Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Les Norford Building Technology Program Department of Architecture Massachusetts Institute of Technology CEE 1.964 Design for Sustainability November 1, 2006
Outline
1. Buildings and energy some data 2. Residential buildings 3. Commercial buildings 4. Buildings in other (mainly developing) countries 5. Is current progress good enough?
450 EJ = 14.3 TW
World Total North America Central/South America Western Europe Eastern Europe Former USSR Middle East Africa Asia and Oceania
Year
60 40 20 0
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
Transport
Residential buildings
27% 34%
Industry
21% 18%
Commercial buildings
Figure by MIT OCW.
Transport
0%
Industry
29%
Residential buildings
36% 35%
Commercial buildings
CEE 1.964 Design for Sustainability Figure by MIT OCW.
0.5
0.0 1975
1980
1985
1990 year
1995
2000
2005
2.5
1.5
0.5
1975
1980
1985
1990 year
1995
2000
2005
Average Temperature First Week = 16.9 deg C Average Temperature Second Week = 17.3 deg C
Walden made of 15 cm extruded polystyrene (no openings, no airflow):~1,000 W of heat needed at 0 oF. Henry David needs fresh air, which requires another 500 W to heat.
CEE 1.964 Design for Sustainability
Walden with south-facing, double-pane glazing and water for thermal storage
Indoor and outdoor temperatures
40 30 20 temperature (oC) 10 0 1 -10 -20 -30 time (hour) 10 19 28 37 46 55 64 73 82 91 100 109 118 127 136 145 154 163
Tout Tin,n
Building America
USDOE-sponsored partnerships between consulting engineers and building industry, leading to prototypes and large-scale production ~33,000 houses constructed Goals Design and construct more energy efficient homes Reduce construction costs to provide more affordable housing Improve comfort Improve health and safety and indoor air quality Increase resource use efficiency Increase building durability Energy target: 35-45% reduction in heating, cooling and hot-water energy use
Glazing
Annual Cooling Energy Cost for a Typical House in Phoenix, AZ Window Type
$0 $200 $400 $600 $800
visible
Single clear Aluminum frame Single tint Aluminum frame Double clear Wood/Vinyl frame Double clear Low-solar-gain low-E Wood/Vinyl frame 6% Savings# 16% Savings# 32% Savings#
Annual Heating Energy Cost for a Typical House in Boston, MA Window Type
$0 $400 $800 $1200 $1600
Window
Single clear Aluminum frame Double clear Wood/Vinyl frame Double clear High-solar-gain low-E Wood/Vinyl frame Triple clear Mod.-solar-gain low-E Insulated frame frame. 27% Savings# 32% Savings# 39% Savings#
Single clear Double clear Double low e Double low e tint Double low e, Ar fill, spectrally selective
#Compared to the same 2000 sf house with clear, single glazing in an aluminum
http://www.efficientwindows.org/BuilderToolkit.pdf
New construction system to learn New concepts may require changes to local building codes
+750 +250
-250 -350
+400
+300
Refrigerators
1974, California law authorizes energy-efficiency standards (1,825 kWh) 2000 Annual energy consumption (kiloWatt-hours) 1977, first California standards take effect (1.546 kWh) 1600 Average before U.S. standards (1,074 kWh) 1200 1990 U.S. standard (976 kWh)
800
400 2001 U.S. standard (476 kWh) 0 1960 1970 1980 Time (years) 1990 2000
Lighting efficacies
Standard Incandescent Tungsten Halogen Halogen Infrared Reflecting
Mercury Vapor Compact Fluorescent (5-26 watts)
Compact Fluorescent (27-40 watts) Fluorescent (Full size and U-tube) Metal Halide Compact Metal Halide High Pressure Sodium White Sodium 0 20 40 60 80 100
Source: IESNA
CEE 1.964 Design for Sustainability
Efficiency (lm/W)
100
Fluorescent Semi-conductor Halogen Incandescent 1970 1980 1990 Year 2000 2010 2020 without accelerated effort
2.5 kWh/cycle 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 Federal 2004 Energy Star 2004 Aailable 2006 Federal 2007 Energy Star 2007
1978 average
Federal 1992
Federal 2006
Available 2006
GSHP 2006
Manufacturers identify Energy Star products. A/C and furnace/boiler producers list efficiencies but clothes washer manufacturers do not tout energy consumption for their equipment, which only costs ~$20/year in electricity
CEE 1.964 Design for Sustainability
2500 4700
net
PV
efficiency
Better choice of envelope construction would drop payback period from 23 to 9 years without PV and 40 to 28 years with PV.
Five low-energy houses with very advanced technologies: wall panels, mechanical ventilation, waste-heat scavenging for hot water, PV Heating, cooling and hot water costs about $0.70/ day (!!) Other costs $1.00-1.38/day Christmas lights (!!) Research houses: not cost effective locally ($20K efficiency investment to save $400/year)
CEE 1.964 Design for Sustainability
Location
Savings at NZE, %
PV cost
32 28 38 39 27
49 46 51 52 43
3. Commercial buildings
Systems approach is lacking
No Building America equivalent Optimization tools are not as well developed Standards do not take systems approach Few buildings go beyond basic code compliance
Notable successes
Individual buildings, 1/3 -1/2 below average Expanding data base of high-performance buildings Private-sector labeling program (LEED) a help Guideline for small commercial buildings
Aerial photograph of the State Transportation Building. Image removed for copyright reasons.
CT-1
CT-2
Storage Tank 3
HE-2
RU-1
RU-2
RU-3
Storage Tank 1
CWR
KEY HWS = Hot water supply HWR = Hot water return CWS = Condensed water supply CHWS = Chilled water supply CHWR = Chilled water return CWR = Condensed water return
Hint: not what you would expe ct in New England winters CEE 1.964 Design for Sustainability
Potential for wasted energy: simultaneous (same instant, same day) heating and cooling
Mild weather: perimeter may need heat in early morning, cooling in afternoon (like houses)
Perimeter zone
Core
Year-round: core needs cooling constantly, even when perimeter must be heated
Energy consumption
173 kWh/m2 year (277 US average) End use energy:
Lights 41.6% (13.7 W/m2 peak) Variable mechanical 26.1% Steam 11.2% Appliances 5.4% Elevators 6.2% Computer rooms 5.4% Base mechanical 4.0%
UK Office #1
Three-story office building 5,100 m2 (54,900 ft2) net floor area Sealed windows 100% mechanical conditioning 1+ year of monitoring and modeling
Airflow Measurements
Very important!! Air must be heated or cooled, seasonally
40 L/s-person
Photograph of people taking airflow measurements. Image removed for copyright reasons.
About four times code requirements One-half expected occupancy Conference rooms controlled design Heat-recovery system broken
800
600
200
0 Sun Sun Mon Mon Tue Tue Wed Wed Thur Thur Fri Fri Sat Sat 12am 12pm 12am 12pm 12am 12pm 12am 12pm 12am 12pm 12am 12pm 12am 12pm
CO2 levels were typically well below the 1000 ppm limit
CEE 1.964 Design for Sustainability
Savings due to heat recovery and lower airflow CO2 emissions, kg/m2 Energy consumption, kWh/m2
Natural gas Current 30.8 162 Electricity 71.7 156 71.7 156 45.0 98 Total 102.5 318 91.5 260 69.7 228
Current 19.8 airflow and 104 heat recovery Reduced 24.7 airflow and 130 heat recovery
The following pages contained photographs of the office building, atrium views, interior views including windows and blinds, exposed structural mass, and open doors for airflow. Images removed for copyright reasons.
Temperature (C) 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 7/23/03 12:00 AM 7/23/03 4:45 AM 7/23/03 9:30 AM 7/23/03 2:15 PM 7/23/03 7:00 PM 7/23/03 11:45 PM 7/24/03 4:30 AM 7/24/03 9:15 AM 7/24/03 2:00 PM 7/24/03 6:45 PM 7/24/03 11:30 PM 7/25/03 4:15 AM 7/25/03 9:00 AM 7/25/03 1:45 PM 7/25/03 6:30 PM 7/25/03 11:15 PM 7/26/03 4:00 AM 7/26/03 8:45 AM 7/26/03 1:30 PM 7/26/03 6:15 PM 7/26/03 11:00 PM 7/27/03 3:45 AM 7/27/03 8:30 AM 7/27/03 1:15 PM 7/27/03 6:00 PM 7/27/03 10:45 PM 7/28/03 3:30 AM 7/28/03 8:15 AM 7/28/03 1:00 PM 7/28/03 5:45 PM 7/28/03 10:30 PM 7/29/03 3:15 AM 7/29/03 8:00 AM 7/29/03 12:45 PM 7/29/03 5:30 PM 7/29/03 10:15 PM outside first floor average ground floor average second floor average 5
Temperature (C) 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 8/1/2003 8/1/2003 8/2/2003 8/3/2003 8/4/2003 8/5/2003 8/6/2003 8/6/2003 8/7/2003 8/8/2003 8/9/2003 8/10/2003 8/11/2003 8/11/2003 8/12/2003 8/13/2003 8/14/2003 8/14/2003 8/15/2003 8/16/2003 8/17/2003 8/18/2003 8/19/2003 8/19/2003 8/20/2003 8/21/2003 8/22/2003 8/23/2003 8/24/2003 8/24/2003 8/25/2003 8/26/2003 8/27/2003 8/28/2003 8/29/2003 8/30/2003 8/30/2003 8/31/2003 outside First floor average Ground floor average Second floor average 5
Warm
1) Warm inside building this summer but... 2) Not overly hot for most occupants
740
1350
WINDOW WALL CONDITION TYP BOTH SIDES MAX ALLOW CLEAR OPENING TO BE 90MM TYP
2400
800
Wind only
Internal stack
72
288
507
432
279
285
75
80
118
103
76
76
78
13
25
19
11
12
20% Other
Chesapeake Bay Foundation, Annapolis 131 kWh/m2 measured consumption, 117 kWh/m2 purchased, 10% of consumed energy generated from solar thermal and PV on site; shading, daylight, natural ventilation, ground-source heat pumps
160 120 80
40 0
2 3
4 5
6 7 8
9 10
11 12 13 14 15
Figure by MIT OCW.
Case #
CEE 1.964 Design for Sustainability
Energy Design Guide for Small (< 20,000 ft2) Commercial Buildings
30% savings relative to 1999 standard Strategies
Reduce loads Use properly sized, efficient equipment Refine systems integration
4. Good enough?
Lifestyle vs. efficiency Market acceptance and technology gains for lights, appliances and HVAC Growing but still modest evidence of cost-driven efficiency gains Opportunity to contribute to carbon stabilization Integrated design needs to be pushed
CEE 1.964 Design for Sustainability
1950
1960
1970
1980 Year
1990
2000
Near-maximum efficiency gains have been realized in some cases: fridges, furnaces
14 GtC/y CO2 capture and storage 2004 Stabilization Triangle 7 GtC/y 2054 Energy efficiency and conservation
Fuel switch
Nuclear Fission
Efficiency option: cut building and appliance emissions by 25% relative to business as usual
CEE 1.964 Design for Sustainability Figure by MIT OCW.
To-do list
Promote market acceptance Information Carbon tax Emissions trading at micro-level Work to do Cheaper, more efficient technologies Lights PV, using waste heat Ventilation: demand-controlled, heat recovery, night cooling Ubiquitous integration tools for new construction and retrofits Individual buildings Communities (heat capture, local power generation) Component-level optimization is NOT enough!! Think at systems level.
CEE 1.964 Design for Sustainability