Primum non nocere. Ou em Ingls (voc ir encontr-lo em nossa home page) que diz: Primeiro no cause danos.

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Uma Breve Histria de Experimentos Humanos com crianas e adultos ideologia industrial e ere. Ou em Ingls (voc ir encontr-lo em nossa home page) que diz: Primeiro no cause danos. George I oferece perdo gratuito a qualquer detento da priso de Newgate, que concorda em ser inoculado com varola infecciosas no experimento de inoculao da varola. Voc pode ler sobre isso em um dos artigos da nossa histria, na seo: A Histria de Inoculao . Edward Jenner injeta saudvel de oito anos de idade, James Phillips primeiro com cowpox em seguida, trs meses depois com a varola e aclamado como o descobridor da vacina contra a varola. J. Marion Sims, o Pai de Ginecologia nos Estados Unidos, realiza experimentos ginecolgico em escravos na Carolina do Sul. Voc pode ler mais sobre o Dr. Sims em nossasbiografias . 1845-1849 Fisiologista francs Claude Bernard publica Introduo ao Estudo de Experimentao Humana, aconselhando: Nunca realizar um experimento que pode ser prejudicial para o paciente, embora altamente vantajoso para a cincia ou a sade de outros. Mdico Cincinnati Roberts Bartholow conduz experimentos em cirurgia do crebro Mary Rafferty, um servo anos 30 nacional morrendo de uma lcera infectada. Prussiano Estado legisla que um tratamento para a tuberculose no pode ser dado a prisioneiros sem o seu consentimento. Albert Neisser injeta mulheres com soro de pacientes com sfilis, infectando a metade deles. Dr. Arthur Wentworth realiza puno lombar em 29 crianas no Hospital Infantil de Boston para determinar se o procedimento prejudicial. Bacteriologista italiano Sanarelli injeta cinco indivduos com o bacilo de procurar um agente causador da febre amarela.

1718

1796

1865 1874 1891 1892 1896 1897

Walter Reed injeta 22 trabalhadores imigrantes espanhis em Cuba com o agente da febre amarela pagando-lhes US $ 100 se eles sobrevivem e US $ 200 se contrair a doena. 1900 Dr. Richard Strong, professor de medicina tropical na Universidade de Harvard, as experincias com clera em prisioneiros nas Filipinas matando treze. 1906 EUA Sade Pblica Gabinete induz pelagra em doze prisioneiros Mississippi. Todos os prisioneiros so, no entanto, voluntrios e aps o experimento so curadas (com dieta adequada) e libertado da priso. Voc pode ler sobre isso aqui, na nossa Histria de vitaminas . 1915 Testicular experimentos de transplante de 500 prisioneiros em San Quentin 1919-1922 Alemanha emite Regulamento sobre Terapia Novo e Experimentao, enquanto 75 crianas morrem em Lubeck, na Alemanha a partir de experimento pediatra com vacina contra a tuberculose. 1931 Na Amrica, Dr. Cornelius Rhoads, sob os auspcios do Instituto Rockefeller de Investigaes Mdicas, infecta seres humanos com clulas cancerosas. Mais tarde, ele passa a estabelecer os EUA Exrcito instalaes guerra biolgica, em Maryland, Utah, e Panam, e nomeado para a Comisso de Energia Atmica dos EUA. Enquanto estava l, ele comea uma srie de experimentos de exposio radiao em soldados americanos e pacientes do hospital civil.

O Estudo de Sfilis de Tuskegee comea. 200 homens negros diagnosticados com sfilis nunca informado da sua doena, so negados o tratamento, e em vez disso so usados como cobaias humanas para seguir a progresso e sintomas da doena. Subseqentemente, todos morrer de sfilis, suas famlias nunca disse que eles poderiam ter sido tratados. Este um assunto que vai cobrir em profundidade algum dia em breve. O Incidente Pelagra. Depois de milhes de pessoas morrem de pelagra em um perodo de duas dcadas, os EUA Servio de Sade Pblica, finalmente, atua para conter a doena. O diretor da agncia admite que sabia h pelo menos 20 anos que a pelagra causada por uma deficincia de niacina, mas falharam em agir j que a maioria das mortes ocorreu dentro miserveis populaes negras. Imunologista japons Ishii Shiro (Dr. Ishii) realiza experincias com antraz ea clera com prisioneiros chineses em Harbin. Ordens do Terceiro Reich nascimentos de todos os gmeos ser registrado com os Escritrios de Sade Pblica para fins de investigao gentica.

1932

1935 1938 1939

Unidade 731. Dr. Ishii comea testes de campo da guerra bacteriolgica e experimentos de vivisseco em milhares de soldados chineses e civis. O povo chins que se rebelaram contra a ocupao japonesa foram presos e enviados para Pingfan onde se tornaram cobaias humanas, no h evidncias de que alguns prisioneiros russos tambm foram vtimas de atrocidades mdicas. Eu cortei-o aberto a partir do peito para o estmago e ele gritou muito e seu rosto estava todo torcido em agonia. Ele fez este som inimaginvel, ele estava gritando to horrivelmente. Mas ento, finalmente, ele parou. Isso tudo foi em um dia de trabalho para os cirurgies, mas ele realmente deixou uma impresso em mim, porque foi minha primeira vez. Esses prisioneiros eram chamados de Maruta (literalmente logs ) pelos japoneses. Depois de sucumbir s doenas induzidas incluindo a peste bubnica, clera, antraz os prisioneiros eram geralmente dissecado enquanto ainda vivo, ento seus corpos cremados dentro do complexo.Dezenas de milhares morreram. As atrocidades foram cometidas por alguns dos mdicos mais ilustres do Japo recrutado por Dr. Ishii. 1939-1945 Quatro centenas de prisioneiros em Chicago esto infectadas com a malria, a fim de estudar os efeitos de novas drogas e experimental para combater a doena.Mdicos nazistas mais tarde, em julgamento em Nuremberg vai citar este estudo norte-americano para defender suas prprias aes durante o Holocausto. 1940 Experimentos de esterilizao em Auschwitz. 1941 Experimentos de tifo em Buchenwald e campos de concentrao Natzweiler. 1941-1945 De acordo com audincias no Congresso realizado em Washington, DC, em setembro de 1986, o ex-prisioneiros de guerra americanos estavam entre os sujeitos experimentais Ishii. As audincias produziu um rosrio de histrias de horror contadas por ex-prisioneiros de guerra americanos.http://www.researchprotection.org/history/chronology.html 1942-1945 Bioqumico de Harvard Edward Cohn injeta presos 64 Massachusetts com o sangue de carne nos EUA experincia da Marinha patrocinado. 1942 Altitude elevada ou experimentos de baixa presso no campo de concentrao de Dachau.

Chemical Warfare Servios comea experimentos gs mostarda em cerca de 4.000 militares. Os experimentos continuam at 1945 e fez uso de Adventistas do Stimo Dia, que escolheu se tornar cobaias humanas em vez de servir na ativa. Regenerao ssea e transplante de experimentos em prisioneiros do sexo feminino no campo de concentrao de Ravensbrck. Experimentos de coagulao em padres catlicos no campo de concentrao de Dachau. Experimentos de congelamento a campo de concentrao de Dachau. EUA Chemical Warfare Servio conduz experimentos gs mostarda em milhares de militares. Experimentos malria no campo de concentrao de Dachau em mais de 1.200 prisioneiros. Epidemia de ictercia em experimentos Natzweiler campo de concentrao. Experimento conduzido em refrigerao dezesseis pacientes com deficincia mental que foram colocados em armrios refrigerados a 30 graus Fahrenheit, para 120 horas, na Universidade de Cincinnati Hospital. Estudar o efeito da temperatura fria sobre transtornos mentais. Fsforo queimar experincias no campo de concentrao de Buchenwald. Em resposta ao programa japons de guerra em escala total de germes, os EUA comea a investigao sobre armas biolgicas, em Fort Detrick, MD. Projeto Manhattan injeo de 4,7 microgramas de plutnio em soldados em Oak Ridge. Experimentar a gua do mar em sessenta ciganos dada s para beber gua salgada no campo de concentrao de Dachau.

1942-1943

1942-1944 1942-1945 1943

1942-1943

1944

Marinha dos EUA utiliza seres humanos para testar mscaras de gs e roupas. Indivduos foram trancados em uma cmara de gs e expostos ao gs mostarda e lewisite. University of Chicago Medical School professor Dr. Alf Alving conduz experimentos da malria em mais de 400 presos Illinois. 1944-1946 Projeto Manhattan injeo de plutnio em trs pacientes em Billings Hospital da Universidade de Chicago. 1945 Experimento de malria em 800 prisioneiros em Atlanta. Paperclip projeto iniciado. Os EUA do Departamento de Estado, a inteligncia do Exrcito e da CIA recrutar cientistas nazistas e oferecer-lhes a imunidade e identidades secretas em troca de trabalho em cima projetos secretos do governo dos Estados Unidos. F Programa implementado pela Comisso de Energia Atmica dos EUA (AEC). Este o mais extenso estudo realizado nos EUA dos efeitos na sade de flor, que era o componente qumico chave na produo da bomba atmica. Uma das substncias mais txicas conhecidas pelo homem, o flor, encontra-se, faz com que marcou efeitos adversos ao sistema nervoso central, mas grande parte das informaes reprimido em nome da segurana nacional por causa do medo que os processos minaria em larga escala de produo de bombas atmicas.

