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Running Head: AGING AND PERSONALITY CHANGES

Personality in the Elderly: Does It Change As They Age? A Paper Presented to Carolyn R. Fallahi, Ph. D. In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for Psychology 430 Virginia P. Larkin Central Connecticut State University

Larkin 2 Abstract Personality has been categorized and studied from as long ago as the time of the Greek physician Hippocrates to the days of modern psychologists. Contemporary psychologists focus on trait theory which categorizes personality into traits or facets and measures individuals along the lines of those characteristics. This review looks at personality in the elderly and questions whether it remains stable in older ages or does it change. It includes reviews of studies that show that personality remains stable after the age of 30, personality changes in interaction with environmental situations, and the idea that personality is both stable and changes. This review focuses on studies using the Five Factor Method (FFM) which measures personality on the basis of Neuroticism (N), Extraversion (E), Openness (O), Agreeableness (A), and Conscientiousness (C). From the review of the literature, this reviewer concludes that personality in adulthood is both stable and subject to change.

Larkin 3 Personality in the Elderly: Does It Change As They Age? How often have you heard, He is just a grumpy old man, or She has become so cantankerous in her old age? Do people have personality changes as they grow older or are they simply grouchy old people who, at earlier ages, were grouchy young ones? A review of the literature has found different opinions, with many psychologists believing personality does not change and remains constant over time (Block as cited in Gleitman, 1986) and (Block as cited in Darley, Glucksberg, & Kinchla, 1991) while others believe that personality in adulthood and later life is characterized by stability AND change (Ryff, Kwan and Singer, 2001 p. 480). Some studies have looked at the question of consistency in personality across the life span of study participants (Block, 1971, 1981 as cited in Darley, Glucksberg & Kinchla, 1991). One of the longitudinal studies did show consistency in personality for people studied first in junior high and at later intervals into their 40s. Certain personality

characteristics were found to be relatively stable in males, as were some characteristics in females Other studies have shown that personality does change, with older adults, indicating modest stability and moderate change (Field, 1991, in Maiden, Peterson, Caya, and Hayslip, Jr., 2003). Personality, broadly defined, refers to the study of individual differences in diverse human characteristics, such as traits, goals and motives, emotion and moods, self-evaluative processes, coping strategies, and well-being according to Ryff, Kwan and Singer, (2001) in Burrin and Schaie (p.477), Many psychologists discuss personality in terms of trait theory. As far back as the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates, it was believed people could be described in terms of categories.

Larkin 4 Hippocrates categories were melancholic (depressive), choleric (touchy and irritable), sanguine (cheerful and optimistic), and phlegmatic (calm, but tending to listlessness). Later personality psychologists also described personality in terms of observable traits and developed tests or inventories to rate people. Raymond Cattrell created the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (Cattrell & Kline, 1937). Gordon Allport designed the test called the Study of Values (Allport, Vernon & Lindsey, 1960). Two other tests were The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (Hathaway & McKinley, 1970), and Eysencks Two Personality Types and Their Asociated Traits (1975). The test that seems to be very prominent in the literature is the Five Factor Method (NEO-PI) (Costa & McCrae, 1978, 1985). This review is mainly focused on the last trait theory inventory, and discusses studies that mostly used the FFM to measure personality and the question of stability or change. Levy, Slade, Kunkel, and Kasls study, while not directly discussing the question of personality stability, has a focus on aging. The study looked at whether older people who have a positive self-perception of aging, lived longer than those with less positive self-perceptions. In an introduction to the study, the authors discussed the effect of stereotype threat, but they discount the idea that self-stereotypes of aging appear to not fit into the usual classification of stereotype threat. Their reasoning for this idea that older people do not subscribe to the

stereotype threat of aging is that they internalize their self-stereotypes of aging rather than having them operate within those domains that might be a problem to them. The study goes on to present its two hypotheses: Do those with more positive aging self-perceptions live longer and, does will to live act as a mediator? The study examined data from the Ohio Longitudinal Study of Aging and Retirement (OLSAR) and matched it with data from the National Death Index

