBUST Project, manufactured using the vacuum process with prepreg material in an epoxy matrix, had the following properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 36GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 750MPa Elongation at break: 3.1%.
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Bidirectional E glass laminates have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.4 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about 14GPa.Random laminates (e.g. chopped strand mat) have a typical fibre volume fraction of about 0.2 and a tensile modulus at that volume fraction of about9GPa. The use of S2 or R glass improves the composite modulus to about60GPa for unidirectional and 20GPa for woven fabric (bidirectional) constructions. This is at some monetary disadvantage. They are both more expensive than E glass and they are only available in a fairly limited range of material types and resin compatibilities. Probably the most important virtue of S2 and R glass is their high strength, which is considerably higher than E glass. Carbon and graphite fibers Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) The dominant carbon fibres in current use (typically Toray T700) have a tensile modulus of about 230GPa, a tensile strength of around 5000MPaand a strain-to-failure of 2%. Unidirectional composites produced from them in either an epoxy or vinyl-ester matrix have the following typical properties: Longitudinal tensile modulus: 155165GPa Longitudinal tensile strength: 25003000MPa Elongation at break: 1.21.3% Carbon fibres are available which will give a tensile modulus of about250GPa in a unidirectional composite, comparing very favourably with steel at about 210GPa. However, as this composite is unidirectional, it has extremely low modulus in the transverse direction. The principal attributes of
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carbon fibre composites are their very high specific stiffness (the ratio of modulus/density), excellent fatigue and environmental resistance. Currently there are various pultruded CFRP plates available commercially for plate bonding applications. The pultruded plates used in the ROBUST Project, as well as the plates manufactured with prepreg materials, possessed a modulus of about 130GPa and a strength of 1500MPa.Pultruded plates now available from other sources typically exploit fibers with superior properties such as Toray T700, resulting in composites with the properties shown above. A financial penalty has to be paid for materials exhibiting properties significantly in excess of these; the strain-to-failure of composites made with them will also be reduced significantly. Carbon and graphite have substantial capability as reinforcing fibers, with great flexibility in the properties that can be provided. Primary characteristics for reinforcing fibers in polymer matrix composites are high stiffness and strength. The fibers must maintain these characteristics in hostile environments such as elevated temperatures, exposure to common solvents and fluids, and environmental moisture. To be used as part of a primary structure material it should also be available as continuous fiber. These characteristics and requirements have substantial implications for the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the fiber, which in turn implies processing and acceptance parameters. Interest in carbon fibers for structural materials was initiated in the late 1950s when synthesized rayons in textile form were carbonized to produce carbon fibers for high temperature missile applications. One of the first distinctions to be made is the difference between carbon and graphite fibers, although the terms are frequently used interchangeably.

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Background information for these differences is contained in the following sections. The primary purpose of making this distinction here is to alert the reader that users may mean different things when referring to graphite versus carbon fibers. Carbon and graphite fibers are both based on graphene (hexagonal) layer networks present in carbon. If the graphene layers or planes stack with three dimensional orders the material is defined as graphite. Usually extended time and temperature processing is required to form this order, making graphite fibers more expensive. Because the bonding between planes is weak, disorder frequently occurs such that only the two dimensional ordering within the layers is present. This material is defined as carbon. With this distinction made, it should be understood that while some differences are implied, there is not a single condition which strictly separates carbon from graphite fibers, and even graphite fibers retain some disorder in their structure.

3.3.3 Fiber Manufacture:

Glass fibers are generally produced using melt spinning techniques. These involve melting the glass composition into a platinum crown which has small holes for the molten glass to flow. Continuous fibers can be drawn out through the holes and wound onto spindles, while short fibers may be produced by spinning the crown, which forces molten glass out through the holes centrifugally. Fibers are cut to length using mechanical means or air jets. Fiber dimension and to some extent properties can be controlled by the process variables such as melt temperature (hence viscosity) and drawing/spinning rate. The temperature window that can be used to produce a melt of suitable viscosity is quite large, making this composition suitable for fiber forming. As fibers are being produced, they are normally treated with sizing and coupling agents. These reduce the effects of fiber- fiber abrasion which can significantly degrade the mechanical strength of the individual fibers. Other
1287 ME Page

treatments may also be used to promote wetting and adherence of the matrix material to the fiber .