EUA acordo secreto com Ishii e Unidade 731 lderes encobrir de dados germe de guerra baseado em experincias com seres humanos em troca de imunidade de acusao por crimes de guerra. A ultra-secreto do Exrcito dos EUA Far relatrio Comando Leste sobre os resultados de Thompson diz: O valor para os EUA de japoneses de dados de armas biolgicas de tal importncia para a segurana nacional como para superam o valor provenientes de crimes de guerra de acusao. Um memorando de 1956 do FBI revela que em meados da dcada de 1950 os EUA sabiam tudo sobre experincias humanas Ishii, mas concordou em no processar em troca de dados cientficos do Japo na guerra biolgica. (Em outras palavras, quando se trata de tortura humana e do sacrifcio, at mesmo de americanos prisioneiros de guerra, os fins justificam os meios, tanto quanto o Governo dos EUA est em causa . E, o governo dos EUA colocou um valor muito elevado no conhecimento de formas eficientes de matar um grande nmero de pessoas) Abertura de Nuremberg Julgamento dos Mdicos.

1946

Comisso de Energia Atmica e Quaker Oats patrocinado estudo de Fernald, residentes de Massachusetts cereais matinais alimentados com raes contendo traadores radioativos. 1946-1953 Pacientes em hospitais VA so usados como cobaias para experincias mdicas. A fim de dissipar suspeitas, a ordem dada para mudar a palavra experimentos para investigaes ou observaes sempre que os relatrios um estudo mdico realizado em um dos hospitais veterano da nao . 1946

Comisso de Energia Atmica autorizou uma srie de experimentos em que os materiais radioativos so dadas aos indivduos, em muitos casos sem ser informado que foram objecto de uma experincia, e em alguns casos sem qualquer expectativa de um benefcio positivo para os sujeitos, que foram selecionados a partir de populaes vulnerveis, como os pobres, as crianas idosos e deficientes mentais (que foram alimentados com aveia radioativo sem o consentimento de seus pais), e tambm de estudantes da Universidade da Califrnia-San Francisco.Em 1993, os experimentos foram descobertos e tornado pblico. Em 1996, os Estados Unidos estabeleceram com os sobreviventes por 4,9 milhes de dlares. 1946-1974 Julgamento em Nuremberg Julgamento dos Mdicos incluindo dez Cdigo ponto de Nuremberg, que comea assim: O consentimento voluntrio do sujeito humano absolutamente essencial. 1947 EE Coronel Kirkpatrick da Comisso de Energia Atmica dos EUA emite um documento secreto (Documento 07075001, 8 de janeiro de 1947) afirmando que a agncia vai comear a administrar doses intravenosas de substncias radioactivas para os seres humanos. A CIA comea seu estudo do LSD como uma arma potencial para uso pela inteligncia americana. Seres humanos (civis e militares) so usadas com e sem o seu conhecimento. Libertao intencional de radiodine 131 e 133 xenon mais de Hanford, em Washington Atomic Energy Commission estudo de campo chamado Run Verde. Guerra da Unio Sovitica julgamento por crimes de associados Dr. Ishii.

1949

Estudos da Comisso de Energia Atmica crianas em idade escolar com deficincia mental alimentados istopos radioactivos em escolas Fernald e Wrentham. Departamento de Defesa comea planos para detonar armas nucleares em reas desrticas e monitorar os moradores a favor do vento para problemas mdicos e as taxas de mortalidade. Em um experimento para determinar a suscetibilidade uma cidade americana seria a de ataque biolgico, os sprays da Marinha dos EUA de uma nuvem de bactrias de navios com mais de San Francisco.

1949-1953

1950

Dispositivos de monitoramento esto situados em toda a cidade a fim de testar a extenso da infeco. Muitos moradores ficam doentes com sintomas semelhantes aos da pneumonia. Dr. Joseph Stokes, da Universidade da Pensilvnia infecta 200 prisioneiros mulheres com hepatite viral. Universidade da Pensilvnia, sob contrato com Exrcito dos EUA realiza experimentos psicofarmacolgico em centenas de prisioneiros na Pensilvnia. 1951-1960 Departamento de Defesa comea testes ao ar livre usando doena produtoras de bactrias e vrus. ltimos testes atravs de 1969 e existe a preocupao de que as pessoas nas reas circundantes tenham sido expostos. 1951 Universidade da Pensilvnia dermatologista Dr. Albert Kligman conduz experimentos de produtos de pele s centenas na Priso Holmesburg; Tudo o que eu vi antes de mim, ele disse sobre sua primeira visita priso , foram acres de pele. Henry Blauer injetados com uma dose fatal de mescalina no Instituto de Psiquiatria da Universidade de Columbia por contrato secreto com Army Chemical Corps. Recm-nascido Daniel Burton prestados cegos no Hospital Doutor Brooklyn durante estudo sobre RLF e o uso de oxignio Oak-Ridge patrocinado injeo de urnio em onze pacientes no Hospital Geral de Massachusetts em Boston. Militares dos EUA libera nuvens de gs sulfeto de cdmio de zinco sobre Winnipeg, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Fort Wayne, a Monocacy River Valley, em Maryland, e Leesburg, Virgnia.Sua inteno determinar a eficincia que poderiam dispersar agentes qumicos. Conjunta do Exrcito-Marinha-CIA experimentos so conduzidos na qual dezenas de milhares de pessoas em Nova York e San Francisco esto expostos ao ar e Serratia marcescens germes glogigii Bacillus. Os germes e produtos qumicos utilizados pelo Exrcito e da Marinha representam riscos de sade conhecidos antes e durante o tempo de testes. Isso est documentado em estudos cientficos citados no The Plague Eleventh por Leonard A. Cole e no livro anterior de Cole, Clouds of Secrecy: Testes do Exrcito Germ Guerra cima de reas povoadas. CIA inicia Projeto MKULTRA aos oitenta instituies de centenas de assuntos. Este um programa de pesquisa 11 anos projetada para produzir e testar drogas e agentes biolgicos que seriam utilizados para o controle da mente e modificao de comportamento. Seis dos subprojetos envolveu o teste de agentes em unwitting seres humanos.

1952-1974

1952 1953 1953-1957

1953

Um documento da CIA desclassificados datada de 7 de janeiro de 1953 [1] descreve a criao experimental de personalidade mltipla em duas meninas de 19 anos de idade. Estes temas tm demonstrado claramente que eles podem passar de um estado completamente desperto de um profundo estado H [hipntico] controlado por telefone, recebendo a matria impressa, ou pelo uso de cdigo, sinal, ou palavras, e que o controle desses hipnotizado pode ser transmitido de um indivduo para outro, sem grande dificuldade. Tambm tem sido demonstrado por experimentao com essas meninas que eles possam atuar como mensageiros dispostos para fins de informao. Experimentos do Exrcito dos EUA com LSD em soldados em Fort Detrick, Maryland EUA Exrcito estudo de 2300 soldados Adventista do Stimo Dia, em 150 experimentos de cdigo chamado Operao pele branca. A CIA, em um experimento para testar a sua capacidade de infectar populaes humanas com agentes biolgicos, libera uma bactria retirada do arsenal do Exrcito sobre a guerra biolgica Tampa Bay, Fl. Army Chemical Corps continua LSD pesquisa, estudando o seu uso potencial como agente incapacitante qumica. Mais de 1.000 americanos participar dos testes, que continuam at 1958. Militares dos EUA libera os mosquitos infectados com febre amarela em Savannah, Ga e Parque Avon, Fl. Aps cada teste, os agentes do Exrcito colocam como agentes de sade pblica para efeitos de teste vtimas. Dr. Albert Sabin testes vacina contra a poliomielite experimental em 133 prisioneiros em Ohio. LSD testada em 95 voluntrios em laboratrios do Exrcito Chemical Warfare pelo seu efeito sobre a inteligncia. Injeo de hepatite em crianas com deficincia mental na escola Willowbrook em Staten Island, em uma tentativa de encontrar a vacina. Disseminao de materiais radioativos sobre a terra Inupiat em Point Hope, Alaska em Energia Atmica cdigo estudo da Comisso campo chamado Project Chariot. Professor de Harvard Henry A. Murray realiza experimento desconstruo psicolgica em 22 alunos de graduao, incluindo Theodore Kaczynski, o resultado de que, pelo menos de acordo com o escritor Alton Chase, pode ter virado Kaczynski no Unabomber. O Assistente do Exrcito Chefe do Estado-Maior-de Inteligncia (ACSI) autoriza testes de campo de LSD na Europa e no Extremo Oriente. Teste da populao europeia o cdigo CHANCE projeto chamado terceiros; testes da populao asitica codinome Projeto DERBY HAT. 1953-1970 1954-1974

1955

1955-1958

1956

1958 1958-1960 1958-1962

1959-1962

1960

Empresas farmacuticas conduta fase de testes de segurana uma das drogas quase que exclusivamente sobre os prisioneiros para pequenos pagamentos em dinheiro. 1962-1980 Talidomida retirados do mercado depois de milhares de deformidades de nascimento culpou, em parte, resultados enganosos de estudos em animais, o FDA, posteriormente requer trs fases de ensaios clnicos em humanos antes de as empresas podem liberar uma droga no mercado. 1962

Injeo de clulas vivas de cncer em pacientes idosos no Hospital de Doenas Crnica judaica no Brooklyn. Stanley Milgram realiza pesquisas obedincia da Universidade de Yale. Falamos do experimento de Milgram em uma anterior newsletter, e h um link para um vdeo em linha grande sobre o assunto que muito bom. NIH apoiado transplantes de rim pesquisador chimpanz em humanos em experincia fracassada. Linda MacDonald foi vtima de experimentos Dr. Ewen Cameron mente destrutiva controle em 1963. Dr. Cameron foi em vrios momentos o presidente das Associaes americanas, canadenses e Mundial de Psiquiatria. Ele usou um tratamento que envolveu intensiva aplicao das tcnicas de lavagem cerebral; desinibio de drogas, tratamento de sono prolongada e isolamento prolongado, combinada com a ECT [Terapia Electro Convulsive] tratamentos. A quantidade de eletricidade introduzido no crebro de Linda excedido em 76,5 vezes a quantidade mxima recomendada. Tcnica do Dr. Cameron resultou em amnsia permanente e completa. At hoje, Linda incapaz de se lembrar de nada do seu nascimento at 1963.Conforme registrado pelos enfermeiros em sua carta, ela no sabia o nome dela e no reconhecer seus filhos. Ela no conseguia ler, dirigir, ou usar um banheiro. No s ela no sabe seu marido, ela nem sabia o que era um marido. A ao de classe contra a CIA para experincias Dr. Cameron MKULTRA foi resolvido fora dos tribunais por 750.000 dlares, divididos entre oito reclamantes em 1988. Empresas farmacuticas conduta fase de testes de segurana uma das drogas quase que exclusivamente sobre os prisioneiros para pequenos pagamentos em dinheiro. Dr. Carl Heller, um endocrinologista de liderana, realiza experincias de irradiao testicular em prisioneiros em Oregon e Washington dando-lhes $ 5 por ms e US $ 100 quando recebem uma vasectomia no final do julgamento.