Larkin 5 (NDI) to look at the survival rates over a 22.6 year period of those participants from the OLSAR study, which was conducted in 1975. For the first hypothesis, the authors found that the median survival of those who were considered to be in the positive perception of aging group was 7.6 years longer than the median survival of those in the negative self-perception aging group. For the second hypothesis, it was found that the will to live partially mediated the relationship between positive self-perceptions of aging and survival (Levy, Slade, Kunkel, and Kasl, 2002, p.267). The authors also

contrasted the results of this study, which had found an improvement in life span of 7.6 years was greater than that found in studies of low blood pressure and low cholesterol, each of which had shown a longer life span of 4 years or more. In closing, the authors proposed that a comprehensive remedy requires that the denigrating views and actions directed at elderly targets undergo delegitimization by the same society that has been generating them (Levy, Slade, Kunkel, and Kasl, 2002, p.268). In the Maiden, Peterson, Caya, and Hayslip, Jr. longitudinal study of 74 elderly women, they looked at the question of personality stability in the very old. The mean age for this study was 80. This study begins with an introduction that current research has found personality traits are stable and change very little after age 30 (Costa & McCrae, 1997; McCrae, 2002, as cited in Caprara, G. V., Caprara, M., Steca, 2003). McCrae and Costa also proposed an explanation based on biology for personality stability (McCrae & Costa, 1997, and McCrae et al, 1996). They went on to posit a genetic basis for the determination of personality that it is universal, and that personality unfolds across the life span according to a predetermined plan (p.32). It is affected neither by environmental change nor by culture.

Larkin 6 They further say that people change their environment to suit their personality. Additionally, Conley, 1985 as cited in Maiden, Peterson, Caya and Hayslip, Jr., (2003) did a meta-analysis of many prior studies and found that personality traits did remain stable but additional correlational studies showed that personality organization may erode over time providing for the possibility that personality can change in adulthood. The authors two major hypotheses were that participants would evidence stability on the personality traits of Neuroticism, Extroversion, and Openness to Experience over time. For their second hypothesis they expected that changes in such traits would be associated with negative life events experienced by the participants as they become very old. Their study looked at the changes in 78 women who were mean age 74 in 1987 and mean age 80, 6-7 years later. Findings from the study supported their hypotheses as they found moderate stability in the three traits while finding moderate change in those same traits. In particular, more Neuroticism and less Extroversion were associated with negative events in later life. G. V. Caprara, M. Caprara, and Stecas introduction begins by stating that personality traits are stable in adults and they reach a plateau around age 30 (Costa & McCrae, 1997; McCrae, 2002, as cited in G.V. Caprara, M. Caprara, & Steca, 2003). They go on to say that change is more the rule than the exception in later years (Helson, Jones & Kwan, 2002 as cited in G.V. Caprara, M. Caprara, & Steca, 2003, p.131). Additionally, they reported that personality has a reciprocal interaction with the environment, causing both stability and change (Caprara &Cervone, 2000). The article reported the findings of three studies that incorporated the Big Five personality traits and self-efficiency beliefs into broad domains of functioning. In the first study, the Five Factor Theory, which explains coherence in cognition, affect, and action in terms of five basic tendencies that some scholars consider the genotypes of personality (McCrae

Larkin 7 & Costa, 1996, 1999, as cited in G.V. Caprara, M. Caprara, & Steca, 2003, p.133). There is also an influential role of self-efficacy beliefs in various domains of functioning. The study reported significant gender and age differences for four of the FFM traits. For Friendliness and Openness, there is a decline from the younger to the older respondents. The traits of Energy (Extroversion), Friendliness (Agreeableness) and Openness to Experience were down in older participants, Conscientiousness remained stable, and Emotional Stability (Neuroticism) was reduced for women, only showing that Personality is both stable and subject to change over time. The

discussion reported that there is both change and stability in personality over the course of life but they noted that aging does not always imply a decline, and that it may occasionally imply an improvement (p.143). Costa and McCraes six-year longitudinal study focused on using the Five Factor Model (FFM) of personality traits as a taxonomy of personality (Digman & Inouye, 1986; Goldberg, 1981; McCrae, Costa & Busch, 1986). The FFM consists of Neuroticism (N), Extraversion (E), Openness to Experience (O), Agreeableness (A), and Conscientiousness (C). In studying the related traits of the FFM, the authors posited that it would be a systematic approach to determine whether personality was stable or changed over time. The authors had previously concluded that mean levels of most personality traits neither increase nor decrease substantially in adulthood and that individuals retain their relative standing over periods as long as 40 years (Costa & McCrae, 1986, p.853). The authors study also looked to test the reliability of selfreports as a means of evaluating personality traits by using spouse ratings to verify the validity of self-reports. Based on their analysis, they concluded that despite the normal aging events of disease, divorce, unemployment, and loss of a loved one, personality remains stable over a lifetime. An additional finding was that self-reports are accurate as compared to spouse ratings