Composition
E-Glass is a low alkali glass with a typical nominal composition of SiO2 54wt%, Al2O3 14wt%, CaO+MgThe advantageous properties of E-glass generally outweigh the disadvantages which include:
Low modulus Self abrasiveness if not treated appropriately leading to reduced strength

Relatively low fatigue resistance Higher density compared to carbon fibres and organic fibresO 22wt%, B2O3 10wt% and Na2O+K2O less then 2wt%. Some other materials may also be present at impurity levels.

3.3.4 Key Properties:

Properties that have made E-glass so popular in 1288iberglass and other glass reinforced composite include: Low cost High production rates High strength High stiffness Relatively low density Non-flammable Resistant to heat Good chemical resistance Relatively insensitive to moisture
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Able to maintain strength properties over a wide range of conditions Good electrical insulation

3.4 Processing of the Composites Fabrication of the Laminate

E-glass/Epoxy composite laminates were prepared by passing the E-glass fibers of 1200 TEX, through the resin bath of Epoxy and hardener maintaining a constant temperature of about 45 C.The fibers are then wound on a rotating drum with 15 rpm. After complete winding on the drum then it is cut opened and lay on a flat table in the atmospheric condition for about 48 hours to get the tackiness. The layers are cut in such a way that the desired fiber direction is obtained. In this experimentation it is decided to prepare the laminates such that the angle between the fibers are15o 30o 45o 60o and 90oas shown in fig-1. The sequence of layup shown in the fig -2. The number of layup depends on the thickness of the laminate required; here it is used 20 layers to obtain the thickness of the laminate about 4mm. All the overlapped layers then compacted between the two parallel flat steel plates with stainless steel spacers of required laminate thickness. The major purpose of lamination is to tailor the directional dependence of strength and stiffness of a composite material to match the loading environment of the structural element laminates are uniquely suited to this objective because the principal material directions of each layer can be oriented according to need.
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The plates are clamped with nuts and bolts with washers; the clamped setup is then placed in the oven. Maintain the oven temperature of 800 C for 4 hours and 1200 C for next 4 hours so that any entrapped air or volatile gases will be escaped for the first four hours and chemical reaction between the epoxy and hardener will takes place for the next four hours and will lead to permanent set and finally result into a single solid composite laminate. After total curing of 8 hours oven is then switched off so the temperature in the oven may come down to normal temperature. Take out the composite laminate and trim the edges so that the laminate is ready for testing purpose. Winding parameters 61. 62. 63. 64. Tension of fibre =1.3 kgs Resin temperature= 45 0c RPM of lathe = 15 Gap between doctor blade and drum = 1.25

mmThe parameters are kept constant for two different windings

FILAMENT WINDING SETUP

RESIN BATH

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DRUM WINDING

REMOVING LAYUP

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LAYUP PLACED ON TABLE

APPLYING WAXPOL ON PLATES

LAYING UP LAYERS

REMOVING AIR GAP

COMPACTING LAYERS

PLACING IN THE OVEN

3.4.2 CURING PROCESS :

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Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener". The resin consists of monomers or short chain polymers with an epoxide group at either end. Most common epoxy resins are produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A, though the latter may be replaced by similar chemicals. The hardener consists of polyamine monomers, for example Triethylenetetramine (TETA). When these compounds are mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent bond.

Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer is heavily crosslinked, and is thus rigid and strong.The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient temperatures. So the laminate that is fabricated is put into a Oven . The temperatures are maintained in two cycles. In the first cycle we have to maintain constant temperature of 80C for 4hours and in the next cycle maintain a temperature of 160C for next 4 hours.