1963

1962-1980

1963-1973

Associao Mdica Mundial adota Declarao de Helsinki, afirmando O interesse da cincia e da sociedade nunca devem ter precedncia sobre o bem-estar do sujeito. 1964 CIA eo Departamento de Defesa comear Projeto MKSEARCH, um programa para desenvolver uma capacidade de manipular o comportamento humano atravs do uso de drogas que alteram a mente. 1965-1966 Universidade da Pensilvnia, sob contrato com a Dow Chemical conduz experimentos dioxina: prisioneiros na Priso Estadual Holmesburg na Filadlfia so submetidos a dioxina, o componente qumico altamente txico do Agente Laranja usado no Vietn. Os homens esto mais tarde estudou para o desenvolvimento de cncer, o que indica que o agente laranja foi um cancergeno o tempo todo. CIA inicia Projeto MKOFTEN, um programa para testar os efeitos toxicolgicos de certas drogas em seres humanos e animais. Exrcito dos EUA dispensa Bacillus subtilis variante niger em todo o sistema de metr de Nova York. Mais de um milho de civis esto expostos quando os cientistas do exrcito queda lmpadas preenchido com as bactrias em grelhas de ventilao.

1966

Henry Beecher artigo tica e Pesquisa Clnica em New England Journal of Medicine. Exrcito dos EUA introduz globigii bacilo em tneis de metr de Nova York, em estudo de campo. NIH Gabinete para a Proteco dos sujeitos da pesquisa (OPRR) criado e questes de Polticas para a Proteo dos Sujeitos Humanos pedindo a criao de organismos de reviso independente mais tarde conhecido como Conselho de Reviso Institucional. Mdico britnico MH Pappworth publica cobaias humanas, aconselhando Nenhum mdico tem o direito de escolher mrtires para a cincia ou para o bem geral. CIA eo Departamento de Defesa implementar MKNAOMI Projeto, sucessor de MKULTRA e projetado para manter, armazenar e testar armas biolgicas e qumicas. Experimentos da CIA com a possibilidade de envenenamento de gua potvel atravs da injeo de produtos qumicos no abastecimento de gua da FDA em Washington, DC Dr. Robert MacMahan do Departamento de Defesa dos pedidos de congressos $ 10 milhes para desenvolver, dentro de 5 a 10 anos, um agente sinttico biolgico ao qual no existe imunidade natural. Financiamento para o agente biolgico sinttico obtido sob HR 15090. O projeto, sob a superviso da CIA, realizada pela Diviso de Operaes Especiais em Fort Detrick, o exrcito secreto instalao de armas biolgicas.Especulao levantada que tcnicas de biologia molecular so utilizados para produzir a AIDS como retrovrus. Estados Unidos se intensifica o seu desenvolvimento de armas tnicas (Military Review, Nov., 1970), projetado para seletivamente e eliminar grupos tnicos especficos que so suscetveis devido s diferenas genticas e variaes no DNA. Dr. Zimbardo realiza Psicologia do experimento Prison Life on estudantes da Universidade de Stanford. Ad Hoc Advisory Panel questes Relatrio Final do Estudo Tuskegee Syphilis, concluindo A sociedade no pode mais dar ao luxo de deixar o equilbrio dos direitos individuais contra o progresso cientfico para a comunidade cientfica. National Research Act estabelece Comisso Nacional para a Proteo dos Sujeitos Humanos e Polticas OPRR upgrades aos regulamentos a ser conhecido como a regra comum. A seo de vrus do Centro de Fort Detrick de Pesquisa guerra biolgica rebatizado de Fredrick Instalaes Pesquisa do Cncer e colocado sob a superviso do National Cancer Institute (NCI). aqui que um programa especial de cncer de vrus iniciado pela Marinha dos EUA, supostamente para desenvolver cncer de vrus causadores. tambm aqui que retrovirologistas isolar um vrus contra o qual no existe imunidade. Mais tarde nomeado HTLV (vrus da leucemia humana de clulas T). HHS promulga Ttulo 45 do Regulamento Federal intitulado Proteco dos Seres Humanos, exigindo a nomeao e utilizao de IRBs.

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1973

1974

1975

National Urban League detm Conferncia Nacional de Experimentao Humana, anunciando No queremos matar cincia, mas no queremos que a cincia para matar, mangle e abuso de ns. Audincias do Senado sobre Sade e da Investigao Cientfica confirmam que 239 reas povoadas foram contaminados com agentes biolgicos, entre 1949 e 1969.Algumas das reas includas San Francisco, Washington, DC, Key West, Panama City, Minneapolis e St. Louis. Experimental Hepatite B ensaios de vacinas, conduzido pelo CDC, comea em Nova York, Los Angeles e San Francisco.Anncios de sujeitos de pesquisa pedir especificamente para homens homossexuais promscuos. Comisso Nacional de questes Relatrio Belmont, estabelecendo trs princpios ticos bsicos: respeito pelas pessoas, beneficncia e justia. The FDA promulgates 21 CFR 50.44 prohibiting use of prisoners as subjects in clinical trials shifting phase one testing by pharmaceutical companies to non-prison population. Primeiros casos de AIDS confirmados em homens homossexuais em Nova York, Los Angeles e San Francisco, desencadeando especulaes de que a AIDS pode ter sido introduzida atravs da vacina contra Hepatite B. Leonard Whitlock sofre dano cerebral permanente aps a experincia de mergulho profundo na Duke University. De acordo com a revista Science (227:173-177), HTLV e VISNA, um vrus fatal ovelhas, so muito semelhantes, indicando uma taxonmicos fechar e relao evolutiva. De acordo com a Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (83:4007-4011), HIV e VISNA so muito semelhantes e compartilham todos os elementos estruturais, com exceo de um pequeno segmento que quase idntico ao HTLV. Isso leva especulao de que o HTLV e VISNA pode ter sido ligada a produzir um novo retrovrus para o qual no existe imunidade natural. Um relatrio ao Congresso, revela que a gerao atual do Governo dos EUA de agentes biolgicos inclui: vrus modificados, toxinas que ocorrem naturalmente, e os agentes que so alteradas atravs da engenharia gentica para mudana de carter imunolgico e impedir o tratamento de todas as vacinas existentes. Departamento de Defesa admite que, apesar de um tratado que proba pesquisa e desenvolvimento de agentes biolgicos, ela continua a operar as instalaes de pesquisa em 127 instalaes e universidades de todo o pas. Deciso da Suprema Corte em United States v. Stanley, 483 EUA 669, holding soldado dado LSD sem seu consentimento no poderia processar por danos Exrcito dos EUA. Mais de 1500 seis meses de idade os bebs negros e hispnicos em Los Angeles recebem um experimental vacina contra o sarampo que nunca tinha sido licenciada para uso nos Estados Unidos. O Centro de Controle de Doenas mais tarde admite que os pais nunca foram informados de que a vacina que est sendo injetado para seus filhos era experimental. O FDA concede Departamento de renncia Defesa do Cdigo de Nuremberg para o uso de medicamentos no aprovados e vacinas em Escudo do Deserto.