Larkin 8 when evaluating personality. They made the point that this was a good thing since many studies use self-reports for their information. In the study by Kling, Ryff, Love, and Essex, the authors looked at the influence of personality on adjustment to a life transition of moving to a new community. The study

measured personality traits in study participants using the Five Factor Model (FFM) of personality (Costa McCrae, 1989; Goldberg, 1992; John, 1990). The traits measured were Neuroticism (N), Extraversion (E), Openness to Experience (O), Agreeableness (A), and Conscientiousness (C). The study focused on the effects of the traits (N) and (O) which can predict an increase in depressive symptoms while (E) and (O) predicted increases in Self-Esteem in relation to the participants adjustment to the stress of moving. Essentially, the report found that personality traits were stable, and that certain traits could be used to predict reaction to stress. The study also looked at possible mediators in the study, investigating whether particular facets of personality would influence move adjustment over time. This longitudinal study interviewed participants before the move and several times after the move. While not focusing specifically in the consistency of personality over time, this study provides important information as to how personality affects the adjustment process. In the last review, Pervin seems to moderate the trait theorists view of the description of personality through the use of the Five Factor Method (NEO-PI). According to Pervin, FFM theory is actually a dynamic process describing personality as the dynamic psychological organization that coordinates experience and action (McCabe & Costa, 1999 as cited in Pervin, 2001, p.173). He further goes on to discuss his views of the concept of a dynamic systems approach to personality by referencing a number of authors who have similar views including Lewin (1935) who viewed the person as a complex energy system that is in constant interaction

Larkin 9 with the environment. Other authors have written about the interplay of the environment with the personality with some viewing it as not affected by changes in the environment and even arguing that people change the environment to suit their personality (McCrae & Costa, 1997, and McCrae et a., 1996) as cited in Maiden, Peterson, Caya, and Hayslip, Jr., 2003). discussed three general systems principles which he believes are important. Pervin

The first,

mutidetermination, involves the interplay of multiple determinants and Pervin suggests that it requires systematic investigation of the interplay of multiple motives or goals as the person confronts various situations. The second principle. equipotentiality, suggests that different outcomes are possible coming from the same starting point, due to different situations. The third concept, equifinality, means that the same action can be expressive of different motives in the person at different times or in the actions of different people in the same situation. Pervins further review of the concept of levels does not have implications for the discussions here. While not discounting the trait theorists who focus on the stability of personality, Pervisns views have implications for looking at whether that stability should be explored as part of a more dynamic systems approach to personality. In closing, an editorial by Abrams seems to best describe the status of the question of Personality in the Elderly: Does it Change As They Age? (Abrams, R. C., 1991). In Abrams words, Although the aging personality has been extensively discussed (Bee, 1986; Schaie, 1983; Gynther, 1979), there has been no closure on the question of whether or in what ways people change over time in their dealings with the world (p.1). In his opinion there is even uncertainty how best to evaluate personality in the elderly. While it is possible to say there is stability in personality throughout lifetime (the grouchy old person was probably a grouchy young person), it is likely that there can also be evidence of change, particularly that brought on

Larkin 10 by significant events in older adults lives such as illness, death of loved ones, and economic distress. References Abrams, R. C., (1991). The aging personality. [Editorial. Electronic version.] International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 6:1-3. Caprara, G. V., Caprara, M., & Steca, P., (2003). Personalitys correlates of adult development and aging. [Electronic version.] European Psychologist, 8, 131-147. Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R.R., (1988). Personality in adulthood: a six-year longitudinal study of self-reports and spouse ratings on the NEO personality inventory. [Electronic version.] Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 853-863. Darley, J. M., Glucksberg, S., Kinchla, R. A., (1991). Psychology (5th ed.). (pp. 464-467). Englewood, NJ: Prentice Hall Gleitman, H., (1986). Psychology (2nd ed.). (p. 623). New York: W. W. Norton & Company Kling, K. C., Ryff, C. D., Love, G., & Essex, M., (2003). Exploring the influence of personality in depressive symptoms and self-esteem across a significant life transition. [Electronic version.] Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 922-932. Levy, B. R., Slade, H.D., Kunkel, S.R., & Kasl, S. V. (2002). Longevity increased by positive self-perceptions of aging. [Electronic version.] Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 261-270. Maiden, R. J., Peterson, S. A., Caya, M., & Hayslip, Jr., B., (2003). Personality Change in the Old-Old: A longitudinal study. [Electronic version.] Journal of Adult Development, 10, (1).

Larkin 11 Pervin, L., (2001). A dynamic systems approach to personality. [Electronic version .] European Psychologist. 6 (3), 172-176. Ryff, C. D., Kwan, M. L., & Singer, B. H.(2001). Personality and aging, flourishing agendas and future challenges. In J. F.Birren & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), Handbook of the Psychology of Aging (5th ed.). (pp. 477-499). San Diego: Academic Press.