AFTER CURING

MARKING

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TRIMMING

AFTER TRIMMING

DRILLING

AFTER DRILLING

Figure 3.6.a specifications of UTM (at CIPET)

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UTM SPECIFICATIONS
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COMPOSITE LAMINATE UNDER TESTING

4.1 Experimental procedure

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Quasi-static Indentation tests were performed on INSTRON testing machine. The composite laminate of size 150mm x 150mm is placed on a steel supporting frame, with a square opening of size 50mm x 50mm. A similar square opening flat plate is placed ontop of the composite laminate; it is then clamped rigidly with nuts and bolts of 6mm size as shown in fig-3. The clamped setup is placed on the loading frame of testing machine. A spherical stainless steel ball indenter of diameter 8.32mmis used for indentation on the composites laminate. The tests were conducted with the controlled displacement of the indenter (0.2mm / minute). The test data is shown in Table-2.An extensometer is used to measure the displacement of the point just below the indentation location at the bottom side of the composite laminate. A 20kN load cell evaluated the load on each composite laminate. The data obtained during test for each laminate is shown in Table-2. The composite laminate with different fiber angles is indented for a fixed displacement of 5 mm. The damage in the different composite laminate with different fiber angles is shown fig-4. The damage area in each composite laminate is observed with the help of optical light microscope.
S. No. Specifications 1 2 3 4 5 ASTM Present work

Specimen 4 6 mm 4 - 5 mm thickness Indenter 10 16 mm 8.73 mm diameter Cross head 0.2 mm / 1 mm / min displacement min Indenter 5 10 mm 5 mm displacement No of samples 4 4 per test

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF UTM

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00/150

00/300

00/450

00/600

00/900

Fig-1: Schematic diagram of five different laminates

Fig-2: Sequence of angle plies

4.2 COMPOSITE LAMINATES WITHOUT E-GLASS POWDER FRONT SIDE BACK SIDE

0,90

0,60

FRONT SIDE
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0,45

0,30

0,15

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S. No.

Angle (0)

Max. Load (KN) Indentation (mm)

Spring back (mm)

1 2 3 4 5

0/15 0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

3.77 4.11 4.69 4.99 5.83

0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.86

0.92 1.17 2.50 3.08 3.44

Table - 2: Test results after Indentation.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 Displacement (mm)

Load (KN)

15 DEG 30 DEG 45 DEG 60 DEG 90 DEG

Graph-1: Shows the load carrying capacity in each case for different indenter displacements of maximum 5mm for all the laminates. It is gradually increasing for the laminates with the fiber angles varying from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o).

Indentation ()

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-2: Indentation depth is increasing linearly as the fiber angle in laminates is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o),however it is suddenly increasing in the laminates with fiber angle varying from (0o/60o) to (0o/90o).

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S. No. 1 2 3 4 5

Angle (0) 0/15 0/30 0/45 0/60 0/90

Front face damage area (mm2) 971 1300 1894 2186 2623

Back face damage area (mm2) 1256 1857 2280 2623 3257

Table-3: Experimental data of damage surface areas on front and back face of the laminates

Front face damage area 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 15 30 45

Back face damage area

60

75

90

105

Graph-3: Damage area is increasing with the increase in fiber angle of the laminates in front face and back face of the laminate; however the damage area back face is more than the front face as seen from the above graph.

6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Load (KN)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-4: Maximum load taken in each laminate with different fiber angles. The load is increasing

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linearly as the fiber angle is increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o). 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105

Spring back (mm)

Angle between fibres (Degrees)

Graph-5: Shows spring back effect is increasing in different laminates as the fiber angles are increasing from (0o/15o) to (0o/90o), it shows that as the angle between fibers is increasing the laminate elasticity is also increasing

Material

Density (mg/m3)

Modulus (G Pa)

Poisons ratio(v)

Tensile strength (G Pa) 3.5

E-glass fiber

2.56

76

0.22

Epoxy resin

1.3

3.6

0.4

0.1

Table-4: Properties of materials

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4.3) RATE OF LOADING (0.5mm/min) WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

FRONT SIDE

(0/90)

BACK SIDE

0.5%

1%

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1.5

FRONT SIDE

(0/60)

BACK SIDE

0.5%

1%
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1304

1.5%

FRONT SIDE

(0/45)

BACK SIDE

0.5%

1%
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1305

1.5%

FRONT SIDE

(0/30)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/15)

BACK SIDE

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GRAPH 1 :

0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1.0 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.92 1.8 1.4 2 3.4 3.1 3.1 3 4.62 4.1 3.5 4 4.85 4.19 3.6 5 4 3.73 3.11

GRAPH 2 :

0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

DISPLACEMENT (mm) ME

F 0.5 %

F 1.0 % Page

F 1.5 %

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6 5

FORCE (kN)

F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

3
2 1 0 0 2

0 1 2 3 4 5

0 2 3.15 4.65 5.4 3

0 1.7 3.2 3.72 3.12 2.38

0 1.6 2.95 3.2 2.25 1.89

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

GRAPH 3:

0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5

F 1.0
F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.1 2.2 1.7 2 3.8 3.6 3.15 3 4.26 4.2 2.91 4 4.5 2.92 2.29 5 3.5 2.32 1.83

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GRAPH 4: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 1 2.15 2.1 1.2 2 3.75 3.5 2.3 3 5.18 4.2 3.4 4 4.2 3.15 2.85 5 2.5 1.9 1.75

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

GRAPH 5: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 0.5 mm/min)

5 4

FORCE (kN)

3 2 1 0 0 2

F 0.5 F1 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

DISPLACEMENT F 0.5 F1 F 1.5 (mm) % % % 0 0 0 0 1 1.9 1.8 1.7 2 3.1 2.85 2.6 3 3.9 3.8 3.3 4 3 2.8 2.5 5 2.85 2.35 1.7

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GRAPH 6 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

0.5 mm/min

3.5 3 2.5 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

DEPTH mm)

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.42 2.6 2.5 2.1 2

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.38 2.54 2.6 2.4 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 2.67 2.98 2.9 2.55 2.38

ANGLE

GRAPH 7 :
4

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

0.5 mm /min

PROJECTED HEIGHT

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0 % PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5 %

ANGLE

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ANGLE

0 15 30 45 60 90

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 0.5 % 0 2.84 3.2 2.5 2.55 2

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.0 % 0 3.24 3.6 2.7 3.5 2.1

PROJECTED HEIGHT (mm) 1.5 % 0 3.31 3.76 3.33 3.67 2.6

4.4 1.5mm/min RATE OF LOADING WITH POWDER PARTICULATE

FRONT SIDE (0/90) BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/60)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE

(0/45)

BACK SIDE

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FRONT SIDE
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(0/30)

BACK SIDE
Page

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FRONT SIDE

(0/15)

BACK SIDE

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GRAPH 8: 0-900 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm)

F F F 0.5% 1 % 1.5% 0 0 0 1.5 2.05 1.35 3.1 3.3 2.75 3.2 4.3 1.95 2.5 3.75 1.65 1.5 3.25 1.31

GRAPH 9:0-600 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5mm/min)

FORCE (kN)

5 4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 DISPLACEMENT (mm) 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT F F F (mm) 0.5 % 1.0 % 1.5 % 0 0 0 0 1 2.5 2.31 2.09 2 4.72 4.22 3.75 3 5.5 4.5 4.2 4 4.5 3.23 2.85 5 3.7 2.96 2.63

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GRAPH 10: 0-450 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

6 5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 % 0 2.5 4.72 5.5 4.5 3.7

FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 DISPLACEMENT 4 (mm) 6 F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 2.31 2.09 4.22 3.75 4.5 4.2 3.23 2.85 2.96 2.63

GRAPH 11: 0-300 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES( 1.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

DISPLACEMENT (mm)
F 0.5
F 1.0 F 1.5

F 0.5 % 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2.5 4.2 5.55 4.65 3.25

4 3 2 1 0

F 1.0 F 1.5 % % 0 0 1.75 1.65 3 2.65 4 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.2 1.8

2 4 (mm) DISPLACEMENT

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GRAPH 12: 0-150 FIBRE ORINTATION LAMINATE PROPERTIES(1.5 mm/min)

6 5

FORCE (kN)