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Organizao Mundial da Sade anuncia Diretrizes CIOMS, que estabeleceu quatro princpios ticos: respeito pelas pessoas, nonmalfeasance, beneficncia e justia. Tony Lamadrid comete suicdio depois de participar de estudo sobre a recada de esquizofrnicos retirada da medicao na UCLA. Com uma tcnica chamada tracking gene, Dr. Garth Nicolson no MD Anderson Cancer Center, em Houston, TX descobre que muitos veteranos Tempestade no Deserto retornando esto infectados com uma cepa alterados de incognitus Mycoplasma, um micrbio comumente utilizados na produo de armas biolgicas . Incorporada em sua estrutura molecular de 40 por cento da cobertura de protena HIV, indicando que tinha sido feita pelo homem. Senator John D. Rockefeller issues a report revealing that for at least 50 years the Department of Defense has used hundreds of thousands of military personnel in human experiments and for intentional exposure to dangerous substances. Materials included mustard and nerve gas, ionizing radiation, psychochemicals, hallucinogens, and drugs used during the Gulf War. US Government admits that it had offered Japanese war criminals and scientists who had performed human medical experiments salaries and immunity from prosecution in exchange for data on biological warfare research. Dr. Garth Nicolson, uncovers evidence that the biological agents used during the Gulf War had been manufactured in Houston, TX and Boca Raton, Fl and tested on prisoners in the Texas Department of Corrections. Department of Defense admits that Desert Storm soldiers were exposed to chemical agents. Eighty-eight members of Congress sign a letter demanding an investigation into bioweapons use & Gulf War Syndrome. Three children die at St. Jude Childrens Hospital in Memphis during participation in clinical trial for acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Veterans Administration shuts down all research at West Los Angeles Medical Center after allegations of medical research performed on patients who did not consent. OPRR shuts down research at Duke University because of inadequate supervision of human subject experiments.. Year-old Gage Stevens dies at Childrens Hospital in Pittsburgh during participation in Propulsid clinical trial for infant acid reflux. 18-year-old Jesse Gelsinger dies after being injected with 37 trillion particles of adenovirus in gene therapy experiment at University of Pennsylvania. His death triggers a still-ongoing reevaluation of the conflicts of interest plaguing human subject research. University of Oklahoma melanoma trial halted for failure to follow government regulations and protocol. OPRR becomes Office of Human Research Protection (OHRP) and made part of the Department of Health and Human Services. Biotech company in Pennsylvania asks the FDA for permission to conduct placebo trials on infants in Latin America born with serious lung disease though such tests would be illegal in US

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Ellen Roche, a 24 year-old healthy volunteer, dies after inhaling hexamethonium in an asthma study at Johns Hopkins Medical Center. OHRP shuts down all research at Hopkins for four days. Elaine Holden-Able, a healthy retired nurse, dies in Case Western University Alzheimers experiment financed by the tobacco industry. FDA relatrios que, nos ltimos quatro anos, experincias em pacientes com cncer foram realizadas em Stratton Veterans Affairs Medical Center por Paul Kornak que no tinham licena mdica vlida e que repetidamente alterados dados e comprometidos numerosas violaes dos protocolos ..

2003

George I offers free pardon to any inmate of Newgate Prison who agrees to be inoculated with infectious small pox in variolation experiment. You can read about this in one of our history articles, in the section: The History of Innoculation. Edward Jenner injects healthy eight-year-old James Phillips first with cowpox then three months later with smallpox and is hailed as discoverer of smallpox vaccine. J. Marion Sims, the Father of Gynecology in the United States, conducts gynecological experiments on slaves in South Carolina. You can read more on Dr Sims in ourBiographies French physiologist Claude Bernard publishes Introduction to the Study of Human Experimentation, advising: Never perform an experiment which might be harmful to the patient even though highly advantageous to science or the health of others. Cincinnati physician Roberts Bartholow conducts brain surgery experiments on Mary Rafferty, a 30 year-old domestic servant dying of an infected ulcer. Prussian State legislates that a treatment for tuberculosis cannot be given to prisoners without their consent. Albert Neisser injects women with serum from patients with Syphilis, infecting half of them. Dr. Arthur Wentworth performs spinal taps on 29 children at Childrens Hospital in Boston to determine if procedure is harmful. Italian bacteriologist Sanarelli injects five subjects with bacillus searching for a causative agent for yellow fever. Walter Reed injects 22 Spanish immigrant workers in Cuba with the agent for yellow fever paying them $100 if they survive and $200 if they contract the disease. Dr. Richard Strong, a professor of tropical medicine at Harvard, experiments with cholera on prisoners in the Philippines killing thirteen. U.S. Public Health Office induces pellagra in twelve Mississippi prisoners. All the prisoners are, however, volunteers and after the experiment they are cured (with proper diet) and released from prison. You can read about it here, in our History of Vitamins. Testicular transplant experiments on five hundred prisoners at San Quentin Germany issues Regulation on New Therapy and Experimentation while 75 children die in Lubeck, Germany from pediatricians experiment with tuberculosis vaccine. In America, Dr. Cornelius Rhoads, under the auspices of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Investigations, infects human subjects with cancer cells. He later goes on to establish the U.S. Army Biological Warfare facilities in Maryland, Utah, and Panama, and is named to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. While there, he begins a series of radiation exposure experiments on American soldiers and civilian hospital patients.

The Tuskegee Syphilis Study begins. 200 black men diagnosed with syphilis are never told of their illness, are denied treatment, and instead are used as human guinea pigs in order to follow the progression and symptoms of the disease. They all subsequently die from syphilis, their families never told that they could have been treated. This is one subject we will cover in depth some day soon. The Pellagra Incident. After millions of individuals die from Pellagra over a span of two decades, the U.S. Public Health Service finally acts to stem the disease. The director of the agency admits it had known for at least 20 years that Pellagra is caused by a niacin deficiency but failed to act since most of the deaths occurred within poverty-stricken black populations. Japanese immunologist Ishii Shiro (Dr. Ishii) conducts experiments with anthrax and cholera on Chinese prisoners in Harbin. Third Reich orders births of all twins be registered with Public Health Offices for purpose of genetic research.

Unit 731. Dr Ishii begins field tests of germ warfare and vivisection experiments on thousands of Chinese soldiers and civilians. Chinese people who rebelled against the Japanese occupation were arrested and sent to Pingfan where they became human guinea pigs; there is evidence that some Russian prisoners were also victims of medical atrocities. I cut him open from the chest to the stomach and he screamed terribly and his face was all twisted in agony. He made this unimaginable sound, he was screaming so horribly. But then finally he stopped. This was all in a days work for the surgeons, but it really left an impression on me because it was my first time. These prisoners were called maruta (literally logs) by the Japanese. After succumbing to induced diseases including bubonic plague, cholera, anthrax the prisoners were usually dissected while still alive, their bodies then cremated within the compound. Tens of thousands died. The atrocities were committed by some of Japans most distinguished doctors recruited by Dr. Ishii. Four hundred prisoners in Chicago are infected with Malaria in order to study the effects of new and experimental drugs to combat the disease. Nazi doctors later on trial at Nuremberg will cite this American study to defend their own actions during the Holocaust. Sterilization experiments at Auschwitz. Typhus experiments at Buchenwald and Natzweiler concentration camps. According to congressional hearings held in Washington, D. C., in September 1986, former American POWs were among Ishiis experimental subjects. The hearings produced a litany of horror stories told by former American POWs.http://www.researchprotection.org/history/chronology.html Harvard biochemist Edward Cohn injects sixty-four Massachusetts prisoners with beef blood in U.S. Navy-sponsored experiment. High altitude or low pressure experiments at Dachau concentration camp.

Chemical Warfare Services begins mustard gas experiments on approximately 4,000 servicemen. The experiments continue until 1945 and made use of Seventh Day Adventists who chose to become human guinea pigs rather than serve on active duty. Bone regeneration and transplantation experiments on female prisoners at Ravensbrueck concentration camp. Coagulation experiments on Catholic priests at Dachau concentration camp. Freezing experiments at Dachau concentration camp. U.S. Chemical Warfare Service conducts mustard gas experiments on thousands of servicemen. Malaria experiments at Dachau concentration camp on more than twelve hundred prisoners. Epidemic jaundice experiments at Natzweiler concentration camp. Refrigeration experiment conducted on sixteen mentally disabled patients who were placed in refrigerated cabinets at 30 degree Fahrenheit, for 120 hours, at University of Cincinnati Hospital., to study the effect of frigid temperature on mental disorders. Phosphorus burn experiments at Buchenwald concentration camp. In response to Japans full-scale germ warfare program, the U.S. begins research on biological weapons at Fort Detrick, MD. Manhattan Project injection of 4.7 micrograms of plutonium into soldiers at Oak Ridge. Seawater experiment on sixty Gypsies given only saltwater to drink at Dachau concentration camp. U.S. Navy uses human subjects to test gas masks and clothing. Individuals were locked in a gas chamber and exposed to mustard gas and lewisite. University of Chicago Medical School professor Dr. Alf Alving conducts malaria experiments on more than 400 Illinois prisoners. Manhattan Project injection of plutonium into three patients at Billings Hospital at University of Chicago. Malaria experiment on 800 prisoners in Atlanta. Project Paperclip is initiated. The U.S. State Department, Army intelligence, and the CIA recruit Nazi scientists and offer them immunity and secret identities in exchange for work on top secret government projects in the United States. Program F is implemented by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). This is the most extensive U.S. study of the health effects of fluoride, which was the key chemical component in atomic bomb production. One of the most toxic chemicals known to man, fluoride, it is found, causes marked adverse effects to the central nervous system but much of the information is squelched in the name of national security because of fear that lawsuits would undermine fullscale production of atomic bombs.

U.S. secret deal with Ishii and Unit 731 leaders cover up of germ warfare data based on human experimentation in exchange for immunity from war-crimes prosecution. A top-secret U.S. Army Far East Command report on Thompsons findings reads: The value to the U.S. of Japanese biological weapons data is of such importance to national security as to far outweigh the value accruing from war-crimes prosecution. A 1956 FBI memorandum reveals that by the mid-1950s the U.S. knew everything about Ishiis human experiments but agreed not to prosecute in exchange for Japans scientific data on germ warfare. (In other words, when it comes to human torture and sacrifice, even of American POWS, the ends justify the means as far as the U.S. Government is concerned.and, the U.S. Government placed a very high value on knowledge of efficient ways to kill large numbers of people ) Opening of Nuremberg Doctors Trial. Atomic Energy Commission and Quaker Oats-sponsored study of Fernald, Massachusetts residents fed breakfast cereal containing radioactive tracers. Patients in VA hospitals are used as guinea pigs for medical experiments. In order to allay suspicions, the order is given to change the word experiments to investigations or observations whenever reporting a medical study performed in one of the nations veterans hospitals.

The Atomic Energy Commission authorized a series of experiments in which radioactive materials are given to individuals in many cases without being informed they were the subject of an experiment, and in some cases without any expectation of a positive benefit to the subjects, who were selected from vulnerable populations such as the poor, elderly, and mentally retarded children (who were fed radioactive oatmeal without the consent of their parents), and also from students at UC-San Francisco. In 1993, the experiments were uncovered and made public. In 1996, the United States settled with the survivors for 4.9 million dollars. Judgment at Nuremberg Doctors Trial including ten point Nuremberg Code which begins: The voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential. Colonel E.E. Kirkpatrick of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission issues a secret document (Document 07075001, January 8, 1947) stating that the agency will begin administering intravenous doses of radioactive substances to human subjects. The CIA begins its study of LSD as a potential weapon for use by American intelligence. Human subjects (both civilian and military) are used with and without their knowledge. Intentional release of radiodine 131 and xenon 133 over Hanford Washington in Atomic Energy Commission field study called Green Run. Soviet Unions war crimes trial of Dr. Ishiis associates.

Atomic Energy Commission studies of mentally disabled school children fed radioactive isotopes at Fernald and Wrentham schools. Department of Defense begins plans to detonate nuclear weapons in desert areas and monitor downwind residents for medical problems and mortality rates. In an experiment to determine how susceptible an American city would be to biological attack, the U.S. Navy sprays a cloud of bacteria from ships over San Francisco. Monitoring devices are situated throughout the city in order to test the extent of infection. Many residents become ill with pneumonia-like symptoms. Dr. Joseph Stokes of the University of Pennsylvania infects 200 women prisoners with viral hepatitis. University of Pennsylvania under contract with U.S. Army conducts psychopharmacological experiments on hundreds of Pennsylvania prisoners. Department of Defense begins open air tests using disease-producing bacteria and viruses. Tests last through 1969 and there is concern that people in the surrounding areas have been exposed. University of Pennsylvania dermatologist Dr. Albert Kligman conducts skin product experiments by the hundreds at Holmesburg Prison; All I saw before me, he has said about his first visit to the prison, were acres of skin. Henry Blauer injected with a fatal dose of mescaline at Psychiatric Institute of Columbia University per secret contract with Army Chemical Corps. Newborn Daniel Burton rendered blind at Brooklyn Doctors Hospital during study on RLF and the use of oxygen Oak Ridge-sponsored injection of uranium into eleven patients at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston. U.S. military releases clouds of zinc cadmium sulfide gas over Winnipeg, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Fort Wayne, the Monocacy River Valley in Maryland, and Leesburg, Virginia. Their intent is to determine how efficiently they could disperse chemical agents. Joint Army-Navy-CIA experiments are conducted in which tens of thousands of people in New York and San Francisco are exposed to the airborne germs Serratia marcescens and Bacillus glogigii. The germs and chemicals used by the Army and Navy posed known health risks before and during the time of testing. This is documented in scientific studies cited in The Eleventh Plague by Leonard A. Cole and in Coles previous book, Clouds of Secrecy: The Armys Germ Warfare Tests Over Populated Areas. CIA initiates Project MKULTRA at eighty institutions on hundreds of subjects. This is an eleven year research program designed to produce and test drugs and biological agents that would be used for mind control and behavior modification. Six of the subprojects involved testing the agents on unwitting human beings.

A declassified CIA document dated 7 Jan 1953[1] describes the experimental creation of multiple personality in two 19-year old girls. These subjects have clearly demonstrated that they can pass from a fully awake state to a deep H [hypnotic] controlled state by telephone, by receiving written matter, or by the use of code, signal, or words, and that control of those hypnotized can be passed from one individual to another without great difficulty. It has also been shown by experimentation with these girls that they can act as unwilling couriers for information purposes. U.S. Army experiments with LSD on soldiers at Fort Detrick, Md. U.S. Army study of 2300 Seventh-Day Adventist soldiers in 150 experiments code named Operation Whitecoat. The CIA, in an experiment to test its ability to infect human populations with biological agents, releases a bacteria withdrawn from the Armys biological warfare arsenal over Tampa Bay, Fl. Army Chemical Corps continues LSD research, studying its potential use as a chemical incapacitating agent. More than 1,000 Americans participate in the tests, which continue until 1958. U.S. military releases mosquitoes infected with Yellow Fever over Savannah, Ga and Avon Park, Fl. Following each test, Army agents posing as public health officials test victims for effects. Dr. Albert Sabin tests experimental polio vaccine on 133 prisoners in Ohio. LSD is tested on 95 volunteers at the Armys Chemical Warfare Laboratories for its effect on intelligence. Injection of hepatitis into mentally disabled children at Willowbrook School on Staten Island in an attempt to find vaccine. Spread of radioactive materials over Inupiat land in Point Hope, Alaska in Atomic Energy Commission field study code named Project Chariot. Harvard Professor Henry A. Murray conducts psychological deconstruction experiment on 22 undergraduates including Theodore Kaczynski, the result of which, at least according to writer Alton Chase, may have turned Kaczynski into the Unabomber. The Army Assistant Chief-of-Staff for Intelligence (ACSI) authorizes field testing of LSD in Europe and the Far East. Testing of the European population is code named Project THIRD CHANCE; testing of the Asian population is code named Project DERBY HAT. Pharmaceutical companies conduct phase one safety testing of drugs almost exclusively on prisoners for small cash payments. Thalidomide withdrawn from the market after thousands of birth deformities blamed in part on misleading results of animal studies; the FDA thereafter requires three phases of human clinical trials before companies can release a drug on the market.

Injection of live cancer cells into elderly patients at Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital in Brooklyn. Stanley Milgram conducts obedience research at Yale University. Weve talked of Milgrams experiment in a previous newsletter, and there is a link to a great online video on the subject that is very good. NIH supported researcher transplants chimpanzee kidney into human in failed experiment.

Linda MacDonald was a victim of Dr. Ewen Camerons destructive mind control experiments in 1963. Dr. Cameron was at various times president of the American, Canadian, and World Psychiatric Associations. He used a treatment which involved intensive application of these brainwashing techniques; drug disinhibition, prolonged sleep treatment, and prolonged isolation, combined with ECT [Electro Convulsive Therapy] treatments. The amount of electricity introduced into Lindas brain exceeded by 76.5 times the maximum amount recommended. Dr. Camerons technique resulted in permanent and complete amnesia. To this day, Linda is unable to remember anything from her birth to 1963. As recorded by nurses in her chart, she didnt know her name and didnt recognize her children. She couldnt read, drive, or use a toilet. Not only did she not know her husband, she didnt even know what a husband was. A class action suit against the CIA for Dr. Camerons MKULTRA experiments was settled out of court for $750,000, divided among eight plaintiffs in 1988. Pharmaceutical companies conduct phase one safety testing of drugs almost exclusively on prisoners for small cash payments. Dr. Carl Heller, a leading endocrinologist, conducts testicular irradiation experiments on prisoners in Oregon and Washington giving them $5 a month and $100 when they receive a vasectomy at the end of the trial. World Medical Association adopts Helsinki Declaration, asserting The interests of science and society should never take precedence over the well being of the subject. CIA and Department of Defense begin Project MKSEARCH, a program to develop a capability to manipulate human behavior through the use of mind-altering drugs. University of Pennsylvania under contract with Dow Chemical conducts dioxin experiments: prisoners at the Holmesburg State Prison in Philadelphia are subjected to dioxin, the highly toxic chemical component of Agent Orange used in Viet Nam. The men are later studied for development of cancer, which indicates that Agent Orange had been a suspected carcinogen all along. CIA initiates Project MKOFTEN, a program to test the toxicological effects of certain drugs on humans and animals. U.S. Army dispenses Bacillus subtilis variant niger throughout the New York City subway system. More than a million civilians are exposed when army scientists drop light bulbs filled with the bacteria onto ventilation grates.

Henry Beechers article Ethics and Clinical Research in New England Journal of Medicine. U.S. Army introduces bacillus globigii into New York subway tunnels in field study. NIH Office for Protection of Research Subjects (OPRR) created and issues Policies for the Protection of Human Subjects calling for establishment of independent review bodies later known as Institutional Review Boards. British physician M.H. Pappworth publishes Human Guinea Pigs, advising No doctor has the right to choose martyrs for science or for the general good. CIA and Department of Defense implement Project MKNAOMI, successor to MKULTRA and designed to maintain, stockpile and test biological and chemical weapons. CIA experiments with the possibility of poisoning drinking water by injecting chemicals into the water supply of the FDA in Washington, D.C. Dr. Robert MacMahan of the Department of Defense requests from congress $10 million to develop, within 5 to 10 years, a synthetic biological agent to which no natural immunity exists. Funding for the synthetic biological agent is obtained under H.R. 15090. The project, under the supervision of the CIA, is carried out by the Special Operations Division at Fort Detrick, the armys top secret biological weapons facility. Speculation is raised that molecular biology techniques are used to produce AIDS-like retroviruses. United States intensifies its development of ethnic weapons (Military Review, Nov., 1970), designed to selectively target and eliminate specific ethnic groups who are susceptible due to genetic differences and variations in DNA. Dr. Zimbardo conducts Psychology of Prison Life experiment on students at Stanford University. Ad Hoc Advisory Panel issues Final Report of Tuskegee Syphilis Study, concluding Society can no longer afford to leave the balancing of individual rights against scientific progress to the scientific community. National Research Act establishes National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects and upgrades OPRR Policies to Regulations to be known as The Common Rule.

The virus section of Fort Detricks Center for Biological Warfare Research is renamed the Fredrick Cancer Research Facilities and placed under the supervision of the National Cancer Institute (NCI) . It is here that a special virus cancer program is initiated by the U.S. Navy, purportedly to develop cancer-causing viruses. It is also here that retrovirologists isolate a virus to which no immunity exists. It is later named HTLV (Human T-cell Leukemia Virus). HHS promulgates Title 45 of Federal Regulations titled Protection of Human Subjects, requiring appointment and utilization of IRBs.

National Urban league holds National Conference on Human Experimentation, announcing We dont want to kill science but we dont want science to kill, mangle and abuse us. Senate hearings on Health and Scientific Research confirm that 239 populated areas had been contaminated with biological agents between 1949 and 1969. Some of the areas included San Francisco, Washington, D.C., Key West, Panama City, Minneapolis, and St. Louis. Experimental Hepatitis B vaccine trials, conducted by the CDC, begin in New York, Los Angeles and San Francisco. Ads for research subjects specifically ask for promiscuous homosexual men. National Commission issues Belmont Report setting forth three basic ethical principles: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. The FDA promulgates 21 CFR 50.44 prohibiting use of prisoners as subjects in clinical trials shifting phase one testing by pharmaceutical companies to non-prison population. First cases of AIDS are confirmed in homosexual men in New York, Los Angeles and San Francisco, triggering speculation that AIDS may have been introduced via the Hepatitis B vaccine. Leonard Whitlock suffers permanent brain damage after deep diving experiment at Duke University. According to the journal Science (227:173-177), HTLV and VISNA, a fatal sheep virus, are very similar, indicating a close taxonomic and evolutionary relationship. According to the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (83:4007-4011), HIV and VISNA are highly similar and share all structural elements, except for a small segment which is nearly identical to HTLV. This leads to speculation that HTLV and VISNA may have been linked to produce a new retrovirus to which no natural immunity exists. A report to Congress reveals that the U.S. Governments current generation of biological agents includes: modified viruses, naturally occurring toxins, and agents that are altered through genetic engineering to change immunological character and prevent treatment by all existing vaccines. Department of Defense admits that, despite a treaty banning research and development of biological agents, it continues to operate research facilities at 127 facilities and universities around the nation. Supreme Court decision in United States v. Stanley, 483 U.S. 669, holding soldier given LSD without his consent could not sue U.S. Army for damages. More than 1500 six-month old black and Hispanic babies in Los Angeles are given an experimental measles vaccine that had never been licensed for use in the United States. The Center for Disease Control later admits that parents were never informed that the vaccine being injected to their children was experimental. The FDA grants Department of Defense waiver of Nuremberg Code for use of unapproved drugs and vaccines in Desert Shield.

World Health Organization announces CIOMS Guidelines which set forth four ethical principles: respect for persons, beneficence, nonmalfeasance and justice. Tony LaMadrid commits suicide after participating in study on relapse of schizophrenics withdrawn from medication at UCLA. With a technique called gene tracking, Dr. Garth Nicolson at the MD Anderson Cancer Center in Houston, TX discovers that many returning Desert Storm veterans are infected with an altered strain of Mycoplasma incognitus, a microbe commonly used in the production of biological weapons. Incorporated into its molecular structure is 40 percent of the HIV protein coat, indicating that it had been man-made. Senator John D. Rockefeller issues a report revealing that for at least 50 years the Department of Defense has used hundreds of thousands of military personnel in human experiments and for intentional exposure to dangerous substances. Materials included mustard and nerve gas, ionizing radiation, psychochemicals, hallucinogens, and drugs used during the Gulf War. U.S. Government admits that it had offered Japanese war criminals and scientists who had performed human medical experiments salaries and immunity from prosecution in exchange for data on biological warfare research. Dr. Garth Nicolson, uncovers evidence that the biological agents used during the Gulf War had been manufactured in Houston, TX and Boca Raton, Fl and tested on prisoners in the Texas Department of Corrections. Department of Defense admits that Desert Storm soldiers were exposed to chemical agents. Eighty-eight members of Congress sign a letter demanding an investigation into bioweapons use & Gulf War Syndrome. Three children die at St. Jude Childrens Hospital in Memphis during participation in clinical trial for acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Veterans Administration shuts down all research at West Los Angeles Medical Center after allegations of medical research performed on patients who did not consent. OPRR shuts down research at Duke University because of inadequate supervision of human subject experiments.. Year-old Gage Stevens dies at Childrens Hospital in Pittsburgh during participation in Propulsid clinical trial for infant acid reflux. 18-year-old Jesse Gelsinger dies after being injected with 37 trillion particles of adenovirus in gene therapy experiment at University of Pennsylvania. His death triggers a still-ongoing reevaluation of the conflicts of interest plaguing human subject research. University of Oklahoma melanoma trial halted for failure to follow government regulations and protocol. OPRR becomes Office of Human Research Protection (OHRP) and made part of the Department of Health and Human Services. Biotech company in Pennsylvania asks the FDA for permission to conduct placebo trials on infants in Latin America born with serious lung disease though such tests would be illegal in U.S.

Ellen Roche, a 24 year-old healthy volunteer, dies after inhaling hexamethonium in an asthma study at Johns Hopkins Medical Center. OHRP shuts down all research at Hopkins for four days. Elaine Holden-Able, a healthy retired nurse, dies in Case Western University Alzheimers experiment financed by the tobacco industry. FDA reports that, for the past four years, experiments on cancer patients were conducted at Stratton Veterans Affairs Medical Center by Paul Kornak who had no valid medical license and who repeatedly altered data and committed numerous violations of the protocols..

1796 Edward Jenner injects healthy eight-year-old James Phillips first with cowpox then three months later with smallpox and is hailed as discoverer of smallpox vaccine. 1845-1849: J. Marion Sims, "the father of gynecology" performed multiple experimental surgeries on enslaved African women without the benefit of anesthesia. After suffering unimaginable pain, many lost their lives to infection. One woman was made to endure 34 experimental operations for a prolapsed terus. http://www.coax.net/people/lwf/jm_sims.htm 1865: French physiologist Claude Bernard publishes "Introduction to the Study of Human Experimentation," advising: "Never perform an experiment which might be harmful to the patient even though highly advantageous to science or the health of others." 1896: Dr. Arthur Wentworth performed spinal taps on 29 children at Children's Hospital, Boston, to determine if the procedure was harmful. Dr. John Roberts of Philadelphia, noting the non-therapeutic indication, labeled Wentworth's procedures "human vivisection." 1897: Italian bacteriologist Sanarelli injects five subjects with bacillus searching for a causative agent for yellow fever. 1900: Walter Reed injects 22 Spanish immigrant workers in Cuba with the agent for yellow fever paying them $100 if they survive and $200 if they contract the disease. 1900: Berlin Code of Ethics. Royal Prussian Minister of Religion, Education, and Medical Affairs guaranteed that: "all medical interventions for other than diagnostic, healing, and immunization purposes, regardless of other legal or moral authorization are excluded under all circumstances if (1) the human subject is a minor or not competent due to other reasons; (2) the human subject has not given his unambiguous consent; (3) the consent is not preceded by a proper explanation of the possible negative consequences of the intervention." http://www.geocities.com/artnscience/00berlincode.pdf 1906: Dr. Richard Strong, a professor of tropical medicine at Harvard, experiments with cholera on prisoners in the Philippines killing thirteen. 1913: Pennsylvania House of Representatives recorded that 146 children had been inoculated with syphilis, "through the courtesy of the various hospitals" and that 15 children in St. Vincent's House in Philadelphia had had their eyes tested with tuberculin. Several of these children became permanently blind. The experimenters were not punished. 1915: A doctor in Mississippi, working for the U.S. Public Health Office produces Pellagra in twelve Mississippi inmates in an attempt to discover a cure for the disease 1919-1922: Testicular transplant experiments on five hundred prisoners at San Quentin. 1927: Carrie Buck of Charlottesville is legally sterilized against her will at the Virginia Colony Home for the Mentally Infirm. Carrie Buck was the mentally normal daughter of a mentally retarded mother, but under the Virginia law, she was declared potentially capable of having a "less than normal child." By the 1930s, seventeen states in the U.S. have laws permitting forced sterilization

The settlement of Poe v. Lynchburg Training School and Hospital (same institution, different name) in 1981 brought to an end the Virginia law. It is estimated that as many as 10,000 perfectly normal women were forcibly sterilized for "legal" reasons including alcoholism, prostitution, and criminal behavior in general. 1931: Lubeck, Germany, 75 children die in from pediatrician's experiment with tuberculosis vaccine. 1931: Germany adopts "Regulation on New Therapy and Experimentation" requiring all human experiments to be preceded by animal experiments. This law remained in effect during the Nazi regime. 1931: Dr. Cornelius Rhoads, a pathologist, conducted a cancer experiment in Puerto Rico under the auspices of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Investigations. Dr. Rhoads has been accused of purposely infecting his Puerto Rican subjects with cancer cells. Thirteen of the subjects died. A Puerto Rican physician uncovered the experiment an investigation covered-up the facts. Despite Rhoads' hand written statements that the Puerto Rican population should be eradicated, Rhoads went on to establish U.S. Army Biological Warfare facilities in Maryland, Utah, and Panama, and was later named to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. Rhoads was also responsible for the radiation experiments on prisoners, hospital patients, and soldiers. The American Association for Cancer Research honored him by naming its exemplary scientist award the Cornelius Rhoads Award. 1932-1972: U.S. Public Health Service study in Tuskegee, Alabama of more than 400 black sharecroppers observed for the natural course of untreated syphilis. 1932: Japanese troops invade Manchuria. Dr. Shiro Ishii, a prominent physician and army officer begins preliminary germ warfare experiments. 1936: Japan's Wartime Human Biowarfare Experimentation Program. 1938: Japan establishes Unit 731 in Pingfan, 25 km. from Harbin. Unit 731, a biological-warfare unit disguised as a water-purification unit, is formed outside the city of Harbin. 1939: Third Reich orders births of all twins be registered with Public Health Offices for purpose of genetic research. 1939: Twenty-two children living at the Iowa Soldiers' Orphans' Home in Davenport were the subjects of the "monster" experiment that used psychological pressure to induce children who spoke normally to stutter. It was designed by one of the nation's most prominent speech pathologists, Dr. Wendell Johnson, to test his theory on the cause of stuttering. 1940: Poisonous gas experiments at Unit 731. One experiment conducted September 7-10, 1940, on 16 Chinese prisoners who were exposed to mustard gas in a simulated battle situation. 1940-1941: Unit 731 used aircraft to spread cotton and rice husks contaminated with the black plague at Changde and Ningbo, in central China. About 100 people died from the black plague in Ningbo as a result.

1940's: In a crash program to develop new drugs to fight Malaria during World War II, doctors in the Chicago area infected nearly 400 prisoners with the disease. Although the Chicago inmates were given general information that they were helping with the war effort, they were not informed about the nature of the experiment. Nazi doctors on trial at Nuremberg cited the Chicago studies as precedents to defend their own research aimed at aiding the German war effort. 1941: Sterilization experiments at Auschwitz. 1941-1945: Typhus experiments at Buchenwald and Natzweiler concentration camps. 1941: Dr. William c. Black inoculated a twelve month old baby with herpes. He was criticized by Francis Payton Rous, editor of the Journal of Experimental Medicine, who called it "an abuse of power, an infringement of the rights of an individual, and not excusable because the illness which followed had implications for science." Dr. Rous rejected outright the fact that the child had been "offered as a volunteer." 1942 1945: Unit 731. Ishii begins "field tests" of germ warfare and vivisection experiments on thousands of Chinese soldiers and civilians. Chinese people who rebelled against the Japanese occupation were arrested and sent to Pingfan where they became human guinea pigs; there is evidence that some Russian prisoners were also victims of medical atrocities. "I cut him open from the chest to the stomach and he screamed terribly and his face was all twisted in agony. He made this unimaginable sound, he was screaming so horribly. But then finally he stopped. This was all in a day's work for the surgeons, but it really left an impression on me because it was my first time." NYT These prisoners were called 'maruta' (literally 'logs') by the Japanese. After succumbing to induced diseases - including bubonic plague, cholera, anthrax - the prisoners were usually dissected while still alive, their bodies then cremated within the compound. Tens of thousands died. The atrocities were committed by some of Japan's most distinguished doctors recruited by Dr. Ishii. 1942: High altitude or low pressure experiments at Dachau concentration camp. 1942: Harvard biochemist Edward Cohn injects sixty-four Massachusetts prisoners with beef blood in U.S. Navysponsored experiment. 1942: Japanese sprayed cholera, typhoid, plague, and dysentery pathogens in the Jinhua area of Zhejian province (China). A large number of Japanese soldiers also fell victim to the sprayed diseases. 1942-1943: Bone regeneration and transplantation experiments on female prisoners at Ravensbrueck concentration camp. 1942-1943: Freezing experiments at Dachau concentration camp. 1943 Refrigeration experiment conducted on sixteen mentally disabled patients who were placed in refrigerated cabinets at 30 degree Farenheit, for 120 hours, at University of Cincinnati Hospital., "to study the effect of frigid temperature on mental disorders."

1942-1943: Coagulation experiments on Catholic priests at Dachau concentration camp. 1942-1944: U.S. Chemical Warfare Service conducts mustard gas experiments on thousands of servicemen. 1942-1945: Malaria experiments at Dachau concentration camp on more than twelve hundred prisoners. 1943: Epidemic jaundice experiments at Natzweiler concentration camp. 1943-1944: Phosphorus burn experiments at Buchenwald concentration camp. 1944: Manhattan Project injection of 4.7 micrograms of plutonium into soldiers at Oak Ridge. 1944: Seawater experiment on sixty Gypsies who were given only saltwater to drink at Dachau concentration camp. 1944-1946: University of Chicago Medical School professor Dr. Alf Alving conducts malaria experiments on more than 400 Illinois prisoners. 1945: Manhattan Project injection of plutonium into three patients at Billings Hospital at University of Chicago. 1945: Malaria experiment on 800 prisoners in Atlanta. 1946: Opening of Nuremberg Doctors Trial by U.S. Military Tribunal. 1945: Japanese troops blow up the headquarters of Unit 731 in final days of Pacific war. Ishii orders 150 remaining ''logs'' (i.e., human beings) killed to cover up their experimentation. Gen. Douglas MacArthur is named commander of the Allied powers in Japan. 1946: U.S. secret deal with Ishii and Unit 731 leaders cover up of germ warfare data based on human experimentation in exchange for immunity from war-crimes prosecution. 1946-1953: Atomic Energy Commission sponsored study conducted at the Fernald school in Massachusetts. Residents were fed Quaker Oats breakfast cereal containing radioactive tracers. 1946: Patients in VA hospitals are used as guinea pigs for medical experiments. In order to allay suspicions, the order is given to change the word "experiments" to "investigations" or "observations" whenever reporting a medical study performed in one of the nation's veteran's hospitals. 1947: Colonel E.E. Kirkpatrick of the U.S. Atomic Energy Comission issues a secret document (Document 07075001, January 8, 1947) stating that the agency will begin administering intravenous doses of radioactive substances to human subjects. 1947: The CIA begins its study of LSD as a potential weapon for use by American intelligence. Human subjects (both civilian and military) are used with and without their knowledge. 1947: Judgment at Nuremberg Doctors Trial sets forth "Permissible Medical Experiments" i.e., the Nuremberg Code, which begins: "The voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential."

1949: Intentional release of radiodine 131 and xenon 133 over Hanford Washington in Atomic Energy Commission field study called "Green Run." 1949: Soviet Union's war crimes trial of Dr. Ishii's associates. 1949-1953: Atomic Energy Commission studies of mentally disabled school children fed radioactive isotopes at Fernald and Wrentham schools. 1940s-1950s: "psychic driving" and "mental departterning" experiments conducted by Dr. Ewen Cameron, depriving patients of sleep, using massive ECT combined with psychoactive drugs such as, LSD. After his "treatments" patients were unable to function. In the 1950's Dr.Cameron's experiments were sponsored by the CIA. 1950: Dr. Joseph Stokes of the University of Pennsylvania infects 200 women prisoners with viral hepatitis. 1950: U.S. Army secretly used a Navy ship outside the Golden Gate to spray supposedly harmless bacteria over San Francisco and its outskirts. Eleven people were sickened by the germs, and one of them died. 1951-1960: University of Pennsylvania under contract with U.S. Army conducts psychopharmacological experiments on hundreds of Pennsylvania prisoners. 1952-1974: University of Pennsylvania dermatologist Dr. Albert Kligman conducts skin product experiments by the hundreds at Holmesburg Prison; "All I saw before me," he has said about his first visit to the prison, "were acres of skin." 1952: Henry Blauer injected with a fatal dose of mescaline at New York State Psychiatric Institute of Columbia University. U.S. Department of Defense, the sponsor, conspired to conceal evidence for 23 years. I 1953 Newborn Daniel Burton rendered blind at Brooklyn Doctor's Hospital due to high oxygen study on RLF. 1953-1957: Oak Ridge-sponsored injection of uranium into eleven patients at Massachusetts General Hospital in 1953-1960: CIA brainwashing experiments with LSD at eighty institutions on hundreds of subjects in a project code named "MK-ULTRA." 1953-1970: U.S. Army experiments with LSD on soldiers at Fort Detrick, Md. 1954-1974: U.S. Army study of 2,300 Seventh-Day Adventist soldiers in 157 experiments code named "Operation Whitecoat." 1950s 1972: Mentally disabled children at Willowbrook School (NY) were deliberately infected with hepatitis in an attempt to find a vaccine. Participation in the study was a condition for admission to institution. 1956: Dr. Albert Sabin tests experimental polio vaccine on 133 prisoners in Ohio.

1958-1962: Spread of radioactive materials over Inupiat land in Point Hope, Alaska in Atomic Energy Commission field study code named "Project Chariot." 1962: Thalidomide withdrawn from the market after thousands of birth deformities blamed in part on misleading results of animal studies; the FDA thereafter requires three phases of human clinical trials before a drug can be approved for the market. 1962 to 1966, a total of 33 pharmaceutical companies tested 153 experimental drugs at Holmesburg prison (PA) alone. 1962-1980 Pharmaceutical companies conduct phase I safety testing of drugs almost exclusively on prisoners for small cash payments. 1962: Injection of live cancer cells into 22 elderly patients at Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital in Brooklyn. Administration covered up, NYS licensing board placed the principal investigator on probation for one year. Two years later, American Cancer Society elected him Vice President. 1962: Stanley Milgram conducts obedience research at Yale University. 1963: NIH supported researcher transplants chimpanzee kidney into human in failed experiment. 1963-1973: Dr. Carl Heller, a leading endocrinologist, conducts testicular irradiation experiments on prisoners in Oregon and Washington giving them $5 a month and $100 when they receive a vasectomy at the end of the trial. 1964: World Medical Association adopts Helsinki Declaration, asserting "The interests of science and society should never take precedence over the well being of the subject." 1965-1966: University of Pennsylvania under contract with Dow Chemical conducts dioxin experiments on prisoners at Holmesburg. 1966: Henry Beecher's article "Ethics and Clinical Research" in New England Journal of Medicine. 1966: U.S. Army introduces bacillus globigii into New York subway tunnels in field study. 1966: NIH Office for Protection of Research Subjects ("OPRR") created and issues Policies for the Protection of Human Subjects calling for establishment of independent review bodies later known as Institutional Review Boards. 1967: British physician M.H. Pappworth publishes "Human Guinea Pigs," advising "No doctor has the right to choose martyrs for science or for the general good." 1969: Judge Sam Steinfield's eloquent dissent in Strunk v. Strunk, 445 S.W.2d 145, the first judicial suggestion that the Nuremberg Code should influence American jurisprudence. 1969. Milledgeville Georgia, investigational drugs tested on mentally disabled children. No institutional approval. 1969: San Antonio Contraceptive Study conducted on 70 poor Mexican-American women. Half received oral contraceptives the other placebo. No informed consent.

1973 Ad Hoc Advisory Panel issues Final Report of Tuskegee Syphilis Study, concluding "Society can no longer afford to leave the balancing of individual rights against scientific progress to the scientific community." 1974: National Research Act establishes National Commission for the Protection of Human subjects and requires Public Health Service to promulgate regulations for the protection of human subjects. 1975: The Department of Health, Education and Welfare (DHEW) raised NIH's 1966 Policies for the Protection of Human subjects to regulatory status. Title 45 of the Code of Federal Regulations, known as "The Common Rule," requires the appointment and utilization of institutional review boards (IRBs). 1976: National Urban League holds National Conference on Human Experimentation, announcing "We don't want to kill science but we don't want science to kill, mangle and abuse us." 1978: Experimental Hepatitis B vaccine trials, conducted by the CDC, begin in New York, Los Angeles and San Francisco. Ads for research subjects specifically ask for promiscuous homosexual men. 1979: National Commission issues Belmont Report setting forth three basic ethical principles: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. 1980: The FDA promulgates 21 CFR 50.44 prohibiting use of prisoners as subjects in clinical trials shifting phase I testing by pharmaceutical companies to non-prison population. 1981: Leonard Whitlock suffers permanent brain damage after deep diving experiment at Duke University. 1986: Congressional subcommittee holds one-day hearing in Washington, called by Rep. Pat Williams of Montana, aimed at determining whether U.S. prisoners of war in Manchuria were victims of germ-warfare experimentation. Hearing is inconclusive. 1981-1996: Protocol 126 at Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center in Seattle. 1987: Supreme Court decision in United States v. Stanley, 483 U.S. 669, holding soldier given LSD without his consent could not sue U.S. Army for damages. 1987:" L-dopa challenge and relapse" experiment conducted on 28 U.S. veterans who were subjected to psychotic relapse for study purposes at the Bronx VA. 1990: The FDA grants Department of Defense waiver of Nuremberg Code for use of unapproved drugs and vaccines in Desert Shield. 1991: World Health Organization announces CIOMS Guidelines which set forth four ethical principles: respect for persons, beneficence, nonmaleficence and justice. 1991: Tony LaMadrid commits suicide after participating in study on relapse of schizophrenics withdrawn from medication at UCLA.

 1993: Kathryn Hamilton dies 44 days after participating in breast cancer experiment at Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center in Seattle. 1994. The Albuquerque Tribune publicizes 1940s experiments involving plutonium injection of human research subjects and secret radiation experiments. Indigent patients and mentally retarded children were deceived about the nature of their treatment. 1994. President Clinton appoints the Advisory Commission on Human Radiation Experiments (ACHRE) The ACHRE Report http://tis.eh.doe.gov/ohre/roadmap/achre/index.html 1995. U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) published Human Radiation Experiments, listing 150 plus an additional 275 radiation experiments conducted by DOE and the Atomic Energy Commission, during the 1940s1970s. http://tis.eh.doe.gov/ohre/roadmap/experiments/0491doca.html#0491_List 1995: 19-year-old University of Rochester student Nicole Wan dies after being paid $150 to participate in MITsponsored experiment to test airborne pollutant chemicals. 1995. President Clinton appoints the National Bioethics Advisory Commission. 1995: NYS Supreme Court rules (TD v NYS Office of Mental Health) against the state's policy of conducting nontherapeutic experiments on mentally incapacitated persons - including children - without informed consent. Justice Edward Greenfield ruled that parents have no authority to volunteer their children: "Parents may be free to make martyrs of themselves, but it does not follow that they may make martyrs of their children."

1995: Thirty-four healthy, previously non-aggressive New York City minority children, boys aged 6 to 11 years old, were exposed to fenfluramine in a nontherapeutic experiment at the New York State Psychiatric Institute. The children were exposed to this neurotoxic drug to record their neurochemical response in an effort to prove a speculative theory linking aggression to a biological marker. 1996. Cleveland Plain Dealer investigative report series, 'Drug Trials: Do People Know the Truth About Experiments,' December 15 to 18, 1996. The Plain-Dealer found: of the "4,154 FDA inspections of researchers testing new drugs on people [since 1977] . . . more than half the researchers were cited by FDA inspectors for failing to clearly disclose the experimental nature of their work." 1996: Yale University researchers publish findings of experiment that subjected 18 stable schizophrenia patients to psychotic relapse in an amphetamine provocation experiment at West Haven VA. 1997. President Clinton issues a formal apology to the subjects of the Tuskegee syphilis experiments. NBAC continues investigation into genetics, consent, privacy, and research on persons with mental disorders.

1997. Researchers at the University of Cincinnati publish findings of experiment attempting to create a "psychosis model" on human beings at the Cincinnati VA. Sixteen patients, experiencing a first episode schizophrenia, were subjected to repeated provocation with amphetamine. The stated purpose was to produce "behavioral sensitization. This process serves as a model for the development of psychosis, but has been little studied in humans. Symptoms, such as severity of psychosis and eye-blink rates, were measured hourly for 5 hours." 1997. U.S. government sponsored placebo-controlled experiment withholds treatment from HIV infected, pregnant African women. NY Times, Sept. 18. 1997. Victims of unethical research at major U.S. medical centers - including the NIMH - testify before the National Bioethics Advisory Commission, Sept. 18. 1997. FDA Modernization Act gives pharmaceutical companies a huge financial incentive - a 6 month patent exclusivity extension - if they conduct drug tests on children. The incentive can yield $900 million. 1998. National Bioethics Advisory Commission (NBAC) Report. Research Involving Subjects with Mental Disorders That May Affect Decisionmaking Capacity. November 12, 1998http://bioethics.georgetown.edu/nbac/capacity/TOC.htm 1998: The Japanese government has never formally apologized for Unit 731's activities, and did not even admit to its existence until August 1998, when the Supreme Court ruled that the existence of the unit was accepted in academic circles. 1998. Complaint filed with OPRR about experiments that exposed non-violent children in New York City to fenfluramine to find a predisposition to violence. 1998: Boston Globe (four part) series, "Doing Harm: Research on the Mentally Ill" shed light on the mistreatment and exploitation of schizophrenia patients who have been subjected to relapse producing procedures in unethical experiments. 1999: Nine month-old Gage Stevens dies at Children's Hospital in Pittsburgh during participation in Propulsid clinical trial for infant acid reflux. 1999: 18-year-old Jesse Gelsinger dies after being injected with 37 trillion particles of adenovirus in gene therapy experiment at University of Pennsylvania. 1999: Director of National Institute of Mental Health suspends 29 clinical trials that failed to meet either ethical or scientific standards. 2000: University of Oklahoma melanoma trial halted for failure to follow government regulations and protocol. 2000: OPRR becomes Office of Human Research Protection ("OHRP") and made part of the Department of Health and Human Services. 2000: President Clinton implement the Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Act of 2000, which authorized compensation for thousands of Department of Energy workers who sacrificed their health in building the nation's nuclear defenses.

2000: The Washington Post (6 part) series, "Body Hunters" exposes unethical exploitation in experiments conducted by U.S. investigators in underdeveloped countries. Part 4 dealt with U.S. government funded, genetic experiments conducted by Harvard University in rural China. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A26797-2000Dec19.html 2001: A biotech company in Pennsylvania asks the FDA for permission to conduct placebo trials on infants in Latin America born with serious lung disease though such tests would be illegal in U.S. 2001: Ellen Roche, a healthy 27-year old volunteer, dies in challenge study at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland. 2001: April 4, Elaine Holden-Able, a healthy retired nurse, consumed a glass of orange juice that had been mixed with a dietary supplement for the sake of medical research. This Case Western University Alzheimer's experiment, financed by the tobacco industry, wound up killing her in what was called a ''tragic human error.'' Federal Office of Human Research Protections did not interview hospital staff, mostly accepted hospital's internal report, imposed no penalty, and closed the case and did not mention the death in its letter of determination. http://ohrp.osophs.dhhs.gov/detrm_letrs/nov01f.pdf 2001: Maryland Court of Appeals renders a landmark decision affirming "best interest of the individual child" as a standard for medical research involving children. The Court unequivocally prohibited nontherapeutic experimentation on children. (Higgins and Grimes v. Kennedy Krieger Institute).The case involved exposure of babies and small children to lead poisoning in EPA funded experiment. (http://www.courts.state.md.us/opinions/coa/2001/128a00.pdf)