4 3 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 DISPLACEMENT (mm) F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5

DISPLACEMENT (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5

F 0.5 F 1.0 F 1.5 % % % 0 0 0 1.8 1.98 1.65 2.9 3.15 2.5 4.1 3.9 3.1 4.85 4.4 2.25 3.7 3.2 1.6

GRAPH13 : ANGLE VS DEPTH OF INDENTATION

1.5 mm/min

DEPTH OF INDENTATION mm)

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 50 100 DEPTH 0.5% DEPTH 1.0% DEPTH 1.5%

ANGLE 0 15 30 45 60 90

DEPTH 0.5% 0 2.34 2.45 2.67 2.39 2.5

DEPTH 1.0% 0 2.14 2.32 2.6 2.27 2.17

DEPTH 1.5% 0 1.9 2.29 2.31 2 1.8

ANGLE

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GRAPH 14 :

ANGLE VS PROJECTED HEIGHT

(1 .5 mm/ min)

4
3.5

PROJECTED HEIGHT

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 PROJECTED HEIGHT 0.5% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.0% PROJECTED HEIGHT 1.5%

20

40

60

80

100

ANGLE

ANGLE PROJECTED PROJECTED PROJECTED HEIGHT HEIGHT HEIGHT 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 0 0 0 0 15 3 1.41 2.95 30 2.71 3.65 3.05 45 3.19 3.31 3.15 60 3.33 3.32 2.5 90 2.7 2.55 2.1

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CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Graph 1 (0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 1 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 4mm at 3.6kN. Graph 2 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 2 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 5.4kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN. Graph 3 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) :

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In Graph 3,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 3.15kN. Graph 4 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 4,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.18kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.4kN. Graph 5 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 5,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.9kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.3kN. Graph 6 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) :
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In graph 6,Depth of indentation is increasing with increase in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-150 to 0-300 later on there is increase in depth of indentation,but it is decreases with angles 0-300 to 0-900. Graph 7 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 7, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0300 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600 and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles. Graph 8(0-900 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 8 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 3.2kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of2 mm at 2.75kN. Graph 9 (0-600 Fibre Orientation of laminate) :

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In Graph 9 ,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN. Graph 10 (0-450 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 10,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.5kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 4.2kN. Graph 11 (0-300 Fibre Orientation of laminate) : In Graph 11,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 3mm at 5.55kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 2mm at 2.65kN. Graph 12 (0-150 Fibre Orientation of laminate) :
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In Graph 12,the load carrying capacity is increasing with the decrease in percentage of E- glass powder addition. However the load bearing is maximum at 0.5% of E-glass powder at a displacement of 4mm at 4.85kN and decrease as the depth of indentation increase at 1.5% of E-glass powder at the maximum load is at displacement of 3mm at 3.1kN. Graph 13 (Angle vs Depth of indentation) : In graph 13,Depth of indentation is increasing with decrease in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing of fibre angle 0-450, later on there is decrease in depth of indentation from 0-450 to 0-600,but it is increases with angles 0-600 to 0-900. Graph 14 (Angle vs projected height) : In graph 14, Projected height is increasing with fibre angles(0150 ) and decrease in percentage of (0-300 to 0-450),later on increasing 0-450 to 0-600 and increasing in percentage of E-glass powder and however with increasing in angle,Increase in projecetd height but it gradually fluctuates after 0-150 to 0-300 angles.

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REFERENCES
1) Agarwal, B. D and Broutman, L. J, (1990). Analysis and Performance
of Fiber Composites, Second Edition, Jhon Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 2) Robert M. Jones(1999), mechanics of composite materials, second edition Taylor & Francis group , New york London. 3) http://nptel.iitm.ac.in 4) http://www.wikipedia.org/ 5) Rothon R.N, (1999). Mineral fillers in thermoplastics: filler manufacture and characterization. Adv. Polym. Sci. 139, pp. 67-107. 6) http://composite.about.com/ 7) Applied composite materials, An international journal for the science And application of composites materials. 8) Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, publishes research on Polymers, nano composites and particulate